College of Science and Engineering

September 7th, 2016

Through:
The Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

To:

The Coordinator, SIWES Unit,

Landmark University,
Omu-Aran,
Kwara State.

Dear Sir,

LETTER OF TRANSMISSION

In compliance with the requisition of the established authority of Landmark University, Omu-Aran to
prepare a detailed report of the Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) between the period
of MARCH and AUGUST 2016, I consequently have the pleasure of submitting this report.

Yours faithfully,

Adenekan Precious .O.

1
 CERTIFICATION

ADENEKAN PRECIOUS

_______________________ ____________________

STUDENT SIGNATURE / DATE

ENGR. AGBOOLA

__________________ ____________________

SUPERVISOR SIGNATURE / DATE

PROF. C.O OSUEKE

___________________ _____________________

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT SIGNATURE / DATE

2
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this report first and foremost to the Almighty God who has been there from the beginning of

time till this very moment, for the grace to begin and conclude the training successfully. Special thanks to

my ever supportive mother (Mrs. F.O Adenekan) for her unending love and relentless support during the

course of my six months SIWES training and to my Late father (Pharm. S.O Adenekan) for sending me

to this glorious institution.

To God alone be all the glory.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With a deep sense of appreciation, respect and gratitude, I want to say a very big thank you to my Mother,

sister, uncles, other relatives and non-relative friends for their care and support from the beginning of my

race to badge the B.Eng degree in Mechanical Engineering to this point.

Special appreciation to my uncle, my father figure, my mentor, my disciplinarian and my friend, Mr.

Olalekan Akintoye (Occupational Hygienist, Shell Pet. Company), for his support in securing my SIWES

placement and intellectual support.

Secondly, special thanks to my uncle from another family, Mr. Abiodun Aragbada (Engr. ETSD, PHRC)

for his intellectual support during work and beyond.

Not forgetting all the staff that helped in equipping me with the necessary information and knowledge

(theoretical and practical) needed during my training: Engr. Asikaogu, Engr. Kalu Imaga, Engr. David

Ngedo, Engr. Ernest, Engr. James, Engr. Dina Rotimi, Engr Bardi, Engr. Bakut and all my Industrial

Training colleagues.

My sincere appreciation also goes to everyone that has been by me all this while. A Big THANK YOU!!!

ADENEKAN PRECIOUS OLOLADE.

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 ABSTRACT

This report examined the Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme carried out in Port Harcourt

Refining Company vis-à-vis the maintenance of the refining plant and majored on the pumps, compressors,

columns and other components of the refining plant. This is an exposure to how theories are applied

practically. Moving fluids through a system requires either a pump or compressor. Both achieve this goal,

but through different operating methods. Pumps have the ability to move liquids or gases. Compressors

typically only move gas due to its natural ability to be compressed. Pumps and compressors both have

very high pressure rises. Two basic types classify pumps: positive displacement pumps and centrifugal

pumps. Positive displacement pumps move fluid by moving a fixed amount of it and forcing the fixed

amount into a discharge pipe. They can produce the same flow at a given speed regardless of the discharge

pressure making them constant flow machines. To prevent line bursts, positive displacement pumps

typically have a relief or safety valve on the discharge side. If a positive displacement pump operates

against a closed discharge valve, pressure inside the discharge increases, causing a line to burst, which

damages the pump. Positive displacement pumps can be classified as reciprocating pumps (piston, plunger,

and diaphragm), power pumps, steam pumps, and rotary pumps (gear, lobe, screw, vane, regenerative or

peripheral, and progressive cavity). There are different types of compressors that move air into a chamber.

Most compressors are positive-displacement compressors in which, by forcing air into the chamber,

volume is decreased to compress the air. Reciprocating or piston-type air compressors pump air by using

pistons and one-way valves to guide air into the cylinder chamber. Most commercially available

compressors are either one- or two-stage compressors. Single-stage compressors are used for pressure

ranges from 70 to 100 psi. For larger pressure ranges of 100 to 250 psi, two-stage compressors are used.

Single-acting compressors use only one side of a piston and double-acting compressors use both sides of

the piston. Compressors have a pressure limit that, once reached, will shut off the compressor. The air will

remain stored until used for a kinetic energy application. The training has built confidence of job

acquisition after school.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page(s)

Cover Page

Letter of Transmission 1

Certification 2

Dedication 3

Acknowledgement 4

Abstract 5

Table of Contents 6

Chapter One: Introduction 7-11

Chapter Two: Nigerian National Petroleum

Corporation and Port Harcourt Refining Company 12-16

Chapter Three: General Rules, Regulations and Procedures

at the Refinery and Activities at Maintenance Department 17-29

Chapter Four: Theoretical Framework 30-65

Chapter Five: Skills and Knowledge Acquired 66-72

Chapter Six: Challenges Faced at Work Place 73-74

Recommendation 74-75

Conclusion 75-77

References 78

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 CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION

1.0 WHAT SIWES IS ABOUT

SIWES was established by ITF in 1973 to solve the problem of lack of adequate practical skills preparatory

for employment in industries by Nigerian graduates of tertiary institutions.

The Scheme exposes students to industry based skills necessary for a smooth transition from the classroom

to the world of work. It affords students of tertiary institutions the opportunity of being familiarized and

exposed to the needed experience in handling machinery and equipment which are usually not available

in the educational institutions.

Participation in Industrial Training is a well-known educational strategy. Classroom studies are integrated

with learning through hands-on work experiences in a field related to the student’s academic major and

career goals. Successful internships foster an experiential learning process that not only promotes career

preparation but provides opportunities for learners to develop skills necessary to become leaders in their

chosen professions.

One of the primary goals of the SIWES is to help students integrate leadership development into the

experiential learning process. Students are expected to learn and develop basic non-profit leadership skills

through a mentoring relationship with innovative non-profit leaders.

By integrating leadership development activities into the Industrial Training experience, we hope to

encourage students to actively engage in non-profit management as a professional career objective.

However, the effectiveness of the SIWES experience will have varying outcomes based upon the

individual student, the work assignment, and the supervisor/mentor requirements. It is vital that each

internship position description includes specific, written learning objectives to ensure leadership skill

development is incorporated.

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Participation in SIWES has become a necessary pre-condition for the award of Diploma and Degree

certificates in specific disciplines in most institutions of higher learning in the country, in accordance with

the education policy of government.

Operators - The ITF, the coordinating agencies (NUC, NCCE, NBTE), employers of labour and the

institutions.

Funding - The Federal Government of Nigeria

Beneficiaries - Undergraduate students of the following: Agriculture, Engineering, Technology,

Environmental, Science, Education, Medical Science and Pure and Applied Sciences. Duration - Four

months for Polytechnics and Colleges of Education, and Six months for the Universities.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF SIWES

The following are some of the objectives of SIWES:

1. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to test their interest in a particular career before permanent

commitments are made.

2. SIWES students will develop skills in the application of theory to practical work situations.

3. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to test their aptitude for a particular career before

permanent commitments are made.

4. SIWES students will develop skills and techniques directly applicable to their careers.

5. SIWES will aid students in adjusting from college to full-time employment.

6. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to develop attitudes conducive to effective interpersonal

relationships.

7. SIWES will increase a student's sense of responsibility.

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8. SIWES students will be prepared to enter into full-time employment in their area of specialization upon

graduation.

9. SIWES students will acquire good work habits.

10. SIWES students will develop employment records/references that will enhance employment

opportunities.

11. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to understand informal organizational interrelationships.

12. SIWES will reduce student dropouts.

13. SIWES Students will be able to outline at least five specific goals with several staff members by

comparing performance with job duties and develop a draft plan with staff to accomplish performance

needs, supervision plan and rewards.

14. SIWES Students will be able to develop a draft agency or project budget and will be able to identify

methods of obtaining revenue to support the budget.

15. SIWES Students will be able to provide tools to use in prioritizing tasks of an assigned project and

create with staff a tentative schedule for completion based on these tasks.

16. SIWES Students will be able to develop a model policy that gives current front-line leaders the

permission and expectation to work with other staff on conflict resolution and explain how this works to

current front line leaders.

17. SIWES Students will be able to describe different skills leaders can use to

Foster commitment and collaboration with both internal and external constituents.

18. SIWES bridges the identified gap in the practice of engineering and technology in tertiary institutions.

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1.3 FUNCTIONS OF SIWES UNIT

By the directive of National Universities Commission (NUC) and Industrial Training Fund (ITF), the Unit

is mandated to carry out the following functions.

1) Seeking of industrial placement for undergraduate students enrolled in disciplines scheduled for

participation in SIWES.

2) Supervision of the students placed in the industries located within our ITF zone.

3) Processing of students’ logbooks, ITF forms and industrial attachment reports upon which is

based on the Federal Government funding of supervision and students’ allowances.

4) Fostering of close links between the university and industries participating in SIWES programme.

5) Provision of advisory guidance to participating students on career employment opportunities.

6) Monitoring of compliance with the requirements of SIWES on the part of students in eligible

disciplines as a condition for graduation.

7) Facilitation of the disbursement of the students’ allowance to deserving students through e-

payment.

1.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF SIWES AS IT RELATES TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

1) SIWES offers first-hand experience working as an engineering professional.

2) It allows the application of technical knowledge and engineering methods to real-life situations.

3) It allows one to work with other engineering and technical professionals.

4) It allows one experience what it’s like to work in a professional organization.

5) It increases one’s technical, interpersonal and communication skills, both oral and written as it

relates to engineering.

6) It creates room for observation of interactions between engineers, technicians and other

professional bodies.

7) It lets one witness the functioning and organization of business and companies.

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8) It allows one understand the role of the theoretical subjects I study while on campus.

9) It develops team spirit in the beneficiary i.e. the great importance of team work as Engineers.

10) It helps to develop your ability to work under any given condition.

11) It allows the beneficiary grow his/her network as he/she meets many experienced professionals of

mechanical engineering field.

12) It helps in selection of future careers. Working in a particular company allows one deeply analyze

the things going on there and by analyzing the work going on there, one can find easily, that which

type of work in mechanical industry suits me best.

The 6 months Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) which is a prerequisite for the

completion of my course of study, Mechanical Engineering, was undertaken at Port Harcourt Refining

Company, a strategic business unit of the Nigerian National Petroleum Commission, located at Alesa

Eleme, Rivers state. The Company’s main function is to refine crude oil to consumable hydrocarbons

(Premium Motor Spirit, Automotive Gas Oil, Liquefied Petroleum Gas, e.t.c.)

I was an Industrial Attaché (IT) at the Maintenance Department.

The Industrial Training was based on maintenance, repairs, servicing, replacements and other routines

carried out on all the equipment and components of the fuels plant. These and many more were part

of my job description.

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 CHAPTER TWO:

2.0 NIGERIAN NATIONAL PETROLEUM CORPORATION (NNPC)

The Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) is the state oil corporation which was established
on April 1, 1977. In addition to its exploration activities, the Corporation was given powers and operational
interests in refining, petrochemicals and products transportation as well as marketing. Between 1978 and
1989, NNPC constructed refineries in Warri, Kaduna and Port Harcourt and took over the 35,000-barrel
Shell Refinery established in Port Harcourt in 1965.

In 1988, the NNPC was commercialised into 12 strategic business units, covering the entire spectrum of
oil industry operations: exploration and production, gas development, refining, distribution,
petrochemicals, engineering, and commercial investments. Currently, the subsidiary companies include:

Nigerian Petroleum Development Company (NPDC)

The Nigerian Gas Company (NGC)

The Products and Pipelines Marketing Company (PPMC)

Integrated Data Services Limited (IDSL)

National Engineering and Technical Company Limited (NETCO)

Hydrocarbon Services Nigeria Limited (HYSON)

Warri Refinery and Petrochemical Co. Limited (WRPC)

Kaduna Refinery and Petrochemical Co. Limited (KRPC)

Port Harcourt Refining Co. Limited (PHRC)

NNPC Retail

Duke Oil

In addition to these subsidiaries, the industry is also regulated by the Department of Petroleum Resources
(DPR), a department within the Ministry of Petroleum Resources. The DPR ensures compliance with
industry regulations; processes applications for licenses, leases and permits, establishes and enforces
environmental regulations. The DPR, and NAPIMS, play a very crucial role in the day to day activities
throughout the industry.

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2.1 PORT HARCOURT REFINING COMPANY LIMITED (PHRC)

The Port Harcourt Refining Company Limited is in business to optimally process hydrocarbon into

petroleum products for the benefit of all stakeholders. The company’s vision is to be an innovative

international hydrocarbon processing company of choice.

