The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2019) 102:615–633

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-018-3149-5

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Investigating the design and process parameters of folded perforated

sheet metal
Muhammad Ali Ablat 1 & Ala Qattawi 2

Received: 24 May 2018 / Accepted: 29 November 2018 / Published online: 4 January 2019
# Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2019

Abstract
Origami-based sheet metal (OSM) bending is an extension of rigid origami technique, where the final 3D structure is
created from a single 2D flat pattern by bending. The key aspect of OSM is material discontinuity (MD), which helps
achieve a unique dieless bending process. MD is a feature along bend line of blank sheet and it can be fabricated using
laser or water jet cutting. Even though a number of successful implementations of OSM bending have been found, these
cases are limited only to product development and industrial application. The mechanics of OSM bending with respect to
parameters that define MD, blank sheet, as well as the bending process have not been studied. Thus, this study identifies
parameters and investigates the effect of identified parameters associated with OSM bending. Parameters studied in this
work include design parameters and process parameters. Design parameters are kerf-to-thickness (k/t) ratio, web-to-width
(w/b) ratio, and thickness of sheet (t). These are associated with MD design. The process parameters are related to OSM
bending process, and they include punch placement (t+g), offset distance (s), and punch radius (RP). Finite element
analysis (FEA) is performed to investigate the effect of these parameters on the OSM bending process. The simulated
OSM bending cases resulted in successful bending without using a die. The general recommendation is provided for
selecting parameters of OSM bending based on results. In addition, the shape of MD is an important factor when designing
the OSM bending process.

Keywords Perforated sheet metal . Origami-based sheet metal . Folded metal . Material discontinuities . Sheet manufacturing .
Kerf

