A Guide to English Academic Vocabulary

Unit 1
How many English words do you know?

1.1 Put these words into 3 groups of 3

find fragrant fluctuate flower fume foam frump filch food

Most useful Useful Least useful

1.2 Are the following statements true or false?

a) Knowing the most frequently used 2000 words accounts for 75% of usage.
b) There’s a big difference in usage frequency between the first and second thousand words.

1.3 How much can you say and understand with 2,000 most frequent words?

A group of students ___________ an ____________ to ___________ the ___________ of ___________

on___________ rates. They ___________ three _________ __________ in this ___________. In the
first ___________, they drop an ___________ __________ into a ___________ of water at a
___________ of 40°C and record how long it takes the ________ to completely _____________. In the
second and third ___________, they use the same type and amount of __________, but they change the
___________ of the water to 25°C for the second and to 5°C for the third.

Question: How the __________ _________ in this __________ is the:

a) type of _________ used?
b) amount of _________ used?
c) time it takes for the _____________ to __________?
d) __________ at which the __________ __________ ?

1.4 Diagnostic test: How many English words do you know?

1 as 11 abstract 21 aviary 31 comeuppance 41 cupreous

2 dog 12 eccentric 22 chasuble 32 downer 42 cutability
3 editor 13 receptacle 23 ferrule 33 geisha 43 regurge
4 shake 14 armadillo 24 liven 34 logistics 44 lifemanship
5 pony 15 boost 25 parallelogram 35 panache 45 atropia
6 immense 16 commissary 26 punkah 36 setout 46 sporophore
7 butler 17 gentian 27 amice 37 cervicovaginal 47 hypomagnesaemia
8 mare 18 lotus 28 chiton 38 abruption 48 cowsucker
9 denounce 19 squeamish 29 roughly 39 kohl 49 oleaginous
10 borough 20 waffle 30 barf 40 acephalia 50 migrationist

Be honest in calculating the number of words you do know. Multiply the result by 1000 and divide into two.

1
Vocabulary size for native speakers
Pre-literate children 3,000 - 4,000
Ten-year-olds 8,000 - 9,000
Educated adults 15,000 - 20,000

The standard rate of vocabulary growth

15-25 words per week
60-100 words per month
500-1,000 words per year
8,000 words = 8-16 years
15,000 words = 15-30 years

1.5 Words with multiple meaning: cabbage. Translate the following sentences into Russian.

2. ‘You have my cabbage?’ asked the muscle man.

3. ‘Good morning, my little Cabbage!’ Canuck said.
4. The women were judging by the bottles and glasses on the table, well on their way to being
cabbaged.
5. What you will see next is not completely my own work. ... I must tell you that I have cabbaged some
of the better suggestions here from a show I saw.

noun: 1. Money, especially in the form of bills.

2. A stupid or mentally impaired person.
3. A term of endearment.
4. Scraps remaining from a fabric that has been used to make a garment.
verb : 1. To get intoxicated.
2. To steal or pilfer.
3. To plagiarize.
If you come across a word that you think you know but it does not seem to make sense in that context, check
to see whether it has another distinct meaning.

1.6 Words with multiple meaning: set.

1. Set the instruments to zero. (get sth ready)
2. I would like to set some ground rules for the course. (establish)
3. The decision set a number of changes in motion (triggered)
4. We must set a time for our next meeting. (arrange)
5. Concrete sets as it cools. (becomes solid)
6. The students entered the room and immediately set to work. (started work)
7. The condition is associated with a particular set of symptoms. (group)
8. We have a number of set books to study in our literature class. (that must be studied)

Which meaning does set have in these examples?

1. If you don’t set to work immediately you won’t finish the task by the end of the term.
2. Before we start I’d like everyone to set their watches to precisely the same time.
3. Professors will set a date for the submission of assignments relating to their courses.
4. We expected the mixture to set quickly but it had not hardened by the morning.
5. Before leaving an area, the retreating army set the farm buildings on fire.
6. The engine’s performance has set a new fuel consumption record.
7. During the first semester, music students have to study a number of set pieces.
8. There are a whole set of issues that need to be discussed.

2
1.7 Everyday words in academic use.
Figure out the difference between the meaning of the following words in everyday and academic use.

1. Standards of discipline in schools have declined.

Nanotechnology is a relatively new discipline.

2. Underline your family name on the form.

The research underlines the importance of international trade agreements.

3. The lake was frozen solid.

We have no solid evidence that radiation has caused the problem.

Complete each pair of sentences using the same word for both sentences and making any necessary
grammatical changes.

generate turn solid confirm identify underline character pose nature focus

1. She loves to ________ for photographs in front of her fabulous home.

The events _________ a threat to stability in the region.

2. It was difficult to _________ the camera on the flower as it was so small.

We should _________ our attention on the most important issues.

3. I called the airline and _________ my reservation.

The data _________ my hypothesis that animal-lovers enjoy better health.

4. The power plant _________ electricity for the whole region.

This issue always _________ a great deal of debate among academics.

5. The murderer was _________ from fingerprints discovered at the scene.

In this theory of history, progress is closely _________ with technology.

6. She became interested in _________ conservation.

The first lecture in the series was on the _________ of human communication.

7. Jim’s a very interesting _________. I hope you meet him.

The book attempts to explain the fundamental _________ of social life.

8. I saw her _________ to her husband and whisper something in his ear.
Let us now _________ to the subject of town planning.

9. He always _________ every new word when he is reading.

The study _________ the fact that very little research exists.

10. The liquid became _________ as the temperature was lowered.

The study lacks _________ evidence and therefore its conclusions are doubtful.

1.8 More academic meanings for familiar words.

word academic meaning(s) example

to accommodate change or allow sth to fit in He had to adapt his theory to accommodate new
information.
to contract shorten, become smaller As the metal cools, it contracts.

3
to occur exist
reference (n) author or book mentioned in a
piece of writing to show where
information was found
revolution (n) complete turn (e.g. of a wheel)
structure (n) way in which parts of a system
or objects are organized or
arranged
Some valuable minerals occur naturally in these rocks.
You must provide a list of references at the end of your
assignment.
Time is measured by the revolution of the earth around
the sun.
The structure of this element is particularly complex.

Choose a word from the table above to complete each sentence. Change the form if necessary.

1. When you are doing research it is sensible to keep good records of all your ___________________ .
2. This medical condition is most likely to _______________ in fair-skinned people.
3. In first gear the engine makes ten __________________ for every ___________ of the wheels.
4. Wealth, the theme of the anthology, is general enough to ______________ a wide variety of
approaches.
5. The ____________ of society in Ancient Rome can be said to resemble that of the modern USA.
6. They carried out an experiment to check whether the gold ___________ or expanded under a range
of different conditions.

1.9 Words with several different academic meanings

2. The writer takes issue with Kwame’s interpretation. (=raises arguments against)
3. Have you seen the latest issue of the Nature magazine? (=edition)
4. Jackson raises some interesting points in his article. (=opinions, ideas, information)
5. The writer takes a long time to get to the point. (=most significant part)
6. A portion of the funds from the lottery will be channelled into amateur sports programs. (directed
into)

Which word could fit in each of these sets of phrases?

1. discuss the following _______________
underline the key ______________
make some thoughtful ____________
2. to ____________ a precedent
a ____________ of exercises
a ____________ of books
3. take ___________ with
the latest _________ of the New Scientist
a commercial ___________
4. a ______________ of communication
the English ______________
to ____________ one’s energies into
Home task
1. Revise the words in bold from the class exercises and give English equivalents for the following
chunks:
 веские доказательства
 вычислить преступника по
 навести камеру на
 обратиться к
 основное свойство ч-л
 отождествлять с
 подтвердить гипотезу
4
  позировать перед камерой
 представлять угрозу
 придавать особое значение ч-л
 сеять разногласия
 сосредоточить внимание на

2. Jokes are often based on words having several meanings. Explain this joke:
A neutron goes into a bar, orders a drink and asks how much it will be.
The barman replies: ‘For you, sir, no charge.’
Think of a similar joke to present it in class.
Unit 2

Academic vocabulary: Key nouns

2.1 Be aware of the difference between the following nouns:

subject, theme, topic, issue, theory, model, principle
Choose the most appropriate noun to complete each sentence.

1. Environmental topics / issues / principles should be at the top of today’s political agenda.
2. In the exam students had to choose three from a choice of ten essay subjects / theories / topics.
3. There are still people who are reluctant to accept Darwin’s model / topic / theory of evolution.
4. The professor decided to take moral courage as the issue / theme / model for his inaugural lecture.
5. The London underground map is best understood as a model / principle / topic showing how the
different stations relate to one another rather than a precise representation of their distances from
each other.
6. The Peter Issue / Principle / Theme states that members of a hierarchical group will usually end up
being promoted to the point at which they become incompetent.

