ME F 214

Applied
Thermodynamics
BITS Pilani Dr. A R Harikrishnan
Pilani Campus Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Lecture 1: Introduction to Applied

Thermodynamics
Outline of Course

Applied Thermodynamics:

What are the application domains of thermodynamics?

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Outline of Course

Gas power cycles

Refrigeration Cycles
Psychometrics and Heat load Calculation
Vapor power cycles
Compressors, Boilers and accessories
Compressible fluid flow

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Objectives:

• To determine the power output and evaluate the performance of

simple thermodynamic cycles for power generation technologies
in terms of thermal efficiency.
• To analyze and evaluate the performance of coal based or gas
based power generations technologies.
• To analyze and evaluate the performance of vapor compression
and vapor absorption refrigeration cycle.
• To analyze and evaluate gas turbine cycle with multistage
compression with intercooling, multistage expansion with reheat
and regeneration terms of its efficiency.
• To estimate air conditioning requirements of a space using
various air-conditioning processes.

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 Outline of Course
M1:
 Stirling cycle, Ericsson Cycle, Air Standard Cycles, Otto Cycle, Diesel
Cycle, Dual Cycle. Brayton cycle, Gas Turbine power plants basics

M2:
Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle, Basic principle of a Simple
Vapor–Absorption System, Actual Vapor Compression Cycle, Heat
Pump

M3:
Psychometric Properties, Psychrometric Chart, Mixing of moist air,
Building Cooling Load and Heating Load Estimate, Inside and Outside
Design Conditions

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Outline of Course

M4:
 Ranking Cycle, Actual vapor power cycle, Mean temperature of heat
addition. Techniques for efficiency improvement, Introduction, types
of boilers, types and boiler mountings and accessories.

M5:
 Stagnation properties, Flow through Nozzle, Chocking, Normal
shocks, Adiabatic and diabatic flow

M6:
 General Introduction, The reciprocating air compressor, Effect of
clearance volume, Multistage Reciprocating Compressor
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 Evaluative components

Components Duration Weightage

(%)
Maximum
Marks Date & Remarks
[200] Time

Tutorial Tests 15 min. 20 40 Surprise Closed book

Lecture Test 10 min. 15 30 Surprise Closed book
Mid Semester 90 min. 25 50 <Test_1> Open book
Test

Comprehensive 180 min 40 80 11/12 FN Closed Book

Test

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 An Urban world that was present till the end
of first decade of the 20th century.
• Only fresh foods that could be grown locally were available, and they had to be
purchased and used on a daily basis.

• Meat was bought during the daily trip to the butcher's; the milkman made his
rounds every morning.

• Homes were built with natural cooling in mind.

• Ceilings were high, porches were deep and shaded, and windows were placed to
take every possible advantage of cross-ventilation

• If you could afford weekly deliveries of ice blocks—harvested in the winter

from frozen northern lakes—you could keep some perishable foods around for
2 or 3 days in an icebox.

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Urban Life after the end of first decade of the
21st century.

o Frozen foods of all kinds were available just about anywhere in the
world all year round.

o The milkman was all but gone and forgotten, and the butcher now
did his work behind a counter at the supermarket.

o Indeed, many families concentrated the entire week's food shopping

into one trip to the market, stocking the refrigerator with perishables
that would last a week or more.

o Buildings are totally isolated from fresh air.

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Application of Thermodynamics

Application of Thermodynamics:

Important areas are Power generation and Refrigeration

Usually accomplished by systems that operate on a thermodynamic

cycle.

Power cycles Refrigeration cycles

Refrigerators, Heatpump,
Engines
Airconditioners
(produce net power output)
(power consuming, produce
refrigeration effect)
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Classification of Thermodynamic
cycles:
Based on output:
• Power
• Refrigeration

Based on phase of working fluid:

• Gas cycles
• Vapor cycles

Another method:
• Open cycles
• Closed cycles

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What are heat engines?
Common Characteristics?

1. They receive heat from a high-temperature

source (solar energy, oil furnace, nuclear
reactor, etc.).

2. They convert part of this heat to work

(usually in the form of a rotating shaft).

3. They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-

temperature sink (the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).

