Antenna and Wave Propagation

Dr.Satyanand Singh
 EEB861 Dr.Singh

Contents
• Linear antenna: Concept of resonant and non-resonant antenna.
• The wire antenna. Extension of Hertz dipole antenna to half-wave dipole
antenna, power pattern, radiation resistance.
• Concept of aperture for wire antenna.
• Effect increasing antenna length.
• Folded dipole antenna.
• Quarter wave antenna.
• Yagi – Uda antenna with parasitic elements.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh

Wire Antennas
▫ Infinitesimal Dipole
▫ Small Dipole
▫ Finite length Dipole
▫ Half-wavelength Dipole
▫ Antenna above a perfect ground plane
▫ Folded Dipole
▫ Yagi Uda Antenna
▫ Travelling-Wave Antenna
 EEB861 Dr.Singh

Wire Antennas

• Wire antennas, linear or

curved, are some of the oldest,
simplest, cheapest, and in
many cases the most versatile
for many applications.

• we begin our analysis of

antennas by considering some
of the oldest, simplest, and
most basic configurations.

Fig.1 Dipole and monopole antennas

 EEB861 Dr.Singh

1. Infinitesimal Dipole
• An infinitesimal linear wire (l <<λ, r<< λ) is
positioned symmetrically at the origin of the
coordinate system and oriented along the z axis.
• Although infinitesimal dipoles are not very
practical, they are used to represent capacitor-plate
(also referred to as top-hat-loaded) antennas.
• In addition, they are utilized as building blocks of
more complex geometries. The end plates are used
to provide capacitive loading in order to maintain
the current on the dipole nearly uniform.
Fig2 Infinitesimal dipole

Since the end plates are assumed to be small, their radiation is usually negligible. The
wire is very small and thin, the spatial variation of the current is assumed to be constant.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
1. Infinitesimal Dipole
• The radiation resistance is:
2 2
2𝜋 𝑙 𝑙
𝑅𝛾 = 𝜂 = 80𝜋 2
3 𝜆 𝜆
• The input reactance is capacitive.
• This can be seen by visualizing the antenna as
an open circuited transmission line. The
distance from the end of the antenna to the
feed point is much less than a quarter
wavelength and thus the input impedance is Fig3 Three-dimensional radiation pattern
capacitive. of infinitesimal dipole

• The directivity of this antenna: • The maximum effective aperture:

𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 3 𝜆2 3𝜆2
𝐷0 = 4𝜋 = 𝐴𝑒𝑚 = 𝐷 =
𝑃𝑟𝑎 ⅆ 2 4𝜋 0 8𝜋
1. Infinitesimal Dipole EEB861 Dr.Singh

• For a wire antenna to be classified as an infinitesimal dipole, its overall length must be
very small (usually l ≤ λ/50).

Example:
• Find the radiation resistance of an infinitesimal dipole whose overall length is 𝑙 = 𝜆 50 .
• Solution: 2 2
𝑙 1
𝑅𝑟 = 80𝜋 2 = 80𝜋 2 = 0.316 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝜆 50

• Since the radiation resistance of an infinitesimal dipole is about 0.3 ohms, it will present
a very large mismatch when connected to practical, transmission lines, many of which
have characteristic impedances of 50 or 75 ohms. The reflection efficiency (𝑒𝑟 ) and
hence the overall efficiency (𝑒0 ) will be very small.
2. Small Dipole EEB861 Dr.Singh

• For infinitesimal dipole, its current distribution

was assumed to be constant. Although a constant
current distribution is not realizable (other than
top-hat-loaded elements), it is a mathematical
quantity that is used to represent actual current
distributions of antennas that have been
incremented into many small lengths.
• For small dipole antenna whose lengths are
Fig4 current distribution of small dipole usually λ/50 < l ≤ λ/10, the current must
′ ′ ′
smoothly go to zero at the ends of the wave. For
𝐼𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 a thin wire (diameter<<wavelength), this current
2 ′
𝑎𝑧 𝐼0 1 − 𝑧 , 0 ≤ 𝑧 ′ ≤ 𝑙 2 distribution is approximately sinusoidal. The
𝐿
= decreasing current toward the wire ends requires
2 ′ that charges peel off and appear on the wire
𝑎𝑧 𝐼0 1 + 𝑧 , − 𝑙 2 ≤ 𝑧 ′ ≤ 0
𝐿 surface.
2. Small Dipole EEB861 Dr.Singh

• As l becomes extremely small, the sinusoidal

type current distribution is well approximated by
the triangular distribution.