2.2 Examine the table below.

Nouns often combine with specific adjectives.

adjective + noun

noun adjectives that often combine with it

contact useful, valuable, personal, constant, close, frequent, intermittent(=from time to time)
debate considerable, heated, intense, public, animated(=lively)
element (=factor) crucial, decisive, fundamental
elements (=parts) conflicting, contrasting, constituent(=that combine to make sth)
energy excess, sufficient, nuclear
phenomenon common, isolated, natural, recent, universal
results conflicting, (in)conclusive, unforeseen, preliminary, encouraging, interim(=temporary)
role decisive, challenging, conflicting, influential, key, pivotal(=vital)
sample random, representative
in…terms absolute, broad, relative, general, practical, economic
way alternative, efficient, fair, practical, convenient, proper, acceptable

2.3 Answer the questions:

1. Put these types of contact in order of frequency - frequent, constant, intermittent
2. Which of these is a representative sample and which is a random sample: a sample chosen by
chance; a sample chosen as typical of the population as a whole?
3. Which adjective describes the opposite of a common phenomenon?
4. Would you be pleased if you did some research and got inconclusive results?
5. What adjective other than key can be used with role to give a similar meaning?
5
 6. Which suggests that there is more energy – excess or sufficient energy?
7. Can you name three people who play an influential role in a child’s development?
8. If two of the four constituent elements of most language exams are reading and speaking, what are
the other two?

2.4 Fill in the gaps in these sentences with an adjective.

1. It’s important to assess your research paper in a ___________ way.
2. Desire for adrenalin and ability to foresee the consequences are ___________________ elements in
the reckless driver’s nature.
3. After the lecture there was a _________ debate.
4. In China and India, people have become better off in ______________ terms.
5. Historians claim that globalization is not a ________________ phenomenon.
6. I made some ____________ contacts at the conference.
7. Radical activists played a ___________ role in the riot.
8. Timing is a _____________ element of the experiment.
9. Wind turbines generate ____________ energy for the town’s needs.
10. Our _____________ results were encouraging.
11. A ______________ sample of the population was surveyed.

2.5 Most of the nouns from table 2.2 are also strongly associated with specific verbs. Study the table below.

noun + verb
1. You can come into contact with someone or something or you can establish, maintain, break off
or lose contact.
2. Academics may engage in debate or contribute to a debate. You talk about the debate
surrounding the issue.
3. You can combine, differentiate or discern [recognize] the elements of a chemical compound.
4. You consume, conserve, generate, save or waste energy.
5. Phenomena emerge or occur and students will try to observe, investigate and then explain those
phenomena.
6. Academics collect, collate [organize] and publish their results. Sometimes results are questioned
or invalidated [shown to be wrong]. Occasionally they are even falsified!
7. Roles may be defined or strengthened. People or factors can play a role or take on a role.
8. You can take or provide or analyse a sample.
9. You can discover, devise [think up] work out or develop a way to do something.

2.6 Fill in the gap in these sentences with a verb. Change the form where necessary.

1. I first ____________ into contact with Abdul when I started my doctoral research in 2007.
2. The country _____________ so much energy that we don’t _____________ enough to meet all our
needs.
3. The space race _____________ an important role in post-war politics.
4. In her research project Diana _____________ the phenomenon of extra-sensory perception but she
was not able to come to any significant conclusions.
5. Although Hans’s rivals attempted to ____________ his results, they met with no success.
6. Green’s poetry successfully ______________ elements from a number of different traditions.

2.7 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending.

1 It took the team a long time to devise
2 During the war we had to break
3 There has been a lot of heated debate
4 Ian Hartmann was invited to take on
6
a surrounding the issue of global warming.
b a blood sample for analysis.
c the role of project leader.
d to the debate on cloning.
5 Part of my role was to collate
6 The doctor wanted me to provide
7 Scientists all over the world contributed
8 A new and unexpected phenomenon
9 Using shading helps to differentiate
e off contact with colleagues abroad.
f seems to be emerging.
g the key elements in a graph.
h a way to solve their problem.
i the results of our experiments.

Home task: Make a list of key word combinations from unit 2, learn them and do the exercise below.
Choose the best word from the box to fill each of the gaps.

conflicting crucial define discern engaging

heated interim maintaining practical proper
publish random taking

1. She obtained her results by _______________ a ______________ sample of the population.

2. Before we go any further we must ___________ each of our roles more precisely.
3. We must decide what is the _____________ way to proceed, in ____________ terms.
4. The group succeeded in ________________ contract long after they had all left college.
5. My trip to Africa was the ____________ element in my decision to work in conservation.
6. Specialists in the field of bio-engineering have been ____________ in ____________ debate on this
issue for some time.
7. I am told that Smythe is about to ____________ some ____________ results.
8. Professor Powell was able to ____________ some ____________ elements in different accounts if
the incident.

Unit 3
Nouns and prepositions

3.1 Study the table below presenting groups of nouns with relating meaning that share the same
preposition.

nouns preposition(s) examples

book, article, essay, about, on In 1978, Da Silva published a book about the history of
lecture, dissertation, emigration.
project, assignment She wrote an article on teenage slang in New York.
work, research, influence, on Genetic influence on smoking – a study of male twins.
emphasis, impact
insight, research, into Kelly (1969) conducted an investigation into the origins
investigation, inquiry of international terrorism.
basis, ideas, part, lack, of
means, analysis, The article offers an analysis of the potential impact of
examination, exploration, the Avian Flu virus.
study
problem, difficulty of, with He gave a lecture on the problem of global warming.
One difficulty with this approach is that a set of results
may allow different interpretations.
need, reason, motivation, for Economists have recently questioned the rationale for
basis, case, rationale, government spending.
preference
look, attempt, point, age at An attempt at integration of economic and
psychological theories of consumption.
changes, differences, in Gender differences in risk-taking in financial decision-
7
 increase, decrease
relation, approach,
response, attention
attitude, tendency, move,
progress
principle, rationale,
assumption, logic
relationship, difference,
distinction
making.
to Communicating with strangers: an approach to
intercultural communication.
to, towards Progress towards sustainable regional development.
behind Questioning the assumptions behind art criticism.
between The relationship between educational technology and
student achievement in mathematics.

3.2 Fill in the missing prepositions. In questions 4 and 5, more than one answer is possible.

1. One difficulty ___ the class questionnaire was that some students had already left the course and
could not be contacted.
2. She wrote a dissertation ___ wild flower conservation in Finland in the 1990s.
3. The book is an exploration ___ the origins of the economic crisis of 2008.
4. The rationale ___________ the present research is the need to better understand the process of
agreement in international law.
5. Research ______________ spoken language has been considerably assisted in recent years by the
availability of computerized databases or ‘corpora’.
6. Pippen’s (2014) book was an inquiry ___ the foundations of nationalism.
7. What is Kazuo Matsui’s book _____ ? Have you read it?
8. He did a study ___ the problem ___ side-impact automobile collisions.

3.3 Correct the mistakes in the use of prepositions in these sentences. There may be more than one mistake
per sentence.

1. Her dissertation produced some interesting insights to how young people develop a visual sense of
the world and the age in which development is most noticeable.
2. The reason of the unwillingness of the people involved in the demonstration to be interviewed was
fear of being arrested later.
3. Hierstat’s approach in the analysis of solar phenomena is different from that of Donewski. He
questioned the assumptions of much of the previous research.
4. Changes of the rate of growth of the cells were observed over time.
5. A lack in funding led to the cancellation of the project, and social scientists blamed the negative
attitude of the government on social science research.
6. Jawil’s article puts great emphasis to the need of more research and argues the case of greater
attention on the cases of poverty rather than the symptoms.

3.4 Revise the correct prepositions in academic English:

the case for; beyond the scope of; to a degree, views on; to raise awareness of;
to focus on; perspectives on;

3.5 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending.

1. The study revealed a regular a) scope of your research.

2. The research focuses on one particular b) awareness of the problem.
3. The writer makes a powerful c) issues facing the world today.
4. The writers take an original d) into the environmental effects of nanoparticles.
5. Until recently there was little e) approach to their theme.
6. I think you should broaden the f) aspect of modern society.
7. To date, there has been little research g) pattern of changes in temperature.
8
 8. There are many important h) case for restructuring parliament.

3.6 There are five phrases containing errors in this paragraph. Can you correct them?

The study showed that local police can play an important role in crime prevention. It makes a strong case of
boosting the numbers of community police officers although it warns against increasing police presence on
the streets at an alarming degree. Its methodology was based on a range of interviews asking members of the
public for their views in how best to prevent crime. Unfortunately, how to implement this recommendation
was out of the scope of the study but at least it serves a useful purpose in raising awareness to the issue.

3.7 Read this extract from a book review and find in it nine prepositional phrases which match the
synonyms given in the right column. The first one if done for you as an example.

Prepositional phrase meaning

in conjunction with working together with
if we compare it with
additionally
more or less
following
despite
particularly
not including
generally

The Guide to the Semi-Colon in English was written by Keith Pedant in conjunction with a team of
researchers at Boardham University. In comparison with previous works on the semi-colon, this is a very
substantial volume. In addition to the main text there are a number of appendices. These are to some extent
the most useful parts of the book as, in line with modern linguistic practice, they provide a wealth of real
data. In spite of its potentially dry topic, the book contains many fascinating examples, in the sections
dealing with the history of the semi-colon in particular. With the exception of the final chapter, this book
may be of some interest to the general reader as well as the specialist but on the whole is mainly for those
who have a professional interest in punctuation marks.

Comment on the expression ‘dry topic’.

