The Model and Method

In DC Load Flow Program

BASED ON:

IEEE STD 946, 1992, DC Auxiliary Power Systems for Generating Station

09/17/01
1. Introduction
Load flow calculations on a dc system utilize the same basic network solution techniques
as an ac system. The base equation is essentially the same as Equation (1):

[I] = [Y] [V] (1)

For steady-state dc systems inductance is ignored and the equation becomes the
following:

[I] = [G] [V] (2)

where
[I] is the vector of total currents flowing into the network nodes,
[G] is the network conductance matrix,
[V] is the vector of voltage at the network nodes.

Feeders, switches, fuses, and breakers in DC distribution networks are treated as

resistance branches in the load flow study. [G] is built by these network components. The
conductance [G] matrix is built in the same manner as the [ Y ] matrix for ac systems.

The vector of total currents [I] are built by sources and loads. Sources include batteries,
rectifiers and DC generators. Loads in DC distribution systems could be modeled as
constant power, constant current, or constant impedance loads.

[I] may be the function of [V], in this case iteration method should be used to find the
[V] of equation (2). A number of solution algorithms (Gauss-Seidel, Newton-Raphson,
and others) are available to solve the resulting networks for [V]. The Newton-Raphson is
used in our program.

If there is more than one simulation period, the source or load on a bus may be differently
specified for each period. In each period, source and bus load is assumed to be constant,
as shown in Fig.1, where the total simulation length is divided into 10 study periods, and
load is specified for each study period. For a motor starting load, different load types can
be defined for different study periods. In this case, equation (2) will be solved in each of
these periods.
2. Model
2.1 DC generator
A DC generator may be considered as a constant Voltage source in the load flow
calculation. For different study periods, the source Voltage may be differently specified

2.2 AC/DC Rectifier

An AC/DC rectifier is shown in Fig.2, where Vac , Vd are the voltages of the AC bus and
DC bus, n is tap setting for the transformer, and X t transformer reactance.

The equivalent circuit for load flow study is shown in Fig. 1(c), and the source voltage
can be expressed as follows:
3 2
E= × n × Vac × cos α (3)
π
Where, α is the rectifier firing angle. A rectifier is normally controlled in one of the
following operation modes:
• Voltage control : The firing angle is adjusted to hold DC bus Voltage Vd constant
at a specified level; In this case, bus type will be the constant voltage.
• Current control : The firing angle is adjusted to hold DC current I d constant at a
specified value; In this case bus type will be constant current (equivalent to
negative constant current load bus)
• Firing angle control : The firing angle is held constant at a specified angle. In this
case bus will equivalent to negative constant current load bus and a branch; see
Fig.3.
 Fig.3 equivalent circuit for Firing angle control

There is a lower limit for the firing angle α min . If the required firing angle to maintain
DC Voltage in case of the voltage control, or DC current in case of the current control, is
less than the limit α min the rectifier will be switched to the firing angle control mode with
the firing angle fixed at α min . For the normal operation of a rectifier, the commutation
angle γ is required to be less than 60° . If γ ≥ 60° , the rectifier is abnormal, and it will
be shutdown in the load flow calculation.
Commutation angle γ can be calculated by following formula:

2 × Vd × π
γ = cos −1 ( − cos α ) − α
3 2 × n × Vac

Rectifier transformer is sometimes equipped with automatic tap changing function. The
tap setting is adjusted within its limits( nmax , n min ) to achieve the desired Voltage, or
current control characteristics, and the preferred firing angle, for example 15° .

