Biological Basis of Behavior

Objectives:

At the end of the period, the students should be able to:

1. Identify and explain the functions of the different parts of neuron;

2. Analyze the process of neural transmission;

3. Classify neurons based on structures and functions;

4. Compare and contrast the functions of the major divisions and subdivisions of the

nervous system;

5. Develop conclusion on the significance of the nervous system.

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A. NEURONS
There are two types of cells in the nervous system:
neurons and glial cells. Neurons are the nerve cells that
handle the information processing function. There are
about 100 billion neurons. The average neuron is a
complex structure with as many as 10,000 physical
connections with other cells. On the other hand, glial cells
provide support, nutritional benefits, and other functions in
the nervous system. For every neuron there are about 10
glial cells (King, 2013).

1. Anatomy of Neuron

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 Biological Basis of Behavior

1.1 Cell body contains a nucleus. Like the nucleus of

any cell, the nucleus of neuron contains DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid), the chemical that contains the
genetic blueprint that directs the development of the neuron
(Pastorino &Doyle-Portillo, 2013).
1.2 Cell Membrane is like a fence that surrounds the
entire neuron, giving it shape and keeping the cell’s internal
fluid inside; it is said to be semi-permeable.

1.3 Dendrites are branchlike structures (from the Greek

word for tree branch). They receive incoming signals from
other neurons (Pastorino &Doyle-Portillo, 2013).
1.4 Axon, a long tail-like structure growing out of the
other end of the cell, carries signals away from the cell
body (Pastorino &Doyle-Portillo, 2013).
1.5 Myelin Sheath consists of layer of cells containing
fat, encases and insulates most axons. By insulating axons,
myelin sheaths speed up transmission of nerve impulses
(Lu et al., 2011 in King, 2013).

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Biological Basis of Behavior

1.6 Terminal Buttons are located at the ends of the

axon where neurotransmitters are stored before being
released into the synapse

B. Neural Transmission

 All-or-none Principle was introduced by Ramon y

Cajal who believed that neural transmission always
operated according this principle. This means that neurons
transmitted signals to other neurons only when
depolarization was strong enough to trigger an action
potential. He further believed that all action potentials are
all the same once they get started. This idea dominated
neuroscience for 100 years, but it is now known that
neurons often transmit messages through graded electrical

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 Biological Basis of Behavior

potentials that vary in magnitude (Bullock et al., 2005 in

Lahey, 2012).
 Polarized State. This is resting state of the neuron,
when more negative ions are inside and more positive ions
are outside the cell membrane. Ions are electrically
charged particles. When neurons are in the resting state,
there are 10 times as many positively charged sodium ions
outside the membrane of the neuron than the inside. This is
the source of the neuron’s electrical power – it is
electrically positive on one side of the membrane and
negative on the other (Lahey, 2012).
 Depolarization. This is the process during which
positively charged ions flow into the axon, making it less
negatively charge (Lahey, 2012).
 Action Potential. It refers to a brief electrical signal
that travels the length of the axon (Lahey, 2012).

C. Synapses and Neurotransmitters

 Synapses are tiny spaces between neurons; the gaps

between neurons are referred to as synaptic gap. Most
synapses lie between the axon of one neuron and the
dendrites or cell body of another neuron (Turrigiano, 2011
in King, 2013).
 Each axon branches into numerous fibers that end in
structures called terminal buttons. Stored in very tiny
synaptic vesicles (sacs) within the terminal buttons are
chemical substances called neurotransmitters.
 Neurotransmitters are chemical substances that
are stored in very tiny sacs within the terminal buttons and
involved in transmitting information across a synaptic gap
to the next neuron.