1 Introduction
Origami-based sheet metal (OSM) bending is an extension of
the origami [1, 2], which, meaning paper folding, has been the
inspiration for numerous engineering fields. Researchers have
been exploring origami from the perspective of mathematics
[3–5], kinematic mechanism [6], structure [7–9], material [10,
Muhammad Ali Ablat also known as Abulaiti Maimaitiaili.
* Ala Qattawi
Ala.Qattawi@utoledo.edu
Muhammad Ali Ablat
amaimaitiaili@ucmerced.edu
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of California,
Merced, 5200 N Lake Rd, Merced, CA 95343, USA
2
Mechanical, Industrial, & Manufacturing Department, University of
Toledo, 2801 W. Bancroft, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
11], and others [12, 13]. Most of the available studies utilized
characteristics of origami being expandable (shrinkable), flex-
ible, and lightweight. OSM bending falls under the rigid ori-
gami category, where the material deformation is localized
along the bend lines, or creases only, while the faces of a
geometry do not undergo any folding [1].
A key element enables the bending of OSM is the creation
of material discontinuities (MDs) along the bend lines. MDs
are features created to degrade the material along the bend line
and at the same time keep the integrity of the 2D fold pattern.
Figure 1 demonstrates 12 types of possible MD [14, 15]. The
MD can be fabricated using a laser, water jet cutting, or pro-
gressive stamping. In the cutting approach, the material is
removed completely or partially through the thickness direc-
tion of the sheet metal along the bend line using various pat-
terns. The second approach utilizes progressive stamping to
degrade sheet material along the bend line, as well. Figure 2
shows sheet metal samples with MD patterns created using
laser cutting on aluminum and stainless steel sheet metal of
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Fig. 1 Various possible MD
patterns
0.0641″ (1.628 mm/14 gauge) and 0.625″ (1.588 mm/16
gauge), respectively. These grades are traditionally used in
automotive applications. The MD patterns shown in Fig. 2
are scaled up for demonstration purpose.
The OSM bending technique can bring a significant advan-
tage over the traditional bending process. In regular sheet met-
al bending, the deformation of the material is achieved by
using specialized equipment like press brake [16]. In OSM
bending, the process can be performed without the need of a
die and a punch. Thick grades of stainless steel and aluminum
sheets can be folded by hand with a minimal need of tools
such as clamps and fixtures. Hence, OSM bending eliminates
the need for shape dedicated tools such as dies and molds. In
Fig. 2 Laser-cut MD samples of aluminum and stainless steel
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633
addition, OSM bending reduces the required bending force
significantly [17, 18]. Finally, the storage and transportation
of sheet metal parts can be made more efficient since parts can
be stored and transported in their 2D flat state and easily
folded upon request.
In the current literature, OSM bending has been studied
from the perspective of fabricating 3D parts by a sequence
of folding or bending from a single 2D blank metal sheet.
The topological variations of one 3D geometry in its 2D flat
pattern state can result in various feasible 2D flat patterns that
all can be successfully folded to the same 3D geometry
[19–21]. A specific flat pattern can be selected based on a
manufacturing aspect such as nesting efficiency, scrap per-
centage, and ease of folding and handling [22].
There are several reported applications of OSM bending
and MD in loading bearing structures. Venhovens et al. [23]
presented an application of OSM bending in vehicle body-in-
white. In their work, they showcased a new concept of vehicle
body-in-white that eliminates the use of metal stamping, shape
dedicated die, or mold tools associated with the stamping pro-
cess. Shi et al. [9] developed a new folded assembly that
mimics the behavior of simple triangle truss under compres-
sion load. In the folded assembly, they took advantage of MD
patterns when the sheet is folded to triangular truss structure.
However, it is noticed that these studies are restricted to the
application level of MD in sheet metal structures. There has
been a need to understand the performance of MD and the
OSM bending process itself from a mechanics point of view.
This need hinders the complete usage of the OSM bending to
full-scale mechanical load-bearing structures in automotive,
aerospace, and civil engineering.
This work attempts to fill the gap and to present a clear
understanding of how OSM bending process is achieved and
how associated process and design parameters affect the result
of OSM bending. So, this work aims at providing a general
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633
guideline for selecting OSM bending process parameters as
well as MD design parameters. This objective is achieved in
two steps. First is to identify parameters of MD and OSM
bending process. Second is to investigate how the identified
parameter affect the OSM bending process. Parameters stud-
ied are looked at from MD design point of view and OSM
bending process point of view. When investigating the effects
of identified parameters, parametric study approach is utilized
coupled with finite element analysis (FEA), and the identified
parameters are evaluated in terms of maximum bending force
and maximum stress along the bend line and resulted in
springback angle during OSM bending.
2 Literature review
In this section, the OSM bending is examined with respect to
the rigid origami and perforated sheet metal, respectively.
2.1 Rigid origami perspective
Origami applications in science and engineering have been
growing over the past years. A very comprehensive review
of origami and its application in mechanical engineering are
reported by Nicholas et al. [24]. Other reviews on origami are
presented by Lebée [25], Schenk [26], and Tang [27]. OSM
falls under the category of rigid origami application for sheet
metal. This section particularly focuses on the modeling of
rigid origami, integration of thickness to origami, and ori-
gami’s application in engineering. Those facets are the most
directly related to the folded sheet metal relation to origami.
There has been a variety of methods used to model rigid
origami. Huffman [28] and Miura [29] modeled rigid ori-
gami employing the Gaussian curvature theory of polygo-
nal surfaces. This model is based on the fact that the flat
plane has zero Gaussian curvature, and it is invariant under
inextensional deformation. Belcatro and Hull [30, 31]
showed a method in which affine transformation is used
to model rigid origami configuration from flat state to
folded state. Tachi [32, 33] developed an origami simulator
based on rigid origami, as well. He used fold lines as var-
iables to represent the configuration of origami model and
the system is based on the projection of constraint space.
Later, Tachi developed another method (software) [33]
named “FreeForm Origami” using a similar approach to
design and simulate free from rigid origami objects. Wu
and You [34] proposed the idea of modeling rigid origami
using quaternions and dual quaternions. This method is
based on quaternion rotation sequence (QRS) and dual
quaternion transformation sequence (DQTS). The QRS
methods state that describing sequential rotations around
axes in arbitrary 3D locations leads to a loop closure equa-
tion system, by which undetermined configuration angle
617
can be solved to specify the 3D rigid configuration. In
DQTS method, dual quaternions are employed to construct
loop-closure equations for the multi-vertex crease pattern.
Schenk and Guest proposed another approach [35] based
on modeling partially folded state of a folded pattern as a
pin-jointed truss framework, which is well-established in
structural mechanics. In the folded state, pin-joints and bar
element represent vertex and fold line, respectively. In ad-
dition, in this approach, the facets are triangulated.
Xi and Lien [36] modeled the motion of rigid origami with
the randomized approach, which finds a valid configuration
around a given sample configuration by using a nonlinear
optimization method. Zhou, Wang, and You [37] modeled
rigid origami motion by using its vertex in a folded status.
Since the whole origami structure is defined by its vertices,
kinematics of vertices reveals the motion of whole rigid ori-
gami structure. Therefore, the 2D flat folded state can be re-
trieved from the 3D folded state. Hernandez et al. [38] pro-
posed a new approach to model rigid origami based on smooth
fold considering structures having a non-negligible thickness
since they believe crease folds, which has zero-order geomet-
ric continuity such as lines, cannot represent thick origami
structures that have a bent region with higher order geometric
continuity. Therefore, in their approach, creased folds are
treated as a special case of smooth folds.
Traditionally, a zero thickness is assumed in origami due to
the fact that paper is the main material used. With the increase
of origami inspired research in engineering, non-zero thick-
ness integration into origami structures are demanded. In re-
sult, many methods have been purposed to integrate non-zero
thickness into origami. Thickness consideration in origami
was firstly purposed by Hoberman [39]. His approach is sum-
marized as “degree-4 vertex by thick panels that connects
shifted axes of rotation using plates with two level of thick-
nesses.” Trautz and Kunstler [40] presented a slidable hinges
method in which hinges can slide. Tapered panel method by
Tachi [1] shifts the rotational axis to alternative side with
respect to sheet thickness. Tachi’s work achieved the
foldability of rigid panels with finite thickness by shifting
the folding axes; his work also included removing material
near the fold line to enable folding. However, the material
removal technique presented in Tachi’s work assumes a com-
bined pattern for the flat layout of the rigid origami, where the
faces of a 3D structures are made of separated thick panels
with stiff material, while the fold lines are created by a flexible
material such as cloth or rubber created on a secondary flat
pattern and attached to the panels. Hoberman [41] patented
another method that arranges hinges on different planes so that
axis of hinges does not intersect with each other. In result,