4. They operate on a cycle.

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Performance evaluation:
The fraction of the heat input that is converted to net
work output is a measure of the performance of a heat
engine and is called the thermal efficiency.

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The performance of refrigerators
and heat pumps is expressed in
terms of the coefficient of
performance (COP)

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• Classification:

• Internal and External Combustion engines

What is the difference?

Hint: Something to do with heat addition!!!

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In external combustion engines: heat is supplied to the
working fluid from an external source such as a furnace, a
nuclear reactor, etc.
(steam power plant)

In internal combustion engines : done by burning the fuel

within the system boundaries.
(automobile engines)

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Classification of heat engines

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Reciprocating IC Engine : A Heat Engine

Qout
Qin

Wout
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Arrangement of gas turbine plant

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Devices that produce refrigeration are called refrigerators, and the cycles
on which they operate are called refrigeration cycles.

The most frequently used refrigeration cycle is the vapor-compression

refrigeration cycle in which the refrigerant is vaporized and condensed
alternately and is compressed in the vapor phase.

Another well-known refrigeration cycle, and is the gas refrigeration cycle in

which the refrigerant remains in the gaseous phase throughout.

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•The gas power cycle can be used as refrigeration cycles by simply reversing
them.
•Of these, the reversed Brayton cycle, which is also known as the gas
refrigeration cycle, is used to cool aircraft.
• Further Modification this cycle is used to obtain very low (cryogenic)
temperatures.

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Vapor and Gas ?

Vapor : a gaseous state that is close to the saturation region of the

substance, raising the possibility of condensation during a process.

When we are dealing with a gas–vapor mixture, however, the vapor may
condense out of the mixture during a process, forming a two-phase
mixture. This may complicate the analysis!!!

Therefore, a gas–vapor mixture needs to be treated differently from an

ordinary gas mixture.

Several gas–vapor mixtures are encountered in engineering- our focus :

air–water vapor mixture (air-conditioning)
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• Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and small amounts of some other
gases. Air in the atmosphere normally contains some water vapor (or
moisture) and is referred to as atmospheric air.

• Air that contains no water vapor is called dry air.

• It is often convenient to treat air as a mixture of water vapor and dry air.

• composition of dry air remains relatively constant, but the amount of

water vapor changes (condensation and evaporation from oceans, lakes,
rivers, showers, and even the human body).

• Although the amount of water vapor in the air is small, it plays a major
role in human comfort. Therefore, it is an important consideration in air-
conditioning applications. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
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• Steam is the most common working fluid used in vapor power
cycles because of its many desirable characteristics, such as low
cost, availability, and high enthalpy of vaporization.

• Steam power plants are commonly referred to as coal plants, nuclear

plants, or natural gas plants (depending on the type of fuel)

• However, the analysis remains same.

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Ideal Cycles and Air Standard Cycles:
•Idealized process
•Ideal working fluid/Air as an ideal gas
•Internally reversible

Fuel-Air Cycles:
•Idealized process
•Accurate working fluid model

Actual Cycles:
•Actual process
•Actual working fluid model

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The idealizations and simplifications commonly employed in the analysis
of power cycles can be summarized as follows:

1. The cycle does not involve any friction. Therefore, the working fluid
does not experience any pressure drop as it flows in pipes or devices
such as heat exchangers.

2. All expansion and compression processes take place in a quasi-

equilibrium manner.

3. The pipes connecting the various components of a system are well

insulated, and heat transfer through them is negligible.

4.Change in KE and PE of working fluid is neglected.

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Carnot cycle : have the highest thermal efficiency of all heat engines
operating between the same temperature levels.

A cycle more efficient than the Carnot cycle?

The ideal cycles are internally reversible, but, unlike the Carnot Cycle, they
are not necessarily externally reversible.
(may involve irreversibilities external to the system such as heat transfer
through a finite temperature difference)
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 Value of Carnot Cycle:

Four totally reversible processes:

• isothermal heat addition
• isentropic expansion
• isothermal heat rejection
• isentropic compression

The real value of the Carnot cycle comes

from its being a standard against which
the actual or the ideal cycles can be
compared.

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Thank You
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