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D. Classification of Neuron on the Basis of Structural Characteristics

TYPE STRUCTURAL LOCATION

CHARACTERISTICS
1.Bipolar Neuron Cell body with a process, arising
from each end, one axon and one
dendrite
2. Unipolar Neuron Cell body with a process that divides
into two branches and function as
an axon
3.Multipolar Neuron Cell body with many processes, one
of which is an axon, the rest
dendrites
In specialized parts of the
eyes, nose and ears
Cell body in ganglion
outside the brain or spinal
cord
Most common type of
neuron in the brain and
spinal cord

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 Biological Basis of Behavior

E. Classification of Neuron on the Basis of Functional Differences

TYPE FUNCTIONAL STRUCTRUTAL

CHARACTERISTICS CHARATERISTICS
1.Sensory Conducts nerve impulse from Most unipolar; some
Neuron(Afferent) receptors in peripheral body parts bipolar
into the brain or spinal cord
2. Interneuron Transmit nerve impulses between Multipolar
(Association) neurons within the brain and
spinal cord
3. Motor Conducts nerve impulses from the Multipolar
Neuron(Efferent) brain or spinal cord out to the
effectors – muscles and glands

F. The Neurotransmitters
Researchers have identified more than 100
neurotransmitters in the brain alone, each with unique
chemical make-up. (G.B. Johnson, 2012 in King, 2013).
Below are seven of them that have major effects in
behavior:

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Biological Basis of Behavior

1. Acetylcholine (Ach) usually stimulates the firing of neuron

and is involved in the action of the muscles, learning, and
memory (Kalmbach, Hedrick, & Waters, 2012 in King,
2013). Individuals with Alzheimer disease, a degenerative
brain disorder that involves a decline in memory, have
acetylcholine deficiency (Griguoli & Cherubini, 2012 in
King, 2013).
2. GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) is found throughout
the central nervous. Low levels of GABA are linked with
anxiety.
3. Dopamine helps control voluntary movement and affects
sleep, mood, attention, learning, and the ability to recognize
rewards in the environment (Meyer, 2012 in King, 2013).
Low levels of dopamine are associated with Parkinson’s
disease, in which physical movements deteriorate(Berthet
et al., 2012). High levels of dopamine are associated with
schizophrenia (Eriksen, Jorgensen, & Gether, 2010 in King,
2013).
4. Endorphins are natural opiates that mainly stimulate the
firing of neurons. It shields the body from pain and elevate
feelings of pleasure(King, 2013).
5. Oxytocin is a hormone and neurotransmitter that plays an
important role in the experience of love and social bonding
(King, 2013).
6. Norepinephrine inhibits the firing of neurons in the central
nervous system, but it excites the heart muscle, intestines,
and urogenital tract. This helps control alertness. Too little
norepinephrine is associated with depression, and too much
triggers agitated, manic states.(King, 2013)
7. Serotonin is involved in the regulation of sleep, mood,
attention, and learning. Lowered levels of serotonin are
associated with depression (Karg & SEn, 2012 in King,
2013).

G. The Structure of the Nervous System

Our nervous system is the vast, interconnected

network of all the neurons in our body. Every single facet

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 Biological Basis of Behavior

of our body’s functioning and our behavior is monitored

and influenced by the nervous system. The nervous system
is arranged in a series of interconnected subsystems, each
with its own specialized tasks. At the broadest level, the
nervous system is divided into the brain and spinal cord,
known as central nervous system (CNS), and the
remaining components of the nervous system referred
collectively as the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

1. Functions of the Peripheral Nervous System

1.1 PNS must ensure that the CNS is informed about
what is happening inside and outside our body. To
this end, the PNS is equipped with sensory neurons
that convey information to the CNS from the outside
world, such as sights and sounds, as well as
information from our internal world, such as aches
and pains. Once the information has reached CNS, it
is carried across interneurons as the brain processes
the information.

1.2 The PNS takes over as it acts out the directives of

the CNS. The PNS is equipped with motor neurons
that carry signals from CNS to our muscles. For
example, when you see a juicy apple, the sensory
neurons of your eye send this information upward to
the part of the brain that processes visual
information. Here the brain recognizes the apple,
and you decide to eat the apple. The brain then sends
signals downward to the motor neurons of your hand
and arm, which, in turn, direct you to reach out and
grasp the apple with your hand. In this fashion, the
sensory pathways send sensory information to the
spinal cord and brain, and the motor pathways carry
“orders” away from the brain and spinal cord to the
rest of the body.
2. Divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System

2.1 Somatic Nervous System: The somatic nervous system

is the branch of the PNS that governs sensory and
voluntary motor action in the body.

