The Role of Uneven-Aged

Silviculture in the Context of

EcosystemManagement

James M. Guldin, EcosystemManagementResearchTeam,

SouthernResearch Station, Hot SpringsAR 71902.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/wjaf/article-abstract/11/1/4/4772386 by guest on 26 August 2019

ABSTRACT. The role of uneven-aged silviculturein an ecosystemmanagementcontextis establishedusing
threeelements.A reviewof succession and disturbancetheoryestablishesan ecologicalbasisfor themethod.
The economicand social basisfor the methodis derivedfrom comparisonsof yields and economics,and
discussionof socialaspects.The adaptivemanagementcontextis developedby reviewingfour classiccase
studies,drawing on past successes andfailures of the method.Overall the case is made that widespread
applicationof uneven-agedsilvicultureunderecosystem management carriesbothpotentialand risk,and that
the trade-offsexpandrather than limitfuture silviculturaloptions.West.J. Appl. For. 11(1): 4-12.

Ecosystem
management
has
been
defined
bytheUSDA madethe perfectlyreasonable ecologicalargumentthatthe
ForestService(Robertson1992) as existenceof catastrophic disturbance eventsin naturejusti-
fiestheuseofclearcutting(Bonnicksen1994).But whenth•s
using an ecologicalapproachto achievethe multiple-use is usedto justify usingonly clearcuttingfor everyreproduc-
management of nationalforestsandgrasslandsby blending tioncutimposedon a givenrangerdistrict,theparallelbreaks
theneedsof peopleandenvironmental valuesin sucha way down;noteverymaturetreedieswith 40 acof its associates
thatnationalforestsandgrasslandsrepresent
diverse,healthy,
in a squareblockonthehillside.Somedieindividually,some
productive,andsustainable ecosystems.
die collectivelywith survivorsscatteredamongthem. The
patternsby which individuals, small groups,and cohorts
Thisrepresents a conceptual evolution,orperhapsrevolu-
succumbare variable. As a result, many nationalforests
tion,in bothstrategyandtacticsfrom the mannerin which
nationwide are replacing their traditional reliance on
nationalforestshavebeenhistoricallymanaged,especially
clearcuttingandplantingwith a largerspectrum of reproduc-
overthe pastfour decades.
tion cuttingmethodsthatrely uponnaturalregeneration.
Thestrategic shiftis simplystated commodities will be
producednot for the capitalvaluetheyrepresent,but rather Among the more popularalternativesto clearcutting•s
uneven-agedsilviculture,whichfor someembodiescritical
asa byproductof ecologicallybasedinterventions in stands
valuesthat clearcuttingfails to provide.Perhapsforemost
andlandscapes. In otherwords,at boththe standlevel and
amongthesevaluesis a sensethatforesters whoprescribethe
larger landscapescales,ecosystemmanagementinvolves
methodare actingwith sensitivityto the land. But uneven-
greaterattentionto whatis retainedin the standor landscape,
rather than what is removed(O'Hara et al. 1994). agedsilvicultureis not the panaceasomemight hope.Re-
search, education, and experience in alternatives to
The tacticalshiftsareequallysimplein concept----exist-
ing practicesmustbe adaptedto betteremulateecological clearcutting,especiallyuneven-aged silviculture,havebeen
muchneglectedoverthe past30 years.
patternsand processes. For example,forestershave long
In thispaper,the role of uneven-aged silviculturein an
NOTE• Adapted from a paper presentedat "Uneven-agedmanagement: ecosystemmanagementsettingwill be definedusingthree
Opportunities,constraints,
and methodologies--aworkshopfor elements: ecologicalscience,economicandsocialconstraints,
practicinglandmanagersandresearchers,"
Bolle Centerfor People
andForestsandtheUniversityofMontanaSchoolofForestry,April and somelessonsfrom historicalapplicationthat represent
29, 1995. adaptivemanagement. Theseelementsdrawuponthedefim-

