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DURABILITY OF TERNARY BLENDED CEMENT CONCRETE CONTAINING

BAMBOO LEAF ASH AND PULVERIZED BURNT CLAY
Thesis · March 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.27140.22404
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DURABILITY OF TERNARY BLENDED CEMENT
CONCRETE CONTAININING BAMBOO LEAF
ASH AND PULVERIZED BURNT CLAY
______________________________________
KOLAWOLE JOHN TEMITOPE
2015
ii
DURABILITY OF TERNARY BLENDED CEMENT CONCRETE

CONTAINING BAMBOO LEAF ASH AND PULVERIZED BURNT
CLAY
BY
JOHN TEMITOPE KOLAWOLE

EDMP11/12/R/0137
B.Sc (Building, OAU)
A THESIS SUBMITTED
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF MASTERS OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN
BUILDING STRUCTURES,
DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING
FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT
OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY,
ILE-IFE, NIGERIA
2015
iii
OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY, ILE-IFE, NIGERIA

HEZEKIAH OLUWASANMI LIBRARY
POSTGRADUATE THESIS
AUTHORIZATION TO COPY
AUTHOR: KOLAWOLE, JOHN TEMITOPE
TITLE: Durability of ternary blended cement concrete containing bamboo
leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay
DEGREE: B.Sc (Building Structures)
YEAR: 2015
I, KOLAWOLE, John Temitope hereby authorize the Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library to copy
my thesis, in whole or in part; in response to request from individual researchers and/or
organizations for the purpose of private study or research.
Signature:…………………….. Date:……………………………..
iv
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this research work carried out by Mr. KOLAWOLE, John Temitope
under the supervision of Dr. K.O. Olusola, has been read, approved and adjudged to fulfill in
part, the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of Science (M.Sc) in Building
Structures of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
………………………………… ………………………………
Dr. K.O. Olusola Date
(Supervisor)
………………………………… ………………………………
Dr. O. Ata Date
(Chief Examiner)
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I give all glory and gratitude to Almighty God for making me to be alive up to this time and
for making this project a success.
My sincere appreciation goes to my honourable and able supervisor, Dr. K.O. Olusola, for his
forthrightness, untiring efforts, efficiency, encouragement and guidance in making this project
a success.
Special appreciation goes to Dr. O. Ata, my Head of Department and other members of the
Department of Building for their love, advice and encouragement that brought this work to the
finish line. I also thank Mr. Adeyemi and other staff in the Building Laboratory, including the
security personnel.
I would be an ingrate if I fail to thank Mr. Opeyemi Joshua of the Department of Building,
Covenant University, Ota and Dr. E.A. Olanipekun who is on sabbatical at Covenant University
for their efforts when I was at Covenant University pertaining to my work. I also appreciate
Lafarge cement factory, Ewekoro, for giving me access to their equipment.
I am indebted to my parents and siblings for their support, encouragement and sacrifices in the
course of this postgraduate programme. Special thanks to everybody who was involved in one
way or the other during this project.

vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Authorization to copy iii
Certification iv
Acknowledgement v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables xi
List of Figures xiv
Abstract xv
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem 7
1.3 Aim and Objectives 10
1.4 Justification of Study 10
1.5 Scope of Study 12
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Preamble 13
2.2 Concrete 14
2.3 Cement 17
2.3.1 Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) 18
2.3.1.1 Brief history of Portland cement 18
2.3.1.2 Chemical composition of ordinary Portland cement 20
2.3.1.3 Manufacture process of ordinary Portland cement 24
2.3.2 Testing of cement 27
2.3.2.1 Fineness test 28

vii
2.3.2.2 Consistency test 29
2.3.2.3 Setting time test 29
2.3.2.4 Soundness test 30
2.3.2.5 Strength test 31
2.3.2.6 Heat of hydration test 31
2.3.2.7 Chemical composition test 32
2.4 Aggregates 32
2.5 Admixture 36
2.6 Water 38
2.7 Pozzolans 39
2.7.1 Physical requirements of pozzolans 42
2.7.2 Chemical requirements of pozzolans 47
2.7.3 Pozzolanic reaction activity 48
2.7.4 Pozzolan in blended cement 48
2.7.4.1 Blast furnace slag 49
2.7.4.2 Fly ash 52
2.7.4.3 Silica fume 54
2.7.4.4 Rice husk ash 56
2.7.4.5 Saw dust ash 57
2.7.4.6 Metakaolin 58
2.7.4.7 Corncob ash 60
2.8 Bamboo Leaf 60
2.8.1 Uses of bamboo 63
2.8.2 Properties of bamboo leaf 65
2.8.3 Bamboo leaf ash 65

viii
2.8.4 Effects of calcination temperature on the properties of bamboo leaf ash 66
2.9 Burnt Clay Waste 70
2.9.1 Clay bricks 70
2.9.2 Pulverized burnt clay waste 70
2.10 Concrete as a Structural Material 75
2.10.1 Concrete workability 76
2.10.2 Compressive strength of concrete 78
2.10.3 Tensile strength of concrete 80
2.10.4 Durability of concrete 81
2.10.5 Chemical durability of concrete 82
2.10.5.1 Chloride attack 83
2.10.5.2 Sulphate attack 84
2.10.5.3 Alkali attack 85
2.10.5.4 Acid attak 85
2.10.6 Permeability of concrete 88
2.10.6.1 Diffusion 89
2.10.6.2 Absorption and sorptivity 90
2.10.6.3 Permeation 90
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Preamble 91
3.2 Preliminary Investigation 91
3.2.1 Material selection and collection 91
3.2.2 Sample test and analysis 92
3.2.3 Water-to-cement ratio (w/c) 92
3.3 Instrumentation 92
ix
3.4 Experimental Design 92
3.5 Experimental Procedures 93
3.5.1 Pozzolan processing 93
3.5.2 Chemical composition of BLA and PBCW 93
3.5.3 Production and mixing of the blended cement 93
3.5.4 Physical properties of blended cement 96
3.5.5 Chemical properties of blended cement 96
3.5.6 Workability test 96
3.5.7 Casting and curing of test specimens 96
3.5.8 Compressive strength test 97
3.6 Method of Data Analysis 97
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULT
4.1 Preamble 100
4.2 Sieve Analysis of Aggregates Used 100
4.3 Characterization of Cementitious and Pozzolanic Materials 103
4.3.1 Physical properties of ordinary Portland cement, bamboo leaf ash and
pulverized burnt clay waste 103
4.3.2 Chemical properties of ordinary Portland cement, bamboo leaf ash
and pulverized burnt clay waste 105
4.4 Characterization of Blended Cements 107
4.4.1 Physical characteristics of blended cements 107
4.4.2 Chemical characteristics of blended cements 113
4.5 Characteristics of Blended Cement Concrete 115
4.5.1 Workability 115
4.5.2 Compressive strength 119

x
4.5.3 Graphical and statistical analysis of compressive strength results 124
4.5.4 Acid attack resistance 139
4.5.5 Graphical and statistical analysis of acid attack resistance results 145
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion 164
5.2 Recommendation 165
REFERENCES 167
APPENDICES 187
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
2.1 Different types of Portland cement 19
2.2 Oxide composition of ordinary Portland cement 22
2.3 Bogue compound composition in ordinary Portland cement 23
2.4 Physical requirements for pozzolans as per ASTM C 618-08 44
2.5 Chemical requirements for pozzolans as per ASTM C 618-08 45
2.6 Physical requirements for pozzolans as per IS 3812: Part 1: 2003 46
2.7 Chemical composition and properties of ground granulated blast-furnace
slag (GGBS) 51
2.8 Chemical composition of fly ash 53
2.9 Chemical composition of silica fume 55
2.10 Chemical composition and physical properties of rice husk ash (RHA) 57
2.11 Chemical composition of metakaolin 59
2.12 Chemical properties of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and bamboo leaf