2.2 Autonomic Nervous System: The neurons of the

autonomic nervous system control the smooth muscles of
the internal organs, the muscles of the heart, and the glands.
By automatically regulating organ functions, the autonomic

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 Biological Basis of Behavior

nervous system frees up our conscious resources and

enables us to respond quickly and efficiently to the
demands placed on us by the environment.
The autonomic nervous system can be further
subdivided into the parasympathetic nervous system
(governs organs in calm situations) and the sympathetic
nervous system (governs organs during times of stress).
2.3 Parasympathetic Nervous System. When the
parasympathetic nervous system is active, heart rate,
blood pressure, and respiration are kept at normal
levels. Blood is circulated to the digestive tract and
other internal organs so that they can function properly,
and your pupils are not overly dilated. Your body is
calm, and everything is running smoothly.
2.4 Sympathetic Nervous System . During times of stress,
the sympathetic system takes over primary regulation of
our organ functions from the parasympathetic system.
The actions of the sympathetic nervous system are
often referred to as “fight or flight response.” The
sympathetic nervous system evolved to protect us from
danger. When it is activated, heart rate increases,
breathing become engorged with blood, the pupils
dilate, and the hair on the back of the neck stands up.
All of these changes help to prepare us to defend our
body from threat (Pastorino & Doyle-Portillo, 2013).

3. The Central Nervous System: The Brain and the Spine

The brain is composed largely of neurons and glia

cells. These structures are organized into three regions: the
hindbrain, midbrain, and the forebrain. The hindbrain sits
directly above the spinal cord and is named for its position
at the bottom of the brain. The hindbrain is the most
“primitive” part of the brain, involved in the most basic
life-sustaining functions. The hindbrain makes up a good
portion of the brainstem, a series of brain structures that are
essential for life. Even small amounts of damage to the
brainstem can be life threatening.

The forebrain resides in the top part of the skull and

regulates complex mental processes such as thinking and
emotional control. It is the largest region of the brain and
includes structures that regulate many emotional,
motivational, and cognitive processes. Without this well-
developed forebrain, humans would not have the mental

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 Biological Basis of Behavior

abilities such as problem solving, thinking, remembering,

and using language.

Between the hindbrain and the forebrain is the

midbrain, which acts as a connection between the more
basic functions of the hindbrain and the complex mental
processes of the forebrain, Without the midbrain, the
hindbrain could not supply the forebrain with the neural
impulses it needs to remain active and to keep us
conscious.

1. The Hindbrain
The hindbrain consists of three structures: the
medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum.

1.1.The medulla sits at the top of the spinal column at the

point where the spinal cord enters the bases of the skull.
The medulla regulates heartbeat and respiration, and
even minor damage to the medulla can result in death
from heart or respiratory failure. It also plays a role in
sneezing, coughing, vomiting, swallowing, and
digestion.

1.2 The pons sits above the medulla, where the brainstem
bulges inside the skull. Like the medulla, the pons is
crucial to life. The pons plays a role in respiration,
consciousness, sleep, dreaming, facial movements,
sensory processes, and the transmission of neural
signals from one part of the brain to another. The pons
acts as a “bridge” for neural signals; in particular,
sensory information coming from the right and left
sides of the body crosses through the pons before
moving on to other parts of the brain. If the pons
becomes damaged, the “bridge” is out, and serious
sensory impairments can result.

1.3. The cerebellum is the large, deeply grooved structure

at the base of the brain. The cerebellum is necessary for
balance, muscle tone, and the performance of motor
skills. It may also play a critical role in the learning of
motor skills and the execution of certain behaviors.
Damage to the cerebellum leads to loss of balance and
coordination.

