Air Inlet Turbines Ashrae

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Services.
Air Temperature Depression and Potential Icing
at the Inlet of Stationary Combustion Turbines
ASHRAE Research Project 1019
Final Report
William E. Stewart, Jr. PhD PE

Anthony B. Parrack
InterMountain Research
1806 Arrowhead Drive
Olathe, Kansas 66062
(913) 782-0217
Fax (913)782-1832
stewart@qni.com
July 1999
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword ................................................................................................................... 3
Executive Summary......................................................................................................... 4
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 5
Air Temperature Depression and Potential Icing ............................................................ 5
Pressure Loss and Potential Condensation .................................................................... 9
Potential Icing ................................................................................................................ 10
Test Sites ................................................................................................................. 16
Numerical Simulations
- Numerical Model .............................................................................................. 28
- Comparison of Simulations and Site Data ....................................................... 35
- Simulations ....................................................................................................... 36
Simulated Condensation .............................................................................................. 70
Simulated Icing Potential .............................................................................................. 73
Inlet/Cooled Air Maximum Relative Humidity................................................................. 81
Summary of Results ...................................................................................................... 82
Prevention of Surface Icing .......................................................................................... 84
References and Bibliography ....................................................................................... 86
Nomenclature .............................................................................................................. 92
List of Tables ................................................................................................................93
List of Figures ............................................................................................................... 93
2
FOREWORD
This report is a result of cooperative research between the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers and InterMountain Research, Olathe, Kansas,
under research project 1019.
The research project reported within concerned the investigation of the potential for the formation
of ice on the surfaces of the inlet air housing, bellmouth, and inlet guide vanes of gas
(combustion) turbines. The results of this investigation are based upon model simulations and
were not verified by experiment. The simulated results appear reasonable and the predicted
formation of fog and ice are generally substantiated by observations of turbine operating
personnel.
The author would like to express appreciation to the Task Group on Combustion Turbine Inlet
Cooling for providing the opportunity to perform this research and the assistance and guidance of
its members, especially the members of the Project Monitoring Subcommittee, including Larry
Rolison (PMS Chair), Tri-Com Refrigeration; Brian Silvetti, Calmac Manufacturing; Sriram
Somasundaram, Pacific Northwest Nat’l Lab; Jon Edmonds, Edmonds Engineering; Don
Erickson, Energy Concepts; Tom Pierson, Hou-Tra; and Don Shepherd, Caldwell Energy &
Environmental.
The Principal Investigator would like to thank former committee members Jerry Ebeling, Burns
and McDonnell Engineering, and Tom Davis, Carolina Power and Light (retired), and Tony
Parrack and Doug Mushet who assisted substantially in performing simulations, in addition to Mike
White for graphics support. The participation of external reviewers of the research project is also
gratefully appreciated, which included Marlin Breer, Wichita, Kansas; Jim Parsons, Kansas City
Power and Light; Dennis Greashaber, Utilicorp; Jim Prochaska, General Electric; Doug Bantam
and Byron Bakenhus, Lincoln Electric; Chris Reneau, Niject Services Company; and Justin
Zachary, Siemens.
The cooperation of Allen Dancy at the Greenwood generating station of Utilicorp, Kansas City,
MO, Jim Parsons, Kansas City Power and Light, and Byron Bakenfus and Doug Bantam of
Lincoln Electric, Lincoln, NE, are gratefully appreciated for the opportunity to gather turbine
operating information.
The project report is dedicated to the African adventurers…
"The experiences of other wandering hunters have always had so much interest for me, that I
have ventured, perhaps presumptuously, to conclude that my own may possibly be thought
worthy of perusal by those with similar … tastes.”
Arthur H. NeumannElephant Hunting in East Equatorial Africa, 1898.
3
Executive Summary
The power produced by a stationary combustion (gas) turbine is a linear function of the
mass flow rate of air entering the compressor. As the temperature of the air is
decreased, the air density and mass flow rate increases. The heat rate decreases and
the power increases as the entering air temperature is lowered. If the entering ambient
air is humid and relatively cool, or cooled by an inlet air cooling system, the possibility
exists of condensation or frost/ice forming on the downstream surfaces of the inlet air
duct, bellmouth, or inlet guide vanes. Limiting the ambient or cooled inlet temperature to
higher than necessary values, limits the application of inlet air cooling for many turbine
installations.
This research project concerned the investigation of the ambient or cooled air
temperature depression and the corresponding potential for the formation of
condensation and ice on the surfaces of the inlet air housing, bellmouth, and inlet guide
vanes of gas (combustion) turbines. Ice formation on the bellmouth or inlet guide vanes
could possibly release and damage the first stage of compressor blades. The research
investigation is based upon numerical model simulations of surface temperatures, air
velocities, and pressures through the inlet duct, bellmouth and inlet guide vanes. The
simulated results do appear to be reasonable and the predicted formation of fog and ice
are generally substantiated by observations of turbine operating personnel.
Numerical model simulations were performed using the geometries of three stationary
turbine installations, which represent three different inlet air duct configurations, two
different bellmouth configurations, and a single inlet guide vane configuration. The air
and surface temperatures were predicted for a range of ambient or cooled inlet air
temperatures at the design inlet air velocity. The occurrence of surface condensation or
ice formation was assumed when the recovery factor corrected surface temperature was
less than the corresponding saturation temperature of the air. The simulation results
revealed that the leading edge of the inlet guide vanes experience the lowest surface
temperature and therefore is the most susceptible area for condensation and icing.
The results show that there is really is no lower temperature limit for the ambient or
cooled inlet air but is rather limited by the relative humidity. At 100% relative humidity, the
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ambient/cooled inlet air the temperature is limited to between 35 and 40 F (1.7 and 4.4 C)
to prevent condensation and possible ice formation on the inlet guide vanes. If the relative
humidity is sufficiently low such that the saturation condition is not reached at the reduced
pressure inside the bellmouth, cooled or ambient inlet air temperature can be as low as
desired.
4
Introduction
Electric utilities, independent power producers, and industrial installations are increasingly
using combustion turbine inlet air cooling (CTIAC) as a means of economically increasing
their peak capacity and decreasing heat rate. Inlet air cooling has been applied at many
combustion turbine power plants using several different technologies (Ebeling et al 1995).
Because of this increased interest, ASHRAE has developed a design guide for
combustion turbine inlet air cooling (Stewart 1999). One issue affecting several of the
inlet air cooling technologies is the minimum "safe" air temperature entering the turbine
inlet.
The air inlet (bellmouth) to the compressor section of a combustion turbine is typically a
converging section, with increasing velocity and decreasing pressure and temperature in
the direction of the air flow. Different inlet designs and air flow conditions will result in
different air temperature depressions (Hedde and Guffond 1995). Inlet air temperature
depressions may result in an icing occurrence for certain operating conditions (Reneau
1995). Ice formation in the air or on the inlet housing or bellmouth surfaces is considered
a major concern to the safe operation of any combustion turbine (Mann et al 1991)
because of potential damage to the compressor blades. The combustion turbine
manufacturers offer different recommendations for the minimum "safe" temperature of the
inlet air to prevent an icing occurrence (Tatge 1982).
Although previous research has been performed on the subject of inlet air icing for
combustion turbines, this research effort has concentrated on the colder climates and
most often on aircraft engines. Because of the many different parameters considered in
previous research, those results are not considered to be applicable to stationary
combustion turbines operating in hot environments with inlet air cooling. Calculations by
