Appendix A

Conversion Factors

Acceleration 1 m/s2 = 4.252 × 107 ft/h2

Area 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2
1 ft2 = 0.092903 m2
Density 1 kg/m3 = 0.062428 lbm/ft3
Energy 1 kJ = 0.9478 Btu
1 kcal = 4.1868 kJ
Force 1 N = 0.22481 lbf
1 lbf = 4.44822 N
Heat flux 1 W/m2 = 0.3171 Btu/h ft2 = 0.8598 kcal/h m2
Heat transfer coefficient 1 W/m2 °C = 0.1761 Btu/h ft2 oF
1 Btu/h ft2 °F = 5.6786 W/m2 K
Latent heat 1 kJ/kg = 0.4299 Btu/lbm
Length 1 m = 3.2808 ft
1 ft = 0.3048 m
Mass 1 kg = 2.2046 lbm
1 lbm = 0.4536 kg
1 tonne = 1000 kg
1 short ton = 2000 lbm = 907.1847 kg
Mass transfer coefficient 1 m/s = 1.181 × 104 ft/h
Power 1 hp = 745.7 W
1 hpe = 746 W
1 kW = 737.56 lbf ft/s
Pressure 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1.4504×10−4 psia
1 psia = 6894.8 N/m2
1 atm = 14.69 psia
Specific heat 1 kJ/kg °C = 0.23885 Btu/lbm R
Temperature T(K) = t(°C) + 273.15
T(R) = t(°F) + 459.67
(continued)

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2017 979

R. Karwa, Heat and Mass Transfer, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-1557-1
980 Appendix A

(continued)
Thermal conductivity 1 W/mK = 0.57782 Btu/h ft °F = 2.39×10−3 cal/cm s °C
Thermal resistance 1 K/W = 0.5275 °F/h Btu
Viscosity 1 N/sm2 = 1 kg/sm = 2419.1 lbm/ft h
1 poise = 1 g/s cm
Volume 1 m3 = 1000 L
1 US gallon = 3.7854 L
1 m3 = 264.17 US gallon
1 gal (imperial) = 4.546 L
Volumetric heat generation 1 W/m3 = 0.09665 Btu/h ft3

Table A.1 SI Prefixes

Multiplier Prefix Symbol
1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
10 deka da
10−1 deci d
10−2 centi c
10−3 milli m
10−6 micro μ
10−9 nano n
10−12 pico p
10−15 femto f
10−18 atto a
Appendix A 981

Table A.2 Physical constants

Avogadro’s number (NA) 6.0222 × 1026 molecules/kg mole
Boltzmann’s constant (k) (1.38032 ± 0.00011) × 10−23 J/mol K
8.6171 × 10−5 ev/K
Planck’s constant (h) (6.6237 ± 0.0011) × 10−34 J/s
Stefan–Boltzmann constant (σ) 5.66961 × 10−8 W/m2 K4
Speed of light in vacuum (c) 2.9979 × 108 m/s
Speed of sound in dry air at 0 °C (1 atm) 331.36 m/s
Universal gas constant (Ro) (8.31436 ± 0.00038) J/mol K
Standard gravitational acceleration (g) 980.665 cm/s2
Standard atmospheric pressure (1 atm) 1.013246 × 105 N/m2
1.01325 bar
760 mm Hg (0 °C)
10.3323 m H2O (4 °C)
1.03323 kgf/cm2
14.696 psi
1 cm Hg 1333 N/m2
1 mm Hg 1 torr
1 atm 760 torr
1 bar 1 × 10−5 N/m2
1 Newton (N) 1 kg m/s2
1 dyne 1 g cm/s2 = 10−5 N
1 joule (J) 1 kg m2/s2 = 107 erg
1 kcal 4186 J
1 ev 1.602 × 10−19 J
1 liter 1000.028 cm3
1 Angstrom (Å) 10−10 m
lnx 2.30258 log10x
e 2.71828
1o 0.01745 radians
π 3.14159
Ice point (at 1 atm) 273.15 K
Note At standard conditions 1 kg mole occupies 22.4146 ± 0.0006 m3 volume
982 Appendix A