4 WJAF11(1)1996
t•onof sdwcultureas"...conductedonthebas•sof ecological
principlesandnot in spiteof them...[where]economicand
socialfactorsdecidethe silviculturalpolicy for any given
area"(Smith1986).Specificattentionisgivento interpreting
th•sdefinitionfor uneven-agedsilviculturein lightof ecosys-
tem managementprinciples.
EcologicalAspects
Broadlyspeaking,natureprovidestwo patternsfor silvi-
culturists to follow. The first is called succession--the nor-
mal growthand developmentof an existingforestor stand
(Kimmins 1987). The second,disturbance,is the partialor
completedestructionof an existingforestor standthrough
natural events (Spurr and Barnes 1980). Successionand
d•sturbanceinteractto determinetheecologicallandscapeof
the forestthroughthe interplayof their actionswithin or
acrossexistingstands.
Succession
Succession representsthe normal growth and develop-
mentof a foreststand.Thisdiscussion is framedat a starting
pointcalledyearzero,whena major"catastrophe" suchasa
forestfire orwindstormeliminatesall thevegetationona site.
From this point on, in the absenceof furthercatastrophic
d•sturbances, the standpassesthroughfour distinctstagesof
development.Two excellentsummariesof theseare pre-
sentedby BonnannandLikens (1979) and Oliver (1981); a
detaileddiscussionis foundin Oliver andLarson(1990). An
•nterpretationof the ecologicalbasisfor uneven-agedsilvi-
culture is presentedin Baker et al. (1995) and Oliver and
Larson (1990).
Thesefour theoreticalstagesor phasesof standdevelop-
mentcan be summarizedas follows (Figure 1).
Standinitiationstage(reorganization
phase)--Thisperiod
beginsimmediatelyafter the catastrophic
disturbance in
year zero.New species(herbs,shrubs,andtrees)become
Time
Figure 1. Fourstagesof stand development illustrated by biomass
trends over time. 1--Stand initiation stage or reorganization
phase; 2--Stem exclusion stage or aggradation phase; 3--
Understow reinitiation stage or transition phase; 4•01d-growth
stage or steady-state phase. After Bormann and Likens (1979),
Oliver (1981).
estabhshed becauseof the moist,fertde, and opencondi-
tions.Standbiomassdeclinesprecipitously to a minimum;
productivity
initiallydeclines,
thenincreases
dramatically
asfast-growingspeciescolonizethe site.
2. Stem exclusionstage(aggradationphase)--This stage
takesover at crown closure.As this stageproceeds,tree
growthandcompetitionleadto recognizableandpredict-
ablepatternsof standdevelopment. Competitionandden-
sity-dependentmortalityleadto self-thinninganda strati-
fied canopyof vegetationwith speciesof greatershade
intolerancein upperlayers,and speciesof greatershade
tolerancein lower layers.
3. Understoryre-initiation
stage(transition
phase)•Thisstage
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/wjaf/article-abstract/11/1/4/4772386 by guest on 26 August 2019
beginswhen maturetreesin the main canopysuccumb,
eithersinglyor in smallgroups,to naturalmortality.The
gapsin thecanopythatthiscreatesarecolonizedeitherby
tolerantmid-canopyspeciesor by new trees.Mortalityof
adjacentoverstorytreesallowsthegapto expand,creating
more growing spacefor the succeedingcohort.Unless
openings growto exceedonecanopyheightin radius,the
succeedingcohortwill remainundersomeinfluenceof the
precedingoverstory.These"gap-phaseregenerationdy-
namics"(Bray 1956, Pickett and White 1985, Runkle
1982,RunkleandYetter 1987)areecologicallysignificant
sincethe gaps are small enoughto be influencedby
adjacentoverstoryvegetation.
4. Old-growth stage (steady-statephase)--This stage is
achievedwhen the standhas developeda seriesof gaps
over time that result in a stable balance of trees of different
species,sizes,and ages.This stagetendsto have more
stabilityin biomassandproductivitythantheotherstages.
Regenerationdynamicscontinuethroughthe gap-phase
regenerationprocessdescribedin the transitionperiod.
The coexistence of youngandold trees,the dynamicsof
developmentwithin gapsandbetweengaps,andthe rela-
tively stablebiomassandproductivitylevelscontinueover
the long term.
Thesefour stagesrepresentan idealizedtheoreticalprogres-
sion.In practice,only therareststandsattainthe old-growth
stage,sincethehypotheticalexclusionof catastrophic events
over the centuries is unusual.
Disturbance
Naturaldisturbance is theecologicalcounterpoint to suc-
cession(White 1979).Throughsuccession, plantcommuni-
ties develop;throughdisturbance,that developmentis al-
tered. Some disturbancesare severeenoughto set a plant
communitybackto thebeginningof thestandinitiationstage.
Othersare so minor that only one tree is affected,thereby
advancingdevelopmentduringthe stemexclusionand un-
derstoryre-initiationstages.
Most peoplethinkof disturbanceasa catastrophic natural
event that destroysall overstoryvegetation.The volcanic
eruptionof Mt. St.Helensin 1980,thewildfiresin Yellowstone
NationalPark in 1988, or the devastationof HurricaneHugo
in SouthCarolinain 1989, are spectacularexamples.When
they occur,they set succession back to the standinitiation
WJAF11(1)1996 5
stage.But they are only a small part of the disturbance
picture.
The severepartialdisturbance
in whichmostof a standis
destroyed
butpartof theoverstory
andmidstorysurvives
is
more common. This disturbance results in a new cohort of
regeneration
beneaththe scatteredoverstorytreesthat sur-
vived the disturbance. This leads to stand conditions with
morevariablestructureandspeciescompositionthanin the
standthatfollowsa completedisturbance.
The small disturbance that affects one to a few trees occurs
far morefrequentlythanstand-replacing disturbances. Such
solitarymortalityis a basicelementof standdevelopment
throughoutsuccession. Disturbancesat this scaleadd eco-
logicalcomplexityto standsin creatingconditions for mul-
tiple speciesandmultiplecanopystrata.
Silvicultural Linkage of Succession and Disturbance
Ecologically,silviculturereflectstheforester's effortsto
imitate successionand disturbance.The stagesof stand
development andgradients of disturbance reflecttheecologi-
cal basiswithinwhichsilviculturists operate.Reproduction
cuttingimitatesdisturbance; standmanagement afterrepro-
ductioncuttingimitatesstanddevelopment.
Thefirsttwo stages of standdevelopment setthestagefor
even-agedsilviculture.By imposingdisturbancessevere
enoughto promoteregenerationacrossthe entire stand,the
forestercan encouragethe developmentof intolerantand
midtolerantspeciesas one or two age classesdistributed
uniformlyacrossthestand.Theinterestthatforestershavein
thesetwo stagesis apparentin Figure 1--at the end of the
secondstage,biomasslevels (bf/ac, for example)reacha
peakacrossall four stages.
Thelaterstagesof succes sion,primarilytheunderstory re-
initiationstage,providetheecologicalbasisfor uneven-aged
silviculture.Whentreesin theoverstorydie,a newagecohort
becomesestablished withintheresultinggap.Moreover,as
overstorymortalitycontinues overtime, someregeneration
will becomeestablished betweengapsbecauseof reduced
overstorystockinglevels.
Thus, the idealizedtheory gives way to the complex
reality, in which the ecologicalparallelis really a blendof
successional stages.Uneven-agedsilviculturemimicsthe
scattered overstorymortalityin theolderagecohorts, thereby
followingthe later stagesof succession. But it alsoseeksto
establishanddevelopnewagecohortsalongthelinesof the
standinitiationandstemexclusionstages, andwhosedynam-
icsareinfluencedby competition fromtheresidualor adja-
cent older age cohorts.Ultimately, standstructurewill be
characterized by a diversityof verticalcrownstructureand
agecohorts.
The advantages of uneven-aged silviculturearefoundin
the later successional stages,in thatstandstructure,volume
production, andcontinuous forestcoveraremaintainedin the
standovertime.But otherdesirableecologicalattributesof
the later successional stages,suchashighlevelsof downed
woodydebrisandlow netgrowth,areneithertypicallysought
nor likely to be achievedin uneven-aged silviculture.
Groupselectionis usedby forestersto approximatethe
intensivesmall-scale disturbances thatcreatelargeopenings
6 WJAF11(1)1996
within a stand.Naturalexamplesincludea locahzedinsect
infestation,a locallyseverewind,or theflareupof a surface
fire. Regeneration thenbecomesestablished anddevelops
withinthe groupopening.Ecologicalconditionswithinthe
gapare affectedby borderingtrees,dependingon opening
sizeandconfiguration. Thelargerthegroup,themoreclosely
will conditionswithin the groupapproximateopencondi-
tions.