hinges are offset to each other and with respect to the basic
plane of the sheet as well. Zirbel et al. [42] presented the
membrane folds method, which utilizes a thin flexible mem-
brane under a thick material. A certain amount of gap is left
618
between two adjacent thick material blocks according to the
intended bent angle, e.g., two times of thick material thickness
is proper if the bending angle is 180°. Abel et al. [43] present-
ed offset crease method; in this method, a hinge axis is shifted
to the middle of the material. Gaps are added to each fold on
the alternative side of hinge axis. Chen et al. [44] presented
spatial linkages method and another method, called offset pan-
el, was presented by Edmondson et al. [45]. Ku and Demaine
[46] proposed a new algorithm to accommodate thickness in
origami structure. In their method, new creases are created by
offsetting crease pattern faces from their flat folded state keep-
ing the order of layer. It includes six steps: determining crease
width, polygon construction, refining the newly generated
creases and polygons, setting scale factor, final construction,
and adding thickness to the crease pattern. Erica [47] et al.
summarized various thickness adaption approaches by illus-
trating the advantages and disadvantage of each method in the
context of manufacturing. They showcased a square-twist
mechanism for the viability of using sheet metal in origami
adapted products.
Application-wise, one of the successful applications of rig-
id origami was presented by Wu and You [2] for folding a tall
shopping bag. They introduced two crease pattern that enables
rigid foldability for a tall shopping bag that has a rectangular
base and is made of rigid materials such as sheet metal layered
on a cloth flexible material. In their presented new pattern, the
only design parameter of concern is the pattern angle ø. The
selection of this angle influences rigid foldability of tall bags
with different dimensions. Another application is reported by
Cannella and Dia [48] where the tuck-in operation is studied
in origami carton to achieve a reconfigurable mechanism.
Based on the results, a robotic mechanism made of aluminum
is developed to carry out tuck-in operation almost all lid of
cartons. Yet another engineering application of rigid origami
is in foldable shipping containers [49, 50]. They investigated
two foldable containers, named Six-In-One and Fallpac, both
can be folded and unfolded. Moon et al. [49] investigated the
cost of the foldable container in ocean transportation compar-
ing it with the standard container and they concluded that high
cost of production, maintenance, and high vulnerability are
the reason why they are not widely used. A foldable antenna
[13] made of dielectric paper and metal coatings is designed.
This antenna is in spring shape and responsive to pressure load
applied on top of its origami spring structure. Hence, it can
collapse and deploy with the loading and unloading of pres-
sure. Yao et al. [51] invented an antenna structure using an
origami accordion. This antenna has six levels, height and
distance between them can be controlled precisely by folding
and unfolding accordion structure. This antenna is also made
of dielectric paper and metal coatings.
An origami-inspired kayak that deploys within a few mi-
nutes to 5′ by 12′6″ is patented by Willis [52]. This invention
claims that a kayak with defined keel, hull, sides, and deck can
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633
be folded from a single high-strength foldable panel. The
foldability makes this kayak very portable with dimensions
of 32″ × 6″ × 6″ and 15 pounds weight. Recommended mate-
rial for the kayak is twin-walled, extruded polypropylene/
polyethylene panel under brands of Coroplast™, Cor-X™,
Inteplast™, and Solexx™. A lithium-ion battery [53] that
can bend, fold, and twist is designed using origami principle
and Miura-ori pattern. Slurry coating of electrodes onto paper
current collectors is used in the fabrication of this battery
along with packaging in the standard material. Rigid origami
is also applied in space structures. A deployable solid solar
panel is presented by Zirbel et al. [42]. This solar array is
developed to meet the mass and volume efficiency require-
ment of a project under NASA Technology Roadmaps. This
solar panel can achieve 250 kW or greater power demand with
a large compression ratio of deployed-to-stowed diameter.
Other examples in space structures are shown by Nishiyama
[12, 26]. Application in the automobile industry is presented
by Venhovens and Bell [23].
Previous studies on rigid origami have highlighted core
features of rigid origami. First of these features is to be able
to form a 3D structure out of 2D flat sheet material [2, 13, 51,
52]. Second, the literature studied origami deployment ability
to expand from a compact state to expanded one or vice versa
[52, 54]. There are also studies that utilize the kinematic mo-
tion of origami [6].
The abovementioned work all investigated origami struc-
tures from different aspects. However, there is lack of
understating for origami when coupled with sheet metal with
finite thickness. In addition, there is no previous work that
investigated the OSM from a process point of view in addition
to the resulting material’s plastic deformation caused by the
folding process.
2.2 Perforated sheet metal perspective
The perforated sheet has been used as mechanical, aerospace,
and civil engineering structural elements, for example, sand-
wich panels in building [55]. The perforation has been seen as
a means of creating lightweight structures. However, perfora-
tion can also be regarded as a tool to create/form 3D structure
from a flat sheet of metal. In this sense, the role of perforation
can be similar in function to the MD in OSM bending process.
In this context, it is necessary to explore research conducted in
the field of perforates sheet.
Literatures [56–72] show that perforated sheet has been
researched under various loading conditions with different
hole types and hole orientation to investigate deformation be-
havior. Studies also investigated the stress, the stress concen-
trations, and buckling effects.
In sheet metal forming field, Ajudia and Dangar [73] pre-
sented a review on forming of perforated sheet metal.
Nakayama et al. [74] studied elastic-plastic deformation
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633
behavior of sheet perforated with circular holes evenly distrib-
uted all over the sheet. It is found that distribution and arrange-
ment of holes significantly affects deformation behavior of
sheet due to stress concentrations generated near the holes.
Elangovan et al. [75, 76] showcased formability of perforated
aluminum sheets using the artificial neural network. It is found
that formability of perforated sheet increases marginally as
ligament ratio increases or percentage of area decreases.
Farsi and Arezoo [77] investigated bending force and
springback on low carbon steel sheet with oblong holes on
the bending surface in V-shaped die bending setup. The influ-
ence of the area of hole, die angles, die width, and punch
radius on the value of bending force and springback angle is
studied. It is concluded that increasing the area of hole leads to
a reduction of springback as well as bending force. Nasrollahi
and Arezoo [78] presented the effect of hole type, a number of
holes and ratio of the hole with sheet width on the springback
in wiping die bending setup. They found that springback
caused by different hole types increased in the following or-
der: square, oblong, and circular holes. Presence of hole is the
reason for less springback. Having more holes in the part
decreases springback slightly. Senthilnathan et al. [79] report-
ed electromagnetic forming of perforated aluminum sheets
using FEA. Kothari and Jhala [80] investigated the impact of
material thickness, type of blank, blank shape, shape and pat-
tern of perforation, the pitch of perforation on stress, and load–
displacement relationship. Venkatachlam et al. [81] presented
forming limit of stretch forming of perforated aluminum sheet
with circular, triangular, and slot type of holes. Sheet with
circular holes exhibited more major and minor strains than
that of triangular and slot type of holes.
In these studies, perforated features like holes, squares, and
others are regarded as an intrinsic or unavoidable feature in the
design and the corresponding studies focused on investigating
the effect of perforated features on the sheet metal part in
terms of load-bearing capability, deformation behavior and
its effect on process considered, etc. This work differs from
Fig. 3 OSM bending
configuration
619
the abovementioned studies in two ways. First, perforated
features are active designing objects rather than an intrinsic
feature that designer has to passively deal with. Second, this
work aims to simplify the manufacturing process, namely
sheet metal bending process, by exploiting the potential of
perforated features.
3 Methodology
The approach taken to reach the objective of this study is
outlined as follows. First, the OSM bending process is intro-
duced, followed by identifying and defining parameters from
OSM bending process point of view and MD pattern design
point of view. Then, parametric FEA study is presented on the
effect of each of the parameters identified on OSM bending.
Finally, a generic guideline is offered for selecting parameters
pertaining to the OSM bending process as well as MD pattern
design.
3.1 OSM bending process
In origami, each fold is made based on a bend line pattern that
can either be determined or undetermined in a given 3D ge-
ometry [82, 83]. In OSM bending, a topological analysis is
required to determine the bend line prior to bending the metal
sheet [84]. Figure 3 shows OSM bending configuration. The
metal sheet with MD is held between the support and the
blank holder. The support is fixed, and a pressure is applied
on top of the blank holder to hold the sheet. Punch is located at
a distance, g, away from the edge of the blank holder (or
support). Bending occurs with the motion of punch in X and
negative Y direction, simultaneously.
The OSM bending process is similar to wiping die bending.
Figure 3 and Fig. 4 demonstrate the OSM bending and the
wiping die bending configuration, respectively. OSM bending
differs from wiping die to bend since it requires no die.
Example MD
620 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633