3.8 Write down 14 prepositional phrases from the “Talk to a genealogy club”.

Chairperson: Now, at this stage in the proceedings it’s my pleasure to introduce our speaker tonight, Dr
Anna Klein, the country’s leading family history specialist. Anna, I’d like to welcome you on behalf of all
our members.
Anna Klein: Thank you. My own interest in the subject came as a result of discovering some old letters in
the attic at home. I found them by chance. They had been written by some relatives who’d emigrated to
Canada a hundred years or so before and for me, as a ten-year-old then, they were by far the most exciting
things I had ever read. They were, for the most part, extremely well-written and, from then on, I was
determined to learn as much as I could about my family. In other words, I had started out on my
genealogical journey. In some ways, I was very lucky. I was able to collect quite a bit of key family
information on the basis of the old letters and this enabled me to track down some relations living in
Montreal. They, in turn, provided some contacts with Australian cousins and so it continued. In the process,
I’ve learnt a great deal, not only about my own family, but also in terms of how to approach tracing one’s
family. In most respects it’s been a thoroughly enjoyable adventure though there have been some difficult
moments…

9
 3.9 Complete the prepositional phrases as used in these press announcements.

1. Professor Soltero said that ____ line _____ government guidelines, the researchers had consulted
local people.
2. A spokesperson for the drug company said that, _______ stage, it is too early to make strong claim
about the drug.
3. Dr Leiman said that while _____ the _____ hand the government wanted to encourage research, ___
the _______ hand they were reducing funding for universities.
4. ____ addition ____ a new building on the campus, the team will receive a very generous grant to
conduct their research.
5. _____ the exception ____ one study in 1986, no major research had been carried out till now, Dr
Peters said.
6. Professor Karpal said that, ____ the basis ___ her studies so far, she was optimistic that a cure for the
disease would be found.
7. Lauren Charles said that, ______ whole, social conditions had improved since the report, especially
___ terms _____ jobs and housing for the poor sectors.
8. The Professor said that he was delighted to accept the award ___ behalf ___ the whole university.

3.10 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending.

1. The conclusions are fair in a) some ways it was sheer luck.

2. Dr Carr’s team got the grant, in b) conjunction with an American project.
3. We had little money to spare; in c) comparison with other articles in the series.
4. We need people’s personal data, in d) spite of being the smallest team to apply.
5. We made an important discovery; in e) most respects, though some are questionable.
6. This latest paper is quite short in f) other words, we were underfunded.
7. The Indian study was carried out in g) particular their parents’ history of illness.

Home task.
In each sentence of this paragraph about the discovery of dinosaurs, there is one error in the prepositional
phrase. Correct each error.
A bone discovered on chance in the 17th century was the beginning of the search for dinosaurs. From then in,
scientists and the public have been fascinated by these creatures. In accordance to beliefs at that time, the
initial discovery was thought to be the bone of a human giant. However, in 1824, a scientist, William
Buckland, calculated that the bone belonged to a 12-metre, flesh-eating reptile and named it Megalosaurus,
on the process giving us the first of the wonderful list of exotic names for dinosaurs. The 17th century
discovery had, on turn, led to a series of further finds around that time. All these at a greater or lesser extent
confirmed Buckland’s theories. For far the biggest dinosaur discovered to date was probably over 40 metres
long. To the most part, dinosaurs ranged from the size of a chicken to that of a giraffe. At most respects,
what we know about their habits is still very limited. What we do know is at least on some extent based on
pure speculation.

Unit 4
Key verbs in academic English

4.1 Look at these tasks which students have been given. Note the key verbs.

10
 1. Discuss some of the problems involved in investigating attitude to diet and health. Write a critical
review of an investigation you have read about, or describe an investigation you yourself could
conduct. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of different methods.
2. Starting from rest, an aircraft accelerates to its take-off speed of 60 m s in a distance of 900 metres.
Illustrate this with a velocity-time graph. Assuming constant acceleration, find how long the take-
off run lasts. Hence calculate the acceleration.
3. The fact that nations agree to follow international law demonstrates that we can identify ideals that
are trans-cultural. How far is this statement true? Critically analyse any recent event which supports
or challenges the statement.
4. Examine how industrial growth has affected any two developing countries. Provide statistical
evidence where necessary and include a discussion on likely future trends.

4.2 Match each verb from the left column with its synonym from the right column.

1 affect a compute
2 attempt b distinguish
3 calculate c give
4 challenge d influence
5 demonstrate e involve
6 identify f question
7 include g show
8 investigate h study
9 provide i try

4.3 These extracts from academic books contain other key verbs.

1. In developing methods to explain the significance of health status measures, one can classify ways
of establishing quality of life into too main types.
2. The length of time spent on the task may account for the decrease in motivation which was seen in
many of the participants.
3. The data presented in Chapter 3 showed that the age of the subjects was not the main factor.
4. Political theory attempts to build bridges between different schools of political thought.

4.4 Noun forms of key verbs are also often used in academic style.

verb noun form example

explain give/provide/offer an The model provides an explanation for the differences
explanation of/for between the two sets of data.
explore carry out an exploration of Kumar carried out an exploration of music genius.
emphasise place/put emphasis on The hospital puts a lot of emphasis on training nurses.
describe give/provide a description of The book gives a description of modern Europe.

4.5 Choose the best verb from Ex.3 or Ex.4 to complete these sentences. Put the verb into the correct
form.
1. As can _______________ from Table 2, participation figures have been steadily falling since 1970.
2. Different authors have ____________ for the President’s actions in different ways.
3. Mendel attempted to devise a system for ________ the many different types of pea plant that he
grew.
4. It is often more effective _____________ your data in a chart or table.
5. The data we have collected ___________ that there has been a downward trent with regard to job
satisfaction over the last 50 years.
6. The aim of the research is _____________ a new software application which will help aviation
engineers design more sophisticated aircraft.
11
 7. The archaeologists should be able to use carbon dating techniques ______________ exactly how old
the bones are.
8. Charles Darwin attempted _______________ the existence of different species in terms of evolution.

4.6 Paraphrase each sentence using the word in brackets and make any necessary changes to other
words.

1. Erikson’s theory explains the fluctuations in the figures for the period. (provides)
2. Bevan explored the relationship between family background and political ambition. (exploration)
3. The book describes the life and times of Abraham Lincoln. (description)
4. Cheng’s theory emphasizes the importance of extensive reading in language acquisition. (puts)

Home task.
Complete each phrase with the appropriate noun. Use a dictionary if necessary.
1. investigate = conduct/carry out an ______________ into/of
2. illustrate = provide an _________________ of
3. analyse = provide/carry out an ____________ of
4. affect = have an ____________ on
5. attempt = make an ____________ to/at
6. classify = make/provide a ______________________ of

Unit 5

Key verbs in academic English (2)

5.1 How verbs combine with other words? Study the table below.

verb nouns adverbs examples

The story was loosely based on a true event
base (on) research, theory, mainly, partly, which occurred in 1892.
story, hypothesis loosely The theory is mainly based on the writer’s initial
study.
A decrease in consumer spending is generally
associate (with) word, idea, generally, associated with fears of instability.
theory, term commonly, The word is commonly associated with youth
invariably culture.
idea, problem, at length, Wilson and Crick (2005) discuss the problem at
discuss issue, question, briefly, length.
topic, theme thoroughly Sim’s article discusses the issue thoroughly.
Geologists have been unable to firmly establish
establish relationship, firmly, clearly, a connection between the two types of fossils.
connection conclusively Lopez conclusively establishes a relationship
between the two phenomena.
We shall now briefly examine the evidence for
examine facts, evidence, briefly, the existence of dark matter.
effects, aspects critically, Our aim is to thoroughly examine the effects of
thoroughly stress.
existence, need, The study clearly demonstrates the importance
demonstrate effects, clearly, of support for dementia sufferers.
importance convincingly Harvey’s work convincingly demonstrates the

12
 need for a new approach to the problem.
identify (with) causes, factors, This approach is closely identified with the
often used in issues, properties, correctly, work of H. Crowley during the 1950s.
passive needs, approach, clearly, closely The article clearly identifies the factors
origin influencing the decision to go to war.
hypotheses, Here I simply list the main hypotheses, they will
list causes, features, simply be examined in detail below.
characteristics
observe changes, trends, earlier This is due to the changes we observed earlier.
differences
question, inevitably This inevitably poses a question concerning the
pose challenge stability of society.
Spark poses a challenge to Kahn’s theory.
frequently, The book refers in passing to the 2008 economic
refer specifically, crisis.
in passing
interpretation, strongly The most recent results strongly suggest a
suggest approach different interpretation of a situation.
The article suggests a new approach to the
problem.

5.2 Choose the most appropriate adverb for the verb in bold and add it to the sentence. Be aware of the
word order rules.
1. Paulson’s research demonstrated the need for a new approach to the study of stress.
invariably convincingly closely
2. As was observed, there is a strong correlation between house prices and inflation.
closely critically earlier
3. In the study of language, ‘tense’ refers to the coding of time in the form of the verb.
specifically strongly briefly
4. Classical liberal economics is identified with the theories of Milton Friedman.
thoroughly closely conclusively
5. Chapter 1 discusses the main issues, but they are dealt with in greater detail in Chapter 2.
closely simply briefly
6. To date, no research exists that establishes a connection between behavior, personality traits, and
leadership traits.
firmly thoroughly critically
7. SENTA is a computer programming language based on Logo.
strongly slightly loosely
8. Social research techniques were applied to examine the effects of the policy on the poor.
strongly mainly critically

5.3 Complete each sentence with a suitable noun. There may be more than one answer.

1. Here we list again the main ____________ of the present study and show which have been proven
and which have been rejected.
2. The graph enables us to observe recent broad ____________ in mortality rates.
3. The researchers concluded that it is still difficult to identify the ___________ of the time-related
changes in human beings that we call ageing.
4. A seminar was held to discuss the ____________ of children’s rights in the light of the Convention
on the Rights of the Child.
5. Wu demonstrated the ____________ for a comprehensive plan in preparation for a pandemic.