Single-treeselectionis usedby forestersto approximate
thesmallestscaleof disturbance, suchaswhena singletree
falls or succumbs while standingin the woods.Causesof
suchindividualtreemortalityincludedisease, insects,
light-
ning, windthrow, or some combinationof these. In the
smallest gaps,theopening mayclosebeforetheregeneration
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/wjaf/article-abstract/11/1/4/4772386 by guest on 26 August 2019
can grow into the main canopy,and the regenerationmay
then persistwithout further growth or may even become
suppressed anddie.The occurrence of multiplegaps(where
treesadjacentto a recentlycreatedgapsuccumb dueto some
causelinkedto theirproximityto thegap)or theconcurrent
creationof severalsmallgapswithinthesameareacantipthis
ecologicalbalancein favor of regenerationsurvivaland
development.
Gap size and regenerationhave an obviousand critical
link. All factorsbeingequal,largergapsfavorspecies intol-
erantof shade;smallgapsfavor speciestolerantof shade
Aspectandopeningorientation influencethisrelationship
In
theexpectedways.Openingsonthesouthslopeof a hillside
providemoredirectsunlightfor regeneration development
than openingsof similarsize on a northslope.Similarly,
regeneration within circularopeningsis lessoppressed by
gap-bordering treesthan regeneration within openingsof
equalareahavingrectangular or amoeboid configuration
EcologicalImplications in an Ecosystem
Management Context
Accordingto thistheoreticalpicture,uneven-aged silvl-
cultureis groundedin reasonable interpretations
of current
ecologicaltheory.In situationswhereadvancedsuccessional
stagesare sought,and in which the perpetuation of those
stagesis silviculturallydesirable,theselectionmethodcanbe
usedto approximatetheseconditions.
One mightfurtherpostulatethatthe silviculturalbalance
imposedacrossa largeregionsuchasa rangerdistrictshould
subjectively reflectthe distributionof standdevelopmental
stagesand scalesof disturbance. Harris (1984) outlinesthe
theorybehindsucha view, suggesting an exponentialrela-
tionshipamongsizeandfrequencyof disturbance--thatfor
every 1,000 ac disturbance eventin a givenarea,therealso
occurten 100 ac disturbances,100 ten acdisturbances,1,000
one ac disturbances,and 10,000 tenth ac disturbances.A
district-level
forestmanagement strategythatadvocates
only
40 ac clearcuts,or for that matteronly 40 ac single-tree
selectioncuts,is notsupportedfromthisecologicalpointof
view.
A preferredstrategyconsistent
with thisview, andwhich
hasgreatermeaning
in ligh•of ecosystem
management
principles,is to supporttheoccurrence of a varietyof distur-
bancesizes,disturbance intensities,
andsuccessional stages
Thissuggests amixtureof even-aged anduneven-aged stands,
anda far betterunderstanding thanresearchers havetodayon
howto arrangethoserecentlyharvestedstandsin a meaning-
ful ecologicalpatternon thelandscape. The districtsilvicul-
turistmightbeginto understand thisby studyingthepatterns
of naturaldisturbanceon a district,and arrangingsimilar
proportionsof not only stand-levelreproductioncutting
methodsbut alsointermediatetreatmentssuchas thinning
andprescribedburningcoveringsimilar areas.
At the standlevel, thehallmarkwouldalsobeheterogene-
•ty. Shelterwoodswould not be marked by retaining seed
treesat a uniformspacingregardless of condition,butrather
by retainingthebestseedbearers of goodformregardless of
spacing.Uneven-aged standswouldbesimilarlymarked.For
example,imposinggroupselectionusingopeningsof con-
stant shapeand size under area regulationseem less than
ecologicallyrobustunderthislogic. Rather,markingstands
usingvolumeor structuralregulatorymethods,with varia-
tionsin openingsize,shape,density,andorientation,would
providemorenaturalisticpatterns.
Somefundamentaldistinctionsbetweennatureandopera-
t•onalsilviculturewill alwaysexist,andtheselimit theability
of the silviculturist to imitate certain natural conditions. The
basicpracticaldistinctionis thatsilviculturetypicallyresults
•n treesbeingcut, hauledfrom the woods,and sawedinto
boards.Harvestingtreesisjust asimportantto thetraditional
practiceof uneven-agedsilvicultureas it is to even-aged
sdviculture.In addition,foresterstypically retain more or
lessregularintervalsof standentryto improvethespatialand
temporalgrowthpatternsof stands.Frequententriesarejust
asimportant,if not more so,in uneven-agedsilviculturethan
in even-agedsilviculture.Sincestandentryoftenhasunto-
ward ecologicalsideeffectssuchasroad construction,ero-
sion,and soil compaction,uneven-agedsilvicultureis cer-
tainlynotfreeof negativeimpactsandcumulativeeffectsthat
requireamelioration.
This is not to saythatuneven-agedsilviculturecannotbe
adaptedto achievemanagementobjectiveswhere a light
ecologicaltouch or a restorativeobjectiveis required,be-
causeit can--but socaneven-agedsilviculture.For example,
the shortleafpine-bluestemecologicalrestorationwork in
the Ouachita National Forest in western Arkansas
more than a diverse even-agedsilviculturalprescription
creativelyimposed,withattendant benefitto manyspeciesof
flora andfauna.Suchadaptabilityundercreativeprescription
Table 1. Empirical yields after 36 yr of management for even-aged plantations, even-aged natural stands, and uneven-aged stands of
Ioblolly-shortleaf pine in the West Gulf Region. Conventional silviculture refers to standard management prescriptions;intensive
silviculture involved more frequent and/or intensive intermediate treatments and/or cutting-cycle harvests. Data summarized from
Guldin and Baker (1988).
Total merch. vol.
ft3/ac
Even-aged plantations
Conventional 59.8
Intensive 49.6
Even-aged natural stands
Conventional 35.8
Intensive 52.9
Uneven-aged stands
Conventional 34.4
Intensive 38.0
•s an attributeof sdmculturein general,notto anyparticular
even-agedor uneven-agedpattern.
Economicand SocialAspects
The rise in interest in uneven-agedsilviculture has as
muchto do with economicand socialaspectsasit doeswith
ecology.However,foresterswhoseekto quantifyyieldsand
economiccomparisonsfor westernconifersneed not pay
specialattentionto the author;his expertisein conifers,to
paraphraseNormanMacLean,increasesthe fartheronegets
in a southeasterlydirectionfrom Missoula,Montana.How-
ever, the trendsamongthe comparisons that existfor even-
agedanduneven-agedsouthernpine standsmightbe more
instructive and will be reviewed. Readers interested in more
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/wjaf/article-abstract/11/1/4/4772386 by guest on 26 August 2019
specificdetailsareencouraged
to referto thecitationsthatare
offered.
Growth and Yield Comparisons
One silvicultural element of interest to foresters is the
growth and yield that one can expect from uneven-aged
stands.Specificyieldsfrom southernto westernspeciesdo
nottranslatedirectly,especiallygiventheunpopularity
of the
Doyle log rule in Montana,but trendsin growthand yield
underuneven-aged silviculturemightbe suggestive.
Merchantablecubic volume yields from uneven-aged
standsin the West Gulf CoastalPlain (Table 1) are abouttwo-
thirdsof thoseone canexpectfrom even-agedplantations,
basedon 36 yr records(GuldinandBaker1988).Yieldswill
undoubtedlybe even lower relative to thoseexpectedfrom
modern genetically improved plantations.The method is
simplynot efficientin producingpulpwood,a pointprevi-
ouslynotedin Europe(Assmann1970).
However,sawtimberproductionin theWestGulf Coastal
Plainis a differentstory.Empiricalcomparisons overa 36 yr
period (Guldin and Baker 1988) indicate that sawtimber
cubicvolumeandboardfootyieldsfromuneven-aged stands
are at leastcomparableto even-agedsawtimberyields;for
comparisons usingthe Doyle rule, uneven-agedstandsare
better.Tree qualitycomparisons (Table2) indicatethatlogs
from uneven-agedstandsare of comparableform classand
is little volumeandof bettergradethanlogsfromeven-agedplanta-
tions(Guldin and Fitzpatrick1991). Again, theseobserva-
tions of sawtimberyields, thoughnot quality, parallel the
Europeanliterature(Assmann1970).
Cubicsawlog vol. Sawlog vol., Doyle Sawlog vol., Int. 1/4"
mbf/ac
27.0 10.4 17.7
34.9 11.2 19.9
22.9 10.7 15.8
22.0 7.6 15.4
27.0 12.7 18.5
28.1 14.6 19.6
WJAF 11(1)1996 7
Table 2. Empiricalcomparisonsof log quality for even-agedplantations,even-agednatural stands,and uneven-agedstandsof Ioblolly-
shortleaf pine in the West Gulf Region. Butt log grade is an ordinal scalefrom 1 (best) to 3 (worst). Data summarized from Guldin and
Fitzpatrick (1991).