Fig. 4 Wiping die bending

configuration

Secondly, in OSM bending, no need for precise location of the
bending line; the position of the punch can be anywhere be-
tween the s+t and L/2, where s, t, and L are offset distance, sheet
thickness, and the length of the blank sheet. As a result, the
punch is required to complete the motion in both the horizontal
and vertical direction. In wiping die scheme, the punch moves in
a vertical direction only. Thirdly, in OSM bending, the support
can have an offset distance, denoted by s, from the bending line.
3.2 Identifying and defining parameters
OSM bending has many parameters that affect the bending
process. However, from the bending process point of view
and MD pattern design point of view, six different parameters
are identified. These parameters are selected because they are
common to all MD patterns and OSM bending processes.
These parameters can be categorized into two main categories.
The first category is parameters associated with the MD pat-
tern and the blank sheet itself. The second category is
pertaining to the bending process such as the placement of
sheet, punch, and other physical conditions in the process.
The design parameters investigated in this work, shown in
Fig. 3 and Fig. 5, are the kerf-to-thickness ratio (k/t), the thick-
ness of the sheet (t), and the web-to-width ratio (w/b). Process
parameters include punch placement (g), punch radius (RP),
and offset distance from the bending line (s). These terms are
explained as follows:

Table 1 Base values and a full list of values for each parameter under
study

Parameter Baseline value A full list of values

Kerf-to-thickness (k/t) 0.3t (thickness) 0.2t, 0.3t, 0.4t, 0.5t

Sheet thickness [mm] 1.628 1.628, 2.304, 3.264
Web-to-width ratio (w/b) 0.28 0.28, 0.4, 0.52
Offset distance (s) [mm] 3 3, 6, 9
Punch placement (g) [mm] 23 13, 18, 23
Punch radius (RP) [mm] 3 1, 2, 3
Fig. 5 Generic design parameters of MD
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633 621

Fig. 6 Sample dimension of MD

with base values

(a) MD 1 (b) MD 2 (c) MD 3

Fig. 7 Meshing. A symmetrical

mesh is generated for all cases. In
a and b, right part of the image is
cropped to show details of mesh
along MD
622 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633

