HBO REVIEWER
 Occurs when managers withhold a
CHAPTER 6: LEARNING AND PERFORMANCE MNGT
Learning
 A change in behaviour acquired through
experience
 Helps guide and direct motivated behaviour
Classical Conditioning
 The process of modifying behaviour by pairing a
conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned
stimulus to elicit an unconditioned response
Operant Conditioning
 The process of modifying behaviour by
following specific behaviours with positive or
negative consequences
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
 Central to the design and administration of
organizational reward systems
 Positive consequences
 The results of a person’s behaviour
that the person finds attractive or
pleasurable
 May include pay increase, bonus,
promotion, etc.
 Negative consequences
 Results of a person’s behaviour that
the person finds unattractive or
aversive
 Might include disciplinary action, an
undesirable transfer, a demotion,
etc.
REINFORCEMENT
 A strategy to cultivate desirable behaviour by
bestowing positive consequences or
withholding negative ones
 Positive reinforcement
 Occurs when a positive
consequence follows a desirable
behaviour
 Negative reinforcement
negative consequence after an
employee demonstrates a desirable
behaviour
PUNISHMENT
 A strategy to discourage undesirable behaviour
by either bestowing negative consequences or
withholding positive consequence
Too much actual punishment may lead to a
generalized negative response and decreased
motivation to work better
EXTINCTION
 Alternative to punishing undesirable behaviour
 A strategy to weaken a behaviour by attaching
no consequences to it
Extinction may require time and patience, but the
absence of consequences eventually weakens a
behavior
BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
 Albert Bandura asserts that learning occurs
when we observe other people and model their
behavior
 Task-specific self-efficacy
 A n individual’s internal expectancy to
perform a specific task effectively
 Four sources of TSSE
a) Prior experiences
b) Behavior models
c) Persuasion from other people
d) Assessment of current physical
and mental tasks
Goal Setting
 A process of establishing desired results
that guide and direct behavior
 Goals increase work motivation and
task performance
  Reduces the role stress associated with
conflicting and confusing expectations
because it clarifies the task-role
expectations for employees
 Goals improve performance evaluation
 Management by Objectives (MBO)
 Developed by Peter Drucker
 A goal-setting program based on
interaction and negotiation
between employees and managers
PERFORMANCE
 Most often called task accomplishment
Performance Management
 A process of defining, measuring,
appraising, providing feedback on, and
improving performance
Performance Appraisal
 The evaluation of a person’s
performance
 Give employees feedback on
performance, identify their
developmental needs, and influence
promotion, demotion, termination,
selection and placement decisions
True Assessment
 The extent of agreement to which performance
appraisal systems should improve the accuracy
of measured performance and increase its
parity with actual performance
360-Degree Feedback
 A process of self-evaluation and evaluations by
a manager, peers, direct reports, and possibly
customers
Key Characteristics of an Effective Appraisal System:
1. Validity
 Capturing multiple dimensions of a
person’s job performance
2. Reliability
 Collecting evaluations from sources and
at different times throughout the
evaluation period
3. Responsiveness
 Allowing the person being evaluated
some input
4. Flexibility
 Staying open to modification based on
new information such as federal
requirements
5. Equitability
 Evaluating fairly against established
criteria, regardless of individual
preferences
 Individual Reward Systems
 Directly affect individual behavior and
encourage competition within a work
team
 Team Reward Systems
 Solve the problems caused by individual
competitive behavior by encouraging
cooperation, joint efforts, and the
sharing of information and expertise
KELLEY’S ATTRIBUTION THEORY
 Managers make attributions, or inferences,
concerning employees’ behavior and
performance
Consensus
 An informational cue indicating the extent to
which peers in the same situation behave in a
similar fashion
Distinctiveness
 An informational cue indicating the degree to
which an individual behaves the same way in
other situations
Consistency
 An informational cue indicating t he frequency
of behavior over time
Mentoring
 A work relationship that encourages
development and career enhancement for
people moving through the career cycle
Tri-mentoring
 A targeted, peer-mentoring system that
recognizes and encourages implicit learning in