PHRC Limited is made up of two refineries. The old refinery commissioned in 1965 with current

nameplate capacity of 60,000 barrels per stream day (bpsd) and the new refinery commissioned in 1989

with an installed capacity of 150,000 bpsd. This brings the combined crude processing capacity of the Port

Harcourt Refinery to 210,000 bpsd. It has five (5) process areas - Areas 1-5. The new refinery is made up

of Areas 1-4 while the old refinery is Area 5.

Area 1 is made up of the Crude Distillation Unit (CDU), where kerosene and Automotive Gas oil (AGO)

are produced as finished products. Other intermediate products from CDU are Straight –Run Naphta

(SRN). Straight Run Gasoline (SRG) used for PMS blend, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and

Atmospheric residue (AR). Vacuum Distillation Unit (VDU) where AR (CDU bottoms) are further

processed under vacuum, or significantly less than atmospheric pressure to produce high –value products

without cracking like vacuum gas oil (VGO), FCCU feedstock and light as gas oil.

Area 2 is made up of Naphtha Hydro-treating unit (NHU), where naphtha is hydro-desulphurised; the

Catalytic Reforming Unit (CRU), responsible for upgrading naphtha to reformate which has a higher

octane value for PMS blend; the Kero Hydro-treating Unit (KHU) where Kero is treated to make it

acceptable for aviation use: Area 2 also has the Continuous Catalyst Regeneration Unit (CCR), which

constantly reactivates the deactivated catalyst from the reformer. Other units in Area 2 include, the

Hydrogen Purification, Fuel Gas Vaporizer, Sour Water Treatment and Caustic Treatment units.

Area 3 is made up of a Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCCU), where Vacuum Gas Oil (VGO) and heavy

diesel oil (HDO) are cracked to obtain more valuable products, like FCC gasoline used as PMSA blend

13
and Light Cycle as blend component for LPFO (Low Pour Fuel Oil) and LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas).

Other units in Area 3 include the Gas Concentration, Gas Treating and Mercaptan Oxidation units.

Area 4 has three process units namely Dimersol, Butamer Isomerisation and Alkylation units. The units

are designed to produce high octane gasoline blend component.

Area 5, which is the old refinery, is made up of the Crude Distillation Unit (CDU); the Platform Unit

(CRU), the LPG Unit, as well as utilities section.

The refinery is self-sufficient in power and utilities generated from the Power Plant & Utilities. There are

four (4) turbo-generators each with a capacity of 14MW of electricity per hour and four (4) Boilers,

capable of generating 120 tons of steam per hour each. The section also generates cooling/service water,

plant/instrument air and nitrogen.

The refinery has a pool of maintenance personnel that take care of routine, programmed and emergency

repairs of equipment.

There is also the Supply Chain Management Department that oversees the procurement and storage of

needed spare parts and chemicals.

2.2 PRODUCTS:

PHRC produces the following products:- Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), Premium Motor Spirit (PMS),

Dual Purpose Kerosene (aviation and domestic (DPK)), Automotive Gas Oil (AGO - diesel), Low Pour

Fuel Oil (LPFO) and High Pour Fuel Oil (HPFO). PHRC produces UNLEADED gasoline that meets

international standard.

The PHRC also has in-house firefighting capabilities.

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2.3 QUALITY POLICY AND OBJECTIVES:

PHRC is committed to always offer Petroleum Products and Services that shall fulfil our customers'

requirements and expectations using modern technology at prices that guarantee customers' value,

stakeholders' continued interest and support.

To meet the objective of this quality policy, we shall:

· Continually improve the efficiency of the process and utility plants to optimize their capacity

utilization.

· Deliver all products on specifications

· Train at least one third of the total staff population in the relevant skills annually.

· Strive to achieve nil accident annually.

· Treat all plant effluents to statutory safe levels before discharge into the environment

Be a responsible corporate citizen by contributing to the social and economic development of our

contiguous communities.

These Policy and Objectives shall be reviewed annually for continual improvement of the Quality

Management System in accordance with the requirements of NIS ISO (001: 2000. Compliance with these

Policy and Objectives, which shall be communicated to all staff, is mandatory.

2.4 OPERATIONS AND SERVICES DIRECTORATES, AND KEY DEPARTMENTS

There are two Directorates

 The Operations Directorates

 Services Directorates

With 16 main Departments in the establishment. These are the Production, Maintenance, Production

Programming and Quality Control (PPQC), Engineering and Technical Services (ETSD). Power Plant and

15
Utilities Department (PPU); Health, Safety and Environment (HSE); Supply Chain Management (SCMD);

Finance and Accounts (FAD); Planning and Budget Monitoring (PBM); Administration; Human

Resources (HR); Public Affairs; Internal Audit; Security; Total Quality Management Department and

Company secretary /Legal Department. The Managing Director, who is the Chief Executive, co-ordinates

the entire management and activities of the company.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 GENERAL RULES, REGULATIONS AND PROCEDURES AT THE REFINERY

These instructions are designed to assist you in choosing a safe and environmentally sound course of action

in situations where no special rule applies and where personal judgment becomes a factor. Heeding the

suggestions, hints, and tips contained in these instructions will help to prevent injury to you and your

fellow workers or an adverse impact on the environment.

3.1 SAFETY EQUIPMENT AND PRECAUTIONS.

A safety precaution is a measure that one takes to prevent any injury or harm to either oneself or anyone
or thing in your surroundings. To avoid casualties of any kind in the workshop or on the site, all students
must admit safety first during the course of the SWEP attachment.

These safety precautions include:

i. Wearing a fitted overall and helmet in the workshop is compulsory.

ii. Wearing of safety boot or any protective shoe.
iii. Do not put on any magnetic ornament.
iv. Before commencing any welding operations, make sure that an appropriate fire
extinguisher is readily accessible.
v. Proper concentration on the practical work.
vi. Not wearing neck tie near a revolving machine.
vii. Wearing a protective goggle when working with fine particles or face shield during welding
operations.
viii. Staying away from unprotected electricity wires.
ix. Reading and following instructions carefully before operating any machine.

Some safety equipment includes:

17
 Figure 1.1: Safety Hand Gloves.

Figure 1.2: Safety Goggles.

Figure 1.3: Safety Boot.

Figure 1.4 Helmet

 Correct Unsafe Conditions yourself…if you see tools, materials etc. on platforms or walkways,

remove them to eliminate tripping hazards. Correct any slipping hazards that you can, put oil dry,

sand or salt on slippery surfaces. Stop any leaks creating health, safety or environmental hazards

and report incidents to your supervisor.

 Study Your Job from The Safety Angle: Think before starting work. Look at the possible

consequences of your actions and prevent accidents from happening. Get all necessary protective

equipment before you start work. Insure chemicals are properly stored and handled. Consult the

MSDS and procedure manual for proper protective clothing or equipment, or consult your

supervisor. Be alert for potential hydrocarbon or chemical leaks which may arise.

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 Mental Distractions Spell Danger…when the mind is in one place and body in another. If you

have a personal situation persistently bothering you, tell your supervisor so he/she can consider

this before assigning your job.

 Report All Hazards and Near-Misses…immediately to your supervisor. PHRC wants to provide

safe and environmentally sound working conditions. You can assist by reporting any unsafe

conditions you observe. Near-miss accidents and environmental incidents often reveal such

conditions; tell your supervisor about them. Your actions could prevent injury or damage to plant

equipment or the environment.

 Inspect Tools and Equipment before using them. The prevention of serious injury or loss of life

may depend on the safe condition of the ladder, rope, tool, or other equipment you are about to

use. If you have any doubt about its safeness - DO NOT USE IT - Have the equipment repaired.

 Stop Unsafe Work: You have the right and obligation to stop any work that is unsafe.

 Lift Properly: To avoid serious back injury, bend your legs to get close to the object, keep your

back straight, get a firm grasp, and lift by straightening your legs. If the object is too heavy for

you, get someone to help you or use lifting equipment.

 Understand the Chemical Hazards: Read the Material Safety Data Sheets, also known as

MSDSs and chemical labels to understand the chemicals in the refinery. The MSDS’s are available

throughout the refinery. PHRC wants all employees to stay updated on this information as their

health depends on it. Insure chemicals are handled and stored properly to avoid a release to the

environment.

 Handle Materials with Care: By keeping your hands away from pinch points and avoid placing

any part of your body where it could be caught between moving objects. When a job requires that

you exert force on an object, be in a comfortable, non-awkward position to avoid strains and

sprains. Use safety shoes to help prevent foot and toe injuries and gloves to help prevent hand and

finger injuries.

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 Move About the Plant safely and do not take shortcuts: Use regular walkways, passageways,

stairs and ladders. Watch where you walk, especially when walking on gravel and stone surfaces.

Stay particularly attentive when you climb ladders and stairways. Step, don’t jump, from one level

to another. Safety harnesses are required fall protection for some elevated work - get them from

the Fisher Safety Store or talk to your supervisor about how to obtain a safety harness.

 Good Housekeeping/Environment: is essential to the refinery. It will result in fewer accidents,

minimize impact to the environment and will reduce the hazards. All oil spills must be avoided. In

the event of a spill a prompt clean-up will minimize slipping, environmental impact and any

hazards.

 Passages and walkways must be kept free of welding rods, tools, draped hoses, extension cords

and other objects which create stumbling hazards. Cleaning up the area where you are working is

part of the job. This is our refinery, if we don’t take care of it, who will?

 Avoid Breathing Petroleum Vapors: overexposure to petroleum vapors may produce a form of

intoxication or other serious health effects. If you find yourself exposed to vapors or fumes get to

fresh air at once. Report this immediately to your supervisor because repeated exposure to certain

chemicals may create long term health hazards. Do not return unless the area has been tested or

you’re wearing proper breathing protection.

 Asbestos Awareness; the key is to avoid exposures. Asbestos may be found in older material such

as insulation, floor tile, ceiling tile, transit siding, etc. Unless positively identified, assume all

material contains Asbestos and do not disturb. Only certified trained asbestos abaters may disturb

the material and see your supervisor before you begin work.

 Read the Bulletin Boards and watch the poster board. Safety and Environmental Alerts and

lessons learned from incidents will be posted. Read them to learn more about accident and

environmental incident prevention.

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 Be Watchful for the Safety of Others: especially visitors who may not be familiar with the

operations. They may require a refinery employee escort. If you see them in locations where they

are likely to be injured, tell them courteously about the hazards and how to avoid them. If You See

A Fire, Medical Emergency, Chemical Leak, or Spill - REPORT IT!

 Assess the potential of the emergency and follow directions as detailed in the Refinery

Emergency Plan.

 When the Refinery Emergency Alarms Sound: you should immediately stop all work, shut

down all equipment and listen for instructions over the PA system. If you are instructed to evacuate,

you should proceed immediately to your designated assembly area. Evacuate upwind of the release.

Be sure you know and understand your responsibilities. For more information talk to your

supervisor.

 Personal Cleanliness and Hygiene, are important factors in maintaining good health. Never use

Refinery products to clean personal clothing, or to wash oil or grease from skin. Do not wash fire

resistant clothing with family clothes. Insure they are laundered according to refinery procedures.

 Rings, Earrings & Long Hair have caused many serious injuries and amputations by catching on

or between moving equipment. Employees are cautioned not to wear jewelry while working in the

refinery. Secure long hair in a hat or tie back.

 When PPE is required: PHRC employees, contractors, visitors etc., will generally not be required

to wear PPE inside building or enclosed vehicles. PHRC employees, contractors, visitors etc., will

generally not be required to wear PPE inside the ‘green zone’ on the attached map. This exception

is intended to allow people to travel to/from points in the ‘green zone’ without PPE. A pre-task

risk assessment shall be conducted for all jobs inside the ‘green zone’ to determine the appropriate

PPE for the job. PPE is not required when walking to/from and enclosed motor vehicle and a

building outside the ‘green zone’ provided the parking space is in close proximity (<50’) to the

building and not in a process unit.

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 Work Clothing: Wear adequate clothing suitable for your Job.

a) Do not wear loose, ragged clothing, or neckties near moving or rotating machines.

b) If clothing becomes saturated with oil, chemicals, or paint, change to clean clothes at once. Clothing

soaked with these materials present a constant personal fire hazard and continued contact with the skin

may cause irritations. Consult the MSDS sheet for proper first-aid attention and decontamination.