13
 5.4 Complete each sentence with three possible nouns. Use a dictionary if necessary.
1. These figures lead me to suggest an alternative (1) __________ (2) ___________ (3) ___________.
2. It is clear that these developments pose a new (1) __________ (2) ___________ (3) ___________.
3. Before we reach any conclusion, it is important to examine the (1) __________ (2) ___________ (3)
___________.

5.5 Underline useful verb + adverb combinations in this text.

The world is facing a looming water crisis. Disputes over allocation have steadily increased in the last
decade, and demand has grown rapidly. Water is likely to generate the same degree of controversy in the 21st
century as oil did in the 20th. If we take no action now, new conflicts are likely to occur periodically around
the world. At the moment, instead of seeking solutions which directly address multiple needs, countries
focus a little too narrowly on local issues and typically opt for expensive and inferior solutions. What is
needed are decisions which can be quickly implemented and a debate which will seriously consider more
than the short term needs of individual states.

Use one the underlined combinations to complete each sentence.

1. Various measures were introduced last year to ____________________ the issue of identity theft.
2. The justice system needs to ________________________ the impact of a prison sentence on
offenders.
3. The number of university applications has been _______________________ over the last 50 years.
4. The article ______________________ on one angle of the problem rather than taking a broad view.
5. The suggested measures should be _____________________ to avoid further problems.

5.6 Verbs and prepositions. Study the table below.

verbs examples
often used in passive
on focus, draw, Chapter 1 focuses on violent human behavior.
comment, base, The introduction to the book comments briefly on a case study
concentrate, rely carried out in Brazil.
The article is drawn on data gathered over a period of ten
years.
to assign, turn, We assigned the tasks randomly to the experimental group.
attribute, amount, Malaria poses a major health risk to people who are exposed to
attend, infection.
be exposed, Let’s turn to more difficult cases.
with associate, provide, We try to equip our laboratories with the latest technology.
couple, equip Heart disease is often associated with unhealthy life styles.
from depart, benefit, In this book, Herne departs from his earlier theory. (takes a
emerge, exclude different view)
Some of the data was/were excluded from the final analysis.
of write, speak, Abuka writes/speaks of the early years of industrial
convince, dispose development.
We must convince people of the need for water conservation.
for account, search, call, Lung cancer accounted for 20% of deaths in men.
argue Hopper (1987) argues for a new approach to English grammar.
(opposite: argue against)
into divide The subjects were divided into three groups.
No emphasise, stress The study emphasizes/stresses the need for more controlled
preposition experiments to back up the conclusions.

14
 5.7 Put these verbs in the right box

account argue assign associate attribute benefit call consent convince

depart dispose equip exclude provide react refer search write

___for ___ from ___ of ___ to ___ with

5.8 Now choose one of the verb+preposition combinations from 5.7 to complete each sentence. Change
the form of the verb if necessary.

1. The lecturer _____________ us ___ a number of very good writers on the subject.
2. Traffic accidents ___________ ___ most hospital admissions at the weekend.
3. The poets John Keats and Lord Byron are closely _________ ___ the English Romantic Movement.
4. Remember to ______________ carefully ___ all waste material.
5. Most people believe that they would ____________ enormously ___ having more job security.
6. My parents tried to ____________ me ___ the advantages of studying abroad.
7. I have been _____________ ___ an article on this topic for ages.
8. Our experiments ________________ us ___ the data we needed to prove our hypothesis.
9. The head of department ___________ ___ the lecturer’s request for leave of absence.
10. Mary Raskova ____________ very movingly ___ her experiences in Rwanda.

5.9 Put the words in the right order to make sentences. Use the punctuation to help you.

1. period. / focuses / the changes / The article / on / the / the post war/ economy / US / in / in
2. commented / student’s / inconsistencies / a / The professor / of / in the / essay./ on / number
3. conducted / The / is / last / based / a series / theory / of / five / on / years. / over the / experiments
4. on / assistants. / The / research / relies / work / conducted by / professor’s / experiments / his
5. is / are / very / your / your / studies / important / concentrate / to / over. / on / until / It / exams
6. was / The / draw / some / to / primary / on / only recently / become / have / available. / writer /
sources / which / able

HOME TASK
Correct the sentences. All of them have errors connected with prepositions.

1. The course leader divided her students in five groups.

2. They had to trace everyone who had been exposed for the infection.
3. At the moment we have too few nurses attending at too many patients.
4. Excellent teaching coupled for first-class research have made this a successful college.
5. The country emerged off the crisis as a much stronger power.
6. Joe got an interest in politics from his uncle who often spoke over his days as a senator.
7. The government called to an investigation into the explosion at the nuclear reactor.
8. In your speech don’t forget to emphasise on the advantages of studying here.

Unit 6
15
 Phrasal verbs in Academic English

Although phrasal verbs occur most frequently in more informal spoken and written English, they are also
not uncommon in an academic context. You will hear them used in lectures and will read them in serious
journals.
Phrasal verbs often have one-word synonyms. These are usually of Latin origin and sound more formal than
their phrasal verb equivalent but both are appropriate when writing or talking about academic subjects. Vary
your language by using both.
As far as this unit is concerned, only go/look back and work out are not appropriate for a formal written
assignment.
Consult a good dictionary when you use phrasal verbs in your writing. A good dictionary tells you when the
object can be used before the particle (e.g. ‘write your results up’) and when it cannot (e.g. ‘this goes against
current theories’).

6.1 Phrasal verbs and one-word synonyms. Study the table below.

phrasal verb synonym example

put forward present In her latest article Kaufmann puts forward a theory which is likely
an idea/view/plan to prove controversial.
opinion/theory
carry out conduct I intend to carry out a series of experiments.
research/
an experiment
make up constitute Children under the age of 16 make up really half of the country’s
population.
be made up of consist of Parliament is made up of two houses.
point out observe Greene points out that the increase in life expectancy has led to
some economic problems.
point up highlight The study points up the weaknesses in the current school system.
set out (to do sth) aim In his article Losanov sets out to prove that…
set out describe The document sets out the terms of the treaty.
set up prepare She set up a series of experiments.
go against disagree What she has observed seems to go against current theories of bee
behavior.
go into discuss In his book Sergeant goes into the causes of the Civil War in some
depth.
go/look back over revise Please go/look back over this term’s notes.
go on (to do sth) do sth after After doing her first degree she went on to apply to graduate school.
doing sth
else
go through check Go through your calculations carefully.
work out understand She hasn’t yet worked out why her animals behave as they do.
write up write in a When she has completed all her research she will have to write it all
final form up.

6.2 Paraphrase the sentences replacing the underlined word in each sentence with a phrasal verb from
the table. Note that both versions of each sentence are equally appropriate.

1. We conducted a series of experiments to test out our hypothesis.

2. Before the test you should revise Chapters 7 and 8 of your textbooks.
3. In this article on the American Civil War Kingston discusses the reasons why the situation developed
in the way it did.
4. Cole presents some fascinating theories on the development of language in his latest book.
16
 5. The psychologist observed that it was very unusual for a young child to behave in this way.
6. Please check you work again carefully before handing it in.
7. In this article Simpson aims to prove that the Chinese reached America long before the Vikings.
8. Women now constitute over half the student population in most universities in this country.

6.3 Fill in the missing words in this paragraph.

As part of my MA I’ve been doing some research on language acquisition. I’ve been working (1) ___ how
young children learn their mother tongue. I’ve been carrying (2) ___ some experiments to see how much
reading to young children affects their language development. I’ve had a great supervisor who has helped
me set (3) ___ my experiments and she also pointed (4) ___ lots of interesting things in my data that I hadn’t
noticed myself. I’m busy writing my work (5) ___ now and I think I should be able to put (6) ___ some
useful ideas. It’s been really fascinating and I hope I may be able to go (7) ___ to a doctorate in the same
field although I certainly never set (8) ___ to do a PhD.

6.4 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending.

1 Feudal society was made
2 Carlson was the first to put
3 Her results appear to go
4 The investigation pointed
5 It took him a long time to work
6 The geography book sets
a forward a convincing theory with regard to this question.
b up the flaws in the school’s testing methods.
c out the solution to the algebra problems.
d out a lot of basic information about all the worlds countries.
e against what she had found in her earlier studies.
f up of clearly defined classes of people.

HOME TASK
Answer these questions.
1. What sort of things might a scientist carry out?
2. If you want to study something in more depth, what might you go on to do after getting a first
degree?
3. What do undergraduate students typically have to write up at the end of their studies?
4. What sort of things do good students regularly look back over?
5. What sort of things do scholars typically put forward in their lectures or articles?
6. Why is it sensible to go through any math calculations that you had to make as part of a research
study before you draw any conclusions?

17
 Unit 7
Key adjectives in academic English

7.1 Adjectives and prepositions.

Here are some extracts from academic texts, with adjectives followed by to or of.

1. Language development is conceived as relative to one’s own past performance, or relative to that of
others.
2. How can we make science relevant to environment policy? Poor communication between scientists
and politicians is characteristic of the situation today.
3. Some of the responses to the questionnaire were specific to young male respondents. Others were
common to all the respondents.
4. We need to plan technologies which are appropriate to the needs of small farmers. It was typical of
the farmers in the study that they had a negative attitude to technology.