Butt log grade Girardform class Butt log vol., Int.1/4" (bd ft)

Even-aged plantations 2.24 b 83.1 a 114 a

Even-aged natural stands 1.73 a 79.3 b 103 b
Uneven-aged stands 1.58 a 81.9 a 112 a

NOTE:Differencesamongmeanswithin a columnthat are followedby the same letter are not significantly
different.

EconomicComparisons managedusinguneven-agedsilviculture(Guldin and Gray

Again, the economicexperienceof southernforestryre- 1991). This would not be thecaseif themethodwere not able
searchwill be usedto highlightthegeneraltrendsof interest to achieveindustrialtimber objectivesin an economically
ratherthan any detailsthat can be immediatelyappliedto robust manner.
westernwhitepinestands.Comparisons of presentnetvalue

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/wjaf/article-abstract/11/1/4/4772386 by guest on 26 August 2019

SocialAspects
(PNV) are challengingenough over the 40 yr rotations
Thereis probablyno greaterimpetusto theconsideration
commonin southernforestry,muchlessthe longerrotations
anddevelopment of uneven-agedmethodsthanthe role of
that typify westernforestry.As a result,absolutecompari-
recreationand aesthetics.Retainingthe appearanceof a
sonsare perhapslessmeaningfulto westernforestersthan
relative observations.
continuous forestcanopyoffersadvantagesrelativeto even-
agedreproductioncuttingfrom the aestheticperspective,
For standsthat are eitherunstockedor fully stockedwith
especiallywhen consideringa long-distanceviewshed.The
valuablematerialat theinitiationof management, even-aged
retentionof theresidualoverstorymasksthe appearance of
methodsareeconomicallymorefavorablethanuneven-aged
the reproductioncutting,and has obviousbenefitsin high-
methods (Haight 1987, Haight 1990, Redmond and
visibility situations.
Greenhalgh1990).In theunstocked stand,thereisnoexisting
In closeview, suchas standingon a road or trail and
volumeuponwhich to build uneven-agedstructure,so the
lookingdirectlyinto an uneven-agedstand,the visionis not
methodis impractical.In the fully stockedstand,the oppor-
what might be imagined.The continuousrecruitmentof
tunitycostof failing to liquidatetheresidualstandrequired
seedlings,saplings,and pole-sizedtrees in uneven-aged
in uneven-aged silviculturecreatesahighinitialvalue,whose
standsmeansthat all levels of the canopyprofile will be
capitalizationover time considerablyreducespresentnet
value.
occupiedby foliage of desiredspecies.A well-stockedun-
even-agedstandresemblesa pole-sizedor largereven-aged
Interestingly,if onedecidesthat liquidatingthe residual
standthathasbeenlightly thinned,butwith morefoliagein
overstoryis not an option(suchas for a private landowner
the understory.The forestcanopyremainsin place; slash
unwilling to clearcuthis or her land), that residual stand
levels are low, and logging decks resemblethose from
wouldnotbecapitalized.Underthisconditionthepresentnet
thinning.
valueof uneven-aged silviculturebecomesextremelyfavor-
As aresult,uneven-aged standsarenot"park-likestands,"
able,sinceregularharvestsreturnhigh valueat a minimum
suchas would be typical of a long-rotation,well-burned,
of investment(Chang 1981, Guldin and Guldin 1990).
even-agedstand.They are not big-tree stands,which is
The PNV for uneven-agedsilvicultureis higherthanthat
probablythementalimageof thosewho seek"old-growth"
for even-agedsilvicultureunder high interestrates, since
Instead,they are ragged-lookingstandsthroughwhich one
thesediscriminateagainstpracticessuch as intensivesite
cannoteasilyseefor greatdistances,because thefoliagefrom
preparationandplanting(RedmondandGreenhalgh1990).
thedevelopingregeneration cohortsthroughsaplingandpole
If uneven-aged silvicultureis appliedto a standwhich is
size effectively screensthe interior of the standfrom view
initially somewhatunderstocked,or with an uneven-aged
structure alreadyin place,PNV estimateswill becomparable
to thatgeneratedby usingeven-agedmethods,dependingon Adaptive Management Aspects--
the value of the current stand; the less valuable, the more
Past Experience
favorablefor imposingthe uneven-aged
method.
Overall, careful examinationof the economic situationis Forestryunquestionably
haselementsof creativeapplica-
requiredtomakejudgments of applicability
andlikelihoodof tion. Femow (1913) describessilviculture as an art borne of
successfuleconomicapplicationof uneven-agedmethods experiencerather than creativity.Over the past severalde-
relativeto even-agedmethods.Theseinvolveanalysisof the cades,research,education,andexperiencein alternativesto
objectivesof ownershipand the owner'suniquefinancial clearcutting,especiallyuneven-aged silviculture,havebeen
situation.However, even the most doubtfulshouldkeep in muchneglected.But older scientificliteraturecontainssev-
mind the following empiricalobservation.Of the 17.2 mil- eral casestudiesof uneven-agedsilviculturethatretaintheir
lion acin commercialforestlandin Arkansas,forestindustry interestandapplicabilitytoday.
ownsroughly25%, or 4.4 million ac. Of this,about750,000 Fourbodiesof experiencecanbe summarized asrelevant
ac (17% of all commercialforestlandownedby forestindus- in this discussion--theDauerwaldin Germany,maturity
try, or 4% of all commercial forestlandin the state) is selectionin Douglas-firin the 1930s-1950s,improvement