Table 2 Finite element simulation conditions & Punch radius (RP): it is the radius of punch that stays in
Item Description contact with the blank sheet during the bending process.
& Offset distance (s): it is the distance between imaginary
Object type Blank sheet: elastic-plastic (predetermined) bend line determined by MD and edge of
Punch/blank holder/support: rigid the blank holder (or support).
Element type 20-node hexa element for blank sheet Note that these parameters are common to all OSM
4-node rectangular element for rigid bodies bending and MD patterns. Figure 3 and Fig. 5 illustrate
Material property Al-2036 T4 process parameters and these generic design parameters of
Ultimate tensile strength, 338 MPa MD with the example of MD3, respectively.
Young’s modulus (E), 70 GPa
Poisson’s ratio (v), 0.33
Blank dimension Length (L), 50 mm; width (w), 50 mm 3.3 FEA of OSM bending
Blank thickness (t) 1.628/2.304/3.264 mm (14/11/8 gauge)
Bend angle 90° 3.3.1 Determination of stress, bending movement, and force
Punch radius (Rp) 3/2/1 mm
Friction coefficient (μ) 0.12 OSM bending is assumed to be under deformation mode
Punch motion g-s-t (mm) in positive X-axis of plain strain [ε 1; ε 2 = βε 1 = 0; ε 3 = − (1 + β)ε 1 ] and
20 mm in the negative Y-axis plain stress [σ1; σ2 = ασ1 = ½σ1; σ3 = 0], where the sub-
Bend line offset (s) 3/6/9 mm scripts 1, 2, and 3 denote principle directions; α and β are
Gap (g) 23/18/13 mm stress ratio and strain ratio; and the values are α ¼ 12 ; β
¼ 0 under plain strain and plain stress condition. Thus,
equivalent strain can be written as
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
& The thickness of sheet (t): this is the thickness of the blank 4  2
ε¼ 1 þ β þ β2 ε1 ¼ pffiffiffi ε1 ð1Þ
sheet. It is assumed that blank sheet has a uniform thick- 3 3
ness throughout the whole body.
& Kerf-to-thickness ratio (k/t): is the ratio between the Kerf Von Mises yield criteria,
(k) and the blank sheet thickness (t). Kerf is the cutting rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1h i
width that the laser or water jet cuts out of the blank sheet. ðσ1 −σ2 Þ2 þ ðσ2 −σ3 Þ2 þ ðσ3 −σ1 Þ2 ¼ σ f ¼ σ ð2Þ
& Web-to-width ratio (w/b): web (w) is defined as the 2
remained distance between two consecutive MD patterns where σf is flow stress and σ is equivalent stress,
after removal of material along bend line due to the appli- with plain stress condition where σ3 ¼ 0; σ2 ¼ ασ1 ; α ¼ 12,
cation of MD. It is the section that connects neighboring
leads to
MD along the bend line. Length of the web is measured
pffiffiffi
along the bend line. It is denoted by w/b, where w repre- pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 3
sents web and b is the width of the blank sheet. σ ¼ 1−α þ α σ1 ¼ 2 σ1 ð3Þ
2
& Punch placement (g): it is the distance between the blank
holder and punch. which can be written as σ1 ¼ p2ffiffi3 σ (4)

Fig. 8 Mesh convergence study results

Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633 623

Equivalent stress on the sheet can be obtained by inserting

Eq. (1) into Eq. (7)
 n
2
σ ¼ K pffiffiffi ε1 ð8Þ
3

Inserting Eq. (4) and Eq. (7) into Eq. (6),

 n
t=2 2 2
M ¼ 2∫0 pffiffiffi K pffiffiffi ε1 ydy ð9Þ
3 3

This is the bending moment blank sheet is subjected to

during bending.

3.3.2 FEA case studies and setup

In this study, FEA is performed using the OSM bending con-

figuration shown in Fig. 3. MD1, MD2, and MD3 are selected
from all possible MD patterns shown in Fig. 1 at this stage of
the research since these three MD patterns can be bases for
other MD patterns. Baseline value and a full list of values for
each parameter assigned for the simulation are listed in
Table 1. In these case studies, we presented studies on single
parameter effect. Therefore, only one parameter is changed at
a time while keeping all others at the baseline value and 42
FEA case are performed in total.
In order to achieve accuracy in simulation, mesh conver-
gence study was performed on one representative case for
each MD and critical mesh size is determined. Then, all the
other cases used the critical mesh size or even finer mesh.
The parameters of a representative case of each MD are
identical to baseline values listed in Table 1 except kerf-to-
thickness ratio is set to 0.2t. The reason for selecting 0.2t as
representative cases is that the kerf is smallest and mesh con-
vergence on this case would lead to convergence on larger kerf.
In addition, due to symmetrical nature of MD along the
Fig. 9 The resulted von misses stress along the different MD bend lines. bending line, as shown in Fig. 6, a quarter of MD1 and
The figure shows localized deformation along the bend line
MD2, half of MD3 has been used in the simulation.
In FEA, the punch, the support, and the blank holder are
Tension force on a cross section that lies y distance away modeled as rigid bodies, and all rigid bodies are discretized
from the mid-surface with the four-node rectangular element. The blank sheet is
t=2 assigned as a deformable body. It has dimensions of 50 mm ×
T ¼ ∫−t=2 σ1 dy ð5Þ 50 mm × 1.628 (2.304/3.264 mm). Sample dimensions of
these MD with baseline values are shown in Fig. 6. The blank
The bending moment acting on a normal cross section of
sheet material is set as an elasto-plastic type with 20 node
blank sheet
hexa-dominant elements.
t=2 It is reported [85–87] that generated mesh can affect ob-
M ¼ ∫−t=2 σ1 ydy ð6Þ
tained results and stress intensity factor. Per their research
Now the material is assumed to abide power law hardening results, symmetrical and fine mesh around region along
bend line has been generated, see Fig. 7, where the mesh
n
σ ¼ Kε ð7Þ is shown on the portion of geometry that symmetry has
been applied in order to show details. Implicit quasi-static
where K is strength coefficient and n is strain hardening finite element method of commercial code Ansys 18® is
exponent. used for simulation. The material of blank sheet is Al-T4
624 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633

300 1000 97

Angle after Springback [°]

250

Max. Mises Stress [MPa]

Max. Bending Force [N]

750
200 96

150 500

100 95
250
50

0 0 94

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
MD-1
MD-2
MD-3 Kerf to Thickness Ratio

Fig. 10 The effect of k/t ratio on the maximum bending force, maximum stress, and the angle after springback

2036, which has 193-MPa yield strength and 338 MPa for von Mises yield criteria. Elasto-plastic isotropic bilinear
ultimate tensile strength (UTS) [88–90]. The plastic prop- hardening model is used [91]. Strength coefficient (tangent
erty of sheet is assumed to be isotropic and described by modulus) and strain hardening coefficient of the blank

Table 3 Effect of kerf-to-thickness (k/t) ratio with respect to resulting bending force, stress, and springback angle

Simulation conditions Results

Baseline values Changing parameter

MD type Kerf-to-thickness Bending force (N) Von Mises Angle after
(k/t) ratio stress (MPa) springback (°)