• The radiation resistance using the triangular

distribution is:
2
2𝑃𝑟𝑎ⅆ 2
𝑙
𝑅𝑟 = = 20𝜋
𝐼0 2 𝑥
Fig5 current distribution of small dipole which is also is one-fourth of that obtained for
the infinitesimal dipole.
2. Small Dipole EEB861 Dr.Singh

• To realize a uniform current distribution in practice a

mechanism must be provided for charge storage at the
ends of the short wire. One method of accomplishing
this is to place metal plates at the ends of the wire.
This is called a capacitor-plate antenna, or top-hat-
loaded dipole antenna.
• If Δ𝑧 ≪≫ 𝜆, the radial current on the plates will
produce fields that almost cancel in the far field, since
the currents are opposite directed and the phase
difference due to separation is small. If, in addition, Δ
𝑧≪Δr, the plates will provide for charge storage such
that the current on the wire is constant. The capacitor-
plate antenna then closely approximates the uniform
Fig6 capacitor-plate antenna
current ideal dipole model.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
2 Small Dipole
• The input reactance is capacitive. If end loading is added, this capacitance is reduced as
the loading is increased. This is because the distance from the open circuit in the
transmission line analog is increased.

• Since the directivity of an antenna is controlled by the relative shape of the field or
power pattern, the directivity, and maximum effective area of this antenna are the same
as the infinitesimal dipole.
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 3
𝐷0 = 4𝜋 =
𝑃𝑟𝑎ⅆ 2
𝜆2 3𝜆2
𝐴𝑒𝑚 = 𝐷 =
4𝜋 0 8𝜋
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
3 Finite-length Dipole
• To reduce the mathematical complexities, it will be
assumed that the dipole has a negligible diameter. For
dipoles, we assume that the current distribution is
sinusoidal(l > λ/10). The current must, of course, be
zero at the ends.
• We are, in effect, using the current distribution which
is found on an open-circuited parallel wire
transmission line. It is assumed that if the end of such
a transmission line is bent out to form a wire antenna,
the current distribution along the bent portion is
essentially unchanged.
• Although this is not strictly true it is a good
Fig7 Finite-length Dipole
approximation for thin antennas, for which the
conductor diameter is on the order of 0:01 or smaller.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
3 Finite-length Dipole
• For a very thin dipole (ideally zero diameter), the current distribution can be written,
to a good approximation, as
𝑙
𝑎𝑧 𝐼0 sin 𝑘 − 𝑧′ , 0 ≤ 𝑧′ ≤ 𝑙 2
2
𝐼𝑒 𝑥 ′ = 0, 𝑦 ′ = 0, 𝑧 ′ =
𝑙
𝑎𝑧 𝐼0 sin 𝑘 + 𝑧′ , − 𝑙 2 ≤ 2′ ≤ 0
2

• This distribution assumes that the antenna is center-fed and the current vanishes at
the end points (z = ±l/2). Experimentally it has been verified that the current in a
center-fed wire antenna has sinusoidal form with nulls at the end points.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
3 Finite-length Dipole

• For different length, the current distribution is shown plotted in Fig 8.

Fig8 the current distribution of Finite-length Dipole

 EEB861 Dr.Singh
3 Finite-length Dipole

• It is found that the 3-dB beamwidth of

each is equal to
𝑙≪𝜆 3-dB beamwidth=90°
𝑙 = 𝜆/4 3-dB beamwidth=87°
𝑙 = 𝜆/2 3-dB beamwidth=78°
𝑙 = 3𝜆/4 3-dB beamwidth=64°
𝑙=𝜆 3-dB beamwidth=47.8°