Table A.3.1 Thermophysical properties of metals

Material Temperature Density ρ Specific heat Thermal
range (°C) (g/m3) c (kJ/kgK) at 20 °C conductivity
k (W/m K)
Aluminum 0–400 2.71 0.895 202–250
Duralumin 0–200 2.79 0.883 159–194
Brass (70%Cu, 100–300 8.52 0.38 104–147
30%Zn)
Bronze (75% 0–100 8.67 0.34 26
Cu, 25% Sn)
Copper 1−600 8.95 0.38 385–350
Cast iron 20 7.26 0.42 52
Wrought iron 0–1000 7.85 0.46 59–33
Lead 1–300 11.35 0.13 35–31
Mercury 0–300 13.6 0.14 8–14
Nickel 0–400 8.9 0.445 93–59
Silver (99.9 %) 0–400 10.52 0.234 410–360
Steel 0–1000 7.83 0.465 55–29
(C = 0.5 %)
(C = 1 %) 0–1000 7.8 0.47 43–28
Cr-Steel 0–1000 7.86 0.46 62–33
(Cr = 1 %)
18-8 Stainless 0–600 7.82 0.46 16–26
steel
Tin 1–200 7.3 0.22 66–57
Tungsten 0–800 19.3 0.133 166–76
Zinc 0–400 7.14 0.385 117–98
Appendix A 983

Table A.3.2 Thermophysical properties of non-metals

Material Temperature Density ρ Specific heat Thermal conductivity
(°C) (kg/m3) c (kJ/kgK) k (W/mK)
Non-metals
Asbestos (loose) 0–100 400–900 0.82 0.15–0.22
Brick 25 1600–1900 0.84 0.4–0.7
Calcium silicate 40 190 0.055
Clay 0–100 1460 0.88 1.3 at 20 °C
Concrete 25 1900–2300 0.88 0.81–1.40
Coal (anthracite) 25 1350 1.25 0.25
Cork 25 45–130 1.8 0.4
Cotton 25 80 1.3 0.06
Glass, window 25 2700 0.84 0.78
Glass wool 25 24–160 0.7–0.8 0.04
Granite 25 2630 0.78 2.8
Gypsum 25 600–800 0.6–1.1 0.17–0.3
plaster/board
Ice 0 920 2.04 1.88
Lime stone 25 2300–2500 0.8–0.9 1.25–2.2
Magnesia 85 % 40 185–270 0.05–0.07
Marble 25 2500–2700 0.8–0.85 2.0–2.8
Mica (across 0.71
layers)
Mineral wool 25 160–190 1.03 0.045
Paper 25 930 1.34 0.18
Paraffin 25 900 2.9 0.24
Plaster, cement 25 1850 0.72
sand
Plywood, bonded 25 545 1.21 0.12
Porcelain 25 2400 5.0
Polystyrene 25 35–55 1.5 0.027–0.04
(expanded)
Polyurethane 25 30–45 1.4–1.5 0.025
foam (rigid)
Rubber, hard 25 1200 2.01 0.15
Sand 25 1510 0.8 0.27
Sand stone 25 2150–2300 0.75 2.9
Sawdust 25 0.059
Wood (oak) 25 550–800 2.4 0.17–0.35
Wood (balsa) 25 140 0.055
984 Appendix A

Table A.4 Thermophysical properties of water at atmospheric pressure

t (°C) Density Specific Thermal Dynamic Prandtl Volume
(kg/m3) heat conductivity viscosity × 106 number expansion
(kJ/kgK) (W/mK) (Ns/m2 or kg/ms) (Pr) coefficient β
×103 (1/K)
5 999.9 4.204 0.572 1501 11.1 0.016
10 999.7 4.193 0.585 1300 9.44 0.081
15 999.0 4.186 0.591 1136 8.08 0.144
20 998.2 4.183 0.601 1002 7.00 0.201
25 997.0 4.181 0.609 890 6.13 0.253
30 995.6 4.179 0.617 797 5.40 0.304
35 994.0 4.178 0.624 718 4.81 0.342
40 992.2 4.179 0.631 651 4.30 0.385
45 990.2 4.181 0.637 594 3.90 0.422
50 988.1 4.182 0.644 544 3.55 0.459
55 985.2 4.183 0.648 501 3.24 0.484
60 983.3 4.185 0.654 463 3.00 0.521
65 980.4 4.188 0.658 430 2.76 0.553
70 977.5 4.191 0.663 400 2.56 0.586
75 974.7 4.194 0.667 374 2.39 0.614
80 971.8 4.198 0.670 351 2.23 0.652
85 969.0 4.203 0.673 330 2.09 0.675
90 965.3 4.208 0.675 311 1.97 0.700
95 961.5 4.213 0.677 294 1.86 0.721
100 958.3 4.211 0.682 282 1.76

The following relations for thermophysical properties of the air may be used:
 0:0155
Tm
cp ¼ 1006 ðaÞ
293
 0:86
Tm
k ¼ 0:0257 ðbÞ
293

Tm 0:735
5
l ¼ 1:81  10 ðcÞ
293
 
293
q ¼ 1:204 ðdÞ
Tm
lcp
Pr ¼ ðeÞ
k

where temperatures are in K.