7.2 Correct the preposition error in the sentences.

1. A lengthy discussion of the advantages of solar power is not relevant with an essay that required you
to focus on wind turbines.
2. It is typical for the disease to start with an itchy rash.
3. This methodology is not appropriate for the kind of research you are planning.
4. The use of original metaphors is characteristic to the writer’s style.
5. Relative with previous attempts to explain the phenomenon, this interpretation is quite persuasive.
6. The dark hair and eyes are common for all people from the region.

7.3 Adjectives and their opposites

Look at this abstract from a dissertation on drug abuse. In most cases you can work out the meaning of
the opposites of the adjectives in bold.
We cannot discuss drug abuse as an abstract problem concerning concrete examples of abuse and their
social consequences. Abuse is rarely a simple issue. It usually results from a complex set of
circumstances. Both qualitative and quantitative research is necessary to gain a full picture of a
situation. By combining research methods, we may obtain the accurate assessments which often result
from purely quantitative studies. A significant amount of fear and prejudice surrounds the notion of
abuse, and the media have a role which is also not insignificant in promoting such fears. The
dissertation concludes that rough estimates of the number of drug addicts need to be made more precise
by properly defining addiction.

7.4 Paraphrase each sentence using the opposite of the adjective in bold.
1. Karlsson checked the figures and agreed with me that they were accurate.
2. The solution to the problem is a simple one.
3. Make rough calculations before you begin to write up your results.
4. The army played a significant role in events.
5. Hernandez prefers to discuss ideas in abstract terms.

7.5 Adjective + noun combinations

Underline the adjective + noun combinations in these sentences.

1. The principal cause of the failure was a sudden temperature change.
2. We noted a potential problem with the experimental design which we had to deal with first.
3. The research used a rigorous methodology which had been tested on many occasions.
4. There was an apparent discrepancy between the two sets of results.

Use the underlined word combinations from the previous task to complete the sentences below.

18
 1. There is an __________ ____________ in your figures.
2. Management refusal to listen to the worker’s demands was the ____________ __________ of the
riots.
3. Lamaque devised a _____________ ____________ which has since been used successfully by many
other researchers in the field.
4. We spotted a __________ __________ with our procedure and so we changed it in two areas.

7.6 Choose the best adjective from the box to complete these sentences.
qualitative complex potential rigorous specific
1. The plant is difficult to grow and needs very _______________ conditions to survive.
2. His tutor was critical of his work for not being ____________ enough.
3. In the past the northern tribes looked on the tribes of the south as ____________ enemies.
4. We choose a ______________ approach to our research and interviewed individuals personally.
5. A __________ set of circumstances led to a civil war in 1897.

7.7 Adjectives suggesting importance

adjective comment some of nouns it frequently goes

with
important significant can convey the same meaning aspect, contribution, difference,
and both adjectives often go with these implication, point, question, reason,
nouns element
significant can also mean large in size and as such increase, reduction, number,
goes with these nouns proportion
major the opposite, minor, also often goes with role, change, problem, factor, issue,
these nouns concern, difference, theme,
contribution, point
enormous/ enormous can mean very large or very amount, expansion, number, range,
considerable important; considerable means large or of diversity, difference, variation,
noticeable importance (i.e. slightly less extent, degree, impact, power,
strong than enormous influence, significance, interest
particular means special interest, attention, significance,
importance, concern

7.8 Look at these statements about some academics. Complete each sentence with an appropriate
adjective or noun. There may be more than one answer.
1. Davidson made a considerable _______________ of research into earthquake prediction.
2. Rawlinson drew _______________ attention to the problem of energy consumption.
3. Werner’s work had an enormous ____________ on the way we design bridges today.
4. A __________ proportion of Thomaz’s work is devoted to international law. Three of her five
books were on the subject.
5. Prestyn made only a _____________ contribution to modern psychology, but it was an
interesting one, nonetheless.
6. Baklov’s work has some extremely ______________ implications for our work today.

7.9 Other useful adjectives

adjective comment some of nouns it frequently goes

with
widespread means that something happens in many belief, acceptance, support,
places or among many people opposition, assumption, use
common means frequent experience, practice, use, concern
means ‘shared’ knowledge, ground, feature, interest
19
specific means relating to one thing and not to
things in general
inevitable means unavoidable and is often used with
words relating to results or changes
explicit means clear and exact, communicated
directly; combines with words relating to
how things are presented
relevant means that sth is connected with what is
being discussed; combines with words
relating to evidence of different types
context, importance, case, type,
form, purpose, characteristics,
conditions, example
consequence, outcome, collapse,
decline, conflict, effect,
developments
reference, statement, comparison,
account, mention
data, documents, information,
details, factors

7.10 Paraphrase these sentences using adjectives from the table instead of the words in bold.
1. There is opposition among students in many places to the idea of longer semesters.
2. The destruction of the riverbank will cause a decline which is bound to happen in the numbers
of small mammals.
3. School standards are a concern which occurs frequently among parents nowadays.
4. Nowhere in the article does the author make mention in a direct, clear and exact way of the 20
cases which were never resolved.
5. There is very little ground which is shared between the two ways of addressing the problem.
6. The paper is too general and lacks examples which relate only to individual things.

HOME TASK
Make sure you know the noun forms of these adjectives. Write them down.
significant –
relevant –
interesting –
frequent –
important –
valuable –
useful –
broad -

The sentences below came from lectures. Adapt them for use in an academic article by replacing the
phrases in bold. In each case use an adjective from the box combined with a noun from the previous
task to make a phrase like ‘of great interest’.
huge high enormous great considerable
1. Johnson’s work is very relevant for any student of medical engineering.
2. The research will be very valuable to anyone interested in economic planning.
3. It was an event which was terribly important in the history of Latin American politics.
4. Partich’s book is an extremely broad work.
5. Sorlan’s book was a very significant work in the development of political theory.
6. This software will be quite useful in the analysis of large amounts of numerical data.
7. The method she outlines is very interesting to anyone investigating sleeplessness.
8. ‘You know’ is an expression which is very frequent in informal spoken English.

Unit 8
Key adverbs in academic English

8.1 Adverbs that compare

20
 adverb meaning example
comparatively in comparison with sth else Our sample was relatively/comparatively small.
relatively
especially more than usual The process was not particularly/especially
particularly difficult
specially more than usual (spoke English only); The exam was specially hard this year.
for a specific purpose We used specially designed equipment.
somewhat (slightly formal) a little, slightly When we tested young boys, we obtained
opposite: somewhat/considerably different results.
considerably
primarily mainly Amir is primarily interested in bio-physics.
mostly/largely almost completely (but not totally so) The research was largely/mostly successful.
directly without anything else being involved The illness is (in)directly linked to poor housing.
opposite:
indirectly

8.2 Adverbs that relate to numbers or time

adverb meaning example

approximately roughly, about There are approximately 20 varieties of bird in
this species.
precisely exactly There are precisely 48 different managerial posts
in the company.
frequently often Interviewees frequently misunderstood one of the
questions.
eventually in the end; after some time We eventually obtained the results we were hoping
for.
ultimately finally, after other things have been Ultimately we plan to repeat the experiment.
completed

8.3 Explain the difference between the sentences in each pair.

1. Heinrich’s experiments were mostly successful.

Heinrich’s experiments were most successful.
2. The results were somewhat surprising given the circumstances.
The results were especially surprising given the circumstances.
3. First-year students are directly affected by the new rules relating to tuition fees.
First-year students are particularly affected by the new rules relating to tuition fees.
4. The study is primarily concerned with urban alienation.
The study is ultimately concerned with urban alienation.
5. The team eventually obtained unpredicted results.
The team frequently obtained unpredicted results.

8.4 Adverbs that relate to how things are stated

Read the extract below and explain the meaning of the adverbs in bold.
Hall’s latest article essentially differs from his earlier work in that it is explicitly critical of the government.
Generally, his disapproval of their policies was only conveyed implicitly in his previous writing, but here
he specifically condemns their handling of a number of issues.

8.5 Adverbs that restrict or limit

adverb meaning example

21
merely exactly and nothing more The medication will merely make the symptoms
bearable; it will not cure the disease.
plainly To put it simply, the risks of this approach would
simply seem to outweigh its advantages.
easily The book presents difficult ideas simply, in a way
appropriate for the layman.
absolutely, without doubt The exam results were simply dreadful.
hardly ever almost never The tribe has hardly ever had contact with the
outside world.

8.6 Choose the more appropriate adverb from the options.

What you are saying is essentially / merely true. To put it basically/simply, there is specially / basically no
significant difference between the two writers’ theories. However, one of them writes in a simply / precisely
dreadful style while the other has eventually / possibly a more impressive style than any other contemporary
scientist.

8.7 Change the sentences using adverbs which mean the opposite of the underlined ones.
1. There were roughly 350 people living in the village in 1958.
2. Parents seldom complained that the school authorities failed to inform them of changes.
3. We investigated the problem and initially found some small errors in the calculations.
4. The temperature was exactly half a degree lower than the average.
5. Singh (1998) is explicitly critical of existing theories of economic growth.
6. Soil erosion is specifically caused by water or wind.
7. Senior citizens almost always use the internet to communicate with one another.
8. The disease is directly linked to environmental factors.