Fig9 Elevation plane amplitude patterns for a thin dipole with

sinusoidal current distribution (l = λ/50,λ/4,λ/2,3λ/4, λ).
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
3 Finite-length Dipole
• As the length of the dipole increases beyond one wavelength (l > λ), the number of
lobes begin to increase.
• The normalized power pattern for a dipole with l = 1.25λ is shown

Fig10 Three- and two-dimensional (elevation pattern) amplitude patterns for a thin dipole of l = 1.25λ
and sinusoidal current distribution.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
3 Finite-length Dipole
• By the definition, the radiation resistance is referred to the
maximum current which for some lengths (l = λ/4, 3 λ/4, λ, etc.)
does not occur at the input terminals of the antenna, the antenna
itself is first assumed to be lossless (Rl=0). Then the power at the
input terminals is equated to the power at the current maximum.
2
𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝐼0 2
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅
2 2 𝑟
• or 𝐼0
2
𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝑟
𝐼𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑖𝑛 =radiation resistance at input (feed) terminals
𝑅𝑟 =radiation resistance at current maximum
Fig11 Current distribution of a linear 𝐼0 =current maximum
wire antenna when current maximum 𝐼𝑖𝑛 =current at inpuy treminals
does not occur at the input terminals.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
3 Finite-length Dipole
• The input radiation resistance
𝑅𝑟
𝑅𝑖𝑛 =
𝑘𝑙
sin2
2 input (feed) terminals
Rin = radiation resistance at
Rr = radiation resistance at current maximum

Fig12 Current distributions along Fig13 Radiation resistance, input resistance and directivity
the length of a linear wire antenna of a thin dipole with sinusoidal current distribution
3 Finite-length Dipole EEB861 Dr.Singh

• Simple Formulas for the Input Resistance of Dipoles

Length L Input resistance R in (Ω)
0 < 𝐿 < 𝜆/4 20𝜋 2 (L/𝜆)2
𝜆/4 < 𝐿 < 𝜆/2 24.7(𝜋L/𝜆)2.4
𝜆/4 < 𝐿 < 0.637𝜆 11.14(𝜋L/𝜆)4.17

• Input resistance can be related to radiation resistance. There are several ways to
define radiation resistance by using different current reference points.
▫ Usually radiation resistance is defined using the current distribution maximum 𝐼𝑚 , whether
or not it actually occurs on the antenna. We shall use the symbol 𝑅𝑟𝑚 for this definition.
▫ It is also useful to refer the radiation resistance to the terminal point. In this case the
symbol 𝑅𝑟𝑖 is used.
▫ A third radiation resistance, denoted by Rr, is often used, it is the radiation resistance
relative to the maximum current that occurs on the antenna.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
4 Half-Wavelength Dipole
• One of the most commonly used antennas is the half-wavelength (l = λ/2) dipole.
Because its radiation resistance is 73 ohms, which is very near the 50-ohm or 75-ohm
characteristic impedances of some transmission lines, its matching to the line is
simplified especially at resonance.

• This is the well known value for the

radiation resistance of a thin, linear,
center-fed, half-wavelength antenna
with sinusoidal current distribution.
• The half-wave dipole antenna is a
linear current whose amplitude varies
Fig14 sinusoidal current distribution
as one-half of a sine wave with a
maximum at the center.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
4 Half-Wavelength Dipole
• The advantage of a half-wave dipole is that it can be made to resonate and present a
zero input reactance, thus eliminating the need for turning to achieve a conjugate
impedance match.
• To obtain a resonant condition for a half-wave dipole, the physical length must be
somewhat shorter than a free space half-wave length and as the antenna wire thickness
is increased the length must be reduced more to achieve resonance.

Fig15 The electric and magnetic field of a half-wavelength dipole

 EEB861 Dr.Singh
4 Half-Wavelength Dipole
• For comparison, the half-power beamwidth of a half-wave dipole pattern is 78, while
that of an ideal dipole pattern is 90 . Thus, there is a small increase in the directivity of
the half-wave dipole over the short dipole.
• The current distribution and radiation pattern of the half-wave dipole is shown.

