Exercise 12

Take Off

Aim

To learn the techniques of taking off, climbing and positioning the aircraft on the downwind leg of the
circuit.

Definition

The take off is a linear acceleration considered to start when the aircraft is accelerated under its own take
off power on the ground until flying speed is reached, whereupon the aircraft is rotated and leaves the
ground for flight.

Newton’s Laws

Let’s look at the forces acting on the aircraft at the beginning of the take-off roll.
Full power is applied but there is no drag while there is no movement. The external force, thrust, will
accelerate the aircraft. This acceleration will be proportional to the amount of thrust ( power given) and
inversely proportional to the mass of the aircraft. As speed increases drag will increase and as long as the
thrust is more than the drag the speed will increase. Inertia must also be kept in mind.

Critical Stage of Flight

Although take-off seems like a relatively easy manoeuvre to perform it is the most dangerous and critical
part of every flight because of the many factors effecting the take-off. This is also the first time that the
engine is developing full power. Should there be any problem with the engine , or contaminated fuel you
will most likely have to deal with the problem shortly after take-off which is not the best scenario for an
engine failure i.e. you will be low and slow.

Factors Effecting the Take-off

Density Altitude:
When you are at a high elevation airport and the outside temperature is high then the air is going to be very
thin. This decrease in air density effects the aircraft negatively in three ways:
1. The engine does not develop full power (unless it has a turbo ). Less air means less power.
2. The propeller produces less thrust in less thinner air.
3. The wings need more speed to develop the same amount of lift because of the decreased density.
Can you see that this will have a nasty effect on the take-off run and climb performance.
It is not difficult to realise that the air is thin and that the take off might be a problem, but it is also not
difficult to determine exactly if a safe take off will be possible. It is determined as follow:
The International Standard Atmosphere ( I.S.A.) is based on averages around the world and is a model or
measuring stick that is used to determine an aircraft’s performance. ( If the pilots operational handbook
says the service ceiling is 15 000ft, it is 15 000ft in this I.S.A.
Explain how to determine Density Altitude.
For example; If the density altitude is 7500ft at sea level the aircraft will perform as if it was flying at
7500ft in the I.S.A. which is much higher than sea level. With this figure you can go to the pilot operating
handbook and extract the take off distance and climbing performance for the prevailing conditions and
weight, keeping in mind that a new aircraft was used to determine the performance data. Performance is
based on density altitude. So when in doubt, take the pilot operating handbook and work it out. Don’t take a
chance.
Another factor is Humidity. Water vapour is lighter than air so an increase in humidity means an increase in
density altitude. This factor is not easily expressed in numbers, but definitely one which should be kept in
mind. Be careful of the three H’s: Hot, High and Humid.
Technique

The correct technique is essential for a safe take off. The elevator must be kept neutral until the correct
speed is reached. You will be able to rise the nose wheel off the runway at quite a low speed, but this will
add drag and the thrust will be slightly inclined.

Flaps

Optimum flap during take off will shorten the take off roll be cause the stall speed is decreased, but once
airborne it will have a negative effect on the climb because of the increased drag.
Flaps should be used if the runway is short but used carefully if there are obstacles ahead. With some
aircraft the use of flap is recommended and others not. ( Consult your pilot operating handbook. )

Weight

As discussed under Newton’s laws; the acceleration of the aircraft on take off will be inversely proportional
to the weight of the aircraft . Thus the heavier the aircraft the more runway will be needed to take off and
the slower the climb out will be. One of the very important reasons not to over load an aircraft.

Surface and Gradient

A hard, firm surface like asphalt is the best. Grass (being rough) and dirt (loos sand) strips will cause more
friction to the wheels increasing the take off run.
What would be best, uphill or downhill ? Downhill because acceleration will be quicker.

Wind

Taking off into wind is better because before you even start the take off run you will all ready have some
airspeed i.e. if the wind speed is 15kts you will have 15kts of airspeed when you are lined up. Therefor the
take off speed will be reached sooner, using less runway. The climbing angle will also be improved. Taking
off with a tailwind will have the opposite, negative effect to both take off distance and climbing angle.