2. The Midbrain

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Biological Basis of Behavior

The midbrain structures connect the hindbrain with

the more sophisticated forebrain. For psychologists, one of
the most interesting midbrain structures is the reticular
formation. The reticular formation, located near the pons,
is a network of neurons that extends from the hindbrain
region into the midbrain. The reticular formation serves
primarily to regulate arousal levels, thereby playing an
important role in attention, sleep, and consciousness. The
reticular formation functions as a type of “on switch” for
the high-level thinking centers of the forebrain.
Additionally, the reticular formation appears to play role in
regulating cardiovascular activity, respiratory functioning,
and body movement.

3. The Forebrain
The forebrain contains several groups of structures
that functions as subsystems. The structures of the limbic
system govern emotional and motivational processes, and
other forebrain structures govern sensory processing and
motivation. The wrinkled and folded external surface of the
brain, the cerebral cortex, governs high-level processes
such as cognition and language. The forebrain is divided
into right and left cerebral hemispheres. For the most part,
forebrain structures are duplicated in the right and left
hemispheres.

3.1 The Limbic System

The series of forebrain structures collectively the limbic
system regulate some of our basic emotional reactions. Two
limbic structures are located deep in the central region of
the brain, above the hindbrain and beneath the cerebral
cortex: the amygdala and the hippocampus.
3.1.1. The amygdala is an almond-shaped structure located
almost directly behind the temples. The amygdala governs
the emotions of fear and aggression.
3.1.2 The hippocampus plays a role in the transfer of information
from short to long-term memory.
3.2 The Thalamus
The thalamus plays a role in the attention we pay to things
that stimulate our senses, and it functions as a relay station
for information coming from our senses to the brain. The
thalamus also plays a role in keeping specific areas of the
cortex activated during rapid eye movement or REM sleep,
when much of our dreaming occurs.
3.3 The Hypothalamus

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 Biological Basis of Behavior

Nestled below the thalamus is the hypothalamus (hypo

means “bellow”). The hypothalamus maintains
homeostasis in the body, a state of internal equilibrium
across a variety of bodily systems. In maintaining
homeostasis, the hypothalamus is responsible for
monitoring and regulating body temperature, thirst, hunger,
sleep, autonomic nervous system functioning, and some
sexual and reproductive functions, and can change hormone
levels in the bloodstream. To maintain homeostasis, the
hypothalamus must ultimately motivate us to engage in
certain behaviors. For example, when our body needs fuel,
the hypothalamus motivates us with hunger. Without the
hypothalamus, we would not know when to engage in the
behaviors that keep our bodily systems in balance.

The Cortex
The most noticeable structure on the external
surface of the brain is the cerebral cortex, or simply the
cortex. The cortex is the thin (approximately 2 mm thick),
wrinkled layer of tissue that covers the outside of the
cerebral hemispheres, or the two sides of the brain. The
cortex is arguably the most sophisticated part of the brain
and is responsible for the highest levels of processing:
cognition and mental processes such as planning, decision
making, perception, and language. It is the cortex that gives
us our humanness (Pastorino, & Doyle-Portillo, 2013).

The Lobes of the Cortex and Lateralization in the Brain

The human cortex is divided into four distinct physical
regions called lobes. These are the frontal lobe, parietal
lobe, occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe.

1. Frontal Lobe: cortical area directly behind the forehead

that plays a role in thinking, planning, decision making,
language, and motor movement.
2. Parietal Lobe: Cortical area on top sides of the brain that
play a role in touch and certain cognitive processes.
3. Occipital Lobe: Cortical area at the back of the brain that
plays a role in visual processing.
4. Temporal Lobe: Cortical area directly below the ears that
play a role in auditory processing and language

Lateralization in the brain is evident in that the right

and left hemispheres process somewhat different types of
information (Stephan et al., 2003 in Pastorino, & Doyle-
Portillo, 2013). For example most people process language

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largely in the left hemisphere although some people have

major language centers in the right hemisphere, and some
have major language centers in both hemisphere. Two
examples that illustrate hemispheric specialization of
language:

 Broca’s Aphasia : When damage is severe in Broca’s area

in the left frontal lobe, people are unable to produce
understandable speech.
 Wernicke’s Aphasia : When damage is in the Wernicke’s
area in the left temporal lobe, people are unable to
understand spoken language.