organizations
CHAPTER 9: EMPOWERMENT AND PARTICIPATION
EMPOWERMENT
 Any process that provides greater autonomy to
employees through the sharing of relevant
information and the provision of control over
factors affecting job performance
 Low self-efficacy
 The conviction among people that
they cannot successfully perform
their jobs or make meaningful
contributions
Five broad approaches to empowerment:
1. Helping employees achieve job mastery
2. Allowing more control
3. Providing successful role models
4. Using social reinforcement and persuasion
5. Giving emotional support
PARTICIPATION
 The mental and emotional involvement of
people in group situations that encourages
them to contribute to group goals and
share responsibility for them
 Involvement, contribution and
development
 A person’s entire self is involved, not
just his or her skill
 This involvement is psychological rather
than physical
 A person who participates is ego-
involved instead of merely task-involved
 Participation is more than getting
consent for something that has already
been decided
 Participation especially improves
motivation by helping employees
understand and clarify their paths
toward goals
Benefits of Participation:
 Participation typically brings higher output and
better quality of output
 Participation tends to improve motivation
because employees feel more accepted and
involved in the situation
 Their self-esteem, job satisfaction, and
cooperation with management may also
improve
 Turnover and absences may be reduced
because employees feel that they have a better
place to work and that they are being more
successful in their jobs
 The act of participation in itself establishes
better communication as people mutually
discuss work problems
 Participating employee are generally more
satisfied with their work and their supervisor,
and their self-efficacy rises as a result of their
newfound environment
LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE MODEL OF LEADERSHIP
 This model suggests that leaders and their
followers develop a somewhat unique
reciprocal relationship, with the leader
selectively delegating, informing, consulting,
mentoring, praising, or rewarding each
employee
Two Views of Power:
1) Autocratic View
 Power is a fixed quantity, so someone
must lose what another gains
 Comes from the authority structure
 Applied by management
 Flows downward
2) Participative View
 Power in a social system can be
increased without taking it from
someone else
  Comes from people through both
official and unofficial channels
 Applied by shared ideas and activities in
a group
 Flows in all directions
Prerequisites for Participation:
1) Adequate time to participate
2) Potential benefits greater than costs
3) Relevance to employee interests
4) Adequate employee abilities to deal with the
subjects
5) Mutual ability to communicate
6) No feeling of threat to either party
7) Participation to the area of job freedom
Area of Job Freedom
 Its area of discretion after all restraints have
been applied
CONTINGENCY FACTORS
PROGRAMS FOR PARTICIPATION
 Differing employee needs for Participation
 Some employees desire more
participation than others
 Underparticipation
 When employees want more
participation than they have,
they are participatively
deprived
 Overparticipation
 When they have more
participation than they want,
they are participatively
saturated
 Responsibilities of Employees and Manager
 The degree to which all employees
recognize that the opportunities
provided are accompanied by a set of
responsibilities
Expectations for Employees:
1. Be fully responsible for their actions
and their consequences
2. Operate with the relevant
organizational policies
3. Be contributing team members
4. Respect and seek to use the perspective
of others
5. Be dependable and ethical in their
empowered actions
6. Demonstrate responsible self-
leadership
Expectations for Managers:
1. Identifying the issues to be addressed
2. Specifying the level of involvement
desired
3. Providing relevant information and
training
4. Allocating fair rewards
 Consultative Management
 The kind of participation that managers
often practice even though the people
above them do not apply it
 Managers ask their employees to think
about issues, share their expertise, and
contribute their own ideas before a
managerial decision is made
 Suggestion Programs
 Formal plans to invite individual
employees to recommend work
improvements
 Quality Emphasis
 Quality Circles
 voluntary groups that receive training
in statistical techniques and problem-
solving skills and then meet to produce
ideas for improving productivity and
working conditions
  helps employees feel that they have
some influence on their organization
even if not all their recommendations