Appendix A 985

Table A.5 Thermophysical properties of air at atmospheric pressure

t (°C) Density Specific Dynamic Thermal Thermal Pr
(kg/m3) heat viscosity × 105 conductivity (W/m K) diffusivity × 104
(kJ/kg K) (Ns/m2 or kg/ms) (m2/s)
0 1.3005 1.0055 1.7127 0.02412 0.1860 0.715
25 1.1868 1.0057 1.8363 0.02608 0.2190 0.709
50 1.0949 1.0072 1.9512 0.02799 0.2570 0.703
75 1.0052 1.0089 2.0658 0.02990 0.2952 0.697
100 0.9452 1.0113 2.1720 0.03170 0.3340 0.693
125 0.8872 1.0138 2.2776 0.03350 0.3729 0.689
150 0.8370 1.0171 2.3769 0.03522 0.3969 0.686
175 0.7873 1.0204 2.4761 0.03693 0.4203 0.683
200 0.7474 1.0248 2.570 0.03859 0.4846 0.681
225 0.7079 1.0291 2.664 0.04025 0.5510 0.680
250 0.6762 1.0339 2.752 0.04186 0.6005 0.680
275 0.6448 1.0388 2.841 0.04347 0.6493 0.680
300 0.6174 1.0466 2.926 0.04497 0.6983 0.680
325 0.5901 1.0545 3.011 0.04647 0.7473 0.680
350 0.5674 1.0589 3.091 0.04794 0.8004 0.681
375 0.5448 1.0632 3.171 0.04941 0.8535 0.682
400 0.5247 1.0690 3.248 0.05080 0.9082 0.683
425 0.5046 1.0747 3.325 0.05219 0.9628 0.684
450 0.4883 1.0799 3.400 0.05358 1.0179 0.685
475 0.4722 1.0852 3.475 0.05498 1.0730 0.686
500 0.4570 1.0913 3.564 0.05633 1.1317 0.687

Table A.6 Order of magnitude of convective heat transfer coefficients

Mode Heat transfer coefficient, h (W/m2K)
Natural or free convection, gases 5–25
Forced convection, air (1 atm) 10–250
Forced convection, air (200 atm) 200–1000
Forced convection, organic liquids 100–1000
Forced convection, water 500–104
Boiling, organic liquids 500–2.5 × 104
Boiling, water 2500–5 × 104
Condensation, organic vapours 500–104
Condensation, water vapour 2000–5 × 104
986 Appendix A

Table A.7 Fouling factorsa, m2K/W

Temperature of heating Up to 115 °C 115–200 °C
medium:
Temperature of water: 50 °C or less >50 °C
Velocity: <0.9 m/s >0.9 m/s <0.9 m/s >0.9 m/s
Type of water
Sea water 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002
Hard water 0.0005 0.0005 0.001 0.001
River water 0.00035– 0.0002– 0.0005– 0.00035–
0.0005 0.00035 0.0007 0.0005
Distilled water 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
Treated boiler feed water 0.0002 0.0001 0.0002 0.0002
Muddy water 0.0005 0.0005 0.001 0.001
Other fluids
Fuel oil 0.00035–0.0009
Engine lubricating oil 0.0002
Transformer oil 0.0002
Refrigerant (liquid), including ammonia 0.0002
Brine 0.0002–0.0005
Methanol, ethanol, and ethylene glycol solutions 0.00035
Steam 0.0001
Air 0.0002–0.0004
Diesel engine exhaust 0.002
Refrigerant vapour, including ammonia 0.0002
a
For details refer Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (1999), 8th edn.,
New York