8.8 Formal academic equivalents.

Very informal vocabulary may be used in spoken academic styles in classes and lectures. Learn to
understand such language when you hear it but be careful not to use it in essays and other written
assignments.
Arrange the following words and expressions into pairs of synonyms with one item in the pair belonging to
neutral style and the other to formal style. The first pair is given as a model.

almost/more or less; attempt; cannot in any way; characteristic of; in short/briefly/basically; in

sum/to sum up; mainly/mostly; no way; only; prime; primarily; really good; sole(ly); try;
typical of; virtually;

neutral more formal

almost/more or less virtually

8.9 Use more formal alternatives to the words in bold. Make any necessary grammatical changes.

1. The book is mainly concerned with the problem of policing the internet.
2. Almost every school in the country had reported problems with the new system.
3. The work of the Institute is not only devoted to cancer research.
22
 4. Basically, we believe we have demonstrated a significant link between the two events.
5. We tried to find a new way of understanding the data.
6. The study is a really good example of the way sociologists collect their data.
7. The reaction is typical of the way large corporations keep control of their markets.
8. There’s no way London can be compared to Sydney as a place to live and work.

HOME TASK

Read the following letter about the visit of a government minister to a college and use the information given
to complete the gaps in the formal report. Use no more than two words for each gap.

Dear James
Sorry you missed the big day – but hope you had a goof holiday! Anyway, it all went pretty smoothly, so
the report won’t take long to draft.
He rolled up dead on time, and the Dean said his bit about how pleased we all were to see him and then
took him along to his office for a bit of private talk. After about half an hour they came out and a student
took him to see some of the bits where students live. Then we all sat down to lunch, all done by the students,
which he said really nice things about, better than the Ministry canteen, according to him! After lunch he
spent a few minutes in a couple of classes, talked to a few students, asking what they were doing and so on.
Then he popped into the library, saw the state of the roof, said he could see why we needed more money, and
that was it.
I wasn’t there when he left, but I gather he sounded as if he really means to try and get us some extra cash.
The Dean says he’s quite hopeful, anyway.

See you soon. All the best.

Margaret

Formal Report

VISIT TO WESTLAND COLLEGE BY MINISTER OF EDUCATION

The minister arrived (1) ______________ and was (2) ____________ by the Dean, Dr Jaffari. After some
private (3) ______________ with the Dean, the Minister was (4) ___________________ some typical (5)
___ ______________ by a student. Lunch (6) _________________ by students on the catering course. The
minister (7) ______________ the food, which he (8) _______________ favourably to that served at the
Ministry. Following lunch, the Minister (9) ______________ classes, where he met the students, and then
the library, where (10) _____________ was drawn to the poor (11) _________________ of the roof. He
agreed that there is clearly (12) ________________ for extra funding. The Dean feels that he has (13) ___
_________________ to be optimistic about this.

Unit 9
Numbers and key quantifying expressions

9.1 Make sure you know the meaning of the following words. Answer these questions.

1. What’s the difference between a number and a figure?

2. What’s the difference between odd and even numbers?
3. What’s the difference between exact and approximate numbers?
4. What’s the difference between an aggregate and an average number?
5. What’s the difference between a constant and a varied number?

23
 6. What is a random number?

9.2 Fill in the gaps with words from 9.1.

1. Look at the figures and work out in your head what the ____________ answer is likely to be. Then
use a calculator to find the ____________ number.
2. A ____________ number is one chosen by chance, in other words, it is not predictable.
3. The _______________ mark achieved in the exam is calculated by taking the ___________ of all the
marks and dividing by the number of exam entries.
4. A _____________ number or quantity is one that does not change.
5. One, three, five, seven are _____________ numbers.
6. Write the total number in words and ______________ .

9.3 Read these calculations.

7 + 3 = 10
28 – 6 = 22
8 x 2 = 16
27 : 9 = 3

9.4 Verbs describing how we work with numbers. Match the English verb with its Russian equivalent.
There may be more than one English verb fitting the Russian one.

1 считать, вычислять a add up

2 сложить, найти сумму b calculate
3 вычесть, найти разницу c deduct
4 умножить d divide
5 разделить e estimate
6 округлить f multiply
7 соответствовать, совпадать g round up/down
8 прикидывать, делать приблизительную оценку h subtract
i take away
j tally
k total
l work out

9.5 Translate these sentences into English.

1. Раздели 100 на 4.
2. Умножь 3 на 7.
3. Сложи 2 и 2.
4. Вычти праздничные дни из общего количества рабочих дней в году.
5. Округли результат до целого числа (whole number).
6. Результаты, полученные двумя автономно работавшими группами, не совпадают.

9.6 Paraphrase these spoken sentences so that they are more appropriate for writing, using the words in
italics in an appropriate form.

1. We made a rough guess at what the final figure might be. estimate
2. A computer program helped us work out the significance of the different variables. calculate
3. Taking x away from y will help you arrive at the correct answer. subtract

24
 4. The results from the first experiment were not the same as those we got from the repeat experiment.
tally
5. A weekly total is fine, and you can adjust it to the nearest 100. round up or down

9.7 Number and amount (countable and uncountable).

Choose a proper expression from A to make a sentence with the word from B.

A. a great deal of (informal); a large/great amount of; a large number of;

B. articles, money, words, interest, influence

Both ‘number’ and ‘amount’ can be described as small, considerable, substantial, significant, enormous,
total, surprising, fair, reasonable. Paraphrase the sentences from the previous task using these adjectives.

9.8 Look at these comments written by a college teacher on assignments handed in by her students. Note the
expressions in bold.

1. A good paper: a great deal of time researching the subject and you quote quite a wide range of
sources. Grade: B.
2. Some good points here but it’s not clear to what extent you’re aware of all the issues involved.
Global trade affects nations in a variety of ways. Grade: C.
3. I think you’ve misunderstood the topic to some extent. You’ve written in excess of 3,000 words on
areas that are not entirely relevant. Let’s talk. Grade: F.

9.9 Choose one of the expressions from the previous comments to fill in the missing words in this feedback.

You have had a very good term (1) _____________________. You have done (2) __________________
work and have also taken part in (3) _____________________ social activities. Your sporting activities may
have interfered with your studies (4) ____________________ but you still managed to write (5) _________
___________ 5,000 words for your end-of-term assignment, which, I am pleased to report, was of a high
standard.

9.10 Complete the sentences using the correct forms of the words in italics.

1. In a ______________ number of cases, there was no reaction at all to the drug. surprise
2. The analysis demanded an _________________ amount of computer time. exceed
3. ____________ numbers of birds inhabit the lake during the winter. considerable
4. The course requires a _____________ amount of prior knowledge of computers. reason
5. The survey took a __________ amount of research time and costs were high. substance
6. The two dams can hold in ______________ of two cubic kilometres of water. exceed
7. In _____________, 12 areas of the Southern Indian Ocean are now closed to deep-sea fishing.
totality
8. Groups ____________ four people were considered too large for the experiment. exceed
9. No ____________ than 2,000 new computer viruses are created every year. few
10. In a ____________ number of cases, surface damage was noticed. Signify

HOME TASK
Rewrite the paragraph using the opposites of the underlined words or expressions.

There have been a small number of studies investigating the impact of email on interpersonal
communications. None of the studies has been large-scale but they suggest some interesting trends in
patterns of email use. From one of the older studies it seems that more and more people send in excess of 50

25
mails daily. Moreover, it appears that a substantial number of senior citizens use email a lot more frequently
than younger people do.

Unit 10
Hedging: Degrees of certainty
In academic communication, we frequently avoid making statements that are too direct or too confident. We
can avoid directness by using hedges, i.e. language indicating that something may be true, is partially true, is
true in some cases, etc.

It is a common mistake for students to present something as a proven fact when it is actually an opinion. In a
serous piece of academic writing you should not, for example, write Girls are better at learning languages
than boys. You could write instead
There is some evidence to suggest that girls may be better at learning languages than boys.
It can be argued that girls are better at learning languages than boys.
It may not be the case that girls are naturally better at foreign languages.
It would seem/appear that girls are more interested in languages than boys.
We can presume that all humans have the ability to learn a second language.
We can draw the tentative (=possible, not yet certain) conclusion that early language skills determine how
successful a child will be at school.

It is true or almost certainly true

It is undoubtedly true that language ability is not simply a matter of intelligence.
It is, of course, essential to check data carefully.
It is evident that girls and boys develop at slightly different rates.
The best age for language learning is, apparently, the teenage years.
Pronunciation of unfamiliar sounds presumably comes more easily to young children.
The research is likely to lead to some interesting results.
Boys tend to have better practical skills than girls.
There is a tendency for boys to be more enthusiastic about team sports than girls.
There is every likelihood that the research will be completed by June.
The situation is liable to change.

The writer is unsure

The research has allegedly come to some very significant conclusions.
Boys are considered to be more inclined to take risks than girls.
The perception of boys as poor language learners can be shown to be false.
The article is reportedly an excellent piece of work.
In the absence of evidence to the contrary we can assume that Laing is correct.

10.1 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending.

1 We may a assume that the exchange rate will continue to fluctuate

2 It would seem b not to be the case that all the questions were answered honestly
3 Of course it c to appear from all the findings that the test is reliable.
4 We can certainly d well discover that the problem was caused by overheating.
5 It may well turn out e argued that conflict was inevitable after the events of recent years.
6 It could be f Is true that not all factories cause huge amounts of pollution.