several design professionals do not support the conservative inlet air temperatures
recommended by manufacturers. Limiting the inlet temperature to higher than necessary
limits the application of CTIAC to many turbine installations, as the cooler the inlet air the
greater the increase in turbine capacity and, generally, the greater the value that can be
placed on the cooling technology and increasing the likelihood of successful proposed
projects.
Air Temperature Depression and Potential Icing
There is no extensive design information available for guarding against turbine inlet icing.
It is generally considered that inlet air temperatures should remain above freezing to
some extent to prevent the formation of ice either in the inlet air stream or on the inlet
guide vanes or inlet housing (Stewart 1999). Ice particles in the inlet air or ice fragments
5
from the surrounding structure or air filters, if ingested into the turbine, could cause
extensive damage to the compressor blades. This is especially true for aeroderivative
turbines, as industrial turbines are structurally more heavy.
Water and the potential for icing can enter the compressor in several different ways. The
maximum power output from the turbine is sometimes gained from using the compressor
blade water wash to increase the mass flow rate. Fog and small water droplet inlet air
cooling techniques are now also being applied. These techniques must be used at inlet
air temperatures above which icing may occur.
Some aeroderivative turbines reach their maximum capacity at higher inlet air
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temperatures, e.g., near 60 F (15.6 C), but icing may still be a problem at lower ambient
air conditions. Ice sensors have been used to trigger various air heating alternatives for
cold inlet air conditions including compressor bleed systems, waste steam heating coils,
or exhaust heat systems (Calvert 1994). Use of condenser heat from a CTIAC
refrigeration system would allow cooling the inlet air at higher temperatures and heating
the inlet air at icing temperatures.
The inlet air undergoes an acceleration process, increasing the air velocity, V, while
traversing through the inlet housing because of the decreasing housing cross-sectional
area. If this process occurs adiabatically, there is a decrease in the inlet static air
temperature according to the definition of stagnation enthalpy, as
ho = h + V 2 / 2 g
where the enthalpy, h, can be approximated as the specific heat times the air
temperature, for an ideal gas, or
To = T + V 2 / 2cp g
where To is the stagnation temperature, which remains constant. The downstream static
air temperature can be determined approximately, for example, by assuming that the air
velocity leaving the inlet cooling equipment is small or negligible, typically 400 ft/min (6.67
ft/s) or less to prevent water carry-over from the coils. If the compressor bellmouth inlet
air velocity, for example, is 250 ft/s (76.2 m/s), noting that To is remains constant, the
decrease in static temperature is
∆T = T1 − T2 = 250 2 /(2(32.2)(778)(0.24)) = 5.2o F (2.9o C )
o
where 0.24 Btu/lb- F is the air specific heat and 778 ft-lbf/Btu is a conversion factor.
Turbine compressor inlet air velocities are sometimes quoted as being low, typically 40 to
50 ft/s (12.2 to 15.2 m/s) (Zachary 1996). For an inlet air velocity of approximately 0.1
6
Mach number, about 110 ft/s (33.5 m/s), the static temperature decrease is calculated to
o o o
be only 1 F (0.6 C). Typical inlet air depressions are also quoted as only 1 or 2 F (0.6 to
o
1.1 C) (Johnson 1997). The actual air temperature decrease and the resulting
compressor inlet air temperature will depend on the specific inlet design and air velocity
and the extent of heat gain from the ambient through the inlet or bellmouth housings.
From the mass flow rate for a MS700B turbine, the air velocity at the inlet guide vanes is
typically on the order of 500 ft/s (152.4 m/s). For this case, the static temperature
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depression is 20.8 F (11.6 C). As will be shown below, measured air temperatures in
the bellmouth are stagnation or near stagnation temperatures (using a recovery factor
(Shapiro 1953)) and the measured stagnation temperature differentials should be zero or
near zero.
The concern over the formation of ice at the inlet to the turbine, either in the air stream or
on the surrounding structure, may not be justified during most typical inlet air cooling
conditions. For a typical hot, summer day, the heat gain to the air stream through the
inlet housing structure and bellmouth may heat the incoming air above the cooled air
temperature. In a study at the Lincoln Electric System facility, the measured inlet air
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temperature increased by about 2 F (1.1 C) for the warm summer day tested (Bantam,
1993), as also witnessed at Sithe Energies in San Diego (Rolison 1999). Insulating the
duct work may reduce the air heating effects and also condensation on the outer duct
surfaces.
There is much conflicting information, though some of the information agrees with the
experience at Lincoln Electric. Information from arctic tests on a LM2500 turbine shows
that the air temperature at the bellmouth inlet can increase rather than decrease, even in
arctic conditions (Loud and Slaterpryce, undated).
The design of the inlet air cooling system needs to consider the actual inlet air
configuration (the actual compressor bellmouth inlet geometry and flow rate) and
operating conditions (summer or winter - the ambient conditions, the inlet housing
geometry, and thermal links to other turbine components). If the turbine is operated
during high ambient temperature conditions and the inlet housing is heating the inlet air,
the inlet air might be heated above the ambient temperature, which tends to negate the
cooling effect of the CTIAC system and increase cooling costs. An approach might be to
sufficiently insulate the turbine inlet housing and account for the further, near adiabatic
cooling of the inlet air after exiting the CTIAC system. Insulating the inlet housing would
be an additional economic consideration in the design of the inlet cooling system.
If the inlet housing and inlet plenum are not insulated, as discussed above, and the air
experiences heat gain, the governing equation is the first law of thermodynamics,
Q + ho1 = ho 2
7
or,
Q + h1 + V1 / 2 g = h2 + V2 / 2 g
2 2
where Q is the heat transfer through the air inlet housing or bellmouth. The acceleration
of the air will cool the air below the ambient temperature even when there is no inlet
cooling. If there is heat transfer through the housing/bellmouth the air will be heated.
If measured data is available, the heat transfer can also be implied. From the measured
data of ambient temperature, T1, and pressure, P1, and the measured temperature, Tm,
(which should approximate stagnation temperature) and pressure, P2, at or near the
bellmouth, the calculated values of bellmouth (or at some downstream location) velocity,
V2, temperature, T2, stagnation temperature, To,2, the heat transfer, Q, to the air between
locations 1 and 2 can be calculated. Based upon known downstream cross-sectional
area, A2, corrected mass flow rate, m, ideal gas behavior, and recovery factor, RF, (as
defined below), the following set of equations can be solved simultaneously for the
resultant actual air temperature, T2, stagnation temperature, To,2 , the heat transfer, Q,
and the velocity, V2, assuming the initial air velocity is negligible,
To 2 = T2 + V2 / 2c p g
2
Tm − T2
RF =
To 2 − T2
Q = m(c p (T2 − T1 ) + V2 / 2 g )
2
m = ρ 2 A2V2
ρ 2 = P2 / RT2
The calculated values of T2, V2, and Q, and the measured temperature Tm (an
approximation of the bellmouth surface temperature) can be compared to the results of
the simulation results of a numerical model.
The recovery factor, RF, defined by the above equation, is used to represent the
approach to stagnation temperature. The velocity on any surface should, in theory, be
zero and therefore the surface temperature should, in theory, be the stagnation
temperature. From measurements, the actual surface temperature is lower than the
stagnation temperature but greater than the static air temperature. A recovery factor of
0.8 indicates that the surface temperature approaches the stagnation temperature within
80% of the difference of the stagnation temperature and the static air temperature.
8
Pressure Loss and Potential Condensation
The compressor section inlet static air temperature might also increase due to
condensation. If the inlet air is cooled to or near saturation water vapor conditions, a
decrease in static air temperature may initiate condensation of the water vapor. If the
o
water vapor begins to condense, the heat of condensation will warm the air, by 1 or 2 F
o
(0.6 or 1.1 C) (Zachary 1996). On the other hand, any moisture that accumulates in air
filters will increase the pressure loss and thereby decrease the downstream air
temperature.
Assuming that the flow through the inlet air duct housing is isothermal or near-isothermal,
the overall pressure loss is proportional to the square of the velocity as (Bird et al 1960),
1
ln( P2 / P1 ) = − (V1 − V2 ) − F .L.
2 2
2 gRT
where F.L. represents frictional losses, such as filters and the inlet housing duct work,
which may be significant.
If the frictional losses are assumed negligible for the present, the static pressure decrease
through the inlet housing can be determined from the change in air velocity from the
housing inlet to the compressor bellmouth. Assuming that the change in air velocity, as in
the above example, is 7 ft/s to 500 ft/s (2.1 m/s to 152.4 m/s) , for a nominal static air
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temperature of 60 F(15.6 C), the corresponding pressure change is approximately
ln( P2 / P1 ) = −0.14
or, a pressure ratio of

P2 / P1 = 0.869
representing a 13% decrease in static pressure.
A one percent decrease in the water vapor saturation pressure corresponds to

o
approximately a 0.4 F decrease in the static air temperature (from steam tables). This
o
means that if the air temperature decreases by 1 F at the bellmouth, inlet air at 97.5%
o
relative humidity (assuming a linear 0.4 F saturation temperature change per 1% sat.
pressure change) would reach a 100% relative humidity of saturated condition at the
compressor bellmouth.
Condensation may not occur even though the vapor saturation pressure is below the
actual partial pressure of the air-water vapor mixture entering the bellmouth. The mixture
9
may enter the bellmouth as a supersaturated mixture or fog. The initiation of
condensation will also initiate an increase in mixture temperature due to the heat of
evaporation released. The change in temperature can be estimated by equating the
sensible energy change to the latent energy change, as
1
∆T = mwc h fg
ma c pa
or,
∆T = ∆ω (h fg / c pa )
where cp,a is the specific heat of the air mixture, ma is the air mass, mwc is the mass of
water condensed to reach 100% relative humidity at equilibrium, ∆ω is the change in
humidity ratio, and hfg is the latent heat of evaporation (condensation).
This temperature increase, though, is small. For example, if air entering the inlet housing
o
is at 50 F and 100% relative humidity (ω = 0.007661 lb-water/lb-air), and experiences a
o
1 F temperature depression, the saturation humidity ratio is 0.007378 lb-water/lb-air. The
o
increase in the air temperature is about 1.2 F.
Hence, even if the static air temperature is depressed below the saturation temperature, a
temperature increase occurs, heated by part of the latent heat of evaporation. At
equilibrium only a slight temperature depression and a slight degree of condensation
would occur. The temperature of the condensed water drop increases because it
absorbs part of the heat of evaporation (condensation). This makes the process
thermodynamically irreversible and the actual temperature increase, if condensation
occurs, would be less, decreasing the actual amount of condensate formed (Young
1993).
The combination of pressure losses (the vacuum at the bellmouth), velocity increases,
heat gains from the inlet housing and bellmouth plenum, and any possible condensation
can all contribute to the change in the air temperature from ambient to entering the
bellmouth, which may be a temperature depression or elevation.
Potential Icing
The typical combustion turbine inlet cooling system inlet air temperature is usually limited
o
to about 40 to 42 F due to concerns that lower air temperatures may precipitate icing in
the air flow or on surfaces. This is of concern when the air is cooled to low temperatures
and the air is at or near saturation (100% relative humidity). Icing can occur by at least
two mechanisms, forming in the air as ice crystals or on surfaces, such as on the
10
bellmouth or inlet guide vanes, or both. The formation and ingestion of ice crystals may
not necessarily be damaging to the compressor, though extensive ice formation on
surfaces could eventually break off and be ingested, causing damage. Any ice that forms
o
is usually on the inlet guide vanes, where as much as a 5 to 10 F air temperature
depression has been predicted to occur (Prochaska 1997), and may flake off in to the
compressor.
Icing may occur on many other surfaces within the air inlet housing and by different
means. Icing of the inlet hood and air filters can occur from snow crystals being drawn
into the housing hood. Icing at the bellmouth might occur when the inlet air temperature
is relatively low with coincident high humidity, such as the case when the inlet air is
artificially cooled to near the freezing point by evaporative or mechanical refrigeration
techniques. Icing of any of the surfaces at or near the compressor bellmouth or struts,
though, must be kept in the context of inlet air cooling system applications. The
applications that might approach freezing conditions at the compressor inlet are for air
o o o o
cooling outlet conditions near 32 F (0 C) to possibly as high as 45 F (7.2 C) and for
o o
relative humidities approaching 100%. Air cooling outlet conditions below 32 F (0 C)
might be acceptable at low humidities, except for the ice formation that might occur on the
cooling coils.
Many icing problems for the compressor inlet appear to stem from ’precipitate’ conditions,
i.e., freezing rain or snow carry-over from the air filters that reaches the compressor
bellmouth. This is of concern primarily in cold climates or operation in cold ambient
conditions, which is not widely applicable to CTIAC systems.
Under the assumption of equilibrium conditions, if the entering water vapor not only
condenses but is also transformed to ice crystals, there would be a further increase in
static
temperature of
∆T = ∆ω (hgi / c pa )
where hgi is the latent heat of sublimation. This again is a small relative change in
temperature because of the relatively small portion of the mixture that is actually water
vapor. For the above condensation example, the additional increase in temperature for
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ice formation would be about 0.2 F (0.1 C).
Of course, as in the case of condensation, this is not the actual situation as the
temperature of the ice crystal would have to increase because it would absorb part of the
heat of fusion. This makes the process irreversible and the actual temperature increase
would be less and decrease the actual amount of ice formed (Young 1993). This
o o
suggests that ice formation at a bellmouth or inlet guide vane temperature of 32 F (0 C) is
11
unlikely.
Ice formation as ice crystals in the air or on surfaces at subfreezing surface temperatures,
o
may not actually occur until the air or surfaces are below 32 F. The process of the
freezing of water to ice must be nucleated by the surface or particles in the air. This
heterogeneous nucleation may not occur until the temperature is several degrees below
o
32 F. Heterogeneous nucleation is usually an uncontrolled occurrence and would be
typically initiated by dust or other solid particles in the air or on the surrounding surfaces.
Hence, subcooling of the air or surfaces may occur in the compressor inlet without ice
formation. As most ice ingestion studies have been concerned with aircraft engines, no
information has been found that discusses the actual nucleation that occurs near the
compressor inlet of stationary turbines.
Two manufacturers’ recommendations as to the limits of the combination of inlet air

temperature and inlet air relative humidity are given in Fig. 1. At the typical CTIAC
o
temperature limitation of 40 F, the top figure shows a limit of relative humidity of about
70%. The curve does not even approach the typical CTIAC condition of 100% relative
humidity condition at any dry bulb temperature. As long as the relative humidity is low,
o
the icing limit extends down to as low as 0 F. The question, of course, is how
conservative is the icing limit and how is it affected by application to typical stationary
combustion turbine installations.
Published manufacturers’ information tends to be vague. According to General Electric’s

air treatment information (Loud and Slaterpryce, undated)
"The unanswered key question was whether there would be ice formation in the
gas turbine inlet bellmouth due to the temperature depression that occurs there.
To study this, extensive tests were conducted on an LM2500 gas turbine in
western Canada during the 1981-82 winter ... an additional 2700 hours of winter
operation ... During the test period, frequent intervals of high humidity at below-
freezing temperatures were recorded. Frost was visible on the inlet guide vanes
for a period of less than one minute, but there was no ice build-up, and no icing
problems were experienced ... temperatures in the inlet bellmouth where about 2
o
to 3 F warmer than air leaving the filter compartment ...tends to counteract
temperature depression ..."
but go on to state,
o
"At temperatures below 45 F with such high relative humidity [95%] , icing of the
compressor is possible."
12
80
Icing Conditions
70
Relative Humidity (%)
60
Non Stig
(without steam)
50
Stig Applications
40
30
0 10 20 30 40 50
Temperature (F)
Ambient Temperature (C)

-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10
80
75
Icing Conditions
Relative Humidity (%)
70
65
60
55
50
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Ambient Temperature (F)
Fig. 1 - Two turbine manufacturers’ icing limit curves as a function of inlet air temperature
and relative humidity. (STIG – steam injection).
13
Chappell (1973) recommends limits for the inlet air conditions of temperature and relative
humidity, as shown in Fig. 2, for a bellmouth inlet Mach of 0.37. It is stated that these are
conservative limits. The study by Young (1993) concludes that condensation in the
bellmouth does not occur instantaneously (the assumed case in the thermostatic
examples above). Condensation has been predicted to not occur with the bellmouth of
stationary or aeroderivative compressors unless the inlet duct is at least approximately 25
feet long and the Mach number reaches 0.8 within the bellmouth. Condensation in the
form of a fog has been witnessed, though, in stationary turbines (Davis 1998) with inlet air
cooling near 100% relative humidity.
This research study centers around the possibility of icing conditions on the surfaces of
the bellmouth or inlet guide vanes. The temperature at the inlet guide vanes is a function
of the design and shape of the inlet air duct, the bellmouth, and inlet guide vanes, the
inlet air temperature, the heat transfer though the inlet air duct walls and bellmouth, and
the air velocity. A numerical model was used to simulate inlet air conditions that may
constitute condensation and icing conditions. The numerical model was used to attempt
to replicate some site test conditions and data results for warmer ambient conditions, and
used to model the conditions at lower inlet air conditions. As long as the temperature
depression is small enough such that the surfaces of the bellmouth and inlet guide vanes
o
are above 32 F there will not be any ice formation on the surfaces or ice crystal formation,
and, hence, no possibility of ice ingestion into the compressor.
14
Fig. 2 - Predicted maximum liquid water concentration at M=0.37 (Chappell 1973).
15
Test Sites
The approach was to investigate potential icing by obtaining operating tests data from
three combustion turbine installations and comparing model results to actual data to first
verify the model. The data obtained were for normal operating conditions. If the
numerical model results are determined to reasonably approximate the test site data,
then the model can be used to simulate the turbine inlet conditions of low temperature
and high humidity that may promote condensation or icing on inlet surfaces.
Three combustion turbines were chosen for obtaining an operating temperature and
pressure data, as listed below.
• Greenwood power station (Utilicorp, Kansas City, MO) - General Electric MS7001B
industrial combustion turbines (evaporative cooling system installed).
• Rokeby Power Station (Lincoln Electric, Lincoln, NE) - General Electric MS7001B
industrial turbine, with ice thermal storage/chilled water inlet air cooling, intended
for peak power/reserve power pool applications.
• Rokeby Power Station (Lincoln Electric, Lincoln, NE) - ABB 11N1 industrial turbine,
83.8 MW, with ice thermal storage/chilled water inlet air cooling, intended for peak
power/reserve power pool applications.
Photographs of the turbine sites and components of the inlet air duct, bellmouth, and inlet
guide vanes are shown in Figs. 3 - 8. The inlet ducting at the Greenwood generating
station is of a typical arrangement, except that it has been modified to incorporate
evaporative cooling media (Fig. 4). The air travels upward after passing through the
media and then downward into a plenum containing the bellmouth at the compressor
section inlet. Within the throat of the bellmouth are the inlet guide vanes (IGVs). The air
inlet at the Rokeby generating station , Fig. 5, has been modified to incorporate the large
bank of cooling coils used with the ice thermal storage system. The bellmouth and IGVs
for the GE turbines at Greenwood and Rokeby are identical, as shown in Figs. 6 and 7.
The inlet air cooling coils for the GE unit with thermal storage is shown in Fig. 8. The ABB
turbine installation at Rokeby also has an ice storage system, Fig. 9, where the cooling
coils are located at the uppermost part of the installation. Part of the cooling coils are
shown in Fig. 10. The inlet air housing is quite different than for the GE units, where air
from the cooling coils is directed downward into a plenum before entering the bellmouth
and IGVs, Fig. 11. The IGVs for the ABB unit are the same in profile as the IGVs for the
GE units except that they are slightly longer in length.
16
Fig. 3 - One of the gas turbines at a Kansas City Power and Light generating station. The
evaporative cooling panels are shown in the foreground. The upper
housing is the air inlet housing, which is directed downward at the far end of
the housing to the compressor bellmouth.
17
Fig. 4 - Evaporative cooling panels on one of the gas turbines at the Greenwood
generating station.
18
Fig. 5 - Air inlet of one of the turbines at the Lincoln Electric Rokeby power station.
19
Fig. 6 - Inlet guide vanes of one of the Greenwood turbines
20
Fig. 7 - Compressor bellmouth on a General Electric industrial combustion turbine.
21
The sites offered the opportunity to evaluate two different bellmouths and inlet guide
vanes and three different inlet air ducts. The detailed drawings of bellmouth geometries
were only available for the GE units. The GE unit at Greenwood has evaporative cooling
at the inlet of the air duct but the inlet air cooling system was not operating at the time
data were obtained. The GE unit at Lincoln Electric has a much larger inlet air duct due
to the cooling coils installed at the inlet. The cooling coils were operating with chilled
water from the ice storage tank at the time the data were obtained. The ABB unit air inlet
also has cooling coils to operate with chilled water, but were not being utilized at the time
the data were obtained. Drawings could not be obtained for the inlet air duct, bellmouth,
or IGVs of the ABB unit at Lincoln Electric, so dimensions were obtained by physical
measurements at a time when the unit was disassembled for maintenance. Operating
data for temperatures and pressures were also obtained for a Siemens unit at Kansas
City Power and Light but, again, drawings or dimensions of the inlet air duct and
bellmouth were not available, nor was the unit open or available for inspection in order to
obtain the physical dimensions of the bellmouth and inlet guide vanes. The data obtained
for the Siemens unit were not used in this study.
The data obtained for the three turbines are summarized in Table I. The data included
temperature and pressure of the inlet air and at the bellmouth, and the approximate air
mass flow rate. Temperatures were measured near the surface of the bellmouth throat
ahead of the inlet guide vanes. The measured temperatures are then, approximately, an
indication of the stagnation temperature in the ideal case, the approach to stagnation
temperature (recovery factor) in the actual case. The temperatures may also be
influenced by any heat transfer to the air through the inlet air duct housing surfaces or
through the bellmouth from the engine room compartment to the air flowing through the
o
bellmouth. Engine room temperatures for the two GE units were approximately 150 F (
o
65.6 C ). The pressures measured were at the surface of the bellmouth throat and
indicate static pressures, showing the decrease of the inlet air pressure relative to the
ambient pressure. It should be noted, though, that measured data can be quite
unreliable.
22
Fig. 8 - Inlet air cooling coils of the GE turbine installation at the Lincoln Electric Rokeby
generating station of Lincoln Electric.
23
Fig. 9 - ABB turbine installation at the Lincoln Electric Rokeby generating station.
24
Fig. 10 - Inlet cooling coils for the ABB unit at the Lincoln Electric Rokeby generating
station.
25
Fig. 11 - Bellmouth and inlet guide vanes of the ABB unit.
Table I
Operating Data for Three Turbines
26
Greenw’d/GE LE/GE LE/ABB
o o
Ambient (inlet) air temp. ( F, C) 77.5/25.3 96/35.6 97/36.1
Ambient pressure (psia,kPa) 14.7/101.4 14.77/101.8 14.76/101.8
o o
Bellmouth air temperature ( F, C) 72.8/22.7 88/31.1 90/32.2
with air cooling --- 42/5.6 ---
Bellmouth static press. (psia,kPa) 12.2/82.6 13.5/93.1 ---
with air cooling --- 13.33/91.9 ---
o o
Temperature drop ( F, C) 4.7/2.6 8* 8/4.4 7/3.9
Static pressure loss (psi,kPa) 2.46/17.0 1.27*/8.8 ---
6 ---- 6
Approx. air flow rate (lb/hr,kg/hr) 1.82x10 2.32x10
6
with air cooling --- 2.03x10 ---
o o
* Historical data shows as little as a 1 F(0.6 C) temperature decrease and 0.12 psi (3.5
in. H2O, 827.4 Pa) static pressure loss.
27
Numerical Simulations
- Numerical Model
A numerical model was used to simulate the air flow through the inlet housing, bellmouth,
and inlet guide vanes for each of the three turbine installations. As the bellmouth and
IGVs for the Greenwood and Rokeby GE units were identical only one grid system was
used for the two units. The IGVs for the ABB unit at Rokeby are similar in profile and only
differ in length. As such the IGVs were not modeled separately for the ABB unit. To
simulate the flow through the IGVs for the ABB unit the velocity profile exiting the
bellmouth was used. Due to limitations of computer memory the inlet air duct, bellmouth,
and a symmetrical section of the IGVs were modeled separately from each other for each
or a combination of the three installations. The greater the number of cells the greater the
calculation time required to come to a converged solution and the greater the memory
required to perform the calculation in a reasonable time period.
Every surface of the housing, bellmouth and inlet guide vanes must be defined in a three
dimensional coordinate system. The curved lines of the bellmouth and the inlet guide
vanes require a significant expenditure of effort and time to define these surfaces.
Connection of all three structures into a single model would require millions of cells and
an extended effort for each geometry. Even if successful in modeling the whole structure
in a single calculation model, the time required to converge to a solution would be several
days using a 500 MHz PC processor. Separation of the structure into three separate
calculation models should not represent any significant error in the results. Additionally,
due to the difficulty of modeling the inlet guide vanes in the curved coordinates, only five
of the sixty-eight inlet guide vanes were modeled, using 6/68 ths of the total mass flow
rate as flowing through the guide vane opening. The results show symmetrical flow fields
around the centered three guide vanes, which reveal a sufficient representation of the
flow through the guide vanes, consisting of pressure, static temperature, and velocity
distributions.
Another limitation is the geometry used to define the surfaces of the guide vanes. The
leading edge of the guide vanes is curved, showing a cross-sectional profile similar to an
aircraft wing section. The actual wing type of geometry was modeled as a curved surface
but without the curved leading edge and without the pointed trailing edge. The guide
vanes were four calculation cells in width. The guide vanes were modeled in this manner
due to the significant task of defining the curved leading edge of each vane in a Cartesian
three-dimensional space which requires a great amount of time and effort. Additionally, if
the leading and trailing edge surfaces were defined precisely, the vane would be required
to have a great number of cells in width, which would require, in turn, the same order of
magnitude increase in the number of cells in the remaining geometry. The required
28
calculation time would similarly increase with the greater number of cells. The effect of
cells per blade was evaluated by performing simulations with two and four cell width
blades. The results show no difference in pressure, temperature, or velocity distributions
from which it was concluded that the precise contours of the blades was not required in
the model.
The numerical model was capable of modeling the three-dimensional air velocity, static
temperature, and pressure profiles. The air inlet duct for each of the three installations
was modeled for a steel duct material as adiabatic or as a constant surface temperature.
The outlet static pressures, static temperatures, and average velocities were used for the
inlet conditions to the bellmouth. It was assumed that the pressure, temperature and
velocity was uniform at the entrance to the bellmouth, as each of the bellmouths were
contained in a large plenum. The geometry connecting the inlet air duct and the
bellmouth are quite complicated for each of the three sites and the grid network required
to physically join the air duct and bellmouth would have greatly exceeded the available
memory. The outlet conditions of average pressure, average temperature, and velocity
profile of the bellmouth were used as inlet conditions to the IGVs.
The grid generated used with the numerical model for the inlet air duct for the GE unit at
Greenwood is shown in Fig. 12. The grid developed for the bellmouth for the GE unit at
Greenwood and the GE unit at Rokeby is shown in Fig. 13. The grid developed for the
large inlet air duct for the GE unit at Rokeby, including the section of silencers, is shown
in Fig. 14. The size of the inlet air duct for the ABB unit at Rokeby was determined by
physical measurements and the resulting grid developed for the duct is shown in Fig. 15,
including the large area occupied by the silencers. The grid developed for the bellmouth
for the ABB unit at Rokeby is shown in Fig. 16.
29
Fig. 12 - The grid model for the inlet air duct for a GE unit at the Utilicorp Greenwood
station.
30
Fig. 13 - The grid model for the bellmouth for the both the GE Greenwood and Rokeby
turbine installations.
31
Fig. 14 - The grid model for the air inlet air duct for the GE unit at Rokeby.
32
Fig. 15 - The grid model for the air inlet air duct for the ABB unit at Rokeby.
33
Fig. 16 - The grid model for the bellmouth for the ABB unit at Rokeby.
34
The inlet guide vanes are complicated in geometry which are located around the
centerline of the compressor shaft and bellmouth. To allow the modeling of the IGVs only
five (plus half of the sixth and seventh) vanes were modeled based upon the assumption
that if the flow and temperature and pressure results were symmetrical from guide vane
to guide vane, the model using only five vanes was acceptable. The grid developed for
the section of IGVs used for the GE and ABB units is shown in Fig. 17.
- Comparison of Numerical Simulations and Site Data
The experimental data were used to approximately verify the numerical model. The
comparisons of static pressures and temperatures at the bellmouth of the three units are
shown in Table II. The static pressure loss predictions given by the numerical model are
nearly exact for the GE unit at Greenwood (2.46 psi measured and 2.39 psi simulated)
but only approximately close to the measured pressure loss at Rokeby (1.27 psi
measured and 2.99 simulated). Pressure losses were not measured for the ABB unit at
Rokeby. The experimental data for temperature drop are very close, within 10% for the
GE units, to the recovery factor corrected (RFC) temperature drop (for a recovery factor,
RF, of 0.8). These comparisons show that the assumed value of 0.8 for recovery factor is
justified. The experimental data are only approximate as the data contain instrument
errors and unknown quantities of heat transfer to the air through the inlet air duct and
bellmouth due to the high ambient air temperatures and high temperatures in the
equipment room which acts on the exterior of the bellmouth. Since there is large
uncertainties in the experimental data obtained from the turbine tests it is assumed that
the numerical results are sufficient such that the model is reasonably accurate. Further
details as to the numerical model and the simulations performed on the inlet air ducts,
bellmouths, and IGVs are discussed in the next section.
- Simulations
Inlet air conditions were modeled to attempt to cover possible conditions that are
representative of turbine inlet air cooling installations and also to represent conditions that
are below freezing to model the possibility of icing on the bellmouth or IGV surfaces. The
inlet air conditions used in the simulations are shown in Table III, which include a reduced
o o
air flow rate and ambient/cooled inlet air temperatures down to 25 F (-3.9 C). The
capabilities of the numerical model include the conjugate heat transfer at the surface from
the inlet air duct housing to the air.
35
Fig. 17 - The grid model developed for the IGVs.
36
Table II
Comparison of Experimental and Numerical Simulation Results
Greenw’d/GE LE/GE LE/ABB
Experimental
Static pressure loss (psi/kPa) 2.46/17.0 1.27/8.8 ---
o o
Temperature drop ( F/ C) 4.7/2.6 8/4.4 7/3.9
Numerical Simulation
Static pressure loss (psi/kPa) 2.39/16.5 2.99/20.6 2.53/17.4
o o
Temperature drop ( F/ C) 22.1/12.3 22.9/12.7 23.0/12.8
RFC Temperature drop (RF=0.8) 4.5/2.5 7.2/4.0
4.6/2.6
Table III
Summary of Simulations for Each Turbine
Case Inlet air temperatures Flow Velocity*

o o
( F/ C) (%)
7000 70/21.1 100
5000 50/10 100
4000 40/4.4 100
4075 40/4.4 75
3500 35/1.7 100
3000 30/-1.1 100
2500 25/-3.9 100
*Constant velocity for each turbine, as mass flow varies only with temperature.
37
The icing condition was determined as when the RFC surface temperature of the inlet air
o o
duct, bellmouth, or IGV reached a temperature below freezing (32 F (0.0 C)). The model
is not capable of determining the actual surface temperatures as a function of the static
air temperature and stagnation air temperature. The actual surface temperature, Ts, is
somewhere between the static temperature, Tst, and the stagnation temperature, To, as
previously defined by the recovery factor, RF. The smaller the value of the recovery
factor, the closer the surface temperature is to the static temperature and the lower the
surface temperature. It has been determined in this study along with previous research
that the recovery factor is typically in the range of 0.8 to 0.9. It is more conservative in
this study to use a recovery factor of 0.8, indicating a lower surface temperature, which
also approximated the experimental results. The RFC value of the surface temperature is
then
Ts = RF (To − Tst ) + Tst
o
If Ts , the RFC temperature, is less than the freezing (melting) point of water, (32 F
o
(0.0 C), then the possibility exists for surface ice formation. The simulated surface
temperatures were used to predict icing and condensation conditions based upon the use
of a recovery factor of 0.8, the RFC surface temperature. The condensation of the water
vapor in the air stream and ice accretion on the bellmouth or guide vanes were not
specific features of the numerical model. Possible fog formation was approximated by
locating the area within the inlet air duct, bellmouth, or IGVs were the partial pressure of
the water vapor reached, approximately, 100% of its saturation value.
The simulated velocity profile for the Greenwood inlet air duct is shown in Fig. 18, for the
o o
Case of 7000, which indicates 70 F (21.1 C) ambient inlet air temperature and 100% inlet
o
air velocity. All static temperature scales are in F, velocity scales in ft/s, and relative static
pressure scales from 0 pressure at the outlet and the associated greater inlet pressure.
The inlet air velocity was assumed uniform based upon the cross-sectional area of the air
inlet, the known mass flow rate, and the density of the ambient air. The average air
velocity is expected to increase due to the decreasing cross-sectional area of the duct.
As can be seen in Fig. 18, the velocity varies across the GE Greenwood air duct due to
the non-uniform cross-sectional area, creating the low velocity area in the upper left hand
corner of the duct. The simulated decrease in static air pressure is relatively small and
the temperature decrease is negligible, as shown in Figs. 19 and 20, respectively. The
o
change in average outlet static air temperature from the duct for the constant 70 F duct
wall condition can be seen to be negligible in Fig. 20. The resulting outlet static air
temperature for Case 7000 for a perfectly insulated (adiabatic) duct wall is shown in Fig.
21, which shows essentially same result in that there is a negligible static temperature
increase or decrease from the inlet air temperature value for the two different cases.
38
Fig. 18 - The simulated velocity distribution in a plane through the inlet air duct at the
o
Greenwood station, Case 7000, for a constant duct wall temperature of 70 F.
39
Fig. 19 - The simulated static pressure distribution in a plane through the inlet air duct
o
at the Greenwood station, Case 7000, for a constant duct wall temperature of 70 F.
40
Fig. 20 - The simulated static temperature distribution in a plane through the inlet air
duct at the Greenwood station, Case 7000, for a constant duct wall temperature of
o
70 F.
41
Fig. 21 - The simulated static temperature distribution in a plane through the inlet
air duct at the Greenwood station, Case 7000, for an adiabatic duct wall.
o
A similar effect for the constant 70 F duct wall condition can be seen for the difference
42
between the cases of no air cooling, Case 7000, (Fig. 21) and inlet air cooling, Case
o
4000 (Fig. 22), both with constant duct wall temperatures of 70 F. Even though the
ambient to duct air temperature differential has changed from approximately zero to
o o
30 F (16.7 C), there is still a negligible change in inlet air temperature at the duct outlet.
The only temperature variation is near the duct wall.
For comparison purposes the same cases were simulated for the inlet air ducts for the
o
GE and ABB units at Rokeby for Case 7000, for a constant 70 F duct wall. The results
are shown in Figs. 23 - 25 for the velocity, static pressure and static temperature
distributions, respectively, for the GE unit and Figs. 26 -28 for the velocity, static
pressure, and static temperature distributions, for the ABB unit, respectively. Even
though the geometrical configurations of the inlet air ducts are dissimilar, the outlet
static air temperatures associated with the different ducts for the GE and ABB units are
again essentially the same as the inlet air temperature. The most significant
differences are the static pressure losses due to the air filters in the GE unit and the
silencers in the ABB unit. Also, since the same mass flow rates (identical air velocities)
were modeled for the GE units at Greenwood and Rokeby, similar temperature
distributions are to be expected.
The bellmouths for the GE units at Greenwood and Rokeby are of quite different
geometry. For the inlet duct simulated results for the Greenwood inlet air duct, the
simulated velocity, static pressure, and static temperature distributions for the bellmouth
are shown in Figs. 29 - 31. It is interesting to note that the static pressures, velocities,
and static temperatures at the exit plane of the bellmouth are very uniform. The
bellmouth surface temperatures are simulated as approximately equal to the inlet air
temperature (stagnation temperature). The plotted pressure variation shows the
pressure variation relative to a zero outlet pressure.
43
Fig. 22 - The simulated static temperature distribution in a plane through the inlet air
duct at the Greenwood station, Case 4000, for a constant duct wall temperature.
44
Fig. 23 - The simulated velocity distribution in a plane through the inlet air duct of the
GE unit at the Rokeby station, Case 7000.
45
of the GE unit at the Rokeby station, Case 7000.
46
air duct of the GE unit at the Rokeby station, Case 7000.
47
ABB unit at the Rokeby station, Case 7000.
48
of the ABB unit at the Rokeby station, Case 7000.
49
air duct of the ABB unit at the Rokeby station, Case 7000.
50
Fig. 29 - The simulated velocity distribution in a plane through the GE bellmouth, Case
7000, using the Greenwood inlet air duct simulated results.
51
Fig. 30 - The simulated static pressure distribution in a plane through the GE
bellmouth, Case 7000, using the Greenwood inlet air duct simulated results.
52
Fig. 31 - The simulated static temperature distribution in a plane through the GE
bellmouth, Case 7000, using the Greenwood inlet air duct simulated results.
53
Since the cross-sectional area of the bellmouth changes significantly, the velocity, static
pressure, and static temperature distributions are expected to also change significantly.
The difference in the inlet air temperature can be seen in Fig. 31, where the average
o o
static air temperature depression in the bellmouth is 22 F (12.2 C), for the case of an
insulated (adiabatic) bellmouth.
The velocity, pressure, and temperature distributions at the exit of the bellmouth were
used as the inlet conditions to the IGVs. The IGVs were oriented at the full load angle
of approach for all simulations. The resulting air velocity, static pressure, and static
temperature distributions are shown in Figs. 32 - 34 for the section of the IGVs for Case
7000 using the Greenwood GE flow results. The temperature distribution shown in Fig.
34 is the bellmouth surface below the IGV’s and is therefore shown to be nearly a
uniform temperature. Since the velocity, pressure, and temperature distributions are
symmetrical about the inner five vanes, modeling only five of the vanes and the sides of
the first and seventh vanes was assumed to representative of the actual flow past all of
the IGVs.
The velocity, static pressure, and static temperature distributions for the bellmouth and
IGVs for the ABB unit at the Rokeby generating station are shown in Figs. 35 - 40. The
results are similar to that obtained for the GE bellmouth and IGVs.
54
Fig. 32 - The simulated velocity distribution in a plane through the GE inlet guide vanes,
Case 7000, using the Greenwood inlet air duct simulated results.
55
Fig. 33 - The simulated static pressure distribution in a plane through the GE inlet guide
vanes, Case 7000, using the Greenwood inlet air duct simulated results.
56
Fig. 34 - The simulated static temperature distribution in a plane through the GE inlet
guide vanes, Case 7000, using the Greenwood inlet air duct simulated results.
57
Fig. 35 - The simulated velocity distribution in a plane through the ABB bellmouth,
Case 7000.
58
Fig. 36 - The simulated static pressure distribution in a plane through the ABB
bellmouth, Case 7000.
59
Fig. 37 - The simulated static temperature distribution in a plane through the
ABB bellmouth, Case 7000.
60
Fig. 38 - The simulated velocity distribution in a plane through the ABB inlet guide
vanes, Case 7000.
61
Fig. 39 - The simulated static pressure distribution in a plane through the ABB inlet
guide vanes, Case 7000.
62
Fig. 40 - The simulated static temperature distribution in a plane through the ABB inlet
guide vanes, Case 7000.
63
An example of using inlet air cooling at the inlet of the air duct can be simulated by
o o
Case 5000, where the inlet air temperature to the inlet duct is 50 F (10 C). Case 5000
was used in the simulation of the air flow through the IGVs for the GE unit at
Greenwood and the ABB unit at Rokeby. The resulting IGV surface temperature
distributions are shown in Figs. 41 and 42. The surface temperature distribution of the
IGVs for both the GE and ABB units show the greatest decrease at the leading edge of
the vanes, but are still above the freezing temperature, if the recovery factor of 0.8 is
used for the determination of surface temperature (the RFC temperature approximately
o o
45.5 F (7.5 C) for the GE unit). The surface temperatures for the GE and ABB units
are not significantly different as the velocity entering the ABB guide vanes is similar to
that of the GE unit.
Since the bellmouth surface temperatures are predicted to be greater than the surface
temperatures of the inlet guide vanes, attention was directed to modeling the surface
temperature distribution of the inlet guide vanes at the lower ambient/cooled inlet air
temperatures. To investigate the effect of air inlet air temperature on the possibility of
icing on the inlet guide vanes, several cases were simulated at lower air temperatures.
o o
The cases of 25, 30, and 35 F (-3.9, -1.1, and 1.7 C) ambient/cooled inlet air
temperatures to the bellmouth were simulated using the air velocities and pressures
from previous simulations for both the ABB unit and the GE unit. The resulting outlet
static temperatures from the bellmouth were then used as inlet conditions to the IGVs.
The resulting surface temperature distributions for the guide vanes for Case 4000 (a
typical inlet cooling air temperature) are shown in Figs. 43 and 44 for the GE and ABB
units, respectively. The lowest simulated IGV surface temperature for the GE IGV’s in
o o
Fig. 43 was simulated as 17.4 F (-8.1 C). The RFC minimum IGV surface temperature
o o
for the GE unit is still above freezing at 35.5 F (1.9 C) (recovery factor of 0.8). The
o o
lowest simulated temperature for the ABB unit is similar as 16.1 F (-8.8 C), still above
o o
freezing for a RFC temperature of 35.2 F (1.8 C) (recovery factor of 0.8).
64
Fig. 41 - The simulated GE IGV surface temperature distribution, Case 5000.
65
Fig. 42 - The simulated ABB IGV surface temperature distribution, Case 5000.
66
67
68
Fig. 45 - The simulated GE IGV surface temperature distribution, Case 4075, at 75% of
rated inlet air velocity.
69
The case 4000 was also simulated at the reduced flow rate of 75% of the rated inlet air
velocity. The corresponding effect upon the calculated IGV surface temperature is
shown in Fig. 45, where the predicted surface temperature at the leading edge is about
o o o o
28.7 F (-1.8 C), approximately 10 F (5.6 C) warmer than for the rated inlet air velocity.
Simulated Condensation
When the static pressure decreases to the saturation pressure corresponding to the
static temperature, the air flow has reached a saturated vapor condition and
condensation may occur, though the numerical code was not directly capable of
predicting condensation. The relationship for relative, φ, is
φ = Pv / Psat @ T
where Pv is the partial pressure of the water vapor and Psat@T is the saturation vapor
pressure at the corresponding static temperature T. For 100% relative humidity (φ = 1),
the possibility of a fog forming exists when Pv equals Psat@T .
For Case 4000, at 95% relative humidity, the corresponding saturation temperature is
o o
approximately 38.5 F (3.6 C). Using the results shown in Fig. 46, the air static
o o
temperature drops below 38.5 F (3.6 C) just inside the bellmouth, ignoring the
pressure change, with similar results for the ABB unit, shown in Fig.47. For Case 4000
the combination of static pressure and temperature results in the possibility of a fog
forming almost immediately at the entrance to the bellmouth if the relative hunidity is
high. The static air temperature decreases throughout the flow through the bellmouth,
but the static pressure also decreases which decreases the partial pressure of the
water vapor such that the formation of a fog may be delayed. Condensation (fog) may
also be delayed if nucleation of the water vapor does not occur. Also condensation will
increase the air temperature slightly, further delaying the degree of condensation.
70
Fig. 46 - The plane in the bellmouth after which condensation (fog) may occur for
the GE unit, Case 4000 at 95% relative humidity.
71
the ABB unit, Case 4000 at 95% relative humidity.
72
The possibility of fog formation for the ABB unit, Fig. 47, exists before the air enters the
bellmouth. The possibility of condensation forming on the bellmouth or IGV surfaces is
less, though, due to the higher surface temperatures than the surrounding static air
temperatures. There is also the possibility of some of the fog formed water droplets to
impinge upon the surfaces of the bellmouth or IGVs. The most probable impingement
location is the leading edge of the IGVs. The numerical model was not directly capable
of modeling the fog droplet formation or droplet impingement.
Simulated Icing Potential

The possibility of icing on the surfaces of the bellmouth and IGVs are dependent upon
the surface temperatures. The surface temperatures decrease as the inlet air
temperature to the inlet air duct decreases. For the Case 4000 discussed above, the
o o
RFC IGV surface temperature for the GE unit was approximately 35.5 F (1.9 C), for a
recovery factor of 0.8. Decreased inlet air duct inlet air temperatures were modeled for
Cases 3500, 3000 and 2500. The resulting GE and ABB IGV surface temperatures for
Case 3500 are shown in Figs. 48 and 49. The IGV leading edge surface simulated
o o
temperature is approximately 9.6 F (-12.4 C) for the GE unit in Fig. 48. The GE unit
o o
leading edge RFC temperature is 29.9 F (-1.2 C). This result shows that the possibility
exists for surface icing on and near the leading edge of the guide vane. The ice
formation may be delayed to a lower surface temperature if heterogeneous nucleation
o
does not occur, which is usually the case until water temperatures of 24 or 25 F (-4.4 or
o
–3.9 C) occurs.
The possibility of ice formation on and near the leading edge of the guide vanes
continues to increase as the inlet air temperature decreases. For Case 3000, the
corresponding leading edge IGV surface temperatures for the GE and ABB units are
shown in Figs. 50 and 51, respectively. The IGV leading edge surface simulated
o o
temperature is approximately 4.5 F (-15.3 C) for the GE unit in Fig. 50. The GE unit
o o
leading edge RFC temperature is 24.9 F (-3.9 C). The corresponding temperatures for
the ABB unit are slightly higher (Fig. 51). Ice or frost formation at the leading edge is a
probability at this lower surface temperature. The formation of frost or ice on the
leading edge does not necessarily mean that the frost or ice layer will continue to grow,
rather coming to an equilibrium thickness condition governed by the surface
temperature of the ice or frost growth. The determination of the ice or frost thickness
was not a capability of the model.
o o
For Case 2500 at an inlet temperature of 25 F (-3.9 C), the corresponding leading edge
IGV surface temperatures for the GE and ABB units are shown in Figs. 52 and 53,
respectively. The IGV leading edge surface simulated temperature is approximately
o o o
2.1 F (-16.6 C) for the GE unit in Fig. 52. The leading edge RFC temperature is 20.4 F
73
o o
(-6.4 C). The corresponding temperatures for the ABB unit are slightly lower, 1 F (-
o o o
17.2 C), with a RFC temperature of 20.2 F (-6.6 C) (Fig. 53). Ice or frost formation at
the leading edge is now possible if the relative humidity is high. Away from the leading
edge the simulated surface temperature rises rapidly, approaching the total or
o o
stagnation air temperature of 25 F (-3.9 C). The probability of ice occurring away from
the leading edge decreases rapidly.
74
Fig. 48 - The simulated GE IGV surface temperature distribution and the area upon
which ice may occur, Case 3500.
75
Fig. 49 - The simulated ABB IGV surface temperature distribution and the area upon
76
77
78
79
80
Inlet / Cooled Air Maximum Relative Humidity
Based upon the simulated results of this study, an approximate operating limit curve can
be developed. The combination of ambient or cooled inlet air temperature and relative
humidity at the rated inlet air velocity will yield inlet guide vane surface temperatures that
indicate whether ice formation is probable. Table IV below shows the simulated data,
presented previously, and the upper limit of the ambient or cooled inlet air relative
humidity. The data used to develop the curve is based upon simulated and interpolated
data, using an assumed nominal static pressure at the IGV’s of 12.296 psi (84.8 kPa) (a
pressure loss of 2.4 psi (16.5 kPa) from 14.696 psi (101.325 kPa)). If the ambient /cooled
air inlet relative humidity results in a relative humidity below saturation at the recovery
factor corrected IGV leading edge (RFC IGV LE) surface temperature, condensation will
not occur and ice will not form.
TABLE IV
Surface Icing Temperature and Humidity Limits
Ambient/Cooled
Ambient/Cooled RFC IGV LE Air Relative
o o o o
Inlet Air Temp( F/ C) Surface Temp( F/ C)* Humidity Limit (%)
50/10 45.5/7.5 100

40/4.4 35.5/1.9 100
35/1.7 29.9/-1.2 96
30/-1.1 24.9/-3.9 94
25/-3.9 20.5/-6.4 96
The relative humidity limit is based upon the determination of the ambient/cooled air
inlet air relative humidity such that condensation will not occur at the lower static air
pressure at the leading edge of the inlet guide vanes. For example, for ambient/cooled
o o o o o
air at 35 F(1.67 C), the minimum IGV surface temperature is 29.9 F (-1.2 C). At 29.9 F,
the saturation pressure is 0.080439 psi (ASHRAE 1997). The corresponding humidity
ratio, for a pressure of 12.296 psia (84.8 kPa), is
ω = 0.622 Pv /( Pt − Pv ) = 0.622(0.0804939) /(12.296 − 0.0804939) = 0.0040987
At an ambient condition of 14.696 psia, and the same humidity ratio, the corresponding
vapor pressure is found from
81
0.0040987 = 0.622 Pv /(14.696 − Pv )
o
as Pv of 0.096205. At the inlet/cooled air temperature of 35 F, the corresponding
saturation pressure is 0.09998 psia. The relative humidity of the ambient/cooled inlet
air humidity is then
φ = 0.096205 / 0.09998 = 0.9622, or 96%
o o
The relative humidity limit for 35 F (1.7 C) is 96% to prevent condensation of the water
vapor. The relative humidity limit first decreases with decreasing temperature and then
increases, as shown in Fig. 54. It should be noted, though, for “inlet air cooling systems,”
where the humidity approaches 100%, the temperature limit, due to the maximum relative
o o
humidity limit, is approximately 37.5 F (3.1 C). Also, as the inlet-to-IGV air pressure loss
increases, the allowable inlet air relative humidity increases.
It is possible that ice crystals may form in the air stream. At an ambient / cooled inlet air
o o
temperature of approximately 55 F (12.8 C), the air temperature near the IGV’s
o o
decreases to approximately 32 F (0 C). As humidity ratios are small, the occurrence of
small quantities of ice crystals is probably not significant.
Summary of Results
One significant, simulated result is the negligible effect of the inlet air duct heat transfer
on the air temperature. The mass flow rate is apparently great enough so that the heat
transfer has no effect upon the temperature of the air exiting the duct, though field
observations have shown that there may be slight temperature increase.
Condensation may occur in any region where the static air temperature decreases
below the saturation temperature. When the air entering the inlet duct is at or near
saturation, such as for air cooling, fog is likely to occur. Some operators have witnessed
the occurrence of fog. If the surface temperature drops below the saturation
temperature, then condensation will form on the surface. The accumulation of any
condensation on surfaces is not likely under most circumstances, as the surface
temperature will usually be above the saturation temperature. Also, the cooled inlet air
may never be at saturation due to coil bypass and subsequent air heating from the inlet
duct or bellmouth, decreasing the relative humidity to below the limiting values, above
which icing might occur.
The results also reveal that some areas on the inlet guide vanes may experience icing
or frost formation when the inlet ambient or cooled air is at high humidity and at a
82
100 100
Maximum Ambient / Cooled Inlet AIr

RFC IGV LE Surface Temp (F)
80 95
Humidity (%)
60 90
40 85
20 80
0 75
25 30 35 40 50
Ambient / Cooled Inlet Air Temp (F)
Fig. 54 - IGV LE surface temperature and maximum ambient / cooled inlet air
relative humidity based upon simulation results.
o o
temperature below approximately 37.5 F (-3.1 C). At lower inlet air temperatures and
83
100% relative humidity, ice may form on the leading edge of the guide vanes, as the
o o
leading edge of the vanes drops to a temperature below 32 F (0 C).
The potential danger to the compressor section exists because the ice or frost layer
may fall off and be ingested into the compressor if the air temperature is suddenly
raised. The possibility also exists of any ice accumulation to be sheared off due to air
velocity forces.
Prevention of Surface Icing
The simulation results show that the surface temperature of the inlet guide vanes
experience the lowest surface temperature and therefore is the surface most
susceptible to icing. The remaining areas are at higher surface temperatures. Icing will
o o
occur if the air temperature decreases below approximately 37.5 F (3.1 C) and the air
relative humidity is 100%. If the air relative humidity is decreased the saturation
temperature decreases, with the corresponding decrease in the potential for
condensation and icing. It should be noted that the predicted results are based upon a
recovery factor of 0.8, which is believed to be accurate.
The results indicate that the relative humidity upper limit line shown in Fig. 55 should
not be exceeded so that ice formation on the inlet guide vanes does not occur. As the
maximum relative humidity limit line shows the inlet air temperature can be decreased
o o
to approximately 37.5 F (3.1 C) at a relative humidity of 100%. Further decreases in
inlet air temperature (either ambient or cooled air temperature) must be accompanied
by decreases in relative humidity. This could be accomplished for cooled air at 100%
relative humidity by an intermediate heat exchanger such that the inlet air temperature
could be warmed to the extent that the relative humidity is decreased below the upper
limit line shown in Fig. 55.
The maximum inlet air relative humidity limit line in Fig. 55 reveals a much less
conservative relative humidity limit than shown in Fig. 1. The limit line in Fig. 55 is
based upon simulation results, assuming uniform inlet air temperature and relative
humidity, steady-state flow, and a recovery factor of 0.8. The relative humidity limit is
probably more realistic than the very conservative approaches shown in Fig. 1. The
small icing region in Fig. 55 shows that the inlet air temperature can be decreased to
well below freezing temperatures if the ambient or cooled inlet air relative humidity is
decreased to a sufficiently low value. The operator is advised, though, that an
appropriate safety factor may need to be applied to the relative humidity limit given in
Fig. 55 to account for individual designs and operating conditions.
84
100
Icing region, for 2.4

Ambient / Cooled Inlet Air Humidity (F)
psi ambient-to-IGV
press. loss & RF=0.8
95
90
Permissible operating region
85
80
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Ambient / Cooled Inlet Air Temperature (F)
Fig. 55 - Icing and non-icing regions of the combination of ambient / cooled inlet air
temperature and relative humidity for ambient-to-IGV air pressure loss of
2.4 psi (16.5 kPa) and recovery factor (RF) of 0.8.
85
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Nomenclature
cp - specific heat g - accleration of gravity
h – enthalpy hfg – heat of vaporization
hgi – heat of sublimation P - pressure
LE – leading edge m – mass flow rate
Q - heat transfer R –gas constant
RF - recovery factor RFC –recovery factor corrected
T – temperature V - velocity
φ - relative humidity ρ - density
ω- humidity ratio
92
Subscripts
a – air o - total, stagnation
m – measured s – recovery factor corrected
sat – saturation st - static
v – vapor wc – water, condensed
t – air and vapor, total 1 - upstream
2 - downstream
List of Tables
Table I - Operating Data for Three Turbines
Table II - Comparison of Experimental and Numerical Simulation Results
Table III - Summary of Simulations for Each Turbine
Table IV - Icing Temperature and Humidity Limits
List of Figures
Fig. 1 - Two turbine manufacturers' icing limit curves as a function of inlet air
temperature and relative humidity.
Fig. 2 - Predicted maximum liquid water concentration at M=0.37 (Chappell 1974).
Fig. 3 - One of the gas turbines at a Kansas City Power and Light generating station. The
evaporative cooling panels are shown in the foreground. The upper
housing is the air inlet housing, which is directed downward at the far end of
the housing to the compressor bellmouth.
Fig. 4- Evaporative cooling panels on one of the gas turbines at the Greenwood
generating station.
Fig. 5- Air inlet of one of the turbines at the Lincoln Electric Rokeby power station.
Fig. 6- Inlet guide vanes of one of the Greenwood turbines.
Fig. 7- Compressor bellmouth on a General Electric industrial combustion turbine.
Fig. 8- Inlet air cooling coils of the GE turbine installation at the Lincoln Electric
Rokeby generating station.
Fig. 9- ABB turbine installation at the Lincoln Electric Rokeby generating station.
Fig. 10 Inlet air cooling coils for the ABB unit at the Lincoln Electric Rokeby generating
station.
Fig. 11- Bellmouth and inlet guide vanes of the ABB unit.
Fig. 12- The grid model for the inlet air duct for a GE unit at the Utilicorp Greenwood
station.
Fig. 13- The grid model for the bellmouth for the both the GE Greenwood and Rokeby
turbine installations.
93
Fig. 14- The grid model for the air inlet air duct for the GE unit at Rokeby.
Fig. 15- The grid model for the air inlet air duct for the ABB unit at Rokeby.
Fig. 16- The grid model for the bellmouth for the ABB unit at Rokeby.
Fig. 17- The grid model developed for the IGVs.
Fig. 18- The simulated velocity distribution in a plane through the inlet air duct at the
o
Greenwood station, Case 7000, for a constant 70 F duct wall.
Fig. 19 The simulated pressure distribution in a plane through the inlet air duct at the
o
Greenwood station, Case 7000, for a constant 70 F duct wall.
Fig. 20- The simulated temperature distribution in a plane through the inlet air duct at
o
the Greenwood station, Case 7000, for a constant 70 F duct wall.
the Greenwood station, Case 7000, with an adiabatic duct wall.
o
the Greenwood station, Case 4000, for a constant 70 F duct wall.
Fig. 23- The simulated velocity distribution in a plane through the inlet air duct of the
o
GE unit at the Rokeby station, Case 7000, for a constant 70 F duct wall.
Fig. 24 - The simulated pressure distribution in a plane through the inlet air duct of the
o
GE unit at the Rokeby station, Case 7000, for a constant 70 F duct wall.
Fig. 25 - The simulated temperature distribution in a plane through the inlet air duct of
o
the GE unit at the Rokeby station, Case 7000, for a constant 70 F duct wall.
ABB unit at the Rokeby station, Case 7000, with an adiabatic duct wall.
Fig. 27 - The simulated pressure distribution in a plane through the inlet air duct of the
ABB unit at the Rokeby station, Case 7000, with an adiabatic duct wall.
Fig. 28 - The simulated temperature distribution in a plane through the inlet air duct of
the ABB unit at the Rokeby station, Case 7000, with an adiabatic duct wall.
Fig. 29 - The simulated velocity distribution in a plane through the GE bellmouth, Case
7000, using the Greenwood inlet air duct simulated results.
Fig. 30 - The simulated pressure distribution in a plane through the GE bellmouth,
Fig. 31 - The simulated temperature distribution in a plane through the GE bellmouth,
Fig. 32 - The simulated velocity distribution in a plane through the GE inlet guide vanes,
Fig. 33 - The simulated pressure distribution in a plane through the GE inlet guide
vanes, Case 7000, using the Greenwood inlet air duct simulated results.
Fig. 34 - The simulated surface temperature distribution in a plane through the GE inlet
guide vanes, Case 7000, using the Greenwood inlet air duct simulated results.
Fig. 35 - The simulated velocity distribution in a plane through the ABB bellmouth,
Case 7000.
Fig. 36 - The simulated pressure distribution in a plane through the ABB bellmouth,
94
Case 7000.
Fig. 37 - The simulated temperature distribution in a plane through the ABB bellmouth,
Case 7000.
Fig. 38 - The simulated velocity distribution in a plane through the ABB inlet guide
vanes, Case 7000.
Fig. 39 - The simulated pressure distribution in a plane through the ABB inlet guide
vanes, Case 7000.
Fig. 40 - The simulated temperature distribution in a plane through the ABB inlet guide
vanes, Case 7000.
Fig. 45 - The simulated GE IGV surface temperature distribution, Case 4075 at
75% of rated flow rate.
the GE unit, Case 4000 at 95% relative humidity.
the ABB unit, Case 4000 at 95% relative humidity.
Fig. 48 - The calculated GE IGV surface temperature distribution and the area upon
Fig. 49 - The calculated ABB IGV surface temperature distribution and the area upon
Fig. 54 - IGV LE surface temperature and maximum ambient / cooled inlet air relative
humidity based upon simulation results.
Fig. 55 - Icing and non-icing regions of the combination of ambient / cooled inlet air
temperature and relative humidity for ambient-to-IGV air pressure loss of 2.4 psi
(16.5 kPa).
95

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Shaping Tomorrow’s

Built Environment Today

ASHRAE Research Project 1019

William E. Stewart, Jr. PhD PE

Air Temperature Depression and Potential Icing ............................................................ 5

Pressure Loss and Potential Condensation .................................................................... 9

Potential Icing ................................................................................................................ 10

Test Sites ................................................................................................................. 16

Simulated Condensation .............................................................................................. 70

Simulated Icing Potential .............................................................................................. 73

Inlet/Cooled Air Maximum Relative Humidity................................................................. 81

Summary of Results ...................................................................................................... 82

Prevention of Surface Icing .......................................................................................... 84

References and Bibliography ....................................................................................... 86

List of Tables ................................................................................................................93

List of Figures ............................................................................................................... 93

The project report is dedicated to the African adventurers…

Air Temperature Depression and Potential Icing

or, a pressure ratio of

representing a 13% decrease in static pressure.

A one percent decrease in the water vapor saturation pressure corresponds to

Two manufacturers’ recommendations as to the limits of the combination of inlet air

Published manufacturers’ information tends to be vague. According to General Electric’s

Ambient Temperature (C)

Ambient Temperature (F)

- Comparison of Numerical Simulations and Site Data

Greenw’d/GE LE/GE LE/ABB

Summary of Simulations for Each Turbine

Case Inlet air temperatures Flow Velocity*

Ts = RF (To − Tst ) + Tst

Simulated Icing Potential

50/10 45.5/7.5 100

ω = 0.622 Pv /( Pt − Pv ) = 0.622(0.0804939) /(12.296 − 0.0804939) = 0.0040987

φ = 0.096205 / 0.09998 = 0.9622, or 96%

Maximum Ambient / Cooled Inlet AIr

Prevention of Surface Icing

Icing region, for 2.4

Permissible operating region

Akyurt,M.N.,Habeebullah,M.B. (1995) Performance of a heat-pipe based waste-heat

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