8 WJAF11(1)1996
selecnon
•nponderosa
p•nealsodunngthe1930s-1950s,and
the work in CoastalPlain loblolly-shortleafpine in south
Arkansasfrom the 1940sthroughthe currenttime.
The Dauerwald
The Dauerwaldexperiencerepresents thefirst successful
recordof uneven-agedsilviculturalpractice.The technique
evolvedin Germanyfrom theearly 1870sthroughthe early
1900s.It thus placesuneven-agedsilvicultureas the most
recentof the four generalhigh-forestmethodsof reproduc-
tionatthecommandof thesilviculturist.Accordingto Troup
(1928, 1952), the Kiefern-Dauerwaldwirtschafi was pre-
sentedin 1920-1921 by Moller, describing5 decadesof
experiencein Scotspine in the Germanstateof Anhalt. The
following synopsisof the Dauerwaldis assembledfrom
Fernow(1913) andTroup(1928, 1952).
Dauerwald translates from the German as "continuous forest"
anddescribesa foresttreatedin sucha waysothatsoilisnever
exposed.The idealform of theDauerwaldwasthe selection
method.But conditionsof the Dauerwaldcouldbe approxi-
mated,albeitlessfavorably,with the irregularshelterwood
method,in whichpart of the originaloverstoryis retained
throughthe secondrotation,leadingto three-agedstands.
The forestsin whichthe Dauerwaldwas first implemented
were40-year-oldScotspineplantations,
withnaturalregen-
erationof pineoccurringabundantly.
Terrainwasgenerally
level, and the elevationof the area was about400 feet. Soils
were sandy,and the climatewas generallydry; the region
receivesabout22 inchesof precipitation
peryear.
The chief features of the Dauerwald were as follows. A
volumeofabout15timestheannualgrowthisalwaysretained
on site,designedprimarilyto protectthe soil.The fellings
wereconducted withoutregardtorotationlengthordiameter
limit. No tree, regardlessof size, was felled if it was still
vigorouslygrowing;no treewasretainedif it wasgrowing
poorly.All slashwasleft asit fallsto recycle.The allowable
cutfromcompartments wasreevaluated everytenyearsbased
on compartment inventories,and was removedin triennial
thinnings.No deliberateattemptwasmadetoobtainorrelease
regeneration,but naturalregeneration was relieduponand
was abundant.As thinningscontinued,standseventually
developedmultiplestories.
Severalinteresting pointsemergefromthissynopsis of the
Dauerwald.The methodwas initiatedin a plantation,and
required40 yr until Moller wasreadyto considerthe stand
"converted."The standwas not highly quantified,in fact
representsin somewaysthe antithesis of quantificationand
regulation.Annualgrowthwassimplycut fromthe poorest
trees,regardlessof sizeor spacing,
every3 yr. It wassuccess-
ful onverysandysoilswithlittlerainfall,andsuchconditions
generallyarenot rife with competingvegetation.Finally,it
wassuccessful in a speciesthathasprolificnaturalregenera-
tion annually.
Maturity Selection
A reproductioncutting methodalong the lines of the
selectionsystemfoundcommonusein thePacificNorthwest
from the 1930sto the 1950s.The fundamentalexpositionof
thepracticewasreported•ndetmlby K•rklandandBrandstrom
(1936) andwasespoused in theliteratureby Munger(1941)
underthe term "maturityselection."The methodwas de-
signedto extractthe smallbut valuableproportionof Dou-
glas-fir in old-growthvirgin standsof westsideconifers,
according tothefollowingmethods paraphrasedfromKirkland
andBrandstrom(1936). Keep in mind that Kirklandwas a
forest economistand Brandstroma logging engineer,no
smallfactorof interestin this story.
Maturityselectiondescribes a form of selectivetimberman-
agement thatoptimizesreturnsin thatonecanselectgrowing-
stockfor continuous productionof high-qualitytimber.To
promotethisdevelopment of growingstock,theyadvocated
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/wjaf/article-abstract/11/1/4/4772386 by guest on 26 August 2019
liquidatingfinanciallyovermature high-valuetreesto create
the requisitegrowingspace.This selectivitywasmadepos-
sibleby a networkof permanentroadsandflexiblelogging
methods,includingtrackhaulingandthe useof the crawler
tractorwith cable.Theyadvocated a lightinitialcutto liqui-
date overmaturetimber-decadent old-growthof very high
stumpage conversionvalue.The silviculturalresponse would
be the increased growthof valuablegrowingstockandthe
development ofregulatedselectionforestsaftertheDauerwald.
One can imaginethe glee with whichthis practicewas
embracedby the loggingindustry.Partialharvestingusing
highlymobileloggingequipmentbecameimmediatelypopu-
lar asa resultof highconversionvaluesandassociated
high
profits.But the costwasin the arresteddevelopment
of the
residual stand, and criticism of the method in the literature
throughthe 1940sandearly 1950sculminatedin an analysis
by Isaac(1956).
Theimmediatelyobviousdifficultywastheloggingdam-
agethat occurredas a resultof removingthe few big trees
fromheavilystockedstands. Of greatersignificance in stand
developmentwasIsaac'sobservationthatasthe ageandsize
of a residualtreeincreased, itsresponse to releasedecreased.
He alsoobserveda shiftin speciescompositionaway from
Douglas-fir towardmoretolerantspecies, especiallyin smaller
diameterclasses.That this was apparentmight have been
foretold, since data of Kirkland and Brandstrom(1936)
illustratethe absence of Douglas-firin the smallestdiameter
classesthey present the twelve-inchclass.
There are severalcontemporaryconclusions one might
draw as a resultof the failureof maturityselectionin Dou-
glas-fir.First, attentionto the entirediameterdistributionis
critical. The behavior of the subcommercial size classes
drivesthe system,andfailureto monitorthedevelopment of
desiredspeciesin thoseclassesis an invitationto disaster.
Second,what we now know aboutregenerationdynamics
relatedto gapsizeandtoleranceof targetspeciesunderthese
conditionspoint to the need to createlarger openingsto
assureestablishment of Douglas-fir--whichrequiresharvest
of not only the mature trees but also an immature tree
component. Finally,Isaacnotedseveralinstanceswherethe
methodwassuccessful--drysites,gravellysoilswhichpre-
sumableare extremelywell-drained,and severeexposures
subjectto drought.ThisconfirmstheDauerwaldexperience
that the methodis easilyimplementedon poorersites.
WJAF11(1)1996 9
Improvement Selection
Testsof selectioncutting(1909-1950) at Fort Valley
Experimental ForestnearFlagstaff,AZ, culminated in the
developmentof a methodthat G.A. Pearson(1950) called
"improvement selection."
Thesemethodsrepresent theear-
liest"long-term"experimentation
in uneven-aged silvicul-
ture in North America. Of interest also is the clash in the
literature between Pearsonand Munger (recordedin the
Journalof Forestryfromthe 1930sthroughtheearly 1950s),
each of whom was convinced that the other was at best
professionallyincorrect. Timesuggests thatPearsonwasthe
bettersilviculturist,
in lightof thepreviouscasestudyandthe
following descriptionsof the methodparaphrasedfrom
Pearson(1950).
Improvementselectionis plannedand directedtowardim-