Notify your supervisor of the exposure.

c) Wear fire resistant clothing as the outer most garment while in the refinery unless authorized

otherwise by the Safety Department. (See Fire Resistant Clothing Procedure)

d) Wear gloves whenever practical when working in the refinery.

 Head Protection: A Hard Hat is an essential piece of your work clothing. It Must Always Be

Properly worn with the Bill Forward in the refinery unless authorization is given to work on a

specific job without this protection.

 Hearing Protection: Loud noise may damage your hearing. Hearing protection shall be worn in

any location or during any specific tasks where the noise is such that prolonged exposure might be

harmful to a person’s hearing. Hearing protection is required in all process units in accordance

with the refinery safe work practice.

 Fall Protection: Employees working on unprotected surfaces greater than 6 feet from a lower level

shall be protected from falling by the use of guardrail system, safety net systems or personal fall

arrest systems. Only approved full-body harnesses with a six (6) foot lanyard are acceptable

personal fall arrest devices. See the refinery Fall Protection Policy for more information on the use

of fall protection in the refinery.

 Other Protective Clothing and Equipment: Wear special protective clothing and equipment

provided by the company and designated for a given job. Examples of special safety equipment

that might be required for a specific job are: chemical resistant, heat resistant and other types of

22
 protective gloves; chemical clothing; respirators; boots; safety belts/harnesses; auto safety belts;

protective hoods of all kinds; foot guards; disposable coveralls; aluminized heat resistant clothing;

fire resistant clothing; hearing protection; and skin protection creams, etc.

 Eye Protection: Wear approved safety glasses having rigid side shields as minimum eye

protection except in offices, control rooms, and locker rooms when there is no danger of eye injury.

Additional eye protection, such as goggles, acid-type goggles, and face shields, is required for

work extra hazardous to eyes, such as:

• Operating grinding wheels, even when fixed guards are provided.

• Chipping, cutting, shearing, drilling or hammering metal and other material where chips might

fly.

• Using jackhammers, picks, chipping bars, or sledgehammers.

• Sandblasting, turbining tubes.

• Cleaning machinery or equipment with steam, water, or compressed air.

• Working with, or near equipment containing caustic, acid, or other corrosive materials.

• Handling powder or semi-powdered material or while in an area where there is a dust hazard.

• Scraping, chipping and brushing scales, rust and other deposits from surfaces.

• Working on equipment known or suspected of being under pressure, such as adjusting pump

packing, valve packing, opening vents and drains, drawing samples from sample connections, and

loosening flanges.

• Lighting furnaces and when opening cover plates for inspection of furnaces or other operating

equipment.

• Pouring or handling molten material (metals, asphalt, and other hot materials) in open containers.

• During all welding and burning operations.

• During conditions when dust, rust, catalyst, and other foreign material is airborne.

• Breaking containment on any process line or vessel.

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 Respiratory Protection: Wear respiratory protection whenever it is necessary to enter or work in

an atmosphere known or suspected of containing harmful concentrations of gas, vapor, dust, or

mist, when there is a deficiency of oxygen in the breathing air, or the breathing air is above 100F.

A specific type of breathing protection is required and provided for each contaminant and air

condition you may encounter in the refinery. See your safety specialist for the proper equipment

to use. To assist in respirator selection refer to sections 7 & 8 on the Safe Work Permit. Facial hair

may affect the seal of the mask required for breathing protection. Employees are cautioned not to

have beards or long, thick sideburns. Employees that are required to wear respiratory protection

are not permitted to have facial hair that touches the sealing surface of the respirator. The Facial

Hair Policy describes these requirements in detail. See pictures for guidance on acceptable facial

hair. Any hair on the chin is not permissible.

Here is a list of some of the working conditions where respiratory protection is required:

• Spray painting

• Handling dry chemicals or other materials that produce dust in harmful concentrations.

• Handling insulation containing asbestos (or suspected of containing asbestos) requires special

precautions.

• Entering or working in an atmosphere known to contain, capable of producing, or suspected of

containing hydrogen sulfide, tetraethyl lead, or harmful concentrations of carbon monoxide, sulfur

dioxide, benzene, methanol, ammonia, etc. oxygen (less than 19.5% in the breathing air). Oxygen

deficiency can only be determined by using a tester which will measure the amount of oxygen

present. Sour crude oil presents a particularly serious hydrogen sulfide hazard. Employees shall

always wear respiratory equipment while inspecting, gauging, drawing samples, performing repair

work on tanks or equipment containing this type of crude oil, or when descending for any purpose

to the floating roof of a tank containing sour crude oil.

24
 • Entering or working in atmospheres containing concentrations of hydrocarbons or Benzene above

the permissible exposure limits. Consult the MSDS for the material properties and use testing

equipment to determine concentrations of air contaminants.

• Sandblasting operations. A supplied air hood specifically designed for this work must be worn.

• Welding in confined spaces where there is not sufficient ventilation provided to remove fumes.

• Entering excessively hot areas (over 100F) where it would be harmful to breathe the heated air.

The Safety Supervisor should be consulted to determine how to protect personnel during the work.

3.2 ACTIVITIES AT MAINTENANCE

Maintenance and inspection functions in a refinery are the backbone for safe and reliable plant operations

and play a pivotal role in efficiently achieving the desired production target and profitability for the

company. Maintenance functions in the refinery include mechanical, electrical, instrumentation, and civil

functions, which are responsible for monitoring, repair, and maintenance of equipment in the respective

defined areas. Inspection is responsible for certification of quality adherence on the repair and maintenance

activities through monitoring of static equipment functioning during plant operations. Fulfillment of

statutory requirements and liaison with regulatory bodies, failure analysis, and remaining life assessment

of plant equipment to establish a repair replacement plan in advance for reliable plant operations,

metallurgy upgrading, etc., are also performed by inspection. On the basis of the process condition, on-

stream monitoring of all critical equipment is decided by an individual group and monitored religiously.

Preventive maintenance, predictive maintenance, a structured repair system, and full-fledged plant shut-

down management must be reliable. Each type of maintenance activity that needs to be followed in an

operating refinery or when the plant or units have been shut down per plan is covered in detail in this

company. In case of electrical and instrument equipment, emphasis is placed on explaining the

maintenance activities required to be performed on all major equipment along with general guidelines to

be followed for making systems more reliable. At PHRC, the maintenance department is located in the

plant compound about 200 meters from the plant and is headed by the Maintenance Manager and assisted

25
by two Deputy Managers (i.e. DM Areas 1&2 and DM Areas 3&4). The maintenance department is

divided majorly into three, namely: Fuels plant 1 (Areas 1-4. see page 11) & 2(Area 5), Workshop and

Offsite. Fuels plant 1 is further divided into four i.e. Areas 1-4. Maintenance department is also divided

based on the type of equipment worked on in the plant into four arms: Rotary, Statics, Electrical and

Planning.

ROTARY: This arm of maintenance work on all equipment undergoing one form of motion e.g.

rotary, reciprocating, linear, etc. in the plant. They are involved in resolving all challenges that are related

to moving equipment. Two supervisors oversee all the work done in this section. The nature of work done

could be preventive or corrective. For preventive maintenance, a periodical check is done on all the

equipment in the plant to avoid any form of accident or damage to the equipment when in use. Examples

are: turning the coupling between the electric motor and the shaft of a pump to avoid stiffness, checking

the oil level and replacing with new ones when necessary, proper house-keeping around the equipment

site, etc.

Whereas for corrective maintenance, servicing, repairs, replacements, assembling, aligning, etc. are done

on equipment in the plant depending on the nature of the fault. Example: for leaking pumps, the pump is

opened and the mechanical seal is changed to a new one. Examples of the equipment worked on are

centrifugal pumps, reciprocating and centrifugal compressors, steam turbines and air-fin coolers.

Some of the jobs done are:

COUPLING OF A ROTOR IN A PUMP.

Pumps are very important mechanical equipment in PHRC, they pump the products (PMS, AGO, LPG,
etc.). Coupling of the rotor in a pump can be said to be one of the ways to maintain a pump, whereby new
machinery are brought and the old ones taken out. Some of the procedures here include:

i. Troubleshooting of the centrifugal pump to find out its fault (The fault in this case was linked to
the bearings at both ends of the shaft.).
ii. The pump was disconnected from the electric motor which is the driver and then taken to the
workshop for overhauling.

26
 iii. All the components of the pump were disengaged by the use of a hydraulic press. Some of the
components of the pump include: the hub, impeller wearing rings, sleeves, gland packing, water
separator, bearings, flanges, lock nuts, oil rings, etc.
iv. The bearing at fault was beyond repair, so a new bearing was brought from the warehouse to the
workshop.
v. Other components were also inspected to check for faults (in this case, none were faulty).
vi. All the components were then fixed into the rotor of the pump. The bearing on the other hand could
not enter the shaft, so a heat treatment was given to both bearings (specifically ball bearings). The
heat treatment given to the bearings is called inductive heating.
vii. After the inductive heating, the bearings were then placed on both ends of the shaft and left for a
while to cool.
viii. All other components were then placed on the shaft, and it was then ready to be mounted alongside
the electric motor.
ix. After the pump was mounted, it was then coupled with a coupling spacer which connects the
electric motor to the pump.
x. Alignment of the pump to the electric motor was carried out.
xi. A test run was then carried out to check if the pump was functioning properly.

SHAFT ALIGNMENT.

Shaft Alignment is a method to align two or more shafts with each other within a specified margin. This
is a very mandatory condition that must be met before a machine can be put into use. When the shaft of
two rotator machines are directly coupled via flexible coupling, any misalignment between their
centerlines of rotation will lead to vibration and additional loads which, depending on their severity, can
produce premature wear, or even catastrophic failure of bearings, seals, the coupling itself and other
machine components. This might cause huge economic loss and loss of efficiency of the machine. An
excellent shaft alignment procedure can guarantee the absence of vibration (Heinz 2004). Alignment of a
shaft is possible only if the two ends of the shaft are not bent or curved in any form, but faces each other
in perfect levelness.

STATICS: This arm deals with all the stationary (static) equipment in the plant and this covers

over 70% of the plant with two supervisors overseeing all the work carried out. The nature of the job could

also be either preventive or corrective. These section utilizes more man power because of the size and

27
nature of the jobs carried out. Equipment work upon in this unit are Columns, pipes, heaters, boilers, heat

exchangers, tanks, drums, strippers, valves (all kinds), cooling tower, battery limits, etc.

ELECTRICAL: These engineers deal with installation, metering, repairs, racking in and out, etc.

of and on all electrical equipment in the plant. There are substations where all the electric motors and all

other electrical fittings on the plant are controlled. Electrical equipment are electric motor, local switches,

junction boxes, control panels, lighting bulbs, etc. they ensure the plant runs properly by monitoring the

currents and voltages and all other electrical jargons are in proper proportion required.

PLANNING: They are responsible for planning and procurement of spares, finalizing AMCs,

budgeting, processing of new parts from the warehouse using Material Request Forms (MRF), Material

Issuance Voucher (MIV) and Turn around Maintenance (TAM). They are also responsible for receiving

and dispatching letters, memos, contract budgets, etc. from and to their respective destinations. They

supervise rotary, static and electrical jobs in the plant as reports are presented periodically to the Deputy

Managers of Maintenance and ultimately to the Manager Maintenance. This arm is also headed by a

Deputy Manager (i.e. DM Planning). The arm is subdivided into Fuels Plant 1 planners, Offsite planners,

Workshop planners and Central Planners. When the day is almost over the status of all the work (either it

is done or still in progress) for each day is logged down at the planning office. Logging down these cases

is done for record purposes. This will enable the department know which problems predominant in the

plant and thus proposing a feasible solution to lingering problems.

OFFSITE: This arm of maintenance deals with all other part of the refinery outside the Fuels plant

1 and 2. It contains all the storage tanks, oil movement pipes, pump sites, waste water and jetty. All these

components are used to move finished products from the plants to where they are stored and also to where

they are loaded either into trucks or ships. These engineers ensure the smooth running of all the equipment

to achieve proper movement of the products

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 WORKSHOP: This is where all mechanical processes are carried out for all other sections. It is

further divided into Refrigeration and Air conditioning, Pressure and Temperature safety valve section,

Instrumentation, Electrical and Welding workshop. This section is headed by a Deputy Manager (i.e. DM

Workshop). This building contains almost all the machines needed to carry out all the processes, examples

are: lathe machine, milling machine, hydraulic presser, rollers, shaping machine, overhead crane,

balancing machine and it also houses new electric motors, tools used and some scraps that are not in use.