Crosswind Take Off

As you accelerate the into wing will develop more lift because of dihedral. ( Sideways airflow will cause an
increased angle of attack on the into wind wing this causes the into wind wing to produce more lift.) This is
countered by lowering the aileron on the into wind wing. The runway centre line is maintained with rudder.
Rotate speed is a bit higher to assure that when you become airborne it is positively away from the ground.
Remember to neutralise the ailerons just be fore rotating. Once airborne the nose will weathercock into the
wind. Track the centre line by keeping the ball in the centre with rudder.

Effect of Power – Swing on Take Off

At take off the slipstream and torque effects are very prominent due to the full power at low airspeed. On
the runway the aircraft will yaw to the left because of the slipstream effect and the fact that the left wheel
has more friction than the right wheel because it is pressing harder against the runway due to the torque
effect. As you get airborne the torque effect will tend to roll the aircraft to the left. These effects must be
countered by using right rudder.

The Short Field Take Off

It is a take off in the shortest possible distance. Optimum flap should be used and as little as possible
runway should be wasted when lining up. Apply full power and check engine parameters before break
release. Rotate speed is slightly lower because of the flaps being used. If obstacles pose a problem, climb
out at the best angle of climb speed with gentle turns into the wind away from the obstacles. Once clear of
the obstacles accelerate to the best rate of climb speed before retracting the flaps. Refer to the pilot
operating handbook for the correct procedure of a specific aircraft type.

The Soft Field Take Off

This is performed when the runway is soft, rough, covered with tall grass, slush or snow. It is done with
optimum flap and it is a rolling take off. (do not stop when lined up.) Apply full power gradually and
simultaneously full aft elevator, to keep the weight of the smaller nose wheel. The nose will come up early
in the take off run, keep it in the rotation attitude with elevator control. Becoming airborne release back
pressure slightly in order to accelerate to the applicable climbing speed.

Emergencies

Aborted Take off:

Should anything go wrong while still on the ground; you must abort the hake off by closing the throttle and
applying brakes as necessary.
Here are some reasons for aborting a take off:
Lose of power or if the engine is not developing full
power.
Abnormal indications on engine instruments.
Unusual vibrating or rough running.
Airspeed not increasing.
Door or window opens.
Obstruction on the runway.
Any other emergency or problem.

If there is any problem straight after take off or during the climb out your most important task is to fly the
aircraft. Continue the take off, maintain climb speed and direction. Climb to a safe altitude or if safe to do
so fly a circuit and land before trying to sort out the problem. Shortly after take off while you are low and
slow is no time to try and close a door for instance.

Engine Failure After Take Off

The most important is to lower the nose (no matter how low you are) to the gliding attitude instantly.
During the climb out the speed is relatively low and the nose attitude is high. thus the airspeed will rapidly
decay if the nose is not lowered quickly.
Then you select a suitable open area within 30 either side of the extended runway centre line to do an
emergency landing. Through out maintain best glide speed until rounding out for landing.
The reason for staying within 30 either side of the extended runway centre line is the following:
Let’s say you want to turn through 90. Because you are low and descending you don’t have a lot of time.
So to make the field you need to turn steep which will increase the rate of descend, thus you don’t make the
field.
 Exercise 13

Circuit Joining Procedure and The Circuit

Aim

To learn those techniques required to execute accurate circuits and landings under all conditions.

Definition

The formal definition of an aerodrome traffic circuit is: The specified path to be flown by aircft operating in
the vicinity of an aerodrome.

Circuit Joining Procedure

The standard joining procedure at an unmanned airport is as follow:

Join overhead at 200ft A.G.L. to determine the wind direction. this will allow you to choose the correct
runway for landing. also to consider when choosing a runway is the length, gradient and obstacles around
the different runways. When overhead we also look at the signal square (traffic pattern indicator) and other
traffic. While maintaining a good look out, descend to a 1000ft A.G.L (circuit height) on the dead side of
the pattern to join the circuit on a crosswind position, reporting your intentions on the appropriate
frequency. This is the standard procedure; NOTAMS, traffic pattern indicators and local rules must be
adhered to.