ash (BLA) 67
2.13 Elemental oxide % of bamboo leaf ash sample 69
2.14 Elemental oxide composition for burnt clay 72
2.15 Elemental oxide composition for pulverized burnt clay waste 73
3.1 Percentage replacement of cement with bamboo leaf ash and pulverized
burnt clay waste 95
4.1 Physical properties of sand used 102
4.2 Physical properties of materials used 104
4.3 Chemical properties of materials used 106
4.4 Physical properties of BLA and PBCW blended cements 109
4.5 Deviation of predicted F.S.T. from actual F.S.T. 112

xii
4.6 Chemical properties of BLA and PBCW blended cements 114
4.7 Slump and water/cement ratio for BLA and PBCW blended cement concrete 116
4.8 Correlation analysis of workability parameters 118
4.9 Compressive strength of BLA and PBCW blended cement concrete cubes 120
4.10 ANOVA for compressive strength results 130
4.11 Multi range test for compressive strength with varying percentages
of BLA and PBCW (%) 131
4.12 Multi range test for compressive strength with varying curing days 134
4.13 Correlation analysis on compressive strength of the blended cement concrete 135
4.14 Model summary of regression analysis on compressive strength of the
blended cement 136
4.15 ANOVA table of regression analysis on compressive strength
of the blended cement concrete 137
4.16 Coefficient table of regression analysis on compressive strength of the
blended cement 138
4.17 Compressive strength of BLA and PBCW blended cement concrete cubes
exposed to 0% sulphuric acid concentration 140
4.21 ANOVA for acid attack resistance result 154
4.22 Multi range test for acid attack resistance for varying replacement levels 155
xiii
4.23 Multi range test for acid attack resistance for varying concentration of
sulphuric acid 158
4.24 Multi range test for acid attack resistance for varying days of exposure 159
4.25 Correlation analysis on acid attack resistance of the blended cement concrete 160
4.26 Model summary of regression analysis on acid attack resistance of the
blended cement concrete 161
4.27 ANOVA table of regression analysis on acid attack resistance of the
4.28 Coefficient table of regression analysis on acid attack resistance of the

xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
4.1 Grading curves of aggregates used 101
4.2 Relationship between initial and final setting times of the blended cements 111
4.3 Variation of compressive strength with replacement levels at varying curing days 126
4.4 Variation of compressive strength with replacement levels as a percent of 28
days curing 127
4.5 Variation of compressive strength with curing days at varying replacement levels 128
4.6 Variation of compressive strength with curing days as a percent of the control 129
4.7 Variation of compressive strength with replacement levels exposed to sulphuric
acid for 30 days 146
4.11 Variation of compressive strength with exposure period of blended cement
concrete exposed to 1% H2SO4 150

xv
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the durability of a ternary blended cement concrete consisting of
bamboo leaf ash (BLA) and pulverized burnt clay waste (PBCW) with a view to examining
their suitability as pozzolans in concrete. Laboratory tests were carried out to determine the
characterization of the blended cement and the effects of curing age, exposure period, acid
concentration and replacement of Portland cement with varying percentages of BLA and
PBCW on the compressive strength and durability of concrete.
A full factorial experimental arrangement was used in the research. The ordinary Portland
cement replacement by bamboo leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay waste respectively was at
ten (10) levels (100:0:0; 90:5:5; 90:10:0; 90:0:10; 80:5:15; 80:10:10; 80:15:5; 70:10:20;
70:15:15; 70:20:10), the concentration of sulphuric acid solution was at three (3) levels (1, 3
and 5%), curing in water was for 3, 7, 14, 28, 60, 90, 120 days and exposure to acid was for
30, 60, 90, 120 days after curing in water for 28 days. Using three (3) replicates, a total of 570
of 100 mm cubes was cast and tested. The compressive strength was determined using an ELE
2000 kN compression testing machine. The results of all the factorial experiments were
analyzed using graphical illustrations, means, percentages, standard deviation, regression
analysis and analysis of variance (ANOVA).