Table A.8 Total hemispherical emissivity of surfacesa

Surface Temperature (°C) Emissivity (2)
Metals
1. Aluminum
Highly polished (98 % pure) 225–575 0.039–0.057
Polished 20 0.05–0.06
Commercial sheet 25 0.06–0.09
Oxidized at 600 °C 200–600 0.02–0.03
2. Brass (70%Cu, 30%Zn)
Highly polished 250–375 0.033–0.07
Rolled natural surface 22 0.06
Dull plate 50–350 0.2–0.25
Oxidized (heated to 600 °C) 200–600 0.45–0.6
(continued)
Appendix A 987

Table A.8 (continued)

Surface Temperature (°C) Emissivity (2)
3. Bronze 100–300
Polished 0.03–0.07
Commercial 0.2–0.25
4. Cast iron
Polished 200 0.15–0.25
Newly turned 20 0.44
Rough 20 0.55–0.65
Rough and oxidized 40–250 0.6–0.9
5. Copper
High polish 20 0.02
Commercial polish 80 0.03
Commercial 0.1–0.2
Heated for a long time, coated with oxide layer 25 0.78
6. Chromium 40–500 0.08–0.3
7. Gold, polished 200–600 0.018–0.035
8. Monel metal 200–600 0.4–0.45
9. Nichrome wire, oxidized 50–500 0.95–0.98
10. Nickel
Polished 100 0.05–0.07
Oxidized 650–1250 0.35–0.8
11. Platinum: polished, pure 200–600 0.05–0.1
12. Silver, polished 30–500 0.02–0.032
13. Stainless steel (18%Cr, 8%Ni), polished 0–1000 0.07–0.17
14. Steel
Polished 100 0.06–0.35
Oxidized at 600 °C 200–600 0.64–0.78
Oxidized and rough 40–300 0.9–0.95
Molten 1500–1550 0.42–0.53
15. Tin, polished 0–200 0.04–0.06
16. Tungsten filament 3300 0.39
17. Zinc, polished 0–400 0.02–0.03
Oxidized 0.1–0.11
Galvanized 0.2–0.3
Building and construction materials
Asbestos 25–350 0.93–0.95
Brick
Red and rough 20 0.9–0.95
Magnesite refractory 1000 0.38
Fireclay 1000 0.75
Lime stone 100–400 0.95–0.8
(continued)
988 Appendix A

Table A.8 (continued)

Surface Temperature (°C) Emissivity (2)
Sand stone 0–300 0.83–0.90
Concrete 0–200 0.94
Marble 0–100 0.93–0.95
Plaster, rough lime 10–90 0.91
Porcelain, glazed 25 0.92
Glass, window (smooth) 0–600 0.88
Wood (oak) 0–100 0.9
Rubber, glossy plate 25 0.94
Paper 90 0.89
Paints
Aluminium paint, varying age 20–100 0.27–0.67
Black shiny lacquer on iron 25 0.87
Enamel, white fused on iron 20 0.9
Flat black paint (lacquers) 35–100 0.96–0.98
Lampblack, 0.075 mm layer and thicker (rough deposit) 40–350 0.95–0.9
Others
Water 0–100 0.95–0.96
Ice 0 0.97–0.99
a
The emissivity values may vary significantly with the condition of the surface
Appendix B

Short Questions

Useful short questions for competitive examinations (including GATE

and IES)

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2017 989

R. Karwa, Heat and Mass Transfer, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-1557-1
990 Appendix B

/
/
/
/
Appendix B 991
992 Appendix B
Appendix B 993
994 Appendix B
Appendix B 995
996 Appendix B
Appendix B 997
998 Appendix B
Appendix B 999
1000 Appendix B
Appendix B 1001
1002 Appendix B
Appendix B 1003
1004 Appendix B
Appendix B 1005
1006 Appendix B
Appendix B 1007
1008 Appendix B
Appendix B 1009

(a) (b)
1010 Appendix B
Appendix B 1011
1012 Appendix B
Appendix B 1013
Bibliography