MD1 Sheet thickness, 1.628 mm 0.2 264.6 995.7 95.67

Web-to-width ratio (w/b), 0.28 0.3 259.5 860.7 95.58
Offset distance (s) (mm), 3 mm
0.4 260.5 786.8 95.59
Punch placement (g) (mm), 23 mm
Punch radius (RP) (mm), 3 mm 0.5 256.0 727.8 95.62
MD2 0.2 251.5 694.8 95.59
0.3 243.2 608.5 95.67
0.4 244.2 563.6 95.78
0.5 238.7 524.3 95.78
MD3 0.2 42.9 453.3 96.29
0.3 36.4 423.3 95.33
0.4 37.1 427.3 96.33
0.5 35.3 420.9 96.76
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633 625

1400 1000 100

1200 900 99

Angle after Springback [°]

Max. Mises Stress [MPa]
Max. Bending Force [N] 98
1000 800
97
800 700
96
600 600
95
400 500
94
200 400 93
0 300 92

1.628 2.304 3.264 1.628 2.304 3.264 1.628 2.304 3.264

MD 1 MD 3
MD 2
Sheet Thickness (mm)
Fig. 11 Effect of sheet thickness (t)

sheet are 589 MPa and 0.216, respectively. The other ma- between refinements lead to less than 4% of the difference
terial properties are tabulated in Table 2. in terms of Von Mises (equivalent) stress.
Simulation is performed with four steps. First, pressure
load is applied on the blank holder as a preparation for
bending of the sheet for the next step. Then, the punch is
4.2 Feasibility of OSM bending without die
displaced with given values to accomplish bending of the
OSM bending configuration is analogous to cantilever beam
sheet. Third and fourth steps are unloading of the blank
where the clamped portion of the blank sheet represents a
sheet, where the punch is moved away from the sheet and
fixed end of a cantilever beam and the motion of the punch
the pressure load is removed.
can be seen as a load applied at a certain point on it. Unlike the
bending of the cantilever beam, blank sheet in OSM bending
configuration is in fact clamped at the virtual bend line due to
4 Results and discussion the application of MD and the offset distance s, as shown in
Fig. 3. As a result, the bending takes places along the location
4.1 Mesh convergence study where MD is applied as the punch starts its motion. With this
principle in mind, the punch is initially positioned 20 mm
Figure 8 shows the mesh convergence study result. away to the left of the bend line, and the offset distance s is
Refinement of the mesh is stopped when the difference set to 3 mm in the FEA setup. To bend blank sheet into 90°,

Table 4 Effect of blank sheet thickness (t)

Simulation conditions Results

Baseline values Changing parameter

MD type Sheet thickness Bending force (N) Von Mises Angle after
(t) (mm) stress (MPa) springback (°)

MD1 Kerf-to-thickness (k/t) ratio, 0.3 1.628 259.5 860.7 95.58

Web-to-width ratio (w/b), 0.28 2.304 566.8 874.1 96.06
Offset distance (s) (mm), 3 mm
3.264 1225.5 904 97.14
Punch placement (g) (mm), 23 mm
MD2 Punch radius (RP) (mm), 3 mm 1.628 243.2 608.5 95.67
2.304 526.3 633.5 96.27
3.264 1138.7 653.3 97.37
MD3 1.628 36.4 423.4 96.33
2.304 82.1 452.5 95.54
3.264 159.1 448.1 96.91
626 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633

500 900 97

Angle after Springback [°]

800

Max. Mises Stress [MPa]

Max. Bending Force [N]
400

700
300
600 96
200
500

100
400

0 300 95

0.28 0.4 0.52 0.28 0.4 0.52 0.28 0.4 0.52

MD 1
MD 2
MD 3
Web to Width Ratio

Fig. 12 Effect of web-to-width (w/b) ratio

the punch moves g-s-t distance in the positive X-axis and
20 mm in the negative Y-axis direction. The different MD
patterns on a 90° bent sheet are shown in Fig. 9. These results
confirm the possibility of bending sheets without using a die
in OSM bending process.
4.3 FEA results and discussion
4.3.1 Effect of kerf-to-thickness (k/t) ratio
A group of 12 FEA simulations is performed to investigate the
effect of k/t ratio. For each MD type considered, the k/t ratio is
changed from 0.2 to 0.5 and all other parameters are kept at the
same baseline value tabulated in Table 1. Figure 10 and Table 3
show the results of maximum bending force requirement, max-
imum von Mises stress along the bend line, and final bend angle
after springback with respect to different k/t ratios. From
Fig. 10, it can be seen that the bending force and stress have a
decreasing trend as the k/t ratio increases. This is because of two
reasons. First, an increase in the k/t ratio creates a larger gap
between opposite edges (surfaces) of MD pattern. A larger gap
leads to a reduced possibility of contact between opposite edges
(surfaces) of MD. Secondly, larger curvature radius at the end-
ing of the MD have less drastic curvature change with larger k/t
ratio and this allows the applied force to translate to the sheet
body more smoothly. The force and stress on MD3 is the least
among the three MD types, since the oblique shape of MD3
with respect to bending line spans from one half of the blank
sheet to the other half with large radius curvature, MD3 expe-
riences torsion in addition to bending while MD1 and MD2 is
subjected to only bending. The results show that MD3 can
translate the forces easily to the sheet body rather than concen-
trating it on the small area around the bend line. The results also
showed that the stress on MD2 is smaller than the one resulted

Table 5 Effect of web-to-width (w/b) ratio

Simulation conditions Results

Baseline values Changing parameter

MD type Web-to-width Bending force (N) Von Mises Angle after
ratio (w/b) stress (MPa) springback (°)