The results showed that BLA, PBCW and their blended cements are suitable materials as
pozzolans. Their incorporation in concrete reduced its early strength but improved immensely
its later strength. Ten percent (10%) of PBCW attained the targeted strength of 25 N/mm2 at
28 days of curing and 35 N/mm2 at 120 days of curing while the control attained 31.7 N/mm2
at 120 days of curing. Generally, it was observed that the higher the percentage replacement of
ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with BLA and PBCW, the lower the 28-day compressive
strength; the compressive strength increased as the curing age increased. After curing the
blended cement concrete in water for 28 days and exposed to sulphuric acid, the compressive
xvi
strength decreased as the exposure period increased; the higher the acid concentration, the more
the compressive strength deterioration. However, the incorporation of BLA and PBCW in
concrete improved its resistance to acid attack. At 120 days of exposure, replacement level of
10% BLA and 10% PBCW deteriorated by 25.7% in 1% sulphuric acid while 10% PBCW had
19% deterioration factor in 5% sulphuric acid. The control had deterioration factors of 39.7%
and 52.1% in 1% and 5% sulphuric acid, respectively.
The study concluded that BLA and PBCW can serve as pozzolans in concrete production. Ten
percent (10%) of PBCW was adjudged best for cement replacement in structural concrete while
for mass concreting, a replacement of 10% BLA and 10% PBCW was regarded suitable.
Concrete durability can be improved by the use of BLA and PBCW in concrete. In mild
conditions, a replacement level of 10% PBCW and 10% BLA performs well, but in severe
conditions, 10% of PBCW as replacement performs better.

1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Concrete is an ancient and modern material with versatility. Though it has been widely used
for centuries, its basic ingredient remains cement. This basic material continues to be in high
demand all over the world for construction purposes. The global production of cement per
annum is estimated at 11 billion tonnes (Mehta and Monteiro, 2006) while the global demand
for cement is forecast to grow by 4.7% annually (Hosseini et al., 2011). In India, the annual
consumption of cement is in the order of 22 million tonnes (Shetty, 2002). In Nigeria, cement
consumption growth is projected as 8.5% for 2012 to 2015 (Tosin et al., 2013). The annual
demand for cement was estimated as 10 million tonnes as at 2006 and projected to 23.2 million
tonnes at 2015; as at 2010 cement consumption in Nigeria was estimated as 16 million tonnes,
its demand as at 2011 became 17 million tonnes while it became 19 million tonnes at 2012
(Bamidele, 2008; LeadCapital Limited, 2013; Tosin et al., 2013). This increasing rate of
production would cause an annual large amount of waste, capital cost, energy expense and
conventional raw materials to be generated, needed and used.
The cement industry produces about 5% of the global anthropogenic carbondioxide (CO2)
emissions, the main cause of global warming (Worrell et al., 2001). The cement industry emits
about 814 kg to 935 kg of CO2 for every1000 kg of cement produced (Metz et al., 2007). The
chemical decomposition of limestone accounts for 40% to 50% of CO2 emissions, and fossil
fuel combustion is responsible for the remaining CO2 emissions (Worrell et al., 2001; Initiative,
2002; van-Oss and Padovani, 2003). In 2000, global cement production was about 1.54 billion
tonnes and the associated CO2 emissions were estimated to be 1.58 billion tonnes (van-Oss and
Padovani, 2003). This causes environmental detrimental phenomenon, hence, the increasing
2
demand for more environmentally friendly buildings constructed with cheap but durable and
environmentally friendly building materials (Ata, 2012).
Materials’ cost accounts for two-third of the building production cost (Ayangade et al., 2004).
One of the most commonly used building materials in Nigeria and which periodically increases
in price is cement. Cement is majorly used in concrete production and masonry works. As at
year 2000 in Nigeria, there is little or no control over Portland cement cost as both bulk and
bagged cements were mostly imported at very high foreign exchange rates (Otoko, 2000). As
at 1982, a bag of cement costs less than twenty Naira (Otoko, 2000); in 2000, it costs five
hundred and ninety Naira (Otoko, 2000), but presently it costs around two thousand Naira with
9900% increment in price over 30 years. Olusola and Adesanya (2004) stated that one of the
reasons for ineffective housing delivery in Nigeria is the astronomical price increase of
conventional building materials. As the cost of conventional materials continues to escalate, it
is therefore imperative to find suitable alternatives to conventional materials like cement or
find means of reducing the quantity of such materials used in a unit volume of building
components while still maintaining desired quality. Portland cement is more frequently used in
concrete production. A reduction in quantity and hence cost of Portland cement used may imply
more economical concrete production.