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Index

A transition, 855
Absorptivity, 667, 811 Boiling heat transfer, 854
Air, properties at atmospheric pressure, 985 Boiling water, convection heat-transfer
Analogy coefficients, 861
Chilton-Colburn, 945 Boltzmann’s constant, 670, 981
electrical, 28, 277 Boundary layer
Prandtl-Tayler modification, 500 integral analysis, 442
Reynolds, 490, 505, 945 laminar, 383
von Karman, for flat plate, 504 separation, 588
Angle factor, 700 turbulent, 383
Annular fins, 185 Boundary layer thickness, 406, 408, 462, 464
Annuli, circular tube, 572 Bubbly flow, 859
Buffer layer, 388, 459
B Bulk temperature, 472
Backward-difference formulation, 364 Buckingham’s pi theorem, 540
Baffles, 867 Buoyancy
Balanced flow, 890 forces, 516, 623
Beam length (mean), 816, 817 Burnout, 856
Beer’s law, 810
Bernard cells, 652 C
Bessel equation (modified), 180 Characteristic length, 312
Bessel functions modified of first and second Chilton-Colburn analogy, 945
kinds, 180 Circumferential fin, 188
Binary diffusion coefficients, 935 Circumferential fins of rectangular section,
Biot number, 154, 311 189, 190
Blackbody, 669 Coefficient of friction, see friction factor
Blackbody emissive power Colburn analogy, 493, 945
Planck spectrum, 671 Combined free and forced convection, 655
Blausius solution, 399 Concentric tube annulus, 572, 573
Boiling Condensation
curve, 854 condensation heat-transfer coefficients,
film, 856 843–845, 847
flow, 859 dropwise, 837
forced convection, 859 effect of non-condensable gas, 853
nucleate, 855 effect of vapour velocity, 852
nucleate boiling heat-transfer coefficients, filmwise, 838
861 inclined surfaces, 838, 844
peak heat flux, 861 laminar film, 838
pool, 854 turbulent, 847

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2017 1017

R. Karwa, Heat and Mass Transfer, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-1557-1
1018 Index

Conduction Peclet number, 530

electrical analogy, 28 Prandtl number, 435, 542, 550
Fourier’s law, 1, 4 Rayleigh number, 549, 631
mechanism, 10 Reynolds number, 384
shape factor, 264 Schmidt number, 931
thickness, 395 Sherwood number, 940
Conduction heat transfer, 1 Stanton number, 441, 550
Configuration factor, 700 Displacement thickness, 391
Contact resistance, 109 Double-pipe heat exchanger, 867
Continuity equation, 389 Drag coefficient, 511
Convection, 3 Drag force
Convection heat transfer cylinder in cross-flow, 588, 591
coefficient, order of magnitude, 985 on flat plate, 510, 511
combined free and forced convection, 655 sphere, 591
free convection, see natural convection Dropwise condensation, 837
systems Dynamic viscosity, 984, 985
empirical relations (forced convection), 539
natural, 515, 623 E
Conversion factors, 979 Eckert number, 549, 550
Corrected fin length, 128 Eddy diffusivity or eddy viscosity, 487
Counterflow heat-exchanger, 865, 872 Eddy thermal diffusivity, 489
Critical heat flux, 856 Effectiveness, fin, 138
Critical radius of insulation, 97 Effectiveness-NTU method, 887
Critical thickness of insulation, 95 Efficiency, fin, 138
Cross-flow heat exchanger, 865 Electrical analogy for
Cylinders two-dimensional conduction, 277, 278
forced convection, 587 Electromagnetic spectrum, 665
free convection, 624 Emission band
Heisler charts, 340 gaseous, 809
in cross flow, 587 Emissive power
steady-state conduction, one dimensional, monochromatic, 670
45 Emissivity, 669, 811
Cylinder with heat generation, 209 Empirical relations
Cylindrical coordinates, 18 correction of constant property results, 571
external forced flow, 583
D flow across cylinders and spheres, 587, 591
Darcy friction factor, 604 flow across tube banks, 593
Design information forced convection, 541
heat exchangers, 910 liquid-metal heat transfer, 600
Diffuse surface, 668 pipe or tube flow, 552, 553
Diffusion, 929 Enclosed spaces, 650
Diffusion coefficient, 930 Energy equation of laminar
Dimensional analysis, 541 boundary layer, 431, 434
Buckingham’s pi theorem, 542 Energy thickness, 393
Rayleigh’s method, 541 Enthalpy thickness, 395
Dimensionless numbers Entrance length (entry region)
Biot number, 154, 311 hydrodynamic, laminar, 553
Fourier number, 311 thermal, laminar, 555
Graetz number, 555 turbulent, 561, 563
Grashof number, 522, 630 Error function, 330, 331
Lewis number, 931 Explicit formulation (finite difference method),
Nusselt number, 441, 542, 549 364
Index 1019