are accepted by higher management
 Total Quality Management
 Gets every employee involved in
the process of searching for
continuous improvements in their
operating
 Employees are provided with
extensive training in problem
solving, group decision making, and
statistical methods
 Middle-Management Committees
 Group mechanisms to improve
participation f managers below top
organization levels
 It’s an excellent way to develop
executive skills among middle managers
and train their for top management
 Self-Managing Teams
 Sometimes called semi-autonomous
work groups or sociotechnical teams
 Natural work groups that are given a
large degree of decision-making
autonomy
 They are expected to control their own
behavior and results
 Employee Ownership Plans
 Emerges when employees provide the
capital to purchase control of an
existing operation
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN PARTICIPATION
A. Labor Union Attitudes toward Participation
 Some union leaders traditionally felt
that if they participated in helping
management decide courses of action,
the union’s ability to challenge those
actions would be weakened
B. Limitations of Participation
 Guidelines for Participation Program
Success:
 Let workers progress from involvement
on simple issues to more complex ones
 Provides employees with relevant
training so that they understand broad
organizational issues and financial
statements
 Communicate in advance their areas of
decisional freedom and the associated
boundaries
 Don’t force workers to participate if
they do not wish to do so
 Provide counselling for supervisors so
that they will know how to handle
power sharing
 Set realistic goals for the early stages of
any participative process
 Keep the guiding philosophy behind
participation firmly in mind at all times
 Never attempt to manipulate a decision
under the guise of participation
 Maintain a delicate balance between
overparticipation and
underparticipation
 Monitor employee perceptions of the
level of empowerment experienced
C. New Roles for Mangers
 Managers need to start relinquishing
their roles of judge and critic and begin
viewing themselves as partners with
employees
D. Concluding Thoughts
 In spite of its numerous limitations,
participation generally has achieved
substantial success
 It’s not the answer to all organization
problems, but experience does show its
general usefulness
CHAPTER 9: WORK TEAMS AND GROUPS
Group
 Formed when two or more people have
common interests, objectives and continuing
interaction
Work Team
 who are committed to a common mission,
performance goals, and approach for which
they hold themselves mutually accountable
 Task-oriented groups
 Make valuable contributions to the organization
and are important to the need satisfaction of
members
Teams are very useful in performing work that is
complicated, fragmented, and or more voluminous than
one person can handle.
Individual limitations are overcome and problems
are solved through teamwork and collaboration.
Teamwork
 Joint action by a team of people in which
individual interests are subordinated to team
unity
Benefits to Organization:
1. Complex, collaborative work tasks and activities
tend to require considerable amounts of
teamwork
2. When knowledge, talent, and abilities are
dispersed across numerous workers and require
an integrated effort for task accomplishment,
teamwork is often the only solution
3. Teams make the most significant contributions
to organizations when members can put aside
individual interests in favour of unity
4. Teams with experience working together may
produce valuable innovations, and individual
contributions within teams are valuable as well
Social Benefits to Individuals:
 Psychological Intimacy
 Emotional and psychological closeness
to other team or group members
 Results in feelings of affection and
warmth, unconditional positive regard,
opportunity for expression, security and
emotional support, and nurturing
 Integrated Involvement
 Closeness achieved through tasks and
activities
 Results in enjoyment of work, social
identity and self-definition, being
valued for one’s skills and abilities,
opportunities for power and influence,
conditional positive regard, and support
for one’s beliefs and values
Characteristics of a Well-Functioning, Effective Group:
1. The atmosphere tends to be relaxed,
comfortable, and informal
2. The group’s task is well-understood and
accepted by the member
3. The members listen well to one another; most
members participate in a good deal of task-
relevant discussion
4. People express both their feelings and their
ideas
5. Conflict and disagreement are present and
centered around ideas or methods, not
personalities or people
6. The group is aware and conscious of its own