Concrete is one of the strongest and durable materials used for construction, its compressive
strength reaching 138 N/mm2 with modern available technical know-how (Sai-Prasad and Jha,
2006). Its durability has been attested by various researchers and this is buttressed by living
examples of century old concrete structures. The compressive strength of concrete is one of the
most important and useful properties of concrete. In most structural applications, concrete is
employed primarily to resist compressive stresses and in cases where strength in tension or in
shear is of primary importance, the compressive strength is frequently used as a measure of
these properties. Therefore, the quality of a concrete mix is usually measured in terms of the
3
compressive strength of the resulting concrete. The rate of loss of strength of concrete in its
natural environment measures its durability; however, its exposure conditions can inhibit its
overall performance in its service life. According to ACI 201 (2003), durability of concrete is
its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process of
deterioration. Durable cement concrete will retain its original form, quality and serviceability
when exposed to its intended environment (Shetty, 2002). The assumption that concrete is a
very durable material requiring little or no maintenance is largely true except when it is
subjected to highly aggressive environments. The erroneous assumption that concrete
durability is a factor absolutely dependent on compressive strength in the earlier ages has led
to the collapse or threatening deterioration of many concrete structures; hence, one of the
contributing factors to deterioration of concrete is chemical attack (Shetty, 2002 and Umoh,
2012). Therefore, both strength and durability of concrete have to be considered explicitly in
its design stage.
In cement industries, continuous attempts are being made to reduce the cost of production of
Portland cement and the consumption of the raw materials, protect the environment and
enhance the quality (strength and durability) of cement and concrete. One way of achieving
this is to use certain low cost materials called pozzolans for partial replacement of Portland
cement in concrete production (Massaza and Costa, 1979; Uchikawa, 1986; Mehta, 1987;
Narang, 1992; Sersale, 1992; Udachkin, 1992; Massaza, 1994; Hernandez et al., 1998; Singh
et al., 2000; Schmidt et al., 2004; Dwivedi et al., 2006; El-Sayed and El-Samni, 2006; Dipayan,
2007; Goyal et al., 2008; Murthi and Sivakumar, 2008). A pozzolan is defined as a siliceous
or siliceous and aluminous material which, in itself, possesses little or no cementitious value
but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, react chemically with calcium
hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious properties
(Derucher and Korfiatis, 1988; ASTM C595, 1994; McCann, 1994; Shetty, 2002; ASTM C618,
4
2008). It can be incorporated either as a mineral admixture or as a component of blended
Portland cement. So many pozzolans have been investigated for their suitability in the
production of blended cement concrete, these include rice husk ash, bamboo leaf ash, burnt
clay waste, saw dust ash, corn cob ash, fly ash, silica fume, metakaolin, blast furnace slag,
clinoptilolite, periwinkle shell ash (Aldea et al., 2000; Bouzoubaa et al., 2001; Bhanja and
Senguptab, 2002; Waswa-Sabumi et al., 2002; Almusallam et al., 2004; Siddique, 2004; Bui
et al., 2005; Khatib and Hibbert, 2005; Gupta et al., 2006; Hossain, 2006; Nabil and Al-Akhras,
2006; Saiprasad and Jha, 2006; Duna and Matawal, 2007; Jana, 2007; Chindaprasirt et al.,
2008; Gonzalez-Fonteboa and Martinez-Abella, 2008; Murthi and Sivakumar, 2008; Arikan et
al., 2009; Kolawole, 2011; Ojo-Olotu, 2012; Oni, 2012; Umoh, 2012). Incorporation of
pozzolan in concrete production improves many properties of concrete including its strength
and durability. Many works have been done which affirm the improved resistance of concrete
to chemical attack by making use of various pozzolans in concrete production (Hossain, 2006;
Murthi and Sivakumar, 2008; Ojo-Olotu, 2012; Umoh, 2012).