MD1 Kerf-to-thickness (k/t) ratio, 0.3 0.28 259.5 860.7 95.58

Sheet thickness, 1.628 0.4 380.3 864.5 95.77
Offset distance (s) (mm), 3 mm
0.52 460.1 862.0 95.99
Punch placement (g) (mm), 23 mm
MD2 Punch radius (RP) (mm), 3 mm 0.28 243.2 608.5 95.67
0.4 345.5 610.1 95.89
0.52 440 610.0 96.14
MD3 0.28 36.4 423.4 96.33
0.4 87.8 381.2 96.9
0.52 159.6 368.3 96.62
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633 627

350 1000 98

300

Angle after Springback [°]

Max. Mises Stress [MPa]
Max. Bending Force [N] 750 97
250

200
500 96
150

100
250 95
50

0 0 94

3 6 9 3 6 9 3 6 9
MD-1
MD-2
MD-3 Offset Distance [mm]

Fig. 13 Effect of offset distance (s)

in the MD1 regardless of k/t ratio. The large opening circle at angle on MD3. This irregularity might be caused by the rate
the end of MD2 has played the role of elevated stress. The final of change in thickness and shape of MD.
angle after springback of all MD patterns is little influenced by
k/t ratio. 4.3.3 Effect of web-to-width (w/b) ratio

4.3.2 Effect of sheet thickness (t)
The effect of thickness on OSM bending is investigated by
performing nine FEA models for three different thicknesses,
those are 1.628 mm, 2.304 mm, and 3.264 mm. The results of
sheet thickness effect are shown in Fig. 11 and Table 4. The
results show that the thicker sheets require significantly higher
bending force as expected. The stress generated along the
bend line is slightly increased for thicker sheets for all three
MDs. This is apparently associated with patterns each MD
has, particularly with the curvature of endings in MD. The
springback exhibited a consistently increasing trend in all
MD cases, though there is a little fluctuation of springback
This work investigates the web-to-width for three different
ratios for each MD, total of nine cases. The web-to-width
ratios are 0.28, 0.4, and 0.52. Figure 12 illustrates the re-
sults, and Table 5 lists the simulation conditions. The results
show that a larger w/b ratio requires a higher magnitude of
bending force. This can be explained by the fact that a larger
w/b ratio means a longer web remained after cutting out MD
along the sheet width. Hence, a longer web between two
neighboring MD obviously generates more resistance to
bending. As for the stresses generated, it increased slightly.
This implies that a reasonable change in the web dimension
does not affect the stress on the bend line. The reasonable
change determined by the certain distance between the two

Table 6 Effect of offset distance (s)

Simulation conditions Results

Baseline values Changing parameter

MD type Offset distance Bending force (N) Von Mises Angle after
(s) (mm) stress (MPa) springback (°)

MD1 Kerf-to-thickness (k/t) ratio, 0.3 3 259.5 860.7 95.58

Sheet thickness, 1.628 6 272.4 856.4 96.23
Web-to-width ratio (w/b), 0.28
9 320.6 854.3 96.88
Punch placement (g) (mm), 23 mm
MD2 Punch radius (RP) (mm), 3 mm 3 243.2 608.5 95.67
6 254.0 602.7 96.43
9 284.3 603.6 97.05
MD3 3 36.4 423.4 96.33
6 37.0 414.3 96.39
9 40.1 418.6 96.57
628 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633

Fig. 14 Evaluation of tendency to

bend with respect to clamping
point. a The tendency to bend
with respect to clamping point of
the blank sheet. b Y displacement
is evaluated on edge shown. This
is the case for MD1; offset
distance is equal to 6 mm. c Y
displacement of the designated
edge in MD1 is plotted in the
bending process (second load
step) of the simulation

400 900 97
800
Angle after Springback [°]
Max. Mises Stress [MPa]
Max. Bending Force [N]

300 700
600 96
500
200
400
300 95
100 200
100
0 0 94

13 18 23 13 18 23 13 18 23
MD 1
MD 2
Punch Placement [mm]
MD 3

Fig. 15 Effect of punch placement (g)

Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633 629

Table 7 Effect of punch placement (g)

Simulation conditions Results

Baseline values Changing parameter

MD type Punch placement Bending force (N) Von Mises Angle after
(g) (mm) stress (MPa) springback (°)

MD1 Kerf-to-thickness (k/t) ratio, 0.3 23 259.3 861.4 95.56

Sheet thickness, 1.628 18 281.3 861.6 95.73
Web-to-width ratio (w/b), 0.28
13 342.6 860.7 95.58
Offset distance (s), 3 mm
MD2 Punch radius (RP), 3 mm 23 243.2 608.5 95.67
18 263.9 607.3 95.72
13 319.3 609.5 95.86
MD3 23 36.4 423.4 96.32
18 40.5 420.0 96.17
13 52.6 418.7 96.20

ends of MD. This distance should be large enough to pre-
vent interference of stress at one end of MD with stress at
another end. Interesting to notice that stresses on MD3 de-
creases as w/b ratio increases; however, stresses on MD1
and MD2 stated constantly. The reason is again related to
the shape of MD3 where larger w/b ratio can allow bending
forces to pass through larger web area, which would allevi-
ate the stress concentrations on the web. On the other hand,
maximum stresses on MD1 and MD2 are located at the end
of MD patterns, thus increasing w/b ratio does not influence
stress result. The increase in the w/b ratio leads to higher
springback angle in the three studied cases of the MD.
However, the change in angle magnitude is fairly small with
approximately 0.5° increase for MD1 and MD2 compared to
MD3. Note that MD1 and MD2 behaves similarly. This is
because MD1 and MD2 have a very similar shape and MD3
is much different.
4.3.4 Effect of offset distance (s)
To study the effect of the offset distance, this work investigat-
ed three offset distances, namely 3 mm, 6 mm, and 9 mm.
Figure 13 and Table 6 show the effect of different offset dis-
tances on OSM bending. The bending force is increased as
larger offset distance is used in bending. The increase in bend-
ing force is caused by the reduction of the distance between
the punch and virtual bending line determined by MD. Hence,
a larger force is needed to achieve the same amount of bending
moment. No variation in stress is expected for the increase of
s. Results show a slight increase of springback angle for all
cases, and magnitude of increment is similar for MD1 and
MD2. This implies again that the shape of the MD plays role
in springback.
It is also noted that offset distance (s) increased the tenden-
cy of bending with respect to the clamped point (edge of blank