Fig16 The current distribution and radiation pattern of the half-wave dipole
4 Half-Wavelength Dipole EEB861 Dr.Singh

• The maximum directivity of the half-wavelength dipole

𝑈max 𝑈 𝜃=𝜋 2 4 4
𝐷0 = 4𝜋 = 4𝜋 = = ≈ 1.643
𝑃𝑟𝑎ⅆ 𝑃𝑟𝑎ⅆ 𝐶𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 2.435
• The radiation resistance, for a free-space medium (η  120π),
2𝑃𝑟𝑎ⅆ 𝜂
𝑅𝛾 = = 𝐶 2𝜋 = 30 2.435 ≈ 73
𝐼0 2 4𝜋 𝑖𝑛
• The radiation resistance is also the radiation resistance at the input terminals (input
resistance) since the current maximum for a dipole of l = λ/2 occurs at the input
terminals.
• The imaginary part (reactance) associated with the input impedance of a dipole is a
function of its length (for l = λ/2, it is equal to j 42.5). Thus the total input impedance
for l = λ/2 is equal to
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 73 + 𝑗42.5
4 Half-Wavelength Dipole EEB861 Dr.Singh

• To reduce the imaginary part of the input impedance to zero, the antenna is matched or
reduced in length until the reactance vanishes. The latter is most commonly used in
practice for half-wavelength dipoles. To make the reactance zero, requires that the
antenna be shorted a few percent less than half-wavelength. This shortening results in a
reduction in the value of the radiation resistance to about 65 ohm.

• Depending on the radius of the wire, the length of the dipole for first resonance is about
l = 0.47λ to 0.48λ; the thinner the wire, the closer the length is to 0.48λ. Thus, for
thicker wires, a larger segment of the wire has to be removed from λ/2 to achieve
resonance.
EEB861 Dr.Singh
EEB861 Dr.Singh
EEB861 Dr.Singh
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
5 Folded Dipole
• An extremely practical wire antenna is the
folded dipole. It consists of two parallel dipoles
connected at the ends forming a narrow wire
loop with dimension d much smaller than L and
much smaller than a wavelength. The feed point
is at the center of one side.

• The folded dipole antenna is a very popular

wire antenna. The reasons for this are its
impedance properties and ease of construction.
In addition, it has wider bandwidth.

Fig25 The folded dipole array

 EEB861 Dr.Singh
5 Folded Dipole
• The folded dipole is essentially an unbalanced transmission line with unequal currents.
Its operation is analyzed by considering the current to be composed to two modes: the
transmission line mode and the antenna mode.

Fig26 The folded dipole antenna Fig27 The current modes on a folded dipole antenna.
(a) Transmission line mode. (b) Antenna mode.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
5 Folded Dipole
• The currents in the transmission line mode have
fields that tend to cancel in the far field since d
is small. The input impedance for this mode is
given by the equation for a transmission line
with a short circuit load. 𝐿
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑗𝑍0 tan 𝛽
2
• In the antenna mode the fields from the currents
in each vertical section reinforce in the far field
since they are similarly directed.
• Suppose a voltage V is applied across the input
terminals. The total behavior is determined by
the superposition of the equivalent circuits for
Fig28 Mode excitation and current for a voltage each mode.
V applied to the terminals of a folded dipole.
(a) Transmission line mode. (b) Antenna mode.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
6 Folded Dipole
• The transmission line mode current is
𝑉 2 𝑉
𝐼𝑇 = =
𝑍𝑇 2𝑍𝑇
• For the antenna mode, the antenna current is
𝑉 2 𝑉
𝐼𝐴 = =
𝑍𝐷 2𝑍𝐷
where to a first-order approximation ZD is the input
impedance for an ordinary dipole of the same wire size.
1
• The total current is 𝐼𝑇 + 2 𝐼𝐴 and the total
voltage is V; so the input impedance of the
folded dipole is
Fig28 Mode excitation and current for a voltage 𝑉 4𝑍𝑇 𝑍𝐷
V applied to the terminals of a folded dipole. 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = =
1
(a) Transmission line mode. (b) Antenna mode. 𝐼𝑇 + 𝐼𝐴 𝑍𝑇 + 2𝑍𝐷
2
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
5 Folded Dipole
• As an example consider the popular half-wave
folded, this gives
𝜆
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 4𝑍𝐷 𝐿 =
2

• The input impedance of a half-wave folded

dipole (at resonance) is four times that of an
ordinary dipole.