Extended surfaces, see fins dimensional analysis, 541

External flow flat plate, 383
across tube banks, 593 rough walls, 602
cylinder in cross-flow, 587 sphere, 591, 592
flat plate in parallel flow, 383, 384 tube banks, 593
over a sphere, 591 Forced-convection boiling, 859
Form drag, 588
F Fouling factors (resistances), 913, 986
Fanning friction factor, 469 Fourier number, 311
Fick’s law of diffusion, 930 Fourier’s equation, 15
Film-boiling region, 856 Fourier’s law, 1, 4
Film condensation, 838 Free convection. See Natural convection
Film temperature, 452 Friction factor (coefficients)
Fin effectiveness, 138 Darcy, 604
Fin efficiency, 139 Fanning, 469
Finite difference rough wall, 602
Gaussian elimination, 299 skin, 406
Finite difference method, 278, 359
Gauss-Seidel iteration, 302 G
transition conduction, 359 Gaseous radiation, 809
two dimensional steady state conduction, Gases, thermal conductivities of, 11
279, 282 Gaussian elimination, 299
Finite difference schemes Gaussian error function, 330, 331
explicit, 364 Gauss-Seidel iteration, 302
implicit, 364 General heat conduction equation
Finned wall, 142 Cartesian coordinates, 13
Finning factor, 143 cylindrical coordinates, 18
Fin of minimum weight, 178 spherical coordinates, 23
Fins Geometrical factor, 700
circumferential (annular), 185, 188 Gnielinski relation, 564
composite, 130 graphical method (two dimensional
effectiveness, 138 steady-state heat conduction), 263
efficiency, 138 flux plot, construction of, 263
efficiency plots, 188 Grashof number, 522, 630
hollow, 129 Gray body, 682
longitudinal, 118 Grober charts, 339
rectangular, 118
spine- or stud-type, 117, 118 H
star, 117, 118 Hagen- Poiseuille equation, 469
temperature distribution, 119, 122 Heat exchangers
transverse, 117, 118 balanced flow, 890
trapezoidal, 118, 183, 184 classification, 865, 866
triangular, 179 concentric tube (pipes), 866, 867
with heat generation, 167 counterflow, 865
Flames, 831 cross-flow, 865
luminous, 832 design considerations, 910
non-luminous, 833 effectiveness, 887
Flat-plate, parallel flow over, 383, 384 effectiveness-NTU method for analysis of,
Flat-plate solar collector, 951 887
Flow boiling, 859 effectiveness relations, 898
Flux plots, 263 fouling factors (resistance), 913, 986
Forced convection log mean temperature difference(LMTD),
combined free, 655 868
cylinders, 587 mixed/unmixed fluid, 880, 898
1020 Index

Heat exchangers (cont.) Irradiation, 750

multi pass, 865, 880 Isotherms, 263
overall heat-transfer coefficient, 52 Iterative method, Gauss-Seidel, 302
parallel flow, 865
shell and tube, 866 K
types, 865 Kirchhoff’s law, 684
Heat flow lines, 263
Heat transfer coefficient L
overall, 4, 52, 788 Lambert’s cosine law, 689
radiation, 791 Laminar film condensation, 838
Heat transfer coefficient correlations Laminar tube flow, heat transfer, 553
annular duct, 572, 573 Laplace equation, 16
cylinders (forced), 589 Lattice vibration, 10
cylinders (natural), 633, 637 Law of wall, 460
enclosures (natural), 650 Leidenfrost point, 856
entrance (entry) regions, 555, 556, 563, 569 Lewis number, 931
flat plate (forced), 583, 585 Liquid metals, 529
inclined plates (natural), 636 LMTD correction factor, 881, 882
mixed convection, 655 Logarithmic mean radius, 50
parallel plate duct, 572 Log mean temperature difference (LMTD), 868
rough surfaces, 970 Lorenz number, 12
spheres (forced), 591 Lumped-capacitance, 322
tubes, 554, 555, 562 Lumped-capacity systems, multiple, 324
vertical plate or wall (natural), 633 Lumped-heat-capacity analysis, 309
Heat transfer, enhancement of, 965 applicability, 315
Heat-transfer-fluid-friction analogy, see
Reynolds analogy M
Heat transfer from isothermal Mass convection
vertical plate, free convection, 633 dimensional analysis, 940
Heat transfer from sphere, free convection, 638 Mass Grashof number, 944
Heat transfer in roughed ducts, 606 Mass transfer
Heisler charts, 340 by convection, 938
Horizontal cylinders, free convection, 637 Fick’s law of diffusion, 930
Horizontal plates, free convection, 636 Lewis number, 931
Hottel charts, 814, 816, 817 mass-transfer coefficient, 938
Hydraulic diameter, 572, 573 Schmidt number, 931
Hydrodynamic boundary layer, 384 Sherwood number, 940
Hydrodynamic development length, 385 Stefan’s law, 937
Mass-transfer coefficient, 938
I Mean beam length, 816, 817
Implicit formulation, 364 Mean film temperature, 452
Inclined plate (natural), 636 Mean value theorem, 258
Infinite parallel plates, 736 Metals
Infinite rectangular bar, 354 emissivity, 986
In-line tube banks, 593 properties, 982
Insulation thermal conductivity, 10
critical thickness, 95 Mixed convection, 655
materials, thermal conductivity, 10 Modes of heat transfer, 1
Integral technique for boundary layer, 442 Modified Bessel equation, 180
Intensity of radiation, 689 Momentum thickness, 390
Interchange or transfer factor, 738, 740 Monochromatic absorptivity, 683
Internal flow, circular tube Monochromatic emissive power, 670
laminar, 466, 553 Monochromatic emissivity, 682
turbulent, 482, 560 Moody diagram, 604
Index 1021