All the pumps and other equipment dismantled from the plant are brought to the workshop for further

processing.

Moreover, cases that do not need to be brought to the workshop are fixed at their locations where the

problems come from.

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 CHAPTER FOUR:

4.0 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

TURBINES.

A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it to useful
work. A turbine is a turbomachine with at least one moving part called the rotor assembly, which is a shaft
or drum with blades attached. Moving fluids act on the blades so that they move and pass on rotational
energy to the rotor.

Some major types of turbine include:

i. Steam turbine plants use the dynamic pressure generated by expanding steam to turn the blades
of a turbine. Almost all large non-hydro plants use this system. About 90 percent of all electric
power produced in the world is through use of steam turbines.
ii. Gas turbine plants use the dynamic pressure from flowing gases (air and combustion products) to
directly operate the turbine. Natural-gas fuelled (and oil fueled) combustion turbine plants can start
rapidly and so are used to supply "peak" energy during periods of high demand, though at higher
cost than base-loaded plants. These may be comparatively small units, and sometimes completely
unmanned, being remotely operated. This type was pioneered by the UK, Princetown being the
world's first, commissioned in 1959. Gas turbines are sometimes referred to as turbine engines.
Such engines usually feature an inlet, fan, compressor, combustor and nozzle (possibly other
assemblies) in addition to one or more turbines
iii. Transonic turbine: The gas flow in most turbines employed in gas turbine engines remains
subsonic throughout the expansion process. In a transonic turbine the gas flow becomes supersonic
as it exits the nozzle guide vanes, although the downstream velocities normally become subsonic.
Transonic turbines operate at a higher pressure ratio than normal but are usually less efficient and
uncommon.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS.

Centrifugal pumps are a sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work-absorbing turbomachinery, they are
used to transport fluids by the conversion of rotational kinetic energy to the hydrodynamic energy of the
fluid flow. The rotational energy typically comes from an engine or electric motor. The fluid enters the
pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially
outward into a diffuser or volute chamber (casing), from where it exits. The impeller is the rotating part
that converts the driver energy into kinetic energy.

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A centrifugal pump has two major components:

i. A rotating component comprised of an impeller and a shaft.

ii. A stationary component comprised of a casing, casing cover, and bearings.

The general components, both stationary and rotary, are shown in the figure below:

Figure 2.1: General Components of a Centrifugal Pump.

MACHINE TOOLS.

A machine tool is used to manufacture metal components of machines through machining, a process
whereby metal is selectively removed to create a desired shape. Ranging from simple to complex pieces,
machines tools can produce parts of different shapes and sizes. Machine tools have gradually evolved over
the past millennia. Today, machine tools are used on Computerized Numerical Control (CNC) Machines,
which can repeat sequences with high levels of precision, and produce complex pieces of various sizes
and shapes.

There are many types and examples of machine tools:

i. Milling Machine – A machine tool used to machine solid materials.

ii. Grinding Machine – A machine tool used for grinding, a process whereby an abrasive wheel is
used as the cutting tool.
iii. Planer Machine – A metalworking machine tool that uses straight or linear movement between the
work piece and a single-point cutting tool to machine a linear tool path.
iv. Lathe Machine – A machine tool that rotates a work piece on its axis to carry out various operations
such as drilling, turning, boring, facing, threading, grooving and parting off.
v. Shaper Machine – A machine tool that uses straight or linear motion between the work piece and
a single-point cutting tool to machine a linear tool path. A shaper is similar to a planer, but it is

31
 smaller, and has a cutter that rides a ram which moves above a fixed work piece, as compared to
the whole work piece moving underneath the cutter.
vi. Broaching Machine – A machine tool that uses a toothed tool or a broach to remove material. The
tool can use two types of broaching, namely rotary and linear.
vii. Some other types of machine tools are drilling machine, gear shapers, saws, threading machines,
hones, hobbing machine, etc.

Some machines mentioned above can be illustrated by the figures shown below:

Figure 2.2: Lathe Machine.

Figure 2.3: Drilling Machine.

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 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
Reciprocating compressor or piston compressor is a positive-displacement compressor that uses pistons
driven by a crankshaft to deliver gases at high pressure.

The intake gas enters the suction manifold, then flows into the compression cylinder where it gets
compressed by a piston driven in a reciprocating motion via a crankshaft, and is then discharged.
Applications include oil refineries, gas pipelines, chemical plants, natural gas processing plants and
refrigeration plants. One specialty application is the blowing of plastic bottles made of polyethylene
terephthalate (PET).

In the ionic liquid piston compressor many seals and bearings were removed in the design as the ionic
liquid does not mix with the gas. Service life is about 10 times longer than a regular diaphragm compressor
with reduced maintenance during use, energy costs are reduced by as much as 20%. The heat exchangers
that are used in a normal piston compressor are removed as the heat is removed in the cylinder itself where
it is generated. Almost 100% of the energy going into the process is being used with little energy wasted
as reject heat.

4.1 TERMINOLOGIES USED IN THE PLANT

 Crude Distillation Unit (CDU): The crude oil distillation unit (CDU) is the first processing unit

in virtually all petroleum refineries. The CDU distills the incoming crude oil into various fractions

of different boiling ranges, each of which are then processed further in the other refinery processing

units. The CDU is often referred to as the atmospheric distillation unit because it operates at

slightly above atmospheric pressure.

 Vacuum Distillation Unit (VDU): This is another major column in the refinery which products

from the CDU serves as the feed for further distillation under stricter conditions. It is tagged as

15C01. Atmospheric residue serves as the feed.

 Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCCU): This is where Vacuum Gas Oil (VGO) and heavy diesel

oil (HDO) are cracked to obtain more valuable products, like FCC gasoline used as PMS blend

and Light Cycle as blend component for Low Pour Fuel Oil (LPFO) and Liquefied Petroleum Gas

(LPG). It is tagged as 16C01

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 Absorption - The disappearance of one substance into another so that the absorbed substance loses

its identifying characteristics, while the absorbing substance retains most of its original physical

aspects. Used in refining to selectively remove specific components from process streams.

 Acid Treating - Process in which unfinished petroleum products, such as gasoline, naphthas,

kerosine, diesel fuel, and lubricating-oil stocks, are contacted with sulfuric acid to improve their

color, odor, and other properties.

 Additives - Any materials incorporated in finished petroleum products for improving their

performance in existing applications or for broadening the areas of their utility.

 Adsorption - A process in which a solid substance concentrates or holds another substance

(usually liquid or gas) upon its surface.

 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons - Organic hydrocarbon compounds in which the carbon atoms are joined

in open chains, as opposed to ring structures of aromatic and naphthenic compounds. Examples:

ethane, propane, butane. Many are building blocks for petrochemicals.

 Alkylation - A refinery process for chemically combining isoparaffin with olefin hydrocarbons.

The product, alkylate, has high octane value and is blended with motor and aviation gasoline to

improve the antiknock value of the fuel.

 American Candle - A standard candle whose illuminating power is sometimes employed as a unit

in determining this characteristic of kerosine. Other units are the International and Hefner candles.

 A.M.P. - American Melting Point. Used for paraffin wax, it is an arbitrary 3ºF above the ASTM

D 87 test for melting point of paraffin wax.

 Aniline Point - The minimum temperature for a complete mixing of equal volumes of aniline, a

liquid which has selective solvent action on hydrocarbons, and the oil being tested. Used in some

specifications to indicate the aromatic content of oils, also in calculating approximate heat of

combustion (ASTM D 611).

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 Antiknock Fluid - Common parlance for the chemical mixture containing tetra-ethyl lead as the

knock inhibiting ingredients and ethylene dichloride and/or ethylene dibromide as scavengers of

the lead products formed in combustion. Used as knock suppressant in gasoline.

 API Gravity - An arbitrary scale expressing the gravity, or density, of liquid petroleum products

in terms of API degrees. Relationship of the API scale to specific gravity is expressed by the

equation ºAPI = (441.5/sp gr 60/60F) - 131.5. ASTM D 287 is the standard method for determining

API gravity by means of a hydrometer.

 Aromatic Hydrocarbons - Hydrocarbon characterized by unsaturated ring structures of the

carbon atoms. Commercial petroleum aromatics are benzene, toluene, and xylenes.

 Ash - The amount of ash or nonvolatile, incombustible content left from heating petroleum oils to

the point of complete burning of the oil. Ash content is expressed in weight per cent of the original

sample.

 Asphalt - A dark brown to black cementatious material - solid, semisolid, or liquid in consistency

in which the predominating constituents are bitumens. Petroleum asphalt, as distinguished from

asphalt occurring as such in nature, is refined from crude petroleum into commercial grades of

widely varying consistency. Asphalt is a natural constituent of asphaltic-base crude oils, some of

which are refined primarily for its recovery.

 Asphalt Cement (A.C.) - A refined asphalt, or combination of refined asphalt and flux, of suitable

consistency for paving purposes.

 Asphaltic Concrete - A plant mix of asphalt cement with coarse graded mineral aggregate, used

in the construction of asphalt bases, binder courses, and surface courses.

 Auto-ignition - The spontaneous ignition and resulting rapid reaction of a portion of or all the

fuel-air mixture in the combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine. The flame speed is

many times greater than that following normal ignition.

35
 Barrel - For statistical purposes, the petroleum industry uses a barrel containing 42 U.S. standard

gallons. Where the price of fuel oils or other products is quoted by the barrel, it is the 42-gal barrel,

regardless of the method of shipment.

 Baumé Gravity (Be) - Gravity expressed on the Baumé scale for liquids lighter or heavier than

water. The API gravity scale is now used for liquids by the petroleum industry instead of the Baumé

scale.

 BD or BCD - Barrels per day or barrels per calendar day.

 Benzene, Benzol - An aromatic hydrocarbon present in small proportion in some crude oils and

made commercially from petroleum by the catalytic reforming of naphthenes in petroleum

naphtha. Also made from coal in the manufacture of coke. Used as solvent in manufacturing

detergents, synthetic fibers, and petrochemicals and as a component of high-octane gasoline.

 Bitumen - Mixtures of hydrocarbons of natural or pyrogenous origin or a combination of both;

frequently accompanied by non-metallic derivatives which may be gaseous, liquid, semi-solid, or

solid and which are completely soluble in carbon disulfide. Include natural and petroleum asphalt.

 Bleeding - The tendency of a liquid component to separate from liquid-solid or semi-solid mixture,

as oil from lubricating grease in storage.

 Blending - The process of mixing two or more oils having different properties to obtain a product

of intermediate properties.

 Bloom - The fluorescent color of a lubricating oil as shown by reflected light when this color

differs from that shown by transmitted light.

 Boiling Range - The spread of temperatures, usually expressed in degrees Fahrenheit, over which

an oil starts to boil or distill vapors and proceeds to complete evaporation. Boiling range is

determined by ASTM test procedures for specific petroleum products.

 Bottled Gas - Trade term for LPG or LP-gas.

36
 Breathing - The movement of gas (oil vapors or air) in and out of the vent line of storage tanks,

due to daily temperature changes. A cause of evaporation losses in light oil products in storage.

 Bright Stocks - High viscosity, fully refined, and dewaxed lubricating oils produced by the

treatment of residual stocks and used to compound motor oils.

 BSD - Operating capacity of a refinery expressed in barrels per day the unit is operating or "on

stream".

 BS&W - Bottom settlings and water. The heavy material which collects in the bottom of storage

tanks, usually composed of oil, water, and foreign matter.

 Btu (British thermal units) - The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound

of water one degree Fahrenheit. Used in expressing the thermal value of heating oils.

 Bulk Plant or Bulk Terminal - Wholesale receiving and distributing facilities for petroleum

products. Commonly includes railroad sidings, truck loading racks, and sometimes water and

product pipeline receiving facilities; storage tanks for gasoline, kerosine, and heating oils;

warehouse for storing and handling lubricating oils, greases, and other products sold in drums and

packages.

 Bunker C Fuel Oil - A heavy residual fuel oil used by ships and industry and for large scale

heating installations, similar in requirements to No. 6 grade fuel oil.

 Burner Fuel Oils - Trade term for distillate and residual oils sold for heating homes and buildings.

 Burning Oil - Kerosine, mineral seal, or other petroleum light oils of such gravity and other

properties that they can be used for illuminating and similar purposes.