provementof the stand.The primaryaim of improvement
selectionistobuildupaneffectivegrowingstock,whichtakes
precedence overtimbersalereceiptsandyieldsin theimme-
diatefuture.It is characterized
by lightandfrequentcuts;the
firstcuttypicallyremoveslessvolumethanthe second. The
initialvolumeincrementislow,butwill riseasgrowingstock
develops;
qualityincrement
expands
morerapidlythanvol-
umeincrement.Adequategrowingstockmustexist;Pearson
explicitlynotedthat"if spacesbetween yellowpineorblack-
jack groupshave been occupiedby poles,saplings,and
seedlings,thefutureof sustainedyieldissecure."
Themethod
is basedon thehypothesis thatgrowthof individualtreesis
determined moreby spaceavailableforrootexpansion rather
thanby crownsize.Themethodendeavors toplaceincrement
on thebestbolesin the stand:relativelysmalltreesof all age
andvigorclasses if physiologically
sound,of goodbole,and
in positionwhereliberationwaswarranted.
The long-termimpressions left by themethodare favor-
able, as interpretedby Schubert(1974), who observedthat
theselection method,designed for uneven-agedstands,isthe
best way to managemany standsof southwestponderosa
pine.Either singletreesor groupsup to an acrein sizehave
beeneffective,dependingon standconditionand manage-
mentobjectives.Schubertfurthernotedthatotheracceptable
reproduction cuttingmethods includeshelterwoodandgroup
selection.Finally, if conversionfrom even-agedto uneven-
agedstands(or vice versa)is undertaken,it shouldbe made
withoutdestroyingthe growingstock.
Selection Method in Southern Pines
The longestcontinuous
researchin the selectionmethod
with conifers in North America has been that with southern
pinesintheWestGulfCoastal Plain(Reynolds 1969,Reynolds
et al. 1984).At the turnof the century,virginforestsof the
upperCoastalPlainin southArkansasandnorthLouisiana
werecomposed of mixedstandsof loblollypinewithminor
proportions of shortleafpine andhardwood.On sandyup-
landswith varyinglythickloesscapsoutsideof thebottoms,
loblolly represented50%, shortleaf25%, and hardwoods
25% of volume(Chapman1942).
The initialcuttingin thesevirginstandsat theturnof the
centurywas typically a harvestto a 15 in. stumpdiameter
limit (abouta 12 in. diameterlimit); residualpine volume
10 WJAF11(1)1996
variedfrom zeroto 5000 bf/ac Doyle. Uncontrolledwildfire
typicallyfollowedthisdiameter-limit cutting.Theresultwas
a sitewith a few scattered pinessmallerthan 15 in. at the
stump,somemediumto largehardwoods, anda forestfloor
recentlyconsumed by fire latein summer,exposingmineral
soil.Theseconditions just happento be idealfor the estab-
lishmentof theprolificannualregeneration cropof loblolly
pine,withecologicalfavordueto sprouting abilitygrantedto
its associate,shortleaf.
Repeatedarsonfiresandthedesireto stretchoutthecutof
remaininguncutvirginstandsledto cooperation betweenthe
CrossettLumberCompanyandthe SouthernForestExperi-
mentStation.The companyleasedtheGovernment1,680ac
of its property,and this was establishedas the Crossett
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/wjaf/article-abstract/11/1/4/4772386 by guest on 26 August 2019
Experimental Forest. Under the research direction of
Reynolds,long-termexperimentsin the selectionmethod
wereinitiatedthatcontinueto thisday.The followingsum-
mary recountsthe processandgrowthobserved(Reynolds
1969, Reynoldset al. 1984).
Reynolds
established
a setof FarmForestry
Fortystudies,
in
which40-acretractsweremanaged usingtheselection method.
The sitesat Crossett
areof excellentquality,withsiteindices
between85 and95 feet (baseage50). The PoorFortywas
initiallystockedwith 2400bf/acreDoyle at theinceptionof
management; theGoodFortywasinitiallystockedwith 5100
bf/acreDoyle.
Reynoldsbeganto managethesestandsusingthe selection
method(neither'single-tree'or 'group' selectionper se),
usingannualharvestsfor the first 15 years,followedby
periodicharvestsevery5-7 yearsafter that.Allowablecuts
werebasedongrowthor a portionthereof,andmarkingwas
generallyimplemented usingvolumecontrolbasedon iden-
tifyinga guidingdiameterlimitconsonantwiththeallowable
cut.Marking wasconductedusingtherule "cutthe worstand
leavethebest."Treesgrowingacceptably abovethediameter
limit wereretained,andan equivalentvolumeof poortrees
below the limit was marked. In this manner,both sustained
volumeproductionand continualstandimprovement
were
attained.
After41 years,thePoorForty(per-acre data)hadgrownfrom
2,400bf Doyleto 7,300bf Doylestanding volume,harvested
a totalof 11,300bf Doyle,resultingin a netgrowthof 397bf/
ac/yr---equivalenttotheharvestof one19in. treeperacreper
year.The GoodFortygrewfrom 5,100 bf Doyle to 9,500 bf
Doylestanding volume,whileharvesting a totalof 16,900bf
Doyle,producing a netgrowthof412bf/ac/yr---equivalentto
theharvestof one21 in. treeperacreperyear.
Thus,the selectionmethodas practicedat Crossettpio-
neeredtherehabilitationof cutoverunderstockedstands;one
wayto createa selectionstandmightbeto high-grade a fully
stockedstand,suchas to a 15 in. stump-limitcut. More
appropriately,
well-stocked standssimilarlyrespond to light
frequentharvestcuttings.At Crossett,the selectionmethod
wasfirstdemonstrated to besuccessful onstandsof highsite
quality,a long-doubted point of selectionfrom days of
Moller andIsaac.In theseintolerantpines,hardwood control
was critical to the successof the method, and resultsfrom
Crossettmustbe interpretedin light of aggressive
hardwood
control.
Implicationsof this Body of Experience
These four case studies have elements of success and
failure from which today's foresterscan learn. First, the
selection method has been successful with intolerant conifers
m situations whereregeneration wasprolific.Second,stands
withnaturallyuneven-aged structure, plantations, andcutover
even-agedstandshave all beensuccessfully managedwith
the method.Third, the methodhasbeensuccessful on poor
siteswithlimitedcompetition for regeneration, andongood
sites where aggressivecompetitioncontrol has been em-
ployed.Fourth,mostinstancesof successwith the method
havebeenwhereattentionis paidto cuttingthe worsttrees
andleavingthebest,andwhereexplicitprovisionsaremade
to apply this rule to immaturesize classes.Fifth, the suc-
cesses with themethodhaveall beenin gentleterrain.
If regenerationis not prolific, specialeffortsto secure
boththeestablishment andthedevelopmentof regeneration
will be important.If competing vegetation is typicallyag-
gressive,success is morelikely if the competitionis effec-
tively controlled. Steep slopes (> 30%) will representa
specialchallenge for operational practice,giventhepotential
for damageto the residualstand.Standswith intolerant
species in theuppercanopyandtolerantspecies in thelower
canopywill representa more difficult challenge,in that
regeneration andsmallsizeclassesof the intolerantspecies
mustbe givensufficientgrowingspace.
Finally,methodsin whichsomelongrecordof research