The usage of blended cements is growing rapidly in the construction industry due to
consideration of cost saving and environmental protection (Tae-Hyun et al., 2007). Among
many researched materials as an alternative to conventional materials in construction works
are bamboo leaf ash and pulverized burnt lateritic/clay products (Nuran and Mevhut, 2000;
Otoko, 2000; Dwivedi et al., 2006; Singh et al., 2007; Bektas et al., 2008; Solomon-Ayeh,
2009; Amu and Adetuberu, 2010; Ernesto et al., 2011; Amu and Babajide, 2011; Hosseini et
al., 2011; Kolawole, 2011; Eva et al., 2012; Moises et al., 2012; Ojo-Olotu, 2012; Oni, 2012).
Some of these researchers have successfully shown that the utilization of bamboo leaf ash or
pulverized burnt clay or lateritic waste can successfully serve as a partial replacement of cement
in concrete production but none has dealt with a ternary combination of the three (Portland
5
cement, bamboo leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay waste) and the durability performance of
the mixture in chemically aggressive environment.
In a recent work by Dwivedi et al. (2006), bamboo leaves were incinerated in an open
atmosphere and then heated to a temperature of 600OC for 2 hours in a furnace. In the study, it
was discovered that bamboo leaf ash is amorphous in nature with pozzolanic properties. Amu
and Babajide (2011) determined the effects of bamboo leaf ash (BLA) on lime stabilized
lateritic soil for highway construction and it was concluded that it will further increase the
strength of lime stabilized lateritic soil used in highway construction. Oni (2012) investigated
the pozzolanic properties of bamboo leaf ash calcined at different temperatures of 500OC,
600OC, 700OC, 800OC, 900OC, 1000OC; the compressive strength, tensile strength, and water
absorption of bamboo leaf ash blended cement concrete at various levels of percentage
replacement were also determined. It was discovered that bamboo leaf ash calcined to 1000OC
has the highest pozzolanicity with increased fineness and therefore higher specific surface. Its
blended cement concrete compressive strength was lower than that of the control specimen at
early curing ages but has higher percentage gain in strength than the latter at later ages while
its splitting tensile strength at a level of substitution less than 10% is higher than that of the
plain concrete at early age (Oni, 2012). Ojo-Olotu (2012) studied the compressive strength of
pulverized burnt clay waste (PBCW) blended cement concrete, its deterioration in varying
sulphate concentration and its water absorption characteristics. It was concluded that generally,
the compressive strength of pulverized burnt clay waste blended cement concrete increases
with increase in percentage replacement of cement with PBCW with optimum replacement at
10%. In calcium and sodium sulphates, the percentage replacement of cement with PBCW with
least deterioration is 20% while that with optimum resistance in magnesium sulphate is 10%.
It was also discovered that the incorporation of pulverized burnt clay waste in cement concrete
6
reduces concrete porosity with optimum replacement of 10% producing 2.52% porosity less
than 6.79% porosity of ordinary concrete.
From review of literature, it was found that experimentally, durability of concrete is often times
measured by visual inspection, chloride ion penetration test, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and
reduction of flexural strength, compressive strength, elastic modulus and mass. Balachandran
and Vipulanandan (1995) examined the long-term strength loss of concrete in sulphate and
acidic environments by measuring the percentage change in compressive strength of concrete
specimens in sulphuric acid and sodium sulphate solutions. Likewise, Borsoi et al. (2000),
Jolaoso (2000), Elinwa and Ejeh (2004), Ahmad and Shabbir (2005), Hewayde et al. (2007)
and Murthi and Sivakumar (2008) assessed the durability of various pozzolans in concrete by
measuring their compressive strength loss. However, Hewayde et al. (2007), Murthi and
Sivakumar (2008) went further by scaling the deterioration level from visual inspection,
examining their percentage mass loss and calculating a strength deterioration factor (SDF).
Ahmad and Shabbir (2005), added to the above by measuring ultrasonic pulse velocity and
modulus of rupture of various concrete specimens while Shehata and Kandasamy (2014) did a
rapid chloride permeability test.
Two major forms of chemical attacks affect long-term durability of concrete, viz, sulphate
attack and acid attack. Sulphate attack is more aggressive and deteriorating (Al-Akhras, 2006;
Ata, 2012). Among the various sulphates with devastating effect on concrete are magnesium
sulphate and ammonium sulphate (Ata, 2012). Out of various acids with potential of attacking
concrete, sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid are more severe. However, sulphuric acid has
two sides to its attack. It doubles as both sulphate attack and acid attack, hence, it consumes
calcium hydroxide, calcium silicate hydrate, calcium aluminate hydrate and monosulphate
which are all compounds making up cement concrete (Borsoi et al., 2000). Therefore, sulphuric
7
acid being an aggressive acid and sulphate, was used in examining the durability of bamboo
leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay waste blended cement concrete.