10.2 Insert adverbs based on the words in italics into suitable places in the sentences.

1. Russo was a member of a terrorist organization, but it was never proved. allege
2. At that time, the population of tigers was widespread in the region. report
3. The collapse of the roof caused a sprinkler system pipe to burst. appear
26
 4. To get a better job is a main motivation for going on to higher education. presume
5. We may conclude that water shortages are likely to increase rather than decrease. tentative
6. The students were guessing some of the answers instead of using their knowledge of the context.
evidence

10.3 Complete the missing forms in the table. Use a dictionary if necessary. Do not fill the boxes marked (*),

noun verb adjective adverb

tend * *
evidence *
* seem *
* likely *
perceive

10.4 Change these sentences. Use different forms of the words in bold, as instructed.

1. There is little likelihood that everyone will fail the test. (use the adjective)
2. Students tend to leave preparation for exam till the last minute. (use the noun)
3. We saw evidence that some students had copied each other’s answers. (use the adjective)
4. People commonly perceive that older people cannot learn musical instruments to a professional
standard. (use the noun)
5. The melting of the polar ice caps seems to be inevitable. (use the adverb)

10.5 Make the sentences more formal by replacing the underlined words or phrases.

1. People generally think that rats are carriers of diseases.

2. There isn’t much evidence to support the opinion that diesel cars cause more pollution than petrol
cars.
3. It is extremely likely that rail passenger numbers will continue to decline.
4. In the absence of other evidence, we must conclude that right-handedness is not linked to intelligence
in any way.
5. Of course, it is true that engineering graduates are in increasing demand.
6. The area near the river often floods in winter.

HOME TASK

Hedge the sentences below by adding a word or expression from the box.

in many cases; many; most; mostly; normally; often; sometimes virtually

1. While inventions may be carried out anywhere, innovations occur in firms.

2. Invention is the first occurrence of an idea for a new product or process.
3. Inventions require complementary inventions and innovations to succeed at the innovation stage.
4. The first versions of all significant inventions were crude, unreliable versions of the devices that
eventually diffused widely.
5. Leonardo da Vinci’s ideas for a flying machine were impossible to carry out in practice.
6. What we think of as a single innovation is the result of a lengthy process.
7. Innovation is a continuous process.
8. Important innovations go through drastic changes in their lifetimes.

27
 Unit 11
11.1 Using gender-neutral language.

In your academic communication, avoid using gender-specific language. For example, avoid the use of man
where it refers to people in general (that is, both men and women). Also avoid suggesting that a particular
job or role is filled only by men or by women when it might be filled by either. This is important because
gender-specific language can imply (usually) male superiority, or reflect an unequal status in society. Try to
use gender-neutral language instead. Make sure that you are consistent in a particular piece of writing. For
example, if you use she/he to refer to a male or female student, don’t change to he/she.
A number of online sources give more information. Particularly useful are:
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_neutrality_in_English
 unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001149/114950mo.pdf

Match the words from the left column with their synonyms from the right one.

1 he or she a staff/workforce/human resources

2 the man in the street b humankind/human beings
3 manpower c a business person
4 mankind d humans
5 a businessman e they
6 man f landowners
7 landlords g the average person
8 policeman h spokesperson
9 spokesman i police officer

11.2 Work in pairs. Look at the sentences below and decide whether they are inappropriate because they
contain gender-specific language. Suggest improvements to incorrect sentences.

1. If a person fails on a test, does he have low ability, or is the test difficult?
2. The eight people who stayed behind to man the office were given a special appreciation dinner.
3. Man is a part of nature and bears responsibility for protecting the diversity of the environment.
4. What consequences do they have for the way a teacher approaches his job and his training?
5. Ernest Hemingway was born in 1899 at Oak Park, a highly respectable suburb of Chicago, where his
father, a keen sportsman, was a doctor.
6. Throughout history, man has affected the natural environment, often in a destructive way.
7. From the businessman’s point of view it is desirable to retain freedom in decision-making so that he
can maintain the initiative in meeting market and social factors.
8. The secretary’s principle loyalty is to her boss rather than to the company.
9. One of the basic elements contributing to the urban housing problem is the difference in goals of
landlords and their tenants.
10. In the Climates of the Continents, we have a book which should be of interest, not only to the student
of climate and the factors which determine it, but also to the man in the street.
11. The daily life of a small shopkeeper struggling to survive had little in common with that of a
prosperous businessman employing a number of workers.
12. Harkness and Waldfogel (1997) calculate the pay ratios for women with children compared to the
average man.
13. Quite sophisticated equipment and trained manpower are required.
14. Bowles (2001) observed that his findings supported earlier research results.
15. In the intensive-care unit, it is imperative that the nurse must not allow her attention to wander from
the patient.
16. Before entering the market, each consumer decides, on the basis of his income, tastes and alternative
opportunities, the maximum price he should pay.

28
 Unit 12
Comparing and contrasting

12.1 Underline words and phrases in the sentences which show a similarity or a difference.

1. The education systems in Wales, Northern Ireland, and England are similar, whereas the education
system in Scotland differs in a number of ways.
2. In Wales, the Welsh language is a subject in Welsh-speaking schools. In the same way, in Northern
Ireland, the curriculum includes the Irish language in Irish-speaking schools.
3. The school year in the UK runs from September to July. In Australia, on the other hand, students go
to school from late January to December.
4. Both Sweden and France have a compulsory national curriculum.
5. Japanese schools are different from schools in many other countries in that they usually have an
entrance exam.
6. Malaysian schools have two terms a year. In contrast, Australian schools have four terms.
7. University students all over the world are similar in that they have to take exams.

12.2 Add the words and phrases which you have underlined in (a) to the correct part of the table. Make a
note of punctuation.

similar different

In the same way,… …, whereas…

12.3 Use a word or phrase from the table to complete the sentences.

1. _________ Wales _______ Ireland include their own language in the curriculum.
2. State and private schools _________ _________ _________ ___________ all their students take
school-leaving exams.
3. Northern Ireland and Wales have a similar education system to England. Scotland, ________
_________ _________ __________ , has its own system.
4. In some countries learning a foreign language is compulsory, __________ in other countries students
can decide to study a language or not.

12.4 Useful linking expressions for comparing and contrasting.

a) Complete the sentences below with a comparison of; in comparison with; a comparison
between…and…; analogies between.

1. Problems in pain management: a comparison ______ verbal _____ visual rating scales.
2. A comparison ______ different methods and approaches to homeschooling.
3. Mobility in the EU ______ comparison ________ the US.
4. Some psycho-physical analogies ___________ speech and music.

b) Complete the sentences below with compared with/to; as compared to.

1. An exploration of the average driver’s speed compared _______ driver safety and driving skill.
2. Reduced rate of disease development after HIV-2 infection _______ compared _____ HIV-1.
3. The effects of risk on private investment: Africa compared ______ other developing areas.

29
c) Complete the sentences below with differences (and similarities) between; the distinction between; a
contrast between; differences in; different from.

1. Differences and similarities ___________ mothers and teachers as informants on child behavior.
2. Differences ________ ethical standards ___________ male and female managers: myth or reality?
3. Children’s understanding of the distinction __________ real and apparent emotion.
4. Is globalization today really different __________ globalization a hundred years ago?
5. There is a contrast ____________ fiction and reality.

d) Complete the sentences below with conversely; similarly; likewise; rather than; whereas; unlike; while;
the reverse is true; on the one hand; on the other hand.

1. 44% of the male subjects responded negatively. __________, 44% of the female subjects said they
had never voted in any election.
2. Older teenagers were found to be more likely than younger teenagers to purchase music CDs. _____,
younger teenagers purchased more video games.
3. _____________ Scotland, Irish mortality rates were relatively low for such a poor country.
4. Verb endings in some languages can show present, past or future tense, __________ in English, verb
endings can only show present or past.
5. A recent study suggested that building a network of good friends, ____________ maintaining close
family ties, helps people live longer into old age.
6. _____________, critics accuse the police of not protecting the public from crime. __________,
people also complained that the police were too oppressive.
7. In the north, the rains are plentiful. In the south ____________ and drought is common.

12.5 Paraphrase the sentences using an expression which includes the word in brackets instead of the
underlined words.

1. The two groups were not the same as each other. (different)
2. The two groups of children were different. (contrast – noun)
3. The three liquids had many things in common with one another. (similar)
4. The data revealed that the informant’s responses were different. (differences)
5. The title of her paper was ‘A comparison of male attitudes towards prison sentencing and female
attitudes’. (compared)
6. In a similar way to the manner in which the economy of the north is booming, the south is also
enjoying an economic upturn. (similarly)

12.6 Use linking expressions based on the word(s) in brackets to paraphrase these pairs of sentences as one
sentence. Make any other necessary changes.
1. The south of the country has little in the way of forests. The north of the country is covered with
thick forests. (unlike)
2. A questionnaire is good. In this case, face-to-face interviews are better. (rather)
3. Asian languages such as Vietnamese are quite difficult for learners whose first language is a
European one. The opposite is also true.(conversely)
4. Oil is plentiful at the present time. It will run out one day. (hand)
5. Boys tend to prefer aggressive solutions to problems. Girls, on the other hand, prefer more indirect
approaches. (whereas)
6. In the post-war period, public transportation enjoyed a boom. Nowadays, it is little used. (reverse)

12.7 Are these statements true or false? If the statement is false, explain why.

1. If the two things are mutually exclusive, one makes the other impossible.
2. If two methods of doing something are compatible, they cannot be used.