The Circuit

A standard circuit is a left hand circuit because the pilot sits in the left hand seat thus it provides better
visibility.

DownWind

Crosswind
Base leg

Upwind
Runway
11

29

Final
Approach

A circuit consists of the take off, cross wind leg, down wind, base leg and final approach.

Take off and climb to downwind: The aircraft takes off the from the runway in use after which the
undercarriage and flaps are retracted and power is decreased to climb power. the aircraft then climbs on
the extended centre line to 500ft above the ground. A climbing turn is then executed through 90 to position
on the cross wind leg. On the cross wind leg the aircraft is levelled off at circuit height (1000ft above the
ground) and accelerated to a slow cruising speed. When the runway is at 45 to the aircraft a turn is
executed through 90 to position on the downwind leg.

Downwind to final approach: The downwind entails straight and level flight parallel to the runway. During
this leg the aircraft is configured for landing. Once the runway as at an angle of 45 the aircraft is turned
through 90 to position on the base leg. On the base leg the aircraft is placed in a descend to intercept the
extended runway centre line at a height of about 700ft above ground.

Remember the whole idea of the circuit is to position the aircraft in a suitable position for a good approach
and landing.( A good landing starts on downwind.)
The landing

A landing consists of four stages:

The final approach stage: The approach must be flown in a straight line towards the runway at a constant
speed and rate of descend. A good approach will result in a good landing and visa versa. During final
approach the picture from the cockpit must look as follow:

You must try to keep the space between the threshold and the nose of the aircraft constant and the position
of the threshold must stay in the same position on the windscreen throughout the approach. The threshold is
your aiming point.
What is happening if the space is increasing? You are approaching to low i.e. undershooting. The rate of
descend is thus to high and you should add power to rectify the problem.
If the space is decreasing you are approaching to high i.e. overshooting. the rate of descend is to low thus
power must be decreased to increase the rate of descend.
Speed is controlled with elevator and height (rate of descend ) is controlled with power. Speed control
during the approach is critical and should be 1.3 to 1.4 x the stalling speed for that configuration.
During the approach you stay on the extended runway centre line with co-ordinated use of the aileron and
rudder.

Round Out: AT  6ft above the runway or when the runway levels off you must round out be raiding the
nose to the straight and level attitude with the elevator and at the same time closing the throttle. This is the
transition phase between the approach and the hold off stage. Speed unimportant you look at the far end of
the runway.

The hold off: The hold off is to get the aircraft from the round out (straight and level ) attitude to the
landing attitude and to bleed off the airspeed. This is achieved by flying parallel to the runway with
continuos back pressure, increasing the angle of attack as the airspeed decreases until the aircraft touches
down on the main wheels just before the stall. If not enough back pressure is applied the aircraft will settle
too early landing on all three wheels or even on the nose wheel first. If too much back pressure is applied
the aircraft will want to climb again, this is called a balloon. You will learn to feel the aircraft. The moment
you think or feel the aircraft wanting to sink you must apply a little more back pressure. But be careful not
to stall the aircraft on to the runway. Throughout all of this the runway centre line must be maintained with
the use of the rudder.

The landing run: After touch down keep the elevator all the way back to lift the weight off of the nose gear.
maintain runway centre line by using the rudder. breaks can be applied as necessary.

If doing a touch and go landing, select the flaps as required. smoothly apply power keeping straight with
rudder and continue as with a normal take off.

Factors Effecting the Landing

Density altitude:
The higher the density altitude the more runway will be needed to get airborne. The lower density means
that a higher speed is needed to develop the same amount of lift. (Refer to the lift formula.) Thus the higher
approach and touch down speeds means more runway.

Flaps:
Flaps decrease the stalling speed , decreasing the approach speed, there is a shorter hold off due to the
increased drag and a slower touch down speed all in all reducing the landing distance.
Flaps also make steeper approaches (obstacle clearance) possible.

Weight:
A heavier aircraft will use more runway, taking off or landing. An increase in weight means an increase in
the stalling speed thus requiring a higher approach speed and touch down speed. Once landed the aircraft
will have more inertia requiring more runway to decelerate.