 Burning Point - The lowest temperature at which a volatile oil in an open vessel will continue to

burn when ignited by a flame held close to its surface. It determines the degree of safety with which

kerosine and other illuminating oils can be used.

 Byproduct - A secondary or additional petroleum product, not of primary importance in the

conventional refinery operating schedule. Examples: residual fuel oil, coke, asphalt, and road oil.

37
 Carbon Black - A solid or finely divided carbon recovered by burning natrual gas or oil in a

deficient supply of air or by thermal decomposition. Used in compounding rubber and making

inks, paints, etc.

 Carbon Residue - The amount of carbonaceous material left after evaporation and pyrolysis of an

oil y standard test methods ASTM D 189 and D 524.

 Catalyst - A substance used to accelerate or retard a chemical reaction without itself undergoing

significant chemical change or change in volume during the process.

 Catalytic Reforming - A catalytic process to improve the antiknock quality of low grade naphthas

and virgin gasolines by the conversion of naphthenes and paraffins into higher octane aromatics

such as benzene, toluene and xylenes.

 Cat Cracker - Trade term for the refinery operating unit where a catalytic cracking process is

being carried out.

 Cetane - A pure paraffin hydrocarbon used as standard reference fuel in determining the ignition

qualities of diesel fuels. It is arbitrarily given a cetane number of 100.

 Cetane Index - An empirical method for determing the cetane number of a diesel fuel by a formula

based on API gravity and the mid-boiling point (ASTM D 975).

 Cetane Number - A term for expressing the ignition quality of a diesel fuel.

 CFR (Cooperative Fuel Research) Engine - A standard test engine used in determining the

octane number of motor fuels.

 Chromometer, Colorimeter - Instrument used in determining the color of petroleum oils and

petrolatum.

 Clay - Filtering medium, especially fuller's earth, used in refineries, for the purpose of absorbing

the solids or colorizing materials in oils.

 Cleveland Open-cup Tester - A standard laboratory apparatus used in determining flash and fire

points of petroleum products.

38
 Cloud Test - The method (ASTM D 97) for determining the temperature, known as cloud point,

at which paraffin wax or other solid substances begin to crystallize out or separate from solution

when an oil is chilled under specified conditions.

 Coke - The solid residue remaining after the destructive distillation of crude petroleum or residual

fractions. Used commercially as domestic and industrial fuel and, when purified, in various

metallurgical and industrial processes.

 Cold Settling - Process for removing petroleum wax from cylinder stock and high viscosity

distillate by chilling a naphtha solution of the oil and allowing the wax to crystallize out of the

solution and settle to the bottom of the pans.

 Cold Test - The temperature at which an oil become solid. Generally considered to be 5ºF lower

than the pour point.

 Combustion Shock - Abnormal burning of fuel in an internal combustion engine.

 Condensate - (1) A highly gaseous liquid coming from gas condensate wells, from which the gas

is separated, the liquid remaining being shipped with crude oil in pipelines to refineries. (2) Any

liquid material coming from the condensers in a refinery.

 Cracking - Process carried out in a refinery reactor in which the large molecules in the charge

stock are broken up into smaller, lower-boiling, stable hydrocarbon molecules, which leave the

vessel overhead as unfinished cracked gasoline, kerosines, and gas oils. At the same time, certain

of the unstable or reactive molecules in the charge stock combine to form tar or coke bottoms. The

cracking reaction may be carried out with heat and pressure (thermal cracking) or in the presence

of a catalyst (catalytic cracking).

 Crude Oil, Crude Petroleum - A naturally occurring mixture, consisting predominantly of

hydrocarbons and/or of sulfur, nitrogen, and/or oxygen derivatives of hydrocarbons, which is

capable of being removed from the earth in a liquid state. Basic types of crudes are asphaltic,

39
 naphthenic, or paraffinic, depending on the relative proportion of these types of hydrocarbons

present.

 Cutback Asphalt - Asphalt which has been softened or liquefied by blending with petroleum

distillates.

 Cutting Oil - Oil used to lubricate and cool metal-cutting tools; usually mineral oil blended with

other substances to make them water-soluble or water-insoluble, as required.

 Cycle Plant - Similar to a natural gasoline plant in that the liquid hydrocarbons are removed from

natural gas. In a cycle plant the gas is then put back into the ground to maintain pressure on the oil

reservoir.

 Cycle Stock - Unfinished product taken from a stage of a refinery process and recharged to the

process at an earlier period in the operation.

 Cycling - A series of operations in petroleum refining or natural-gas processing so conducted that

the steps are periodically repeated in the same sequence.

 Deasphalting - Process for removing asphalt from petroleum fractions, such as reduced crude.

 Debutanizer - The fractionating column in a natural gasoline plant in which the butane and lighter

components are removed overhead. The gas stream remaining is referred to as debutanized.

 Deethanizer - The fractionating column in a natural gasoline plant in which ethane and lighter

components are removed overhead. The gas stream remaining is deethanized.

 Dehydrogenation - A reaction in which hydrogen atoms are eliminated from a molecule.

Dehydrogenation is used to convert ethane, propane, and butane into olefins.

 Depropanizer - The fractionating column in a natural gasoline plant in which propane and lighter

components are removed overhead. The gas stream remaining is depropanized.

 Desalting - Removing calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, and sodium chloride from crude

petroleum.

40
 Destructive Distillation - Process of distillation in which a hydrocarbon or other organic

compound or mixture is heated to a temperature high enough to cause its decomposition.

 Desulfurization - A chemical treatment to remove sulfur or sulfur compounds from crude oil.

 Detonation - In a gasoline engine, the phenomenon occurring when the last portion of the fuel-air

mixture ignites spontaneously instead of burning in a normal manner. The resulting explosion is

known as engine knock.

 Dewaxed Oils - Lubricating oils from which a portion of the wax has been removed.

 Dew Point - The temperature at which vaporized materials start to condense into liquid form.

 Distillate - The product of distillation obtained by condensing the vapors from a refinery still, also

known as overhead fractions, as distinguished from the non-vaporizing residual components left

in the still.

 Distillate Fuel Oils - A general classification for one of the overhead fractions produced from

crude oil in conventional distillation operations. The so called light heating oils, diesel fuels, and

gas oils come from this fraction.

 Distillation - The general process of vaporizing liquids, crude oil, or one of its fractions in a closed

vessel, collecting and condensing the vapors into liquids. Commercial forms of distillation in

petroleum refining are crude, atmospheric, vacuum, rerun, steam, extractive, etc.

 Downflow - Process in which the hydrocarbon stream flows from top to bottom.

 Dropping Point - For lubricating greases, the temperature at which the grease passes from a semi-

solid to a liquid state under prescribed test conditions (ASTM D 566).

 Dry-Cleaning Fluid - A petroleum naphtha having narrow, carefully selected boiling points and

other properties for dry cleaning.

 Dry Gas - Natural gas, mainly from gas fields rather than oil fields, which does not contain

appreciable quantities of the heavier hydrocarbons, such as propane and butane, which condense

easily. Methane and ethane are principal components of dry gases.

41
 Dry Point - In the standard distillation test, the temperature when the last drop of liquid evaporates

from the bottom of the flask. For solvents and some other products considered to be more indicative

of final boiling point than end point, which is the maximum temperature observed on the

distillation thermometer when no more vapor can be driven from the flask by heating.

 Emulsification - The phenomenon of fine dispersion of one liquid held in suspension in a second

liquid in which it is partly or completely immiscible.

 Emsulsification Test - Standard laboratory procedure for evaluating the resistance of insulating

oils, turbine oils, and other lubricating oils to emulsification.

 Emulsified Asphalt - An emulsion of asphalt cement and water, containing a small amount of an

emulsifying agent.

 End Point - In the distillation tests for gasoline and other products, the highest thermometer

reading during the distillation, usually that when the sample has been entirely vaporized. Also the

final boiling point.

 Engine Oil - Generic term applied to oils used for the bearing lubrication of all types of engines,

machines, and shafting and for cylinder lubrication other than steam engines. In internal

combustion engines synonymous with motor oils, crankcase oils.

 Engine Sludge - The insoluble degradation product of lubricating oils and/or fuels formed during

their use in internal combustion engines and deposited from the oils outside the combustion space.

Water may or may not be present.

 Epoxy Resins - Plastics materials, petro chemically derived, used as surface coatings, laminating

adhesives, in paints, etc.

 Ethyl Fluid - Gasoline antiknock compound.

 Extract, Extract Oil - In solvent refining, the less desirable portion of the oil under process, which

is dissolved in and removed by the selective solvent used.

42
 Extractive Distillation - In the distillation process, the separation of different components of

mixtures which have similar vapor pressures by flowing a solvent which is selective for some of

the components in the feed down the distillation column as the operation proceeds. By this means,

the less soluble component passes overhead while the soluble component is scrubbed from the

vapors. The solvent with the dissolved component is deposited in the bottom of the column and

withdrawn for separation.

 Feed Preparation Unit - A fractionation unit in a refinery, the primary purposes of which is to

prepare one or more close-boiling point cuts to be used as feed for subsequent processing.

 Film Strength - The property of a lubricant which enables it to maintain an unbroken film over

lubricated surfaces under operating conditions, thus avoiding scuffing or scoring of bearing

surfaces.

 Filter Press - In petroleum refining, the equipment used to separate wax and oil in paraffin-wax

distillates. It consists of a series of canvas-covered plates separated by narrow iron rings. The

distillate is run into a narrow bore extending the length of the press and is forced into the spaces

between the plates formed by the rings. The oil penetrates the canvas covering the plates and drips

into a trough beneath the press, the wax remaining in the plates.

 Fire Point - The lowest temperature at which, under standard test conditions (ASTM D 92), a

petroleum product vaporizes rapidly enough to form above its surface an air-vapor mixture which

burns continuously when ignited by s small flame. Generally applies for all petroleum products

except fuel oils and those having an open-cup flash point below 175ºF.

 Flash Point - The lowest temperature at which vapors from an oil will ignite momentarily on

application of a flame under standard test conditions. In the range of 90 - 150ºF, flash point is

significant in determining safety conditions for the storage, handling, and use of petroleum

products.

43
 Floating Roof - Special type of steel tank roof which floats upon the surface of the oil in the tank,

thereby eliminating tank breathing and reducing evaporation losses.

 Fractional Distillation - Separation of the components of a liquid mixture by vaporizing it and

collecting the fractions, which condense in different temperature ranges.

 Fractions - Refiner's term for the portions of oils containing a number of hydrocarbon compounds

but within certain boiling ranges, separated from other portions in fractional distillation. They are

distinguished from pure compounds which have specified boiling temperatures.

 Freezing Point - The temperature at which a substance freezes by standard test procedure (ASTM

D 1015). Used in determining the degree of purity of high-purity hydrocarbon compounds.

 Fuel Oils - Any liquid or liquefiable petroleum product burned for the generation of heat in a

furnace or firebox or for the generation of power in an engine, exclusive of oils with a flash point

below 100ºF and oils burned in cotton- or wool-wick burners.

 Fuller's Earth - A clay having a high natural adsorption capacity, used in refineries to filter and

decolorize oils.

 Gas Oils - A fraction derived in refining petroleum with a boiling range between kerosine and

lubricating oil. Derives its name from having originally been used in the manufacture of

illuminating gas. Now supplies distillate-type fuel oils and diesel fuel, also cracked to produce

gasoline.

 Gasoline - A refined petroleum naphtha which by its composition is suitable for fuel in a

reciprocating-type internal combustion engine. ASTM D 439 specifies three grades for various

types of motor vehicle operations. Straight-run gasoline is the product of distillation; cracked

gasoline that of a cracking process.

 Girbitol Process - A process for removing hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and/or organic gases

from petroleum gases and liquids.

44
 Heart Cut - In refining, a narrow boiling range fraction, usually taken near the middle portion of

the stock being processed.

 Heating Oils - Trade term for the group of distillate fuel oils used in heating homes and buildings

as distinguished from residual fuel oils used in heating and power installations. Both are burner

fuel oils.

 Heavy Ends - The highest boiling portion of a gasoline or other petroleum oil. The end point as

determined by the distillation test reflects the amount and character of the heavy ends present in a

gasoline.

 Hydrodesulfurizing - A process for combining hydrogen with the sulfur in refinery petroleum

streams to make hydrogen sulfide, which is removed from the oil as a gas.