300 1000 97
Angle after Springback [°]

250
Max. Mises Stress [MPa]
Max. Bending Force [N]

800

200 96
600
150
400
100 95

200
50

0 0 94

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

MD 1 MD 3
MD 2 Punch Radius [mm]

Fig. 16 Effect of punch radius (RP)

630 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633

Table 8 Effect of punch radius (RP)

Simulation conditions Results

Baseline values Changing parameter

MD type Punch radius Bending force (N) Von Mises Angle after
(RP) (mm) stress (MPa) springback (°)

MD1 Kerf-to-thickness (k/t) ratio, 0.3 3 259.5 860.7 95.58

Sheet thickness, 1.628 2 255.9 860.6 95.42
Web-to-width ratio (w/b), 0.28
1 246.7 862.2 95.34
Offset distance (s), 3 mm
MD2 Punch placement (g), 23 mm 3 243.2 608.5 95.67
2 240.4 606.7 95.55
1 230.1 612.0 95.41
MD3 3 36.4 423.4 96.33
2 41.9 422.4 96.13
1 34.7 415.3 96.02

holder or support), see Fig. 14a. In order to illustrate the
changes in the magnitude of vertical displacement of the sheet
with respect to the clamping point, a vertical displacement of
the edge is evaluated with different offset distance in Fig. 14b,
c during the bending step (second load step of simulation). It
shows that the displacement magnitude increased as the offset
distance is raised to 9 mm. However, it is found that the mag-
nitude of this vertical movement is negligible compared to
total displacement happened during bending. Therefore, the
tendency to bend with respect to clamping point can be
neglected.
4.3.5 Effect of punch placement (g)
This work considers three different scenarios for the effect of
placing the punch at various locations, denoted by (g). The
distance between the punch and edge of the blank holder (or
support), refer to Fig. 3, is set to 13 mm, 18 mm, and 23 mm,
respectively. The study keeps all other processing and design
parameters at constant baseline values. The results in Fig. 15
and Table 7 show that required bending force is reduced as the
punch placement location (g) increases. This is due to the fact
that obtaining the same amount of bending moment requires
less amount of bending force when the force arm increases. In
addition, the stress level and springback angle in all MD
stayed without significant change.
4.3.6 Effect of punch radius (RP)
related to the change in contact area between the punch radius
and the sheet during the bending process.
4.4 General recommendation for selecting OSM
bending parameters
Based on the discussed results, some general recommen-
dation can be made regarding OSM bending parameters.
The stress generated along the bend line is caused by the
size of the curvature radius at the end of a specific MD
pattern. A lager k/t ratio leads to a greater curvature radius.
Hence, a large k/t ratio should be selected in order to have
less stress concentration after bending. For achieving re-
duced bending force, the web-to-width (w/b) ratio and
thickness should be kept small as long as the stress level
is not affected by it. A smaller offset distance (s) is good
for higher accuracy of bending. The punch position (g) in
the OSM bending configuration should be as large as pos-
sible for decreasing bending force as well as the sliding
surface contact between the punch and the blank sheet.
However, it should be kept in mind that punch placement
(g) should guarantee the contact between the punch radius
and the sheet surface. Otherwise, it causes undesired con-
tact between edges of the blank sheet and the punch surface
at certain point. As for the punch radius, it has a little effect
on OSM bending and proper radius can be selected based
on the specific problem.

This work evaluated three different punch radiuses, denoted 5 Conclusions

by RP. The values are set to 1 mm, 2 mm, and 3 mm, respec-
tively. The results are shown in Fig. 16 and Table 8, suggest-
ing that stress stayed at the same level. Bending force and
spring back slightly increased with the change in the punch
radius. The changes in the bending force magnitude are
The presented studies showed that OSM bending is possible
without die. The introduced MD can play the role of a die in a
bending process by determining the bending line. Therefore,
OSM bending has a significant impact on bending, especially
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2019) 102:615–633
in the mass production settings for sheet metal parts. In order
to investigate the effect of OSM parameters, three OSM de-
sign parameters and three process parameters are presented in
this investigation. The findings indicate each parameter has a
different impact on OSM bending. The general recommenda-
tion is made on the selection of studied parameters. It is found
that shape of MD plays an important role and it is observed
that similar MD patterns exhibit a similar trend, leading to the
conclusion that there is a difference in the deformation mode
along the bend line caused by the selected shape of the MD.
Future work will focus on including shape-derived deforma-
tion modes to understand and quantify the effect of MD shape
on the bending process.
Funding This work was partially funded by the Hellman Faculty Fund-
No 55253.
Nomenclature 2D, Two-dimensional; 3D, Three-dimensional; FEA,
Finite element analysis; MD, Material discontinuities; OSM, Origami-
based sheet metal; UTS, Ultimate tensile strength; b, Width; g, Gap; k,
Kerf; k/t, Kert-to-thickness ratio; L, Sheet length; RD, Die radius; RP,
Punch radius; s, Offset from bend line; t, Sheet thickness; w, Web; g,
Punch placement; w/b, Web-to-width ratio
Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdic-
tional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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