existhaveseengreatersuccess thanmethodswhereopera-
tionalpracticepreceded research support. Thishasimplica-
tionsfor thevalueof strategies thatadvocateadaptiveman-
agement.The disastrous experiencewith maturityselection
in thePacificNorthwesthasled to the generalprofessional
disgust withuneven-aged silviculture--asituation thatmight
have been avoidedhad the practicebeenproperlyimple-
mented.
Discussion
The principlesof ecosystemmanagementstatethat for-
estedecosystems mustbe diverse,healthy,productive,and
sustainable.As an increasinglyimportantelementin the
creativerepertoireof the forester,uneven-agedsilviculture
can contributeto the attainmentof ecologicaldiversity,
ecosystem health,forestproductivity,andsustainability.
It is
nottheonlymethodwhichshouldbeusedto achieveecosys-
tem management.Neither shouldit be excluded.
Currenttrendsin forestmanagement,especiallyon fed-
erallands,dictate.that
uneven-aged
silviculture
will be in-
creasinglyused.In thislie bothpotentialandrisk.
The potentialis greatandreal. Uneven-agedsilviculture
providesan opportunity to emulatelate-successional
forest
dynamics,especiallyin the understoryreinitiationstage
[afterOliver (1981)] or thetransitionphase[afterBonnann
andLikens(1979)]. This opensthe doorfor habitatmainte-
nanceand restorationof an elementof the ecologicalland-
scapethat has diminishedover time, while concurrently
meetingsocietalneedsfor foresthealth and someunique
aspectsof high-qualitysawtimberproduction.Pastexperi-
encepointsto success with themethodin convertingplanta-
tions,managingunderstockedstands,andmanagingstands
with inherentstructuralvariability. The methodhas been
effectiveon poorsites,in specieswith prolificregeneration,
andin situations
wheremarkingrulescanbesuccinctlystated
as"cuttheworsttreesandleavethe best,regardlessof size."
Conversely,the risksare equally great and equally real.
For everyinstanceof successwith the method,onecanfind
failure.The methodworksbestwhenresearchhasdeveloped
someexpertisewith specificforesttypes,andthis is not the
casein manyinstancesof contemporaryapplication.Certain
elements,suchas the needto ensureregenerationestablish-
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/wjaf/article-abstract/11/1/4/4772386 by guest on 26 August 2019
mentanddevelopmentof desiredspecies,arecriticalto avoid
convertingthe overstoryfrom speciesintolerantof shadeto
thosetolerantof shade.On bettersites,controlof vegetation
competingwith desiredspeciesmay be required,in some
instancesaggressively.The end result may not have at-
tributessoughtby thesilviculturist,or thepublic.Finally,an
extendedperiod of time--2 decadesor more--is often re-
quiredbeforea reasonable, scientificallysupportableassess-
ment can be made of the success or failure of the method in
a givenforesttype.
Of all the reproductioncuttingmethodsavailableto the
silviculturist,the selectionmethodreservesthe mostresidual
trees.Thishasgreatadvantages in anecosystem management
context.For example,uneven-agedsilvicultureis the only
form of reproductioncuttingafterwhichall fourhigh-forest
methodsof reproduction cuttingarestill feasible(economic
and ecologicalinefficienciesaside).Using the methodim-
poses a diverse stand structure that is probably
underrepresentedin the managedlandscape,in light of 4
decadesof relianceon even-agedreproduction cutting.The
methodalso carriesflexibility againstfailure to establish
naturalregeneration,sincethe seedsourceremainson site.
For thesereasons,the selectionmethod can be consideredthe
mostforgivingandthemostflexibleamongthefourmajorhigh-
forestreproduction
methods.It epitomizesa silvicultural
phi-
losophythatcreates,
ratherthanlimits,futureoptions.
Literature Cited
ASSMANN,
E. 1970.Theprinciples
offorestyieldstudy.Pergamon
Press,New
York. 506 p.
B^I•R, J.B.,M.D. C^rs,J.M. GULmN,P.A. MURPHY,
^NDM.G. SHELTON.
1995.
Uneven-aged silviculture
for theloblollyandshortleafpineforestcover
types.USDA For. Serv.Gen.Tech.Rep. SO-118.(In press.)
BONN•CKSEN,
T.M. 1995.Nature'sclearcuts: Lessons fromthepast.P. 22-28
in Closerlook:An on-the-ground investigation
of theSierraClubbook,
Clearcut.Am. For. andPap.Assoc.,Washington D.C. 28 p.
BR^Y,W.L. 1956. Gap-phasereplacementin a maple-basswood forest.
Ecology37: 598-600.
BORMANN,F.H., ANDG.E. LINENS.1979. Patternand processin a forested
ecosystem. Springer-Verlag, New York. 253 p.
CH^N•,S.J.1981.Determination of theoptimalgrowingstockandcutting
cyclefor an uneven-agedstand.For. Sci. 27: 739-744.
CH^PMArq,
H.H. 1942.Management of loblollypinein the pine-hardwood
regionin Arkansasandin Louisianawestof theMississippiRiver. Bull.
49, Yale Univ. Sch.of For., New HavenCT. 150p.
FERNOW,B.E. 1913.A brief historyof forestryin Europe,the UnitedStates
andothercountries.Ed 3 rev. UniversityPress,Toronto,andAm. For.
Assoc.,Washington,DC. 506 p.
WJAF11(1)1996 11
GUdruN,
J M, ArmJ B BAKER1988 Yield comparisons fromeven-agedand OLIVER,C D, ANDB C LARSON 1990 ForeststanddynarmcsMcGraw-Hill,
uneven-aged
loblolly-shortleaf
pinestands.South.J.Appl.For. 12:107- New York. 467 p.
114. PEARSON, G.A. 1950. Managementof ponderosapine in the Southwest
GUr.D•, J.M., ANDM.W. FiTZPAtRICK. 1991.Comparison of log qualityfrom USDA Agric.Monogr.6. 218 p.
even-agedand uneven-agedloblolly pine standsin southArkansas. PIcKE•rr,
S.T.A., ANDP.S. WroTE(EDS.).1985. The ecologyof naturaldistur-
South.J. Appl.For. 15(1):10-17. banceandpatchdynamics. AcademicPress,New York. 472 p.
GULDiN, J.M., ArmJ. GRAY.1991. Clearcuttingin Arkansasforests.Tech. REDMOND, C.H., ANDR. GREENHALGH. 1990.An economicanalysisof even-
BriefingPap.#1, Soc.Am For., ArkansasDivision,Little Rock.6 p. agedversusuneven-aged management on nonindustrialprivatelandin
GULDIN, J.M., •D R.W. GULDIN. 1990.Economicassessments of even-aged southernArkansas.P.69-79 in Proc.southemforesteconomicsworkshop
anduneven-aged loblolly-shortleafpinestands, P. 55-64in Proc.south- onevaluatingevenandall-agedtimbermanagement optionsfor southem
ern foresteconomicsworkshopon evaluatingevenandall-agedtimber forestlands,Hickman,C.A. (comp.).USDA For. Serv.Gen.Tech.Rep
management optionsfor southernforestlands,Hickman,C.A. (comp.). SO-79. 149 p.
USDA For. Serv.Gen.Tech.Rep. SO-79. 149p. R•¾NOLDS, R.R. 1969.Twenty-nineyearsof selectiontimbermanagement on
HAIO•T,R.G. 1990.Economicmodelsfor evaluatingplantationanduneven- the CrosserExperimental Forest.USDA For. Serv.Res.Pap.SO-40
agedforestry.P. 25-34 in Proc.southemforesteconomics workshop on 19p.
evaluatingevenandall-agedtimbermanagement optionsfor southern R•¾NOLDS,
R.R., J.B. BAKER,ANDT.T. Ku. 1984. Four decadesof selection
forestlands,Hickarian, C.A. (comp.).USDA For.Serv.Gen.Tech.Rep. management ontheCrossett
FarmForestryForties.ArkansasAgric.Exp
SO-79. 149p. Sta.Bull. 872.43 p.
H•O•T, R.G. 1987.Evaluatingtheefficiencyof even-agedanduneven-aged ROBERTSON,
D. 1992. Personalcommunication--letter to all USDA Forest