 Hydrofining - A process for treating petroleum fractions and unfinished oils in the presence of

catalysts and substantial quantities of hydrogen to upgrade their quality.

 Hydroforming - A commercial catalytic reforming process developed in 1939 to produce aromatic

components for high octance aviation gasoline. One of the several catalytic reforming processes.

 Hydrogenation - A refinery process in which hydrogen is added to the molecules of unsaturated

hydrocarbon fractions.

 Hydrogen Sulfide - An objectionable impurity present in some natural gas and crude oils and

formed during the refining of sulfur-containing oils. It is removed from products by various

treating methods at the refinery.

 Induction Period - A period under given conditions in which a petroleum product does not absorb

oxygen at a substantial rate to form gum.

 Inhibitor - An additive substance which, when present in a petroleum product, prevents or retards

undesirable changes taking place in the product, particularly oxidation and corrosion.

45
 Isomerization - A refining process which alters the fundamental arrangement of atoms in the

molecule. Used to convert normal butane into isobutane, an alkylation process feedstock, and

normal pentane and hexane into isopentane and isohexane, high-octane gasoline components.

 Jet Fuel - Kerosine-type fuels or blends of gasoline, distillate, and residual oils which are used as

fuels for gas turbine powered aircraft.

 Knock - The sound associated with the auto-ignition in the combustion chamber of an

automobile engine of a portion of the fuel-air mixture ahead of the advancing flame front.

 Knockout Drum - A vessel wherein suspended liquid is separated from gas or vapor.

 Light Ends - The lower boiling components of a mixture of hydrocarbons.

 Lime Treatment - The process of introducing lime into the still during the distillation of petroleum

to reduce the acidity of the distillate. Other forms of distillate treatment are often preferred.

 Low Line / Low Pressure Gas - Low pressure (5 psi) gas from atmospheric and vacuum

distillation recovery systems that is collected in the gas plant for compression to higher pressures.

 Lube Stocks - Refinery term for fractions of crude petroleum of suitable boiling range and

viscosity to yield lubricating oils when further processed and treated.

 Mercaptans - Compounds of sulfur having a strong, repulsive garlic-like odor. A contaminant of

sour crude oil and products.

 Motor Oils - Lubricating oils designed for used in the oil circulating systems of automotive,

aircraft, and diesel engines.

 Naphtha - Liquid hydrocarbon fractions, generally boiling within the gasoline range, recovered

by the distillation of crude petroleum. Used as solvents, dry-cleaning agents, and charge stocks to

reforming units to make high-octane gasoline.

 Naphthenic Crudes - A type of crude petroleum containing a relatively large proportion of

naphthenic-type hydrocarbon.

46
 Neutralization Number - An indication of the acidity of a petroleum product or lubricant. ASTM

D 664 and D 974 are standard procedures for establishing neutralization values.

 Octane Number - The antiknock quality of motor and aviation gasoline below 100 octane is

expressed by a numerical scale which is based on the knocking tendencies of two pure

hydrocarbons. One, normal heptane, has an assigned value of zero in the knock rating scale. The

second, iso-octane, has an assigned octane number of 100.

 Oil Emulsion - A mixture of oil and water in which the oil is permanently suspended in the water

in the form of very small droplets or vice versa.

 Olefins - A class of unsaturated paraffinic hydrocarbons recovered from petroleum, of which

butene, ethylene, and propylene are examples.

 On Stream - When a refinery processing unit is in operation.

 Overhead - In a distilling operation that portion of the charge which leaves the top of the

distillation column as a vapor.

 Paraffin - A white, tasteless, odorless, chemically inert, waxy substance obtained from some

petroleum oils.

 Paraffin, Liquid - Highly refined, colorless, heavy USP oil used for medicinal purposes and other

applications.

 Paraffin-base Crude - A type of crude oil containing predominantly paraffin hydrocarbons as

distinguished from asphaltic and naphthenic-base crudes. It is a source of high quality lubricating

oils.

 Petrolatum - A semi-solid product, ranging from white to yellow in color, composed of heavy

residual oils and paraffin wax produced by filtration of cylinder stocks. Has varied pharmaceutical

and industrial uses.

47
 Polyforming - A process charging C3 and C4 gases with naphtha or gas oil under thermal

conditions to produce high quality gasoline and fuel oil. Catalytic reforming has mostly replaced

polyforming.

 Polymerization - The process of combining two or more simple molecules of the same type, called

monomers, to form a single molecule having the same elements in the same proportion as in the

original molecule but having different molecular weights. The product of the combination is a

polymer.

 Pour Point - The lowest temperature at which an oil will pour or flow when chilled, without

disturbance, under test conditions in ASTM D 97.

 Pour Stability - The ability of a pour-depressant treated oil to maintain its original pour point

when in storage at low temperatures approximating winter conditions.

 Precipitate - A substance separating in solid form from a liquid as the result of some physical or

chemical change, differing from a substance held only mechanically in suspension, which is known

as sediment.

 Precipitation Number - The basis for classifying steam cylinder stocks and other classes of

residual oils as to relative content of asphaltic constituents by a standard test method (ASTM D

91).

 Pyrophoric Iron Sulfide - A substance typically formed inside tanks and processing units by the

corrosive interaction of sulfur compounds in the hydrocarbons and the iron and steel in the

equipment. On exposure to air (oxygen) it ignites spontaneously.

 Quenching Oil - An oil introduced into high-temperature process streams during refining to cool

them.

 Raffinate - In solvent refining, that portion of the oil which remains undissolved and is not

removed by the selective solvent. Also called "good" oil.

48
 Reboiler - An auxiliary unit of a fractionating tower designed to supply additional heat to the lower

portion of the tower.

 Recycle Gas - High hydrogen-content gas returned to a unit for reprocessing.

 Reduced Crude - A residual product remaining after the removal by distillation of an appreciable

quantity of the more volatile components of crude oil.

 Refluxing - In fractional distillation, the return of part of the condensed vapor to the fractionating

column to assist in making a more complete separation of the desired fractions. The material

returned is reflux.

 Reformed Gasoline - Gasoline made by a reforming process.

 Reforming - The mild thermal cracking of naphthas to obtain more volatile products, such as

olefins, of higher octane values; or catalytic conversion of naphtha components to produce higher

octane aromatic compounds.

 Regeneration - In a catalytic process the reactivation of the catalyst, sometimes done by burning

off the coke deposits under carefully controlled conditions of temperature and oxygen content of

the regeneration gas stream.

 Scrubbing - Purification of a gas or liquid by washing it in a tower.

 Selective Solvent - A solvent which, at certain temperatures and ratios, will selectively dissolve

more of one component of a mixture than of another and thereby provide partial separation.

 Shale Oil - The liquid obtained from the destructive distillation of oil shale. Further processing is

required to convert it into products similar to petroleum oils.

 Slop Oil - A term designating the small amounts of oil lost in various refining operations which

are collected and used as charge stocks.

 Sludge - The residue left after treatment in the refinery of petroleum oils to remove impurities.

Also an insoluble degradation product of crankcase oils.

49
 Solvent Refined - Term for lubricating oils which have been solvent-treated during the refining

process. Most motor, airplane, diesel-engine, and steam turbine oils and other high quality oils are

solvent refined.

 Solvent Refining - The process of mixing a petroleum stock with a selected solvent, which

preferentially dissolves undesired constituents, separating the resulting two layer and recovering

the solvent from the raffinate (the purified fraction) and from the extract by distillation.

 Sour - (1) Crude oils containing a large amount of sulfur and sulfur compounds, which break down

in refining to liberate troublesome quantities of corrosive sulfur compounds. (2) Gasoline,

naphthas, and other refined oils containing hydrogen sulfide or other sulfur compounds.

 Sour Gas - A gas containing sulfur bearing compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans

and usually corrosive.

 Stabilization - A process for separating the gaseous and more volatile liquid hydrocarbons from

crude petroleum or gasoline and leaving a stable (less volatile) liquid so that it can be handled or

stored with less change in composition.

 Straight-run - Fractions derived from the straight distillation of crude oil and containing no

cracked material. Also called virgin stock.

 Straight-run Distillation - Continuous distillation of petroleum oils which separates the products

in the order of their boiling points without cracking.

 Stripping - In refining, the removal of the more volatile components from a cut or fraction in order

to raise the flash point of kerosine, gas oil, or lubricating oil.

 Sulfonates - A group of petroleum hydrocarbons resulting from treating oils with sulfuric acid.

 Sweet Wax - A white, moisture-free wax with the oil removed by a sweating process in which the

unrefined wax is heated in shallow pans. In a semi-refined state it is known as sweated-scale wax.

It can be filtered or re-run to yield a completely refined commercial product.

 Sweet Crude - Crude petroleum containing little sulfur, with no offensive odor.

50
 Sweet Gas - A gas containing no corrosive components such as hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans.

 Sweetening - The process of improving petroleum products in color and odor by converting the

undesirable sulfur compounds into less objectionable disulfides with sodium plumbite or by

removing them by contacting the petroleum stream with alkalies or other sweetening agents.

 Synthetic Crudes - The total liquid, multicomponent mixture of hydrocarbons resulting from a

process involving molecular rearrangement of charge stock. Commonly applied to such products

from cracking, reforming, visbreaking, etc.

 Switch Loading - The loading of a high static-charge retaining hydrocarbon (diesel fuel) into a

tank truck, tank car, or other vessels that has previously contained a low flash hydrocarbon

(gasoline) and may contain a flammable mixture of vapor and air.

 Tail, Tail End - That portion of an oil which vaporizes near the end of distillation, the heavy end.

 Tailings - Remains, residues, or final byproducts from refining crude petroleum or its fractions.

 Tank Bottoms - The oil in a tank below the level of the outlet pipe.

 Tank Farm - Land on which a number of large-capacity storage tanks are located, generally for

crude oil.

 Thermal Cracking - The breaking up of heavy oil molecules into lighter fractions by the use of

high temperature without the aid of catalysts. See Cracking.

 Thermal Reforming - See Reforming.

 Thief - A standard device which permits taking a sample from a predetermined location in the

body of oil to be sampled.

 Topped Crude - A residual product remaining after the removal, by distillation or other artificial

means, of an appreciable quantity of the more volatile components of crude petroleum.

 Topping - The distillation of crude petroleum to remove the light fractions only. The unrefined

distillate obtained is called tops.

51
 Tower - A refinery apparatus used in connection with a still to increase the degree of separation

of fractions obtained during the distillation of oil in the still. Also called a column.

 Turnaround - With a refinery unit, the procedure of shutting the unit down after a normal run,

doing the necessary maintenance and repair work and putting the unit back on stream.

 Unsaturates - Hydrocarbon compounds of such molecular structure that they readily pick up

additional hydrogen atoms. Olefins and diolefins, which occur in cracking, are of this type.

 Unsulfonated Residue - That portion of an oil which is not acted upon when the oil is agitated

with a definite amount of sulfuric acid under specified conditions.

 Vacuum Distillation - Distillation under reduced pressure, which reduces the boiling temperature

of the material being distilled sufficiently to prevent decomposition or cracking. See Distillation.

 Vapor Lock - The displacement of liquid fuel in the feed line and the interruption of normal motor

operation, caused by the vaporization of light ends in the gasoline. Vaporization occurs when the

temperature at some point in the fuel system exceeds the boiling points of the volatile light ends.

 Vapor Pressure - The pressure exerted by the vapors released from an oil at a given temperature

when enclosed in an airtight container. For motor gasoline a criterion of vapor-lock tendencies, for

light products generally an index of storage and handling requirements. ASTM D 323 is the

standard method of measuring vapor pressure for volatile products except for liquefied petroleum

gases, where D 1267 is used.

 Vapor Recovery Unit - A refinery unit to which gases and vaporized gasoline from various

processing operations are charged to separate the mixed charged into desired intermediate qualities

for further processing.

 Virgin Stock - Oil processed from crude oil which contains no cracked material. Also called

Straight Run Stock.

 Visbreaking - Viscosity breaking is a low temperature cracking process used to reduce the

viscosity or pour point of straight run residuum.

52
  Wash - In petroleum refining, to cleanse or purify oils by agitation with water or chemicals.

 Weathered Crude - Crude petroleum which, owing to evaporation and other natural causes during

storage and handling, has lost an appreciable quantity of its more volatile components.