• Zin = 280 is very close to the 300 of common

twin-lead transmission line.

Fig28 Mode excitation and current for a voltage

V applied to the terminals of a folded dipole.
(a) Transmission line mode. (b) Antenna mode.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
6 Yagi-Uda Antenna
• Array antennas can be used to increase directivity. The arrays we have examined have
had all elements active, requiring a direct connection to each element by a feed
network. The feed networks for arrays are considerably simplified if only a few
elements are fed directly. Such an array is referred to as a parasitic array. The elements
that are not directly driven (called parasites) receive their excitation by near-field
coupling from the driven elements. A parasitic linear array of parallel dipoles is called
Yagi-Uda antenna, Yagi-Uda array, or simply "Yagi".

Fig29 Yagi-Uda antenna

 EEB861 Dr.Singh
7 Yagi-Uda Antenna
• Yagi-Uda Antennas are very popular because of their simplicity and relatively high
gain. In this section the principles of operation and design data for Yagi will be
presented.
• The basic unit of a Yagi consists of three elements. To understand the principles of
operation for a three-element Yagi we will begin with a driven element (driver) and add
parasites to the array.

Fig30 three element Yagi-Uda antenna

 EEB861 Dr.Singh
6 Yagi-Uda Antenna
• Consider a driven element that is a resonant half-wave dipole. If a parasitic element is
spaced very close to it, it is excited by the driven element with roughly equal
amplitude, so the field incident on the parasite is
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖ⅆ𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐸ⅆ𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒

• A current is excited on the parasite and it will radiate electric field Eparasite.
• From the boundary condition for good conductor, 0 = Eparasite + Eincident. Then

𝐸𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 = −𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖ⅆ𝑒𝑛𝑡 = −𝐸ⅆ𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒

• From array theory we know that two closely spaced, equal amplitude, opposite phase
elements will have an endfire pattern.
6 Yagi-Uda Antenna EEB861 Dr.Singh

• Reflector
▫ The numerical methods demonstrates the general trend of a parasite which is longer
than the driver: a single main beam occurs in the endfire direction from the parasite
to the driver along the line of the array. Such a parasite is called a reflector because
it appears to reflect radiation from the driver.

• Director
▫ If the parasite is shorter than the driver, but now placed on the other side of the
driver, the pattern effect is similar to that when using a reflector in the sense that
main beam enhancement is in the same direction. The parasite is then referred to as
a director since it appears to direct radiation in the direction from the driver toward
the director.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
6 Yagi-Uda Antenna

• The single endfire beam created by the use of a reflector or a director alone with a
driver suggests that even further enhancement could be achieved with a reflector and a
director on opposite sides of a driver. The maximum directivity obtained from a three-
element Yagi is about 9dB.

• The optimum spacing ( for maximum directivity) are on the order of 0.15 to 0.25
wavelength between the reflector and driver and also between the driver to director.
Typically the reflector is lengthened 5% or more and the director is shortened 5% or
more from the length of resonant length driver.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
7 Travelling-Wave Wire Antenna
• The wire antennas we have discussed thus far have been resonant structures. The
wave traveling outward from the feed point to the end of the wire is reflected, setting
up a standing-wave type current distribution. This can be seen by
𝐿 𝐼𝑚 𝑗𝛽𝐿 2
𝐼𝑚 sin 𝛽 −𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 − 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧
2 2𝑗

• The first term in brackets represents an outward traveling wave and the second term a
reflected wave. The minus sign is the current reflection coefficient at an open circuit.

• If the reflected wave is not present on an antenna it is referred to as a traveling-wave

antenna.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
7 Travelling-Wave Wire Antenna

Standing wave antennas:

• Center-fed linear wire antennas were discussed whose amplitude current distribution
was
1. constant for infinitesimal dipoles (l ≤ λ/50)
2. linear (triangular) for short dipoles (λ/50 < l ≤ λ/10)
3. sinusoidal for long dipoles (l > λ/10)

• In all cases the phase distribution was assumed to be constant. The sinusoidal current
distribution of long open-ended linear antennas is a standing wave constructed by two
waves of equal amplitude and 180◦ phase difference at the open end traveling in
opposite directions along its length.
7 Travelling-Wave Wire Antenna EEB861 Dr.Singh

• The voltage distribution has also a standing wave pattern except that it has maxima
(loops) at the end of the line instead of nulls (nodes) as the current.

• In each pattern, the maxima and minima repeat every integral number of half
wavelengths. There is also a λ/4 spacing between a null and a maximum in
each of the wave patterns.

• The current and voltage distributions on open-ended wire antennas are similar
to the standing wave patterns on open-ended transmission lines. Linear
antennas that exhibit current and voltage standing wave patterns formed by
reflections from the open end of the wire are referred to as standing wave or
resonant antennas.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
7 Travelling-Wave Wire Antenna
• Antennas can be designed which have traveling wave (uniform) patterns in current and
voltage. This can be achieved by properly terminating the antenna wire so that the
reflections are minimized if not completely eliminated.
• An example of such an antenna is a long wire that runs horizontal to the earth. The
input terminals consist of the ground and one end of the wire. This configuration is
known as Beverage or wave antenna.

Fig31 Long wire above ground

7 Travelling-Wave Wire Antenna EEB861 Dr.Singh

• In general, all antennas whose current and voltage distributions can be represented by
one or more traveling waves, usually in the same direction, are referred to as traveling
wave or nonresonant antennas. A progressive phase pattern is usually associated with
the current and voltage distributions.
• Standing wave antennas, such as the dipole, can be analyzed as traveling wave
antennas with waves propagating in opposite directions (forward and backward) and
represented by traveling wave currents If and Ib.

• Besides the long wire antenna there are many examples of traveling wave antennas
such as dielectric rod (polyrod), helix, and various surface wave antennas. Aperture
antennas, such as reflectors and horns, can also be treated as traveling wave antennas.
In addition, arrays of closely spaced radiators (usually less than λ/2 apart) can also be
analyzed as traveling wave antennas by approximating their current or field distribution
by a continuous traveling wave. Yagi-Uda, log-periodic, and slots and holes in a
waveguide are some examples of discrete-element traveling wave antennas.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
7.1 Long Wire
• An example of a slow wave traveling antenna is a long wire. An antenna is usually
classified as a long wire antenna if it is a straight conductor with a length from one to
many wavelengths. A long wire antenna has the distinction of being the first traveling
wave antenna. The traveling-wave long wire antenna is shown in with a matched load
RL to prevent reflections from the wire end.

Fig32 Long wire antenna

 EEB861 Dr.Singh
7.1 Long Wire

• The height h of the antenna above the ground must be chosen so that the reflected wave
(or wave from the image), which includes the phase due to reflection is in phase with
the direct wave at the angles of desired maximum radiation.

• Simplifying assumptions:
▫ the ground plane effects is ignored and free space;
▫ the details of the feed are assumed to be unimportant, the vertical section of length
d is assumed not to radiate;
▫ the radiative and ohmic losses along the wire are small.
• Then we can write
𝐼𝑡 𝑧 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
7.1 Long Wire
• To verify some of the derivations and illustrate some of the principles, a number of
computations were made.

Fig33 Three-dimensional free-space amplitude pattern for traveling and standing wave wire antennas of l = 5λ.
7.1 Long Wire EEB861 Dr.Singh

• To verify some of the derivations and illustrate

some of the principles, a number of computations
were made.

• The pattern of Figure (a) is formed by the forward

traveling wave current If = I1e −jkz of Figure(a)
while that of Figure (b) is formed by the forward If
plus backward Ib traveling wave currents of Figure
(a).
Fig34 Two-dimensional free-space amplitude
• The two currents If and Ib together form a standing pattern for traveling and standing wave wire
wave; that is, antennas of l = 5λ.
Is = If + Ib = I1e−jkz − I2e+jkz = −2jI0 sin(kz )
when I2 = I1 = I0.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
7.1 Long Wire

• As expected, for the traveling wave antenna of

Figure (a) there is maximum radiation in the
forward direction while for the standing wave
antenna of Figure (b) there is maximum radiation
in the forward and backward directions. The lobe
near the axis of the wire in the directions of travel is
the largest.

• The magnitudes of the other lobes from the main Fig34 Two-dimensional free-space amplitude
decrease progressively, with an envelope pattern for traveling and standing wave wire
proportional to cot2(θ/2), toward the other direction. antennas of l = 5λ.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
7.1 Long Wire
• The traveling wave antenna is used when it is desired to radiate or receive
predominantly from one direction. As the length of the wire increases, the maximum of
the main lobe shifts closer toward the axis and the number of lobes increase.

Fig35 Two-dimensional free-space amplitude pattern for

traveling wave wire antenna of l = 5λ and 10λ.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh
7.1 Long Wire

• For traveling wave wire antennas the radiation in the opposite direction from the
maximum is suppressed by reducing, if not completely eliminating, the current
reflected from the end of the wire. This is accomplished by increasing the diameter of
the wire or more successfully by properly terminating it to the ground.

• Ideally a complete elimination of the reflections (perfect match) can only be

accomplished if the antenna is elevated only at small heights (compared to the
wavelength) above the ground, and it is terminated by a resistive load. The value of the
load resistor, to achieve the impedance match, is equal to the characteristic impedance
of the wire near the ground (which is found using image theory).
7.1 Long Wire EEB861 Dr.Singh

• For a wire with diameter d and height h above the ground, an approximate value of the
termination resistance is obtained from
ℎ
𝑅𝐿 = 138 log10 4
𝑑

• A long-wire antenna is linearly polarized, and it is always parallel to the plane formed
by the wire and radial vector from the center of the wire to the observation point. The
direction of the linear polarization is not the same in all parts of the pattern, but it is
perpendicular to the radial vector (and parallel to the plane formed by it and the wire).

• when its height above the ground is small compared to the wavelength and its main
beam is near the ground, is not an effective element for horizontal polarization. Instead
it is usually used to transmit or receive waves that have an appreciable vector
component in the vertical plane. This is what is known as a Beverage antenna which is
used more as a receiving rather than a transmitting element because of its poor
radiation efficiency due to power absorbed in the load resistor.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh

8 Types of Antenna
• Antennas are mainly classified into two types.

• Antennas

• Resonant Antennas Non-Resonant Antennas

 EEB861 Dr.Singh

8.1 Resonant Antennas

• Resonant antennas are opened out transmission line i.e. they
are open circuited at one end .
• They have resonant lengths i.e. multiple of half-wave length.
• The lengths of the antennas are L = /2, L = , L = 3/2 and
so on.
• A resonant antenna corresponds to resonant transmission
line.
• Radiated patterns of resonant dipoles are shown in Fig. below.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh

3D Dipole Radiation Pattern vs Current Distribution, effect of increase the electrical length.mp4

Fig. : Radiation Pattern of Various Resonant Dipoles

 EEB861 Dr.Singh

8.2 Non-Resonant Antennas

• Non-resonant antennas are the antennas in which the source is matched to
the load (i.e. they don’t have open circuit).
• A non-resonant antenna is like a properly terminated transmission line,
produces no standing waves.
• They are suppressed by the use of a correct termination resistor and no
power is reflected, ensuring that only forward travelling waves will
present.
• In a correctly matched transmission line, all the transmitted power is
dissipated in the terminating resistance.
• When an antenna is terminated as shown in Fig. (a) about two-third of the
forward power is radiated and remaining is dissipated in the antenna.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh

8.3 Non-Resonant Antennas (continued…)

(a) Layout and Current Distribution (b) Radiation Pattern

• Fig. : Non-Resonant Antenna
• As shown in Fig. (b), the radiation pattern of the resonant antenna and a non-resonant antenna
are same except one major difference i.e. the
non-resonant antenna is unidirectional.
• Demerits of Non-Resonant Antennas:
• (i) Low gain.
• (ii) Low efficiency.
• (iii) Occupy more space.
 EEB861 Dr.Singh

8.4 Comparison between Resonant and Non-resonant Antennas

EEB861 Dr.Singh
EEB861 Dr.Singh
EEB861 Dr.Singh
EEB861 Dr.Singh
EEB861 Dr.Singh