The hemispheres coordinate the information they

process through corpus callosum, a dense band of neurons
that sits just below the cortex along the midline of the brain
(Banich & Heller, 1998 in Pastorino, & Doyle-Portillo,
2013).

H. Endocrine System: Chemical Messenger of the Body

The endocrine system is another biological system in

the body that also plays an important role in the
communication and the regulation of bodily processes.
This system consists of a number of glands – that secrete
two kinds of chemical substances.
1. Neuropeptides. This allows the endocrine glands to
communicate with one another. They play important roles
in stress regulation, social bonding, emotion, and memory
(Feldman et al., 2007; Kandel & Abel, 1995; Rosenkranz,
2007 in Lahey 2012).
2. Hormones. These are chemical substances, produced by
the endocrines glands, that influence internal organs.
The release of neuropeptides and hormones by the
endocrine glands is regulated by several systems of the
brain through the hypothalamus (Taylor & others, 2008).
Thus the endocrine glands gives the brain additional ways
to control the body’s organs. This is particularly true
during physical stress or emotional arousal. AT these
times, neuropeptides and hormones influence such things as
metabolism, blood pressure, blood-sugar level, and sexual
functioning (Flint et al., 2007 in Lahey, 2012).

I. The Seven Endocrine Glands

1. Pituitary Gland. This is located near the hypothalamus,
which directly controls its functioning. This is considered

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 Biological Basis of Behavior

the body’s master gland because its secretions help regulate

the activity of the other glands in the endocrine system.
Further, it secretes hormones that control blood pressure,
thirst, and body growth
2. Adrenal Glands. This pair of glands sit atop the kidney.
They play important role in emotional arousal and secrete
hormones important to metabolism. This secretes three
hormones that are important in our reaction to stress:
2.1 Epinephrine
2.2 Norepinephrine
2.3 Cortisol
3. Islets of Langerhans. These are embedded in the pancreas.
This regulates the level of sugar in the blood by secreting
two hormones that have opposing actions such as:
3.1 Glucagon which causes the liver to convert its stored sugar
into blood sugar and to dump it into the bloodstream.
3.2 Insulin which reduces the amount of blood sugar by
helping the body’s cells absorb sugar in the form of fat.
4. Gonads. These are glands that produce sex cells and
hormones important in sexual arousal and that contribute to
the development of secondary sex characteristics. There are
two sex glands or gonads – the ovaries in females, the
testes in males. The gonads produce sex cells – ova in
females and sperm in males. The most important sex
hormones are estrogen in female and testosterone in males.
5. Thyroid Gland. This is located just below the larynx, or
voice box. It plays an important role in the regulation of
metabolism. It secretes hormone called thyroxin which is
necessary for proper mental development in children and
helps determine weight and level of activity in adults.
6. Parathyroid Glands. These are four small glands
embedded in the thyroid glands. They secrete
parathormone, which is important in the functioning of the
nervous system. Parathormone regulates ion levels in
neurons and controls excitability of the nervous system.
7. Pineal Gland. It is located between the cerebral
hemispheres, attached to the top of the thalamus. Its
primary secretion is melatonin. Melatonin is important in
the regulation of biological rhythms, including menstrual
cycles in females and the daily regulation of sleep and
wakefulness.

References:

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Lahey, B. (2012). Psychology: An Introduction. (11th Ed.)

NY: McGraw Hill.

Pastorino, E. & Doyle-Portillo, S. (2013). What is

Psychology? Essentials. (2nd Ed.) Canada: Wadsworth,
Cengage Learning.

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