N P
Natural convection systems. See also Parallel-flow heat-exchanger, 869
Convection Peclet number, 530
boundary-layer thickness Planck’s constant, 670, 981
estimates, 521 Planck’s distribution, 670
character dimension, 634, 638 Planck’s law, 671
characteristic dimension, 634, 636, 638 Plane wall with heat sources, 197
combined free-forced convection, 655 Poisson’s equation, 16
dimensional analysis, 625 Pool boiling, 854
empirical relations, 623 Prandtl number, 435, 542, 550
enclosed spaces, 650 Prandtl-Taylor relation, 510
Grashof number, 522, 630 Pressure drag, 511
horizontal cylinders, 637 Pressure drop
horizontal plates, 636 heat exchangers, 910
integral momentum equation, 518 Properties
inclined surfaces, 636 air, 985
Rayleigh number, 547, 631 metals, 982
spheres, 638 non-metals, 983
vertical planes/cylinders, 633 radiation, 986
Network water, 984
radiation, 749
thermal, conduction, 28 R
Newton’s law of cooling, 3, 788 Radial systems, one dimensional steady state
Newton’s law of viscosity, 931 conduction in
Nodal equations, for Δx = Δy, 280, 281 cylindrical, 45
Nodal equations, general formulation spherical shell, 61
steady state, 280, 281 Radiation, blackbody, 669
transient, 364 Radiation heat transfer (heat exchange)
Nodal points, 279 Beer’s law, 810
Nodes, 279 blackbody, 669
Non-metals, properties, 983 gaseous radiation, 809
NTU relations for heat exchangers, 897, 898 gray body, 682
Nucleate boiling, 855 infinite long concentric cylinders, 738
Nucleate boiling heat-transfer infinite parallel surfaces, 736
coefficients, 860 intensity, 689
Nukiyama boiling curve, 854 interchange factor, 738, 740
Number of transfer units (NTU), 889 radiation heat-transfer coefficient, 791
Numerical solution method, 278 radiation network, 749
Nusselt film condensation theory, 838 view factor, 700
Nusselt number, 441, 542, 549 Radiation heat-transfer coefficient, 791
Radiation shape factor, 700
O Radiation shape factor relations, 704, 705
One-dimensional heat-conduction Radiation shape factor, salient features, 703
composite wall, 29 Radiation shields, 762
fin of uniform cross-section, 119 Radiosity, 750
plane wall, 27 Rayleigh number, 549, 631
temperature distribution in radial systems Ray tracing method, 736
cylinder, 47, 48 Real body, 681
sphere, 63, 64 Reciprocity relation, 700
Overall heat-transfer coefficient, 4, 52, 788 Rectangular fin, 118
1022 Index