operation and function
7. Decisions are usually based on consensus, not
majority vote
8. When actions are decided, clear assignments
are made and accepted by members of the
group
Group Behavior:
 Norms of Behavior
 The standards that a work group uses to
evaluate the behavior of its members
  Group Cohesion
 The interpersonal glue that makes
members of a group stick together
 Social Loafing
 The failure of a group member to
contribute personal time, effort,
thoughts, or other resources to the
group
 Loss of individuality
 A social process in which individual
group members lose self-awareness
and its accompanying sense of
accountability, inhibition, and
responsibility for individual behavior
Stages of Group Formation:
1. Mutual Acceptance
2. Decision-making
3. Motivation
4. Control and Sanctions
Group addresses these issues:
1. Interpersonal Issues
 Matter of trust, personal comfort, and
security
2. Task Issues
 The mission of the group, the methods
of the group employs, and the
outcomes expected of the group
3. Authority Issues
 Decisions about who is in charge, how
power and influence are managed, and
who has the right to tell whom to do
what
Stages of Group Development:
FIVE-STAGE MODEL
 Bruce Tuckman
PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM MODEL
1. Forming Stage
 Dependence on guidance and direction
 Team members are unclear about
individual roles and responsibilities and
tend to rely heavily on the leader to
answer questions about the team’s
purpose, objectives, and external
relationships
2. Storming Stage
 Team members compete for position
 This is a period of considerable conflict
as power struggles, cliques, and factions
within the group begin to surface
 Clarity of purpose increases, but
uncertainties still exist
 Members assess one another with
regard to trustworthiness, emotional
comfort, and evaluative acceptance
3. Norming Stage
 Agreement and consensus
 Roles and responsibilities become clear
and are accepted
 The group’s focus will turn from
interpersonal relations to decision-
making and task accomplishment
4. Performing Stage
 Becomes more strategically aware of its
mission and purpose
 The group has successfully worked
through interpersonal, task, and
authority issues and can stand on its
own with little interference from the
leader
 Disagreements are resolved positively
with necessary changes to structure
and processes attended to by the team
5. Adjourning Stage
 Team members retain a sense of
accomplishment and feel good knowing
that their purpose was fulfilled
 Connie Gersick
 Groups do not necessarily progress linearly
from one step to another in a predetermined
sequence but alternate between periods of
 inertia with little visible progress toward goal
achievement
Characteristics of a Mature Group:
1. Purpose and Mission
 the group’s purpose and mission may
be assigned or emerge from within the
group
Empowerment Skills:
 Competence Skills
 Mastery and experience in one’s chosen
discipline and profession provide an
essential foundation for empowerment
 Process Skills
 Negotiating skills, especially with allies,
opponents, and adversaries

2. Behavioral Norms  Development of Cooperative and Helping

 Well-understood standards of behavior Behaviors
within a group
 Communication Skills
3. Group Cohesion  Self-expression skills and skills in
 Enables group to exercise effective reflective listening
control over its members in relation to
its behavioural norms and standards Self-Managed Teams
 Self-directed teams or autonomous work groups
4. Status Structure  Teas that make decisions that were once
 Set of authority and task relations reserved for manager
among a group’s members  One way to implement empowerment in
organizations
Task Functions
 Those activities directly related to the effective Upper Echelons
completion of the team’s work  Top-level executives
 Top management team can predict
Maintenance Functions organizational characteristics, and set standards
 Those activities essential to the effective, for values, competence, ethics, and unique
satisfying interpersonal relationships within a characteristics throughout the organization
group or team
Five Seasons in CEO’s Tenure:
1. Response to a mandate
Factors that Influence Group Effectiveness: 2. Experimentation
1. Work Team Structure 3. Selection of an enduring theme
 Include goals and objectives, operating 4. Convergence
guidelines, performance measures, and 5. Dysfunction
role specification
2. Work Team Process Diversity at the Top
3. Diversity  Wild Turkey
4. Structural Diversity  A devil’s advocate who challenges the
 Concerns the number of structural thinking of the CEO and other top
holes within a work team executives and provides a counterpoint
5. Creativity during debates