30
 3. If two things are equated, they are said to be similar or the same.
4. If there are parallels between two phenomena, they are very different from each other.
5. If there is an overlap between two things, they share some properties.

HOME TASK

A. Complete these sentences about comparing and contrasting.

1. 1. The study looked at the different life chances of working-class children ____________ to those of
middle-class children.
2. The results showed a marked ____________ between the two groups of plants being tested.
3. The title of her paper was: ‘Retail price differences in large supermarkets: organic foods
_____________ to non-organic foods’.
4. My project was a __________ of different styles of industrial architecture in the late 20th century.
5. The result of the second experiment was very different __________ that of the first.
6. It would be interesting to do a comparison ____________ the musical skills of teenage girls and
those of teenage boys.
7. The physicist drew an _____________ between the big bang and throwing a stone into a pond.
8. Gronsky believes cold fusion will soon be achieved in the laboratory. __________, his colleague
Ladrass believes cold fusion is simply theoretically impossible.

B. Complete the sentences with your own ideas.

1. Schools and universities are similar in that …

2. English students …, whereas students in my country….
3. …… in contrast, …
4. Both… and…
5. … is different from … in that …

UNIT 13
Dealing with problems
13.1 Introducing a problem.

Fill in the gaps with one of the words or expressions in bold. Make all necessary grammar changes.

to arise; to be apparent; to contain; to experience; to have difficulty in; to pose; to raise; to reveal;
to surround;

1. As the mining operations became deeper and deeper, the problem of flooding ___________ .
2. In a recent survey, 34% of customers _____________ difficulties with online buying.
3. Walsh’s paper discusses the controversy _____________ privatization of health services.
4. The topic is inadequately treated, and several errors _______________ in the analysis.
5. Integrating the new member states __________ a challenge in the European Union.
6. The research ____________ the issue of rainforests and the people who live in them.
7. The patient _______________ remembering very recent events.
8. Most theories of the origin of the universe ______________ inconsistencies.
9. The results _____________ shortcomings in the design of the questionnaire.

13.2 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending.

1 Students always seem to have difficulty a surrounding the President.

2 Ford pointed out that the methodology had b apparent.

31
3 The need to find replacement fuels poses
4 The media continue to focus on the controversy
5 In the figures he presented several errors were
6 On their way across Antarctica they experienced
7 The results of the opinion poll raise
8 Problems caused by pollution in this area
c some important questions for the Party.
d many difficulties.
e arose fairly recently.
f in remembering this formula.
g a number of inconsistencies.
h considerable challenges for scientists.

13.3 Responding to a problem. Fill in the gaps with appropriate verbs in bold. Use the verbs in the correct
grammar form.

to address; to deal (with); to mediate (between); to react (to); to tackle;

1. It was a study of how small firms __________ to the problem of over-regulation.

2. How should training courses ___________ with the issue of violence in the healthcare setting?
3. Governments do not seem to be able (informal)___________ the problem of urban congestion.
4. Governments need to (formal)__________ the problem of waste from nuclear power plants.
5. The community leaders attempted ____________ between the police and the people.

13.4 Solving a problem. Fill in the gaps with appropriate verbs in bold. Use the verbs in the correct
grammar form.

to come up with; to find a solution (to); to lie in; to overcome; to resolve; to solve;

1. The researchers _____________ the problem by increasing the temperature.

2. The team ____________ with/ ___________ to the problem of water damage.
3. By using video, the researchers ___________ the problem of interpreting audio-only data.
4. The two governments finally (formal)________________ the problem of sharing water resources.
5. The answer to the problem ____________ in changing the design of the experiment.

13.5 There is a preposition missing in each of these sentences. Add it in the right place.

1. It is no easy task mediating unions and management.

2. In this lecture I plan to deal the later novels of Charles Dickens.
3. The answer to most problems in agriculture lies the soil.
4. He thought for a long time but was unable to come with a solution.
5. I wonder what the professor’s reaction the article will be.
6. The company has experienced a number of difficulties the computer operating system.
7. Have you found a solution the problem yet?

HOME TASK
Fill in the gaps with the appropriate word.

1. The professor was very angry when the student ____________ him so rudely and so publicly.
2. As the saying goes, to ______________ is human – we all make mistakes.
3. I hope someone will eventually come up with a __________ to the problem of global warming.
4. The diplomats are hoping to ___________ between the two sides and prevent a conflict.
5. The library _____________ many rare and beautiful books.
6. I am still waiting for the committee’s ___________ to my request for an extension for my
dissertation.
7. At the beginning of the new academic year Marie ___________ to make much more effort with her
assignments.
8. The lecturer ____________ very angrily when I questioned one of her conclusions.

32
 UNIT 14
Describing situations

14.1 Existence and location. Fill in the gaps in these sentences from the history lectures with the words in
bold. Use the words in the correct grammar form.

absence; circumstances; conditions; environment; infrastructure; status;

1. The existence of a large population of migrant workers put pressure on the country’s __________.
2. Historians noted the ______________ of a clear political ideology in the actions of the workers.
3. We need to look at all the ___________ surrounding the events of 1926.
4. Looking at events in their social context means taking all the factors of a person’s social __________
into account.
5. The ____________ in which the poorest sector of the population lived were bad.
6. The _____________ of women was not a serious subject of debate until the 1960s.

14.2 to restrict vs to be constrained by vs to be restrained by vs to be confined to

1. The governments took measures to restrict the sale of tobacco products to young people. (to limit sth
or reduce its size or prevent it from increasing)
2. Scientists are constrained by the amount of funding they can obtain. (being controlled and limited in
what they can do)
3. Growth in car ownership could be restrained by higher taxes. (limiting the growth or force of sth)
4. High land prices are a restraint on the expansion of private housing in the city.
5. Major industrial pollution is confined to the big cities in the north of the region. (limited to)

Choose the best word in italics to complete each sentence.

1. The government has introduced legislation to restrict/constrain smoking in public places.

2. The problem is constrained by/confined to only the capital cities.
3. Her attempt to confine/restrain the children from making a noise in the library met with little
success.
4. In the 1960s the government restricted/constrained the amount of money you could take out of the
country.
5. All research is confined to/constrained by funding decisions.
6. During the exam period restrictions/constraints are imposed on visitors to the college.
7. The level of taxation in the country is a major constraint/restraint on foreign investment there.

14.3 Change the words in bold to the opposite meaning.

1. The economy has been stable for several years.

2. Stability has been a feature of government in the country for the last decade.
3. The northern region possesses an apparently finite supply of uranium.
4. The presence of cholera in the area was noted by scientists in 1978.
5. A minimum temperature of 20 degrees must be maintained at all times.

Describing processes and procedures

14.4 Choose the best word in italics to complete each sentence.

1. The advent / emergence / ratification of nation states changed Europe in the 19th century.
2. The paper is a study of water consumption / security / application in Brazil during 2001.

33
 3. Ratification / security / consumption of supply is the most important priority in the gas industry.
4. It is sensible to unify /select / verify your results before publishing them.
5. Hip replacement is usually a simple medical application / procedure / behavior.
6. Many students supplement / utilize / verify their scholarships by doing some part-time jobs.
7. A computer stage / procedure / simulation shows what will happen if the ocean current changes
direction.
8. As the next step / behavior / application in our study we plan to carry out interviews.

14.5 Fill in appropriate prepositions (if necessary) after the verbs and nouns in bold.

1. The next stage/step __________ the process of data collection was to send out 100 questionnaires.
2. The procedure ______ Experiment B was different from that of Experiment A.
3. The application _____ Thoren’s method produced some interesting results.
4. The team carried out a computer simulation ______ climate change over the next 30 years.
5. Twenty-five subjects were selected _______ the first group to take part in the second analysis.
6. The article sets out to unify _______ some concepts in the theory of economic growth.
7. Personal interviews were conducted to supplement _____ the statistical data.
8. The experiments were repeated, in order to verify _____ the results observed in the original data.

14.6 Paraphrase each sentence, replacing the underlined words with more formal equivalents.

1. It is hardly surprising that people use far more electricity than they did ten years ago.
2. The arrival of the mobile phone has transformed the way young people manage their social lives.
3. The software allows you to present your data in a range of different types of chart.
4. A number of talented new designers have appeared this year.
5. You’ve missed out a letter here – you need to add a p between the a and the t.
6. He spent many years trying to create a machine that would automatically sort large numbers of
coins.
7. The political party managed to gain more support than was anticipated.

HOME TASK

Complete each sentence with the words from the unit.

1. To understand the problem, we need to look at all the many factors which may influence
development in the child’s social and physical ___________.
2. It has been claimed that the ______________ of teaching as a profession is not as high as it used to
be or as it should be.
3. The infrared aerial photograph seems to show the ___________ of a large village around 1,000 years
ago.
4. The company’s president died in rather suspicious ____________ and his son took over.
5. In the ____________ of any clear instructions from above, I think we should decide ourselves how
to proceed.
6. The country can never become a major economic player unless it improves its __________.
7. I can’t tell you what the word mean unless you tell me it in ___________.
8. Students today live in very luxurious ____________ compared with the students in the past.
9. The article traces the ____________ of Korea as a major economic force.
10. Because of the drought everyone has been asked to reduce their water ______________ .
11. I think it would be a good idea to _________________ some tables into the first part of your article.
12. It took considerable negotiations before all parties were prepared to ___________ the treaty.
13. This course will focus on the ____________ of theory to practice.
14. My instructor gave some useful advice on how to ____________ a new group of experiments.

34