The present study investigated the characteristics of ternary combination of Portland cement
(PC), bamboo leaf ash (BLA) and pulverized burnt clay waste (PBCW) as binders in concrete
and their characteristics in an aggressive acidic environment. The percentage loss in
compressive strength of the blended concrete cube specimens was used as a measure in
determining the durability of PBCW and BLA blended cement concrete.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Previous works have concentrated on the influence of bamboo leaf ash on the strength
properties of blended mortars and concrete (Dwivedi et al., 2006; Singh et al., 2007; Ernesto
et al., 2011; Moises et al., 2012; Oni, 2012) and pulverized burnt clay waste blended mortars
and concrete (Nuran and Mevlut, 2000; Bektas et al., 2008; Solomon-Ayeh, 2009; Eva et al.,
2012; Ojo-Olotu, 2012). However, there is scarcity of literature on the combination of BLA
and PBCW with Portland cement.
Dwivedi et al. (2006), Singh et al. (2007), Ernesto et al. (2011), Moises et al. (2012) calcined
BLA to 600OC. Calcination of bamboo leaf ash to 600OC, according to Oni (2012), is
insufficient to examine the pozzolanic properties of BLA. Oni (2012) concluded that 1000OC
is the optimum temperature for BLA calcination. Moreover, all the above studies except Oni
(2012) made use of blended cement mortars. This do not serve as a sufficient baseline for
making inferences on blended concrete properties which is of interest. Neville (1995) stated
that it is advisable to test pozzolanic materials in combination with the cement and the
aggregate which are to be used in the actual construction. Also, none of the above work
[including Oni (2012)] examined the durability of the resulting blended mortar or concrete.
8
Nuran and Mevlut (2000) and Vejmelkova et al. (2012) made use of ceramic waste tiles as
PBCW pozzolan. The studies made use of blended mortar in making conclusions on blended
concrete properties. Both works cured the blended mortar specimens for a maximum of 28
days. This curing age is insufficient as it is known that pozzolanic concrete gains adequate and
better strength at later ages rather than early ages (Shetty, 2006). Likewise, Solomon-Ayeh
(2009) made use of mortars and cured the resulting specimens for a maximum of 60 days, but
ground and calcined raw clay to 1000OC. Clay is used in the manufacture of cement, ceramic
tiles, kitchen dishes and wares, toilet sanitary fittings etc. Hence, if the work is implemented,
useful raw material for some industrial sectors will be used rather than utilizing a waste material
of the same industry and turning it into a by-product. Bektas et al. (2008) made use of ground
clay bricks as PBCW pozzolan. Both mortar and concrete specimens were used in the work.
However, in testing the durability performance of the resulting PBCW blended concrete
specimens, chloride ion penetration test was carried out. This do not measure the deterioration
behaviour (compressive strength loss) in a simulated aggressive environment which is
obtainable in the real world of concrete exposure conditions. Ojo-Olotu (2012) made use of
ground burnt clay bricks and used blended concrete specimens but carried out durability
performance with sulphate ions and not acid.
Hence, there is lack of sufficient technical data on a more practical usage that will be
encountered during construction and useful life of the blended cement concrete, that is, the
environment in which it will be used. Likewise, there is scarcity of literature concerning ternary
combination of BLA, PBCW and Portland cement. This present study filled all the above
identified gaps. This work utilized blended concrete specimens, BLA was calcined to 1000OC,
demolished burnt clay bricks was ground as PBCW pozzolan, concrete specimens were cured
for a maximum of 120 days, and exposed to a sulphuric acid environment for durability
performance test. Also, previous identified works have not considered the ternary combination
9
of cement, bamboo leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay waste as binders in concrete. This work
therefore improved on existing studies and added to the body of knowledge. It combined BLA,
PBCW, cement and aggregates to form concrete cubes for ascertaining the compressive
strength characteristics and acid attack resistance of the combined pozzolan.
