Objectives

1. Operationally define terms relevant to

theories of learning.

2. Examine learning theories that are

currently important.
Learning Theories
 Behaviorism

 Cognitivism

 Social Constructivism
 Behaviorism
• Learning is a relatively enduring or
permanent change in behavior
resulting from experiences with
stimuli and responses.
Behaviorism
• Learning is defined
by the outward
expression of new
behaviors
(unobservable
mental
events/observable
responses).
 Sometimes
when you look back on a situation,
you realize
it wasn't all you thought it was.
You fell in love.
Or did you?

- Henry Bromel, Northern Exposure, The Big Kiss, 1991

 Conditioning

Classical Operant
 Classical
Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov
 Classical
Conditioning
- kind of conditioning
in which a neutral
stimulus acquires the
ability to produce a
response that was
originally produced
by a different
stimulus
Classical Conditioning
 Classical Conditioning

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

– a stimulus that brings about a physiological
response without having been learned
 Classical Conditioning

• Unconditioned Response (UCR)

– a response that is innate, natural, unlearned,
and involuntary that is elicited by the
unconditioned stimulus
 Classical Conditioning
• Neutral stimulus
– prior to conditioning, causes a sensory
response but has no effect on the
desired response/reflex
 Classical Conditioning
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
– a once-neutral stimulus that has been paired
with a UCS to bring about a response formerly
elicited only by the UCS
 Classical Conditioning
• Conditioned Response (CR)
– a response that, after conditioning, follows a
previously neutral stimulus (CR)
– similar but not identical to the UCR
 Classical Conditioning
• Stimulus Substitution Theory
Classical conditioning occurs when a neural
bond or association forms in the brain between
the neutral stimulus and UCS.
 Classical Conditioning
• Contiguity Theory
Classical conditioning occurs because two
stimuli are paired close together in time.
 Classical Conditioning
• Stimulus Generalization
– tendency for a stimulus that is similar to the
original conditioned stimulus to elicit a
response that is similar to the conditioned
response
– conditioned response follows a stimulus that is
similar to the original conditioned stimulus
 Classical Conditioning
• Stimulus Discrimination
– organism learns to differentiate among stimuli
and make a particular response to some stimuli
but not to others
 Classical Conditioning
• Extinction
– a procedure in which a conditioned stimulus is
repeatedly presented without the
unconditioned stimulus and, as a result,
previously conditioned response decreases in
frequency and eventually disappears
 Classical Conditioning
• Spontaneous Recovery
– the reappearance of a previously extinguished
response after time has elapsed without
exposure to the conditioned stimulus
 Operant Conditioning
– learning in which a
voluntary response is
strengthened or
weakened, depending
on its positive or
negative
consequences
Operant
Conditioning

Edward Lee Thorndike

Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning
• Law of Effect
Behaviors followed by positive consequences
are strengthened, while behaviors followed by
negative consequences are weakened.
Operant
Conditioning

B.F. Skinner
Operant Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning
• Operant Response
– is a response that can be modified by its
consequences and is a meaningful unit of
ongoing behavior that can be easily measured
 Operant Conditioning
• Shaping
– is a procedure in which an experimenter
successively reinforces behaviors that lead up
to or approximate the desired behavior
 Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcement
– the consequence that occurs after a behavior
and increases the chance that the behavior will
occur again
 Operant Conditioning
• Punishment
– the consequence that occurs after a behavior
and decreases the chance that the behavior
will occur again
 Types of Reinforcers
• Positive Reinforcer
– any stimulus that increases the probability that
a preceding behavior will occur again
 Types of Reinforcers
• Negative Reinforcer
– Unpleasant/aversive stimulus whose removal
leads to an increase in the probability that a
preceding response will occur again in the
future
 Types of Reinforcers
• Primary Reinforcer
– timulus which innately satisfies some biological
need regardless of a person’s prior experience
 Types of Reinforcers
• Secondary Reinforcer
– a stimulus that becomes reinforcing through
experience and is learned because of its
association with a primary reinforcer
 Types of Punishment
• Positive Punishment
– presenting an aversive/unpleasant stimulus to
decrease the recurrence of behavior
 Types of Punishment
• Negative Punishment
– removing a reinforcer to decrease the
recurrence of behavior
 Schedules of Reinforcement
• Continuous Reinforcement
– behavior is reinforced every time it occurs
 Schedules of Reinforcement
• Partial Reinforcement
– behavior is reinforced only some of the time
Schedules of Partial Reinforcement
• Fixed-Ratio Schedule
– reinforcement is given only after a fixed number
of responses are made
Schedules of Partial Reinforcement
• Variable-Ratio Schedule
– reinforcement occurs after a varying number of
responses rather than after a fixed number
Schedules of Partial Reinforcement
• Fixed-Interval Schedule
– provides reinforcement for a response only if a
fixed time period has elapsed
Schedules of Partial Reinforcement
• Variable-Interval Schedule
– reinforcement is given after an average amount of
time has passed
 Other Related Terms
• Generalization
• Discrimination
• Extinction
• Spontaneous Recovery
 Cognitivism

• Learning is the product of mental information

processing.
 Memory
• The ability to retain information over time
 Memory Processes
• Encoding
– making mental representations of information so
that it can be placed into our memories
 Memory Processes
• Storing
– process of placing encoded information into
relatively permanent storage for later recall
 Memory Processes
• Retrieving
– process of getting or recalling information that has
been placed into short-term or long-term storage
 Insight

• mental process marked by a sudden and

unexpected solution to a problem
 Constructivism

Albert Bandura
 Social Learning Theory / Social
Constructivism / Social Cognitive
Learning
• Learning takes place through observation,
imitation and modeling.