 Wet Gas - Mainly natural gas produced along with crude petroleum in oil fields. In addition to

methane, ethane, propane and butane, wet gas contains some higher hydrocarbons such as pentane

and hexane which, with propane and butane, are easily recoverable as liquids.

 Flare system: The Company supplies modern environment protection systems,

straight firing equipment and next generation technologies which are successfully used

in production sector of many countries. The following equipment is included into the

scope of supply: flares, process heaters, tunnel and boiler burners, thermal oxidizers,

flare gas and vapour recovery units

4.2 TOOLS AVAILABLE IN THE WORKSHOP

 Lathe (instrument type)

 Drilling machine (pedestal type)
 Grinding machine
 Polishing machine
 Engraving machine
 Mobile pipe threading machine.
 Light duty work bench
 Heavy duty work bench (Mechanical)
 Extra heavy duty work bench
 Pneumatic test-bench
 Electronic test-bench
 Analyzer test-bench
 Control valve test-bench
 Hydraulic test-bench (portable type)
 Small welding booth
 Mobile hand pump

53
 Portable vise (with folding tripod stand)
 Pipe bending machine
 Cutting shears (hand lever operated)
 Magnifying glass (with light sources)
 Ultra violet light facilities
 Test rig for storage tank gages
 Test stand for control valves
 Portable oxy-acetylene welding set
 Arc welding set
 Heating oven
 Electrical heating plate
 Pipe vise (chain type)
 Portable pipe vise (with folding tripod stand)
 Set of laboratory glass ware
 A Faraday cage
 Standard thermocouples
 Standard Voltage/frequency meter
 Pulse generator
 Hand held communicator (HART)
 Vibration probe tester (non-contact type)
 Vibration probe tester
 Precision pressure regulator
 Set of precision gages
 Low pressure/vacuum calibration system
 Pneumatic calibration unit
 Low-voltage megger (50 Volts)
 High-voltage megger (500 Volts)

54
4.3 COLOUR CODES FOR PRODUCTS

55
56
57
58
4.4 CHECKPOINTS FOR INITIAL START-UP OF A VERTICAL PUMP
Initial start-up means starting a pump for very first time after it is installed, connected and wired at its

location. There are some steps required to ensure correct rotation of the pump impellers BEFORE the

pump is coupled with the motor and adjusted for lift. The following describes a typical procedure for

hollow-shaft or solid-shaft electric motors after the pump is set and grouted in place, motor drive

installed and wired but not yet connected with pump.

1. Check the hold-down bolts on the motor, baseplate and discharge flange. Check all lubrication

systems. Adjust the seal or packing box gland; gland nuts should be finger-tight at start-up.

2. Make sure the pump has sufficient fluid in the sump or supply lines. Make sure all suction valves

are fully open on barrel-type pumps. Do not run any pump without fluid.

3. Verify correct wiring and rotation of motor shaft:

For vertical hollow-shaft motor driven pumps, ensure the top shaft nut (adjusting nut) and gib key

are removed and the motor is not coupled to the pump. The pump shaft can turn freely from the pump

motor. As an added pre-caution on a one (1) head shaft assembly it is advisable to remove the motor drive

clutch plate to ensure that it does not ‘gall’ or seize to the head shaft when the motor is ‘bumped’. If a two

(2) piece head shaft is supplied it is advised not to install the upper head shaft until after the motor has

been ‘bumped’ for rotational verification.

4.5 TROUBLE INDICATORS AND POSSIBLE CAUSES

Insufficient Pressure
1. Speed too slow (check voltage)
2. Improper impeller adjustment
3. Impeller loose
4. Impeller plugged
5. Wear rings worn
6. Entrained air in pump
Leaking column joints or bowl
7. castings
8. Wrong rotation
5. Discharge head misaligned by
improper mounting or pipe
strain
6. Bent shafting
7. Worn pump bearings
8. Clogged impeller or foreign
material in pump
9. Improper impeller adjustment
10. Vortex problems in sump
Resonance - system frequency
11. at
4. Pump out of alignment or
shaft bent
5. Lubricating oil too heavy
6. Pumping sand, silt or foreign
material
Abnormal Noise
1. Motor noise
2. Pump bearings running dry

59
 Broken column bearing
or near pump speed 3. retainers
Broken shaft or shaft
No Liquid Delivered 4. enclosing
1. Pump suction broken (water level Insufficient Capacity tube
Impellers dragging on bowl
below bell inlet) 1. Speed too slow 5. case
2. Suction valve closed 2. Improper impeller trim 6. Cavitation due to low
submergence or operation
3. Impeller plugged 3. Impeller loose beyond
Impeller or bowl partially
4. Strainer clogged 4. plugged maximum capacity rating
5. Wrong rotation 5. Leaking joints 7. Foreign material in pump
6. Shaft broken or unscrewed 6. Strainer partially clogged
7. Impeller loose 7. Suction valve throttled
8. Low water level
Vibration 9. Wrong rotation
1. Motor imbalance - electrical
Motor bearings not properly
2. seated Using Too Much Power
Motor drive coupling out of
3. balance 1. Speed too high
Misalignment of pump, Improper impeller
4. castings, 2. adjustment
discharge head, column or
bowls 3. Improper impeller trim
4.6 WEAR ANALYSIS: VERTICAL TURBINE PUMP
Trouble Source Probable Cause Remedy

Uneven wear on Pump non-rotating parts Check mounting and discharge pipe
bearings, uni- misaligned. connection and check
for dirt between column joints. Correct
form wear on shafts. misalignment, replace
bearings, and repair or replace shaft.

Uniform wear on Replace parts. Consider changing

bearings and Abrasive action. materials or means of
shafts. lubrication.

Uniform wear on Shaft run-out caused by bent 1 Straighten shaft or replace, clean and
bearings, shafts, shafts not butted . assemble correctly.
uneven wear on in couplings, dirt or grease 2
shafts. between shafts. . Face parallel and concentric.

Wear on impeller 1 Abrasive action or excess bearing 1 Install new bearings and wear rings.
skirts and/or . wear allowing . Upgrade material if
impeller skirts to function as
bowl seal ring. bearing journal. abrasion occurring.

60
 2 2 Re-ring and adjust impellers
. Impellers set too high. . correctly.

Impeller seal ring end Improper impeller adjustment. Install “L”-shaped bowl wear rings.
wear. Impeller running on Adjust impeller setting
bottom. per manufacturer’s recommendations.

Coat bowls, upgrade material, or

Wear on bowl vanes. Abrasive action. rubber line.

Wear on suction bell Correct condition or upgrade material

vanes. Cavitation due to recirculation. to extend life.

Impeller Wear

Exit vanes and Replace impeller if excessive.

shrouds. Abrasive action. Consider coating or upgrading
material.

Pitting on entrance Correct condition or upgrade material

vanes of Cavitation. to extend life. See
impeller. section on Cavitation.

Pitting on impellers Corrosion, erosion, or Investigate cost of different materials

and bowl recirculation. versus frequency of
replacements. See section on
casing. Corrosion.

Bearings Failures

Convert to fresh water flushing on

Bearing wear. Abrasive action. bearings; or use pressure-
grease or oil lubrication; or use
bearings made of harder
material.

Bearing seized or Check lubrication, look for plugged

galling on Running dry without lubrication. suction or evidence of
shaft. flashing.

Bearing failure or Check pump manufacturer for bearing

bearing High temperature failure. temperature limits.
seized. Generally:
Bronze - 175 °F / 80 °C maximum in
water
Synthetics - 125 °F / 50 °C
Carbon - 300 °F / 150 °C
Rubber - 125 °F / 50 °C

Rubber bearings will swell in

Excessive shaft wear. hydrocarbon, H2S and Change bearing material.
61
 high temperature.

Bearings Failures

Check straightness. Correct to 0.005

Bent shaft. Mishandling in transit or assembly. in/ft (0.13 mm/300 mm)
total runout or replace.

Shaft coupling Shafts may be bent. Check shafts and

unscrewed. Pump started in reverse rotation. couplings. Correct
rotation.

Shaft coupling 1 Motor started while pump is 1 Look for faulty check valve. Could
elongated . running in reverse. . also be momentary
2 power failure or improper starting
(necked down). . Corrosion. timers.
3 Pipe wrench fatigue on reused 2
. couplings. . Replace couplings.
4 Power being applied to shafts that 3
. are not . Replace couplings.
4
butted in coupling. . Check for galling on shaft ends.

1 Can be caused by same reasons 1.Look for faulty check valve,

Broken shaft. . listed
for coupling elongation.
2 Can also be caused by bearings
. seized
due to lack of lubrication.
3 Foreign material locking
. impellers or
galling wear rings.
4 5 See sections on Impeller Adjustment
. Metal fatigue due to vibration.
5 Improper impeller adjustment or
. continuous
upthrust conditions, causing
impeller to drag.
momentary power failure or
improper starting timers.
2
. Same as above for bearing seizure.
3
. Add strainers or screens.
4 Check alignment of pump
. components to
eliminate vibration.
. and Upthrusting.

Impeller loose on 1 Repeated shock load by surge in 1

shaft (rarely . discharge line . Refit impeller.
2 Usually will break shaft or trip
occurs). (could knock top impeller loose). . overloads before impeller
2 Foreign material jamming
. impeller. comes loose.
3 Differential expansion due to 3 Change to material with the same
. temperature. . expansion factor.
4 Improper parts machining and 4
. assembly. . Repair and refit.

62
4.7 PACKING FAILURE

What causes packing to fail prematurely? Some of the common causes are improper finishes, incorrect

clearances, wrong selection of packing, faulty installation and maintenance, abrasive or corrosive

conditions, insufficient lubrication, and leakage.

Abrasives in the fluids being pumped can be kept out of the packing box by using a flushing

system. There are, however, other sources of abrasives such as scale in the pipe solids that might be

left when water evaporates. These are just as damaging as abrasives in the fluid itself.

Eliminating pressure differentials as much as possible is another way to prolonging packing

life, since leakage is directly proportional to pressure differences. One common way of

accomplishing this is to use a throttle bearing below the packing and bleed off pressure through a

bypass line.

Shaft run-out also causes packing difficulties. Run-out can be the result of a bent shaft, a shaft

which flexes at high speeds, misalignment, an imbalanced motor coupling, or worn bearings.

Studs, nuts

Split gland

Grease fitting

Packing box

Lantern ring

Packing rings

Packing box bearing

63
4.8 MECHANICAL SEAL MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING
.

Symptoms Probable Cause Remedy

Seal leaks steadily. Faces not flat. Check for incorrect dimensions.

Blistered carbon graphite seal 1 Check for gland plate distortion due
faces. . to over-torquing of
gland bolts.
2 Improve cooling flush line, if
. overheated.
3 Check gland gasket for proper
. compression.
4 Clean out any foreign particles
. between seal faces.
Re-lap faces, if necessary.
5 Check for cracks and chips at seal
. faces during
installation.
6 Replace primary and mating rings, if
. damaged.

Secondary seals nicked or

scratched during Replace secondary seals.
installation.

Check for proper seals with seal

Worn out or damaged ‘O’-rings. manufacturer.

Compression set of secondary seals Check for proper lead-in on chamfers,

(hard and brittle). burrs, etc.

Check seal manufacturer for alternative

Chemical attack (soft and sticky). materials.

Spring failure. Replace parts.

Erosion damage of hardware Check seal manufacturer for alternative

and/or corrosion of drive materials.
mechanism.

Carbon dust Inadequate amount of liquid to 1 Flush line may be needed (if not in
accumulating on lubricate seal faces. . use).
2 Enlarge flush line and/or orifices in
outside of gland ring. . gland plate.

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 Liquid film evaporating between Check for proper seal design with seal
seal faces. manufacturer if
pressure in mechanical seal box is
excessively high.

Seal squeals during Inadequate amount of liquid to 1 Flush line may be needed (if not in
operation. lubricate seal faces. . use).
2 Enlarge flush line and/or orifices in
. gland plate.

Seal leaks See causes listed under “Seal leaks 1 Refer to list under “Seal leaks
intermittently. steadily”. . steadily”.
2 Check for squareness of mechanical
. seal box to shaft.
3 Align shaft, impeller and bearing to
. prevent shaft
vibration and/or distortion of gland
plate and/or mating ring.