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/wjaf/article-abstract/11/1/4/4772386 by guest on 26 August 2019

standmanagement. For. Sci.33(1):116-134. Serviceemployees, June4, 1992.
HAms,L.D. 1984.Thefragmented forest:Islandbiogeography theoryandthe RUNI{LE,J.R. 1982.Patternsof disturbance
in someold-growthmesicforests
preservation ofbioticdiversity.TheUniversityofChicagoPress,IL. 211 p. of easternNorthAmerica.Ecology63:1533-1546.
ISAAC, L.A. 1956.Placeofpartialcuttingin old-growth stands oftheDouglas- RUNI{LE,J.g., ANDT.C. YETrER.1987.Treefallsrevisited:Gapdynamicsin the
fir region.USDA For.Serv.Pac.NorthwestFor.andRangeExp.Sta. Res. southern Appalachians.Ecology68:417-424.
Pap. 16.48 p. SCHUBERT, G.H. 1974. Silvicultureof southwestern ponderosapine: The
KnV•MINS, J.P. 1987.Forestecology.Macmillan,New York. 531 p. statusof ourknowledge.USDA For. Serv.Res.Pap.RM-123.71 p.
K•Rrd•Arm, B.P.,ANDA.J.F.BRANDSTROM. 1936.Selectivetimbermanagement SMIT•,D.M. 1986. The practiceof silviculture.Ed. 8. Wiley, New York
in theDouglas-firregion.CharlesLathropPackFor.Found.,in coopera- 527 p.
tion with theUSDA For. Serv.,Washington,DC. 122 p. SPURR,S.H.,ANDB.V. BARNES. 1980.Forestecology. Ed.3.Wiley,NewYork
MVNGER, T.T. 1941.Theydiscuss the"maturityselection"system.J.For. 39: 687 p.
297-303. TROUP, R.S. 1928. Silviculturalsystems.Oxford, at the ClarendonPress
O'HARA,K.L., R.S SEYMOUR, S.D.TESC}•,
ANDJ.M. GULDIN. 1994.Silviculture 216p.
andourchanging profession--leadership
for shiftingparadigms.J. For. TROUP, R.S. 1952. Silviculturalsystems,JonesE.W. (ed.). Ed 2. Oxford
92(1): 8-13. UniversityPress,London.199 p.
Ot.IVER,C.D. 1981.Forestdevelopment in NorthAmericafollowingmajor W•ITE, P.S. 1979.Pattem,process,andnaturaldisturbance in vegetation.Bot
disturbance. For. Ecol. Manage.3: 169-182. Rev. 45: 229-299.

12 WJAF11(1)1996