Surface and Gradient:

Asphalt is the best because it allows for most effective breaking. On grass or even wet asphalt more runway
will be needed as braking will not be as effective.
It is better to land uphill than down hill because deceleration is better uphill.

Wind and Wind Shear.

It is better to land into wind because a head wind of 10kts will reduce your speed over the ground and
runway needed to decelerate by 10kts. A tailwind will have the negative reverse effect.
Wind shear or wind gradient can be defined as a sudden change in wind direction and or speed over a short
distance. this phenomenon creates serious dangers on final approach.

At a higher altitude the wind speed is 20kts, you approach at 70kts indicated thus your ground speed is
50kts. As you descend into the lower layer where the wind speed is only 10kts your ground speed will
remain 50kts due to inertia, but your airspeed will decrease to 60kts! Remember airspeed is what
determines lift, thus you will experience a sudden decrease in lift resulting in an undershooting approach
path. (The above is frequently encountered where wind speed decrease as you descend due to surface
friction.) Wind shear can be expected whenever there are obstacles (trees, buildings, hangers or hills) close
to the runway and if the prevailing wind is strong. Thunderstorms cause the most severe wind shear and
should be avoided at all cost. How do we fly the approach if wind shear is expected? We fly a flatter
approach at a higher speed using less flap. It is also a good idea to approach at a higher speed when it is
very turbulent to avoid the negative effects of gusts. Gusts cause the airspeed and the angle of attack to
fluctuate a lot; so approaching at a higher speed provides a safety margin and better control effectiveness.
(Discuss the effect of head winds, cross winds and tail winds on the various parts of the circuit including
ground speed and drift.)

The glide Approach and Landing

We will also do glide approaches in which case we will turn base earlier and close the throttle resulting in a
glide to the runway. The goal in doing this is for you to learn the gliding characteristics of the aircraft type
that you are flying. The rate of descend will be higher so the round out will have to be more pronounced.
The space between the nose of the aircraft and the threshold will still show you if you are over or under
shooting the runway. Flaps is used to regulate the gliding angle an should only be used once you are certain
of making the runway.

The flap Less Landing

Flap failure or in some aircraft an electrical failure will leave you without flaps. Also landing in very
turbulent, windy or crosswind conditions landing without flaps will be easier and safer. Note: the approach
must be accurately controlled in order not to land deep. Remember that the approach speed will be higher
(higher stall speed) and the hold off will be longer (less drag). The nose will also be at a higher attitude
during the hold off and more runway will be needed to decelerate.

The Crosswind Landing

There are two methods: the crab and the wing low method. Briefly explain both methods.
Crosswind landings will be explained fully in exercise 20. Use less or no flap, this will cause the wind to
have less grip on the aircraft. Don’t forget to adjust the approach speed when approaching flap less.

Short Field Landing

The approach is flown with full flap and at a lower airspeed. It terrain permits you can aim in front of the
threshold to under shoot slightly. The hold off should not be too long for a positive landing. After touch
down identify and retract the flaps (this will place more weight on the wheels, resulting in more effective
breaking) and apply maximum effective breaking.
It is normally a steed power assisted approach but a “creeper” approach can be flown if obstacles allow.
Speed control must be very accurate, since you can very easily end up on the wrong side of the power
curve.

Soft Field Landing

This method is applicable to soft, rough or long grass covered fields. The approach and round out is the
same as for the short field landing but the hold off must be for as long as possible to land as slow and
gently as possible. Be careful not to stall the aircraft on to the runway. After touch down keep the elevator
fully aft to keep the weight off of the nose wheel for as long as possible.

The Go Around

Whenever you are not a 100% certain of a safe landing; do a go around.

Apply full power, maintain best rate of climb speed and gradually take the flaps away to the optimum
position. Be prepared for the strong slipstream and torque effect when full power is applied.
There are various reasons to do a go around, obstructions on the runway, the cross wind might be to strong,
the approach or the speed control might not be under full control etc. or whenever you are not comfortable
with the situation. Never hesitate to do a go around (unless fuel is a problem).