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 CHAPTER FIVE:

5.0 SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE ACQUIRED

I was assigned to the PLANNING arm of the department initially as I did not have the

Personal Protective Equipment to work with other sections. In this section, I was taught how to

process materials, spare parts and brand new equipment from their various warehouses using the

required forms e.g. Material Request Form (MRF), Material Issuance Voucher (MIV), Turnaround

Maintenance (TAM), etc. I was also made to receive and record incoming letters or memos and also

dispatch various outgoing letters to their respective departments or offices, most especially from the

Deputy Managers to the Manager Maintenance.

Furthermore, in this section I was taught how to supervise any ongoing job, recording the

progress of the job at the end of the day to help keep proper record of all the jobs done and also to

help point out the more predominant problems.

After then, I was assigned to the ROTARY arm of the department where I was taught on

identification of various components of a pump, compressor, steam turbines and air fin coolers, e.g.

mechanical seal, stuffing box, packing, shaft, shaft sleeve, impeller, casing, locknut, wear ring,

outboard, inboard, bearings, oil baffle, crank shaft, connecting rod, governor, flanged crosshead,

partition parking, valves, etc., removing and replacing of these various part during serving or

overhauling of any of these equipment, step by step procedure of opening and coupling of the

equipment.

More so, I was taught how to assemble a mechanical seal with utmost care because of its

sensitivity to the tiniest dirt and the fix it to the pump head before installing the pump back.

I was also taught how to service and identify all the parts of a compressor as I was privileged

to witness the servicing of a four cylinder reciprocating compressor (12K02B) during my training. I

dismantled the piston rod, connecting rod, crankshaft, discharge valves, cylinder outer head, cleaned

66
them using naphta and emery clothe. While some were changed to new ones, others were cleaned

and reused. Took the clearance of the compressor and some other data of the compressor.

Also, I was taught how to service a steam turbine (14PM01A) used as a primary mover for

pumps, how to properly fix the governor which serves as a speed regulator for the turbine.

After being taught how to successfully fix a leaking pump, I also engaged in fixing other pumps

(14P10, 16P11A, 14P13, 14P04B, 16P54, 29P04, 16P11B) of different sizes and functions during

my training.

i. More in depth knowledge of rotating and also static equipment e.g. Pumps, Turbines, etc.
ii. Provision of opportunities to improve communication skills and human interrelationship at
the field of work.
iii. Deep knowledge and understanding of maintenance procedures for rotating equipment.
iv. Exposure to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and machinery such as:
Cutting Machine, Lathe Machine, etc.
v. Ability to apply theoretical knowledge in real work situation, in so doing bridges the gap
between theory and practice.

Fig. 5.1

A CENTIFUGAL PUMP

67
 A STEAM
TUBINE

Fig 5.2

Fig. 5.3

I was also taught the functions of each component of the pump, turbine and compressor, why each

single part is important.

This continued over the period of time that I was posted to the section and I became more conversant

with the work flow in the section before I was posted to the next section.

68
I then moved to the STATICS section where I became more conversant and knowledgeable about the

plant as most of the components of the plant are under this section

such as pipes, heat exchangers, valves, columns, heaters, boilers,

strippers, etc. first thing I was taught was how to recognize the

various sizes of valves and their flange size so as to be able to

determine the amount of pressure it can withstand. I was taught the

various parts of a valve and also the various types that are available

in the refinery e.g. ball valve, gate valve, check valve, slide valve,

globe valve, etc. and where they can be used as they all have different

functions, example is the check valve which is used at points where

flow is required in only one direction. I was taught how to nip a valve Fig 5.4 A
Gate valve
and also fix the gland packing of the valve. I installed different valves at different points on the plant.

I was also taught how to spade a pipe to avoid flow of fluids inside, open a man-hole and box it back

effectively.

Also in this section I was taught how to calibrate or service pressure and temperature safety valves

for optimum performance after being installed in the plant. These safety valves help to regulate the

pressure to a given level above which the safety valve is forced open to allow the pressure drop, same

also applies to the temperature safety valve.

Furthermore in this section, I was taught how to service, plug and hydrotest a heat exchanger. A heat

is due for service when the plant is shut down but the exchanger is retubed when the blocked tubes

are more than 10% of the total number of tubes in the exchanger. The exchangers that reduce the

temperature of the product are called “condensers” (e.g. 14TK01-E01) while those that raise the

temperature of the product are known as “heaters”.

69
Fig. 5.5 Pressure Safety Valve

U – tube Heat Exchanger

70
 Re-tubed U – tube Heat Exchanger

Re-tubing a Straight tube Heat Exchanger

Another important thing that I learnt during my training is the servicing of a column and reactors

(16C01 and 16R01 to be precise). I learnt how to fix the various parts of the accumulator, fix the bubble

caps or valves on trays in the column.

71
 Fig 5.9A Fig 5.9B
A tray with bubble Men fixing a tray with bubble caps in a column
Caps

I was also essentially taught the importance of cleanliness in every work you do, so there were several

occasions of house-keeping after each day’s work, cleaned the tools, area of work and PPE’s.

Other activities I went through during my training are:

1. Replacement of stiff gate valve

2. Installed the upstream spool piece to a 6”300 valve (14PV002)
3. Unbolted several man-holes on columns
4. Installed electrical motors in the plant
5. Aligned the installed electric motor with the pump so as to avoid any form of disaster.
6. Un-boxed several electric motors
7. Drilled holes on metal sheets using the radial drilling machine.
8. Familiarized myself with the pump sites, pipelines, tanks sites, machines, etc.
9. Clipped dangling electrical fittings in the plants.
10. Practiced assembling a mechanical seal
11. Cleaned and replaced the thermostat in a drum
12. Poked a blocked steam pipe at FCCU.
13. Opened and closed several man-ways on a column

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 CHAPTER SIX

6.0 CHALLENGES FACED AT WORK PLACE

Challenges are rather inevitable in every field of endeavor but are meant to make us a better person

so as to be able to appreciate their absence and be able to at face them heads on whenever they

occur again. Some of the challenges I faced were:

1. Waking up very early to dress up so as to catch up with the staff bus at the park due to the long

distance from my residence to the refinery.

2. Feeding was one of the challenges I faced, as a result of the status of the staff, the food vendors

have this idea that everybody in the compound has plenty of money, so the food price was hiked

and due to the fact that I have to leave home very early, I find it difficult preparing food from

home.

3. Movement within the plant was also a challenge, due to the sensitivity of the environment cars are

not allowed into the plant area only few official cars (hilux) are allowed and most of them are used

by managers, deputies and staff. Dispatching letters was difficult because sometimes I will have

to walk a very long distance which is very tiring and discouraging.

4. Poor inter-personal relationship between the IT students and some staff. This was due to

differences in background, school, environment, etc. But over time, this was put in check by the

intervention of superiors through discussions and meetings.

5. Another challenge was the use of arcade methods of doing some jobs which results in so much

stress and frustration because of its high demand for man power.

6. High level of stress and fatigue due to continuous mechanical jobs done in the refinery every day

especially during the period of my stay in statics section, the use of heavy tools and equipment,

difficulty in some jobs due to corrosion and traffic on the way back home.

73
7. During my training, I had challenge with information about what goes on in other departments

other than maintenance, I had to go an extra mile, asking other IT students in the departments to

tell me what they do.

6.1 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THESE CHALLENGES

1. Lunch breaks should be given to Industrial Trainees with food provided to help the focus more,

because a person cannot focus with hunger just as the saying goes “a hungry man is an angry man”.

2. More operational vehicles should be provided with some on standby at every departmental areas

to help move people to and fro the plant area.

3. Recreational activities should be introduced to help facilitate a better inter-personal relationships

between IT students.

4. Introduction of automation and computerized operations in the department will help reduce stress,

man-labour and ultimately increase profit

5. IT students should close earlier than the normal closing time so as to reduce stress and also get

enough time to put down and reminisce on what has been done during the day.

6. There should be a booklet containing the functions and other information about all the departments

in the company and it should be made available to all trainees to help broaden their knowledge of

the company.

6.2 RECOMMENDATION

For subsequent trainees being taken up by the company, I strongly recommend a more stringent

supervision of their training program, especially by the Human Resources Department. This will

go a long way in ensuring that trainees do not lose focus and will constantly remind them that their

services to the company remain valuable.

74
Also I suggest ITF should liaise with some companies where they will take up students for

industrial training. This will help students who find it difficult to find attachments or who end up

in companies where they do nothing.

There should be a better communication link between interns and industrial based supervisors.

This will enable them ask more questions in their area of difficulty. Companies should also extend

their safety and machinery operations training to allow interns operate sophisticated machines,

even if it’s brief with proper supervision. Also, feeding, should be made available to IT students

so they don’t suffer from the hiked price of food in the canteen.

6.3 RECCOMENDATION ON HOW SIWES CAN BE IMPROVED

1) The Federal government should make it mandatory for both private and public organizations to

accept a minimum number of students for SIWES placement and training.

2) The Federal government should pay regularly to the SIWES students instead of at the end of the

programme as it would assist financially those who are not given any allowance at their respective

placement areas.

3) NSE, COREN and other professional and regulatory bodies should participate in the supervision

of the students as it will raise the zeal of the students’ academic and professional quality, standard

of the students and education in Nigeria.

4) Private corporate organizations should also participate in this programme so as to minimize the

problem of low funding as complained by the ITF and the Federal government

75
 CONCLUSION

The Students’ Work Experience Programme (SWEP) can be said to be successful due to the

opportunity to apply theoretical work and knowledge learnt in lectures in real work situations. This

industrial training undergone at Port Harcourt Refining Company Limited has afforded me the

basic practical and theoretical knowledge that I may not have gotten from the lecture room. Also,

it has given me a better practical application of almost all the theories taught in lecture halls. It also

gave me the chance to experience what it would be like after graduation and how my contribution

to the nation is important. Relations were recognized in various Mechanical Engineering courses

such: Engineering Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, Machine Design, etc. and their relevance

in the engineering industry.

After my training with PHRC:

1. I can effectively take records of all jobs done, process new parts from the various warehouses using

the right forms and keep track record of all contracts, budgets, letters and memos.

2. I can effectively overhaul or service a pump (both centrifugal and positive displacement types),

service a steam turbine and a compressor.

3. I can effectively assemble a mechanical seal for a leaking pump and service the governor of a

steam turbine.

4. I can effectively install a valve to steam lines, fix bubble caps on the trays in a column.

5. I have a good knowledge of almost all the processes going on in a refinery and the step by step

process involved in servicing a column.

76
Other benefits include:

Career choice: I have been able to use this medium (training) to explore various career choices

available to me as a mechanical engineer. I has afforded me the opportunity to have a critical look

into the future and access my readiness for employment or entrepreneurship.

Good working ethics: As a result of my close working relationship with my industry based

supervisors and other staff of the company, I have been able to develop good working ethics which

is a prerequisite for successful working age. These ethics includes being able to handle situations

with little supervision, being able to provide reasonable suggestions to lingering jobs, etc.

Team spirit: As a result of the nature of work done which usually involves two or more people to

work as a team to achieve the desired result in the least time possible, I have been able to develop

the required team spirit to effectively work with others, harness their ideas and appreciate their

efforts.

Finally, the internship has been able to bridge the gap between academic theory and practical and

has instilled a great degree of self-confidence especially in my abilities to perform and carry out

duties as given with laid down instructions. It has also given me a first-hand experience and

knowledge of the refining processes and company at large. I can therefore say that the experience

gotten from this program was a worthwhile and enlightening experience.

77
 REFERENCES

1. http://www.nnpcgroup.com/nnpcbusiness/subsidiaries/phrc.aspx

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_refinery

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_refinery#/media/File:RefineryFlow.png

4. http://pdf2doc.com/download/4r6zwshkuza5q4f2/o_1arjaocdhonk1lhl1h621nb1feba/i

s.2379.1990(1).doc?rnd=0.3064110721454294

5. http://www.sulzer.com/en/Products-and-Services/Pumps-Services

6. http://pdf2doc.com/download/p2ho4bvwzsns7cpm/o_1arjf0itchvj17b4aehttq1fija/Tro

ubleshooting_E00669.doc?rnd=0.087489150663981

7. I.T REPORT (Koya T.A, 2009)

8. PIPELINES-IDENTIFICATION-COLOUR CODE (Indian Standard, 1992)

9. VERTICAL PUMP TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE (Sulzer pump service, 2012)

10. REFINERY RULES BOOK (Toledo Refinery, 2006)

11. ENGINEERING STANDARD FOR INSTRUMENT WORKSHOP, LAYOUTS,

TEST AND CALIBRATION TOOLS (Iranian Ministry of Petroleum, 2012

78