Reflectivity, 667 Stanton number, 441, 550

Refractory surface, 754 Steady-state heat conduction
Regenerators, 865 one dimension, 16
Relaxation method, 287 two dimensional
Resistance cylindrical shell, 266
conduction, 28 finite difference method, 278
contact, 109 fins, 155
fouling, 913, 986 plane wall, 266, 267
space, 751 spherical shell, 266
surface, 751 with internal heat generation, 305, 306
Reynolds analogy, 490, 505, 945 Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5, 674, 981
Reynolds-Colburn analogy, 493 Stefan-Boltzmann law, 673
Reynolds number, 384 Stefan’s law, 937
Reynolds stress, 487 Stream function, 399
Ribs, 965, 966 Summation rule, 708
Richardson number, 655 Surface resistance for radiation, 751
Rohsenow equation, 860 Surfaces, reradiating, 754
Surface tension in boiling, 857
S Symbols, list of, xvii–xxi
Sand grain roughness, 603
Schmidt graphical method, 372 T
Schmidt number, 931 Tables
Selective emitters, 809 air, properties at atmospheric pressure, 985
Semi-infinite solid, transient conduction in, 329 conversion factors, 979
Separation of flow, 588 diffusion coefficients, 935
Separation-of-variables method, 249, 338 emissivity, 986
Shape factor error function, 331
conduction, 263 metals, properties, 982
radiation, 700 modified Bessel function, 181
salient features, radiation, 703 non-metals, properties, 983
Shell-and-tube heat exchanger, 866 SI, prefixes, 980
Sherwood number, 940 water, properties, 984
Similarity variable, 401 Temperature
Single-lump heat-capacity, 313 bulk, 472
Skin-friction coefficient, 406 mean film, 452
Sky temperature, 955 Temperature profiles, laminar flow, 385, 443,
Slug flow (boiling), 859 518, 529
Solar constant, 786 Temperature gradient, 7
Solid angle, 690 Temperature measurement error, 151, 743
Space resistance for radiation, 751 Thermal boundary layer, 384
Specular reflection, 668 Thermal conductance, 28
Specular surfaces, 668 Thermal conductivity, 9
Speed of light, 671, 981 Thermal conductivity measurement, 71
Spheres Thermal contact resistance, 109
drag coefficient, 591 Thermal diffusivity, 16
external flow over a, 591 Thermal entry length, 555
forced convection, 591 Thermal radiation, see Radiation heat transfer
Heisler charts, 340 Thermometer well, 151
Spherical coordinates, 23 Thermophysical properties, 17, 982–985
Spine or stud fin, 117, 118 Three-dimensional heat-conduction equation,
Stability criteria 13, 18, 23
finite difference method, 362 Time constant, 313
Staggered tube banks, 593 Transient conduction, 309
Stagnation point, 587 Transient conduction with heat generation, 316
Index
Transient numerical method, 359
Transition boiling, 855
Transition, laminar-turbulent flow, 384, 848
Transmissivity, 667, 811
Transparent or diathermanous, 668
Trapezoidal fin, 118, 184
Triangular fin, 179
Tubes
concentric, 572
flow across banks, 593
inline arrangement of, 593
laminar flow in circular, 553
staggered arrangement of, 593
turbulent flow in circular, 560
Tube banks, 593
Turbulent flow in circular tube, 560
Turbulent heat transfer from
isothermal flat plate, 584
Turbulent heat transfer in tube, 562
Turbulent Prandtl number, 490
Two-dimensional steady state conduction, 247
with heat generation, 305
analytical solution, 248
U Wall, law of the, 460
Ultra violet radiation, 665
Uniform wall heat flux, internal flows, 554
Uniform wall temperature, internal flows, 554
Universal velocity distribution law, 560
Unsteady-state conduction, 309
backward-difference technique, 364
Biot number, 311
convection boundary conditions, 332
explicit formulation, 364
1023
finite difference methods, 359
forward-difference technique, 364
Fourier number, 311
Heisler charts, 340
implicit formulation, 364
infinite plate, 337
lumped-heat-capacity system, 309
semi-infinite solid, 329
separation-of-variables method, 338
sphere, 340
transient numerical method, 359
two- and three-dimensional systems, 351
V
van Korman momentum integral equation, 411
Variable conductivity, 75
Velocity profile, 383, 385, 388, 518, 839
Vertical planes/cylinders
natural convection relation, 633
View factor, 700
Viscosity, kinematic, 50
Volumetric heat generation, 14, 197
W
Water, thermophysical properties, 984
White body, 668
Wien’s displacement law, 672
Wind heat transfer coefficient, 954
X
X-rays, 665