It is also important to compute the power at the ac side of a rectifier converter. The power
loss of a rectifier is usually very small, and the loss is neglected in the calculation.
Therefore, the AC side active power Pac is equal to DC side power Pdc . The AC side
reactive power Qac is depending on the power factor of a rectifier, which can be found by
the following equation:

PF = 0.5 × (cos α + cos(α + γ ))

Rectifiers generate harmonics current into AC power distribution systems. When the
harmonics problem is analyzed, the source harmonics spectrum data are needed. For a 6-
pulse rectifier there are only harmonics of orders 6q+1 (q=1,2,...), 5, 7, 11, 13, ... etc.
The harmonics spectrum can be obtained according to the following equation:

Ih F2
=
I 1 h[cos α − cos(α + γ )]
Where:
h : harmonics,
I h and I 1 : current at hth harmonics and the fundamental frequency,
γ γ γ γ
sin 2 [(h − 1) ] sin 2 [(h + 1) ] sin[(h − 1) ] sin[(h + 1) ]
F2 = 2 + 2 − 2× 2 × 2 × cos(2α + γ )
(h − 1) 2
(h + 1) 2
( h − 1) ( h + 1)

2.3 Motor Starting

Starting one, or several, DC motors in a DC distribution system can be simulated by the
program. The simulation may be divided into three periods: pre-starting, during starting,
and post-starting. The motor load might look like Fig.4.

The time unit for simulation is usually the second. Motor load could be modeled as
constant power load, constant current load or constant impedance load. It can be modeled
differently for different periods. It is suggested that pre-starting be modeled as a P
load, during starting as a Z load, and post starting as an I load. Experience shows
that starting a large motor may cause load flow convergence problems if the motor load is
not modeled as constant impedance load during starting period.

2.4 Network
In a DC power distribution system, power is supplied to a load through a positive line
(forward path) and a negative line (backward path), as shown following. The equivalent
circuit for the load flow study is also shown following. One has to make sure that the
feeder resistance r includes both forward path and returning path resistances.
In the LF system setup, the user may select:

• Single Circuit Rx2;

• Double Circuit Rx1.

If the single circuit Rx2 option is chosen, all feeder resistance will be doubled inside the
program to calculate the load flow.

2.5 Battery
Batteries are not well-regulated sources because their output voltage at any given time is
depended upon both the load current being supplied and the total energy removed from
the battery prior to the time in question.

Battery manufactures typically provide discharge characteristic curves or tables for use in
determining battery capacity and terminal voltage.

Battery discharge curve model is based on battery discharge curves ("FAN" curves), or
Rt ("S" curves) curves. The curves are first sampled and entered into battery data library,
which can then be used for both the Battery Sizing and DC Load Flow programs.

The simulation with the discharge curve model is a step-by-step process. Users have to
specify a step length for each simulation. Just like transient stability simulation of power
systems, the total simulation process consists of hundreds or thousands of steps. In each
step a load flow is performed.

In each step, the total energy removed from the battery is known, then we can use battery
discharge curves to build an equivalent negative load model which consist of constant P,
constant I, and constant Z:

P = −V × I = a × V 2 + b × V + c

Vmin ≤ V ≤ Vmax
Where parameter a,b,c can be obtained by the linear least squares method to the point set
(V*I,V) which we can get from the battery discharge curves.

3. Load Flow Calculation method

The load flow problem is solved by the Newton-Raphson method, which has been proved
to be the best load flow method available. The Jacobian matrix is a sparse matrix. The
sparse technique is used to speed up the solution process and to save computer memory
requirements.

Bus are classified as following 2 types:

1. Swing Bus: the voltage of this bus is known.

2. Load bus: the voltage of this bus is unknown, there are constant P loads,
constant I loads, constant Z loads, or the combined load in this bus.

A battery bus is simulated as the negative combined load bus when there is at least swing
bus in the system.
When there is no other swing bus, one battery bus need to be defined as swing bus, in this
case, a trial-and-error method needs to be used to find the DC load flow solution:
1. Guess a voltage (V1) at this battery bus, set it as swing bus.
2. Run load flow to find the output current of this battery.
3. Find the voltage from the discharge curve (V2).
4. If |V1-V2| < error, then finish, otherwise set V1=V2 and go to step 2.

4. Output results
When the study periods are larger than 1, the voltage and current can be plotted against
time, as shown following:
The following text mode results also can be shown: