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Introduction of Data Communication

Computer Network consists of interconnection of autonomous nodes. A node is device which is

capable of receiving and/or sending data. A node may be any computer, printer, router or anydevice
that can receive and/or send data. Nodes are autonomous means; no device can forciblystart and/or
stop the operation of other device. In computer networks the data and resources areshared among
the authorized multiple users.

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:

delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or user.

Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered intransmission
and left uncorrected are unusable.

Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. Inthe
case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in thesame
order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is calledreal-time
transmission.

Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in thedelivery of
audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every30 ms. If some
of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an unevenquality in the video
is the result.

Network Components:
A data communications system has five components.

Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms ofinformation
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.

Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a messagetravels
from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire,coaxial
cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.

Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents anagreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may beconnected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by aperson who speaks
only Japanese.

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Fig:Components of Communication

Data Representation
Data refers to information that conveys some meaning based on some mutually agreed up rulesor
conventions between a sender and a receiver and today it comes in a variety of forms such astext,
graphics, audio, video and animation.

Text
In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s).Different
sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called acode, and the
process of representing symbols is called coding. Today, the prevalent codingsystem is called
Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character used in anylanguage in the world.

Numbers
Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used
torepresent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplifymathematical
operations.

Images
Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of amatrix
of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixeldepends on the
resolution. For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000pixels. In the second
case, there is a better representation of the image (better resolution), butmore memory is needed to
store the image. After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel isassigned a bit pattern. The size
and the value of the pattern depend on the image. For an imagemade of only black and white dots
(e.g., a chessboard), a 1-bit pattern is enough to represent apixel. If an image is not made of pure
white and pure black pixels, you can increase the size ofthe bit pattern to include gray scale. For
example, to show four levels of gray scale, you can use2-bit patterns. A black pixel can be
represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by 01, a light gray pixelby 10, and a white pixel by 11. There
are several methods to represent color images. Onemethod is called RGB, so called because each
color is made of a combination of three primarycolors: red, green, and blue.

Audio
Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature differentfrom
text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a microphone tochange
voice or music to an electric signal, we create a continuous signal.

Video
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be produced as

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a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discreteentity,

arranged to convey the idea of motion. Again we can change video to a digital or an analogsignal.

Data Flow
Communications between any two devices may be one of the three modes. The data flow is also
called modes of transmission.
oSimplex
oHalf – Duplex
oFull – Duplex

Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. Only one of the two devices on a link
cantransmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of
simplexdevices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output. The
simplexmode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

Fig: Simplex Mode

Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When
onedevice is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is like a one-
laneroad with traffic allowed in both directions. When cars are traveling in one direction, carsgoing
the other way must wait. In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel istaken over
by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB(citizens band)
radios are both half-duplex systems. The half-duplex mode is used in caseswhere there is no need
for communication in both directions at the same time; the entire capacityof the channel can be
utilized for each direction.

Fig: Half – Duplex Mode

Full-Duplex
In full-duplex mode also called duplex, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.The
full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the sametime. In
full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: withsignals going in
the other direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link mustcontain two physically
separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving;or the capacity of the
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channel is divided between signals traveling in both directions. Onecommon example of full-
duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people arecommunicating by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-duplexmode is used when
communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity of thechannel, however,
must be divided between the two directions.

Fig: Full – Duplex Mode

Network Applications
Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network. They provide
numerous advantages:
 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
 Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 IP phones
 Video conferences
 Parallel computing
 Instant messaging

Networks
A network is a collection of nodes connected by communication links. A node can be acomputer,
printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated byother nodes on the
network. A communication link is a transmission medium between thesenodes.

Distributed processing
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple
computers.Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of process,
separatecomputers (usually a personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.

Network criteria
Most of the time, networks are used to transmit sensitive data. So, a network must be able tomeet a
certain number of criteria. The most important of these are performance, reliability, andsecurity.

Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time. Transittime
is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Responsetime is
the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a networkdepends on a
number of factors, including the number of users, the type of transmissionmedium, the capabilities
of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.Performance is often evaluated by
two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often needmore throughput and less delay.
However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try tosend more data to the network, we
may increase throughput but we increase the delay because oftraffic congestion in the network.

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Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure,the
time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.

Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data
fromdamage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breachesand data losses.

Physical Structures
Types of Connections
Physical Topology

Types of Connections
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathwaythat
transfers data from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it is simplest toimagine any
link as a line drawn between two points. For communication to occur, two devicesmust be
connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There are two possible typesof
connections:
point-to-point
multipoint.

Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entirecapacity
of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the twoends,
but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible.
Example: When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you areestablishing
a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the television'scontrol system.

Fig: Point-to-Point Connection

Multipoint
Multipoint A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more thantwo
specific devices share a single link.
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially ortemporally.
If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. Ifusers
must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

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Fig: Multi-Point Connection

Physical Topology
Topology refers to the way in which the network of computers is connected.
Each topology is suited to specific tasks and has its own advantages and disadvantages.
The choice of topology is dependent upon type and number of equipment being used,planned
applications and rate of data transfer required, response time, and cost.
Topology can also be defined as the geometrically interconnection pattern by which thestations
(nodes/computers) are connected using suitable transmission media

Different Types of Topologies:

Mesh
Bus
Star
Ring
Tree
Unconstrained

Mesh Topology
In this topology each node or station is connected to every other station.
Two nodes are connected by dedicated point-point links between them. So the totalnumber of
links to connect n nodes = n(n-1)/2; which is proportional to n .
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Media used for the connection (links) can be twisted pair, co-axial cable or optical fiber.
With this topology there is no need to provide any additional information that is fromwhere the
packet is coming, along with the packet because two nodes have a point-pointdedicated link
between them.

Fig: Mesh Topology with 4 and 5 nodes

Advantages
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A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies. First, the use of dedicated
linksguarantees that each connection can carry its own data load. Second, a mesh topology is
robust.If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system. Third, there is
theadvantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a dedicated line, only
theintended recipient sees it. Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and faultisolation
easy.

Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and the number of I/Oports
required. Installations and reconnections are difficult. Wiring can be greater than theavailable space
(in walls, ceilings, or floors). Finally, the hardware required to connect each link(I/O ports and
cable) can be expensive.

Bus Topology
In Bus Topology, all stations attach through appropriate hardware interfacing known as atap,
directly to a linear transmission medium, or bus.
Full-duplex operation between the station and the tap allows data to be transmitted ontothe bus
and received from the bus.
A transmission from any station propagates the length of the medium in both directionsand can
be received by all other stations.
At each end of the bus there is a terminator, which absorbs any signal, preventingreflection of
signal from the endpoints. If the terminator is not present, the endpoint actslike a mirror and reflects
the signal back causing interference and other problems.

Fig: Bus Topology

Advantages
Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along
themost efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. Only
thebackbone cable stretches through the entire facility. Each drop line has to reach only as far as
thenearest point on the backbone.

Disadvantages
Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to
beoptimally efficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new devices.
Signalreflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. Adding new devices may
thereforerequire modification or replacement of the backbone.

Star Topology
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In the star topology, each station is directly connected to a common central nodegenerally called
as HUB.
Typically, each station attaches to a central node, referred to as the star coupler, via twopoint-to-
point links, one for transmission and one for reception.
In general, there are two alternatives for the operation of the central node.
One approach is for the central node to operate in a broadcast fashion. A transmission ofa frame
from one station to the node is retransmitted on all of the outgoing links.
Another approach is for the central node to act as a frame-switching device. An incomingframe
is buffered in the node and then retransmitted on an outgoing link to thedestination station.

Fig: Star Topology with 4 and 5 nodes

Advantages
A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only onelink
and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others. This factor also makes it easy toinstall and
reconfigure. Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link isaffected. All
other links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identificationand fault isolation.
As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems andbypass defective links.

Disadvantages
One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one
singlepoint, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead. Although a star requires far
lesscable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a central hub. For this reason, often more
cablingis required in a star than in some other topologies.

Ring Topology
In the ring topology, the network consists of a set of repeaters joined by point-to-pointlinks in a
closed loop.
The repeater is a comparatively simple device, capable of receiving data on one link
andtransmitting them, bit by bit, on the other link as fast as they are received, with nobuffering at
the repeater.
The links are unidirectional; that is data are transmitted in one direction only and all areoriented
in the same way. Thus, data circulate around the ring in one direction (clockwiseor
counterclockwise).
Each station attaches to the network at a repeater and can transmit data onto the networkthrough
that repeater. As with the bus and tree, data are transmitted in frames.

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Fig: Ring Topology

Repeater: Repeater works in the following three modes:

Listen mode: In this mode, the station listens to the communication going over the
sharedmedium.
Transmit mode: In this mode the station transmit the data over the network.
By-Pass mode: When the node is faulty then it can be bypassed using the repeater inbypass
mode, i.e. the station doesn’t care about what data is transmitted through thenetwork.

Advantages
A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its
immediateneighbors (either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires changing
only twoconnections. In addition, fault isolation is simplified. Generally in a ring, a signal is
circulatingat all times. If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue
analarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its location.

Disadvantages
However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (suchas a
disabled station) can disable the entire network. This weakness can be solved by using adual ring or
a switch capable of closing off the break.
Tree Topology
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This topology can be considered as an extension to bus topology. It is commonly used

incascading equipments.
For example, you have a repeater box with 8-port, as far as you have eight stations, thiscan be
used in a normal fashion. But if you need to add more stations then you canconnect two or more
repeaters in a hierarchical format (tree format) and can add morestations. In the figure R1 refers to
repeater one and so on and each repeater is consideredto have 8-ports.
This tree topology is very good in an organization as incremental expansion can be donein this
way.
Main features of this topology are scalability and flexibility. This is because, when theneed
arises for more stations that can be accomplished easily without affecting thealready established
network.

Fig: Tree Topology

Unconstrained Topology
All the topologies discussed so far are symmetric and constrained by well-
definedinterconnection pattern. However, sometimes no definite pattern is followed and nodesare
interconnected in an arbitrary manner using point-to-point links as shown in
Figure.Unconstrained topology allows a lot of configuration flexibility but suffers from
thecomplex routing problem.
Complex routing involves unwanted overhead and delay.

Fig: Unconstrained Topology

Hybrid Topology
A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each
branchconnecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure.

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Fig: Hybrid Topology

Network Models
Computer networks are created by different entities. Standards are needed so that
theseheterogeneous networks can communicate with one another. The two best-known standards
arethe OSI model and the Internet model(TCP/IP).

Categories of Networks
Networks are divided into Local Area (LAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) and WideArea
Networks (WAN) based on their size.

Local Area Network

LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building or campus ofup to
few kilometers in size. These are used to share resources (may be hardware or softwareresources)
and to exchange information. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networksby three
categories: their size, transmission technology and topology.LANs are restricted in size, which
means that their worst-case transmission time is bounded andknown in advance. Hence this is more
reliable as compared to MAN and WAN. Knowing thisbound makes it possible to use certain kinds
of design that would not otherwise be possible. Italso simplifies network management.

Fig: An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers orworkstations.
The resources to be shared can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software(e.g., an application
program), or data.
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A common example of a LAN, found in many business environments, links a workgroupof task-
related computers, for example, engineering workstations or accounting PCs. Oneof the computers
may be given a large capacity disk drive and may become a server toclients. Software can be stored
on this central server and used as needed by the wholegroup.
In this example, the size of the LAN may be determined by licensing restrictions on thenumber of
users per copy of software, or by restrictions on the number of users licensedto access the operating
system.
In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by theirtransmission
media and topology. In general, a given LAN will use only one type oftransmission medium. The
most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star.
Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per second (Mbps) range. Today,however,
speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.
Wireless LANs are the newest evolution in LAN technology.

Wide Area Network

A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio,and video
information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, acontinent, or even the whole
world.
A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that connect the Internet or as simple as adial-up line
that connects a home computer to the Internet. We normally refer to the firstas a switched WAN and
to the second as a point-to-point WAN.
The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a router(internetworking
connecting device) that connects to another LAN or WAN.
The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone or cable TV providerthat
connects a home computer or a small LAN to an Internet service provider (lSP).
This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet access.

Fig:WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN

An early example of a switched WAN is X.25, a network designed to provideconnectivity

between end users.
X.25 is being gradually replaced by a high-speed, more efficient network called FrameRelay. A
good example of a switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)network, which is a
network with fixed-size data unit packets called cells.
Another example ofWANs is the wireless WAN that is becoming more and morepopular.
Metropolitan Area Networks
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and aWAN.
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It normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is designed for customers who needa high-
speed connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have endpoints spread over a cityor part of city.
A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network that canprovide a high-
speed DSL line to the customer.
Another example is the cable TV network that originally was designed for cable TV, buttoday can
also be used for high-speed data connection to the Internet.

Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork

Today, it is very rare to see a LAN, a MAN, or a LAN in isolation; they are connected toone
another. When two or more networks are connected, they become an internetwork,or internet.
As an example, assume that an organization has two offices, one on the east coast andthe other on
the west coast. The established office on the west coast has a bus topologyLAN; the newly opened
office on the east coast has a star topology LAN.
The president of the company lives somewhere in the middle and needs to have controlover the
company from her horne. To create a backbone WAN for connecting these threeentities (twoLANs
and the president's computer), a switched WAN (operated by a service providersuch as a telecom
company) has been leased. To connect the LANs to this switchedWAN, however, three point-to-
point WANs are required.
These point-to-point WANs can be a high-speed DSL line offered by a telephonecompany or a
cable modern line offered by a cable TV provider as shown in Figure.

Fig: A heterogeneous network made offour WANs and two LANs

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Layered Tasks:
In layered architecture of Network Model, one whole network process is divided into small
tasks. Each small task is then assigned to a particular layer which works dedicatedly to process the
task only. Every layer does only specific work.
In layered communication system, one layer of a host deals with the task done by or to be done by
its peer layer at the same level on the remote host. The task is either initiated by layer at the lowest
level or at the top most level. If the task is initiated by the topmost layer, it is passed on to the layer
below it for further processing. The lower layer does the same thing, it processes the task and
passes on to lower layer. If the task is initiated by lowermost layer, then the reverse path is taken.

Every layer clubs together all procedures, protocols, and methods which it requires to execute its
piece of task. All layers identify their counterparts by means of encapsulation header and tail.

1.OSI Model:
Open System Interconnect is an open standard for all communication systems. OSI model is
established by International Standard Organization (ISO). This model has seven layers:

Application Layer: This layer is responsible for providing interface to the application user. This
layer encompasses protocols which directly interact with the user.

Presentation Layer: This layer defines how data in the native format of remote host should be
presented in the native format of host.

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Session Layer: This layer maintains sessions between remote hosts. For example, once
user/password authentication is done, the remote host maintains this session for a while and does
not ask for authentication again in that time span.

Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery between hosts.

Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address assignment and uniquely addressing hosts in
a network.

Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and writing data from and onto the line.
Link errors are detected at this layer.

Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling, wiring, power output, pulse rate etc.

2.Internet Model:
Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite, also known as Internet suite. This defines Internet
Model which contains four layered architecture. OSI Model is general communication model but
Internet Model is what the internet uses for all its communication. The internet is independent of its
underlying network architecture so is its Model. This model has the following layers:

Application Layer: This layer defines the protocol which enables user to interact with the
network. For example, FTP, HTTP etc.

Transport Layer: This layer defines how data should flow between hosts. Major protocol at this
layer is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This layer ensures data delivered between hosts is in-
order and is responsible for end-to-end delivery.

Internet Layer: Internet Protocol (IP) works on this layer. This layer facilitates host addressing
and recognition. This layer defines routing.

Link Layer: This layer provides mechanism of sending and receiving actual data. Unlike its OSI
Model counterpart, this layer is independent of underlying network architecture and hardware.

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