The study by Oni (2012) revealed that bamboo leaf ash is high in silica (80.25% - 84.10%)
which is expected in any pozzolan but low in alumina (5.08% - 4.85%) while according to Ojo-
Olotu (2012), pulverized burnt clay waste has a relatively higher alumina content (19.73%)
with silica at 67.05%. From review of literature, a pozzolan with high silica tends to be more
pozzolanic while that with high alumina is more resistant to acidic attack (Hewayde et al.,
2007; Prassad et al., 2006; Murthi and Sivakumar, 2008). Therefore, this work took advantage
of both properties (high pozzolanicity and acidic resistant) by blending bamboo leaf ash,
pulverized burnt clay waste and Portland cement as a ternary combination in blended cement
concrete. The blended concrete cube specimens were then examined for its compressive
strength development and resistance in an acidic environment.
This work seeks to proffer answers to the following questions:
i) what effect will the incorporation of bamboo leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay waste
in concrete have on the acidic attack resistance of the blended cement concrete?
ii) what will be the effect on the strength properties of the resulting concrete when cement
is partially replaced with bamboo leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay waste?
iii) what will be the effect on compressive strength characteristics of the ternary blended
cement concrete when exposed to aggressive acidic environment?

10
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this research is to investigate the durability of ternary blended cement concrete
consisting of bamboo leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay with a view to examining their
suitability as pozzolans in concrete.
The specific objectives of this research are to:
a) characterize the Portland cement, pozzolanic materials and their combinations;
b) investigate the effect of replacing Portland cement with varying percentages of bamboo
leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay waste on the compressive strength of concrete;
c) determine the influence of varying concentrations of acid on the compressive strength
of bamboo leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay waste blended cement concrete; and
d) assess the effect of exposure periods to acidic environment on the compressive strength
of the blended cement concrete.
1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY
Considerable efforts are being made worldwide to improve on the strength and durability
performance of concrete (Umoh, 2012). Different pozzolans and cementitious materials have
been found to improve different concrete properties which include plasticity and workability
of fresh concrete, low heat of hydration, low thermal shrinkage, reduced permeability,
improved resistance to sulphate and other chemically aggressive agents, low cost and increased
long term strength of hardened concrete (Al-Dulaijan et al., 2003; Nabil and Al-Akhras, 2006;
Chindaprasirt et al., 2008; and Singhal et al., 2008).
Research findings have shown that pulverized burnt clay wastes are pozzolanic materials
(Nuran and Mevlut, 2000; Smeaton 2002; Garba and Sa’ad 2007; Sa’ad et al., 2007; Bektas et
al., 2008; Solomon-Ayeh et al., 2009; Eva et al., 2012; Ojo-Olotu, 2012) and are readily
available in large quantities as wastes at the production factories of clay products (Garba and
11
Kabir, 2002). These clay wastes are manifested as large continuously mounting heaps which
pollutes the environment around production factories. These wastes require alternative usage
to become a by-product used as pozzolan.
Bamboo leaf is an agricultural waste in abundance in the tropical rainforest region of Nigeria.
Waste recycling is one of the solutions to agricultural wastes. When bamboo leaves is burnt
into ash, it can be reused in an economical way as a pozzolan. Dwivedi et al. (2006) used
bamboo leaf ash in combination with cement to determine its pozzolanic activity and
compressive strength characteristic. Bamboo leaf ash was found pozzolanic while its
compressive strength in combination with cement and sand was found close to that of control
mortar at 28 days of hydration. Amu and Adetuberu (2010); Amu and Babajide (2011) made
use of bamboo leaf ash for soil stabilization for highway construction. Oni (2012) made use of
bamboo leaf ash in binary blended cement concrete to determine its compressive strength
characteristics and water absorption characteristics.
In the production of cement, a lot of carbon dioxide is generated. This is an environmental
degradation including ozone layer depletion. A lot of buildings in advanced countries of the
world are termed “green”. That is, a green building refers to a structure that is environmentally
responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle: from siting to design,
construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and demolition. This precludes construction
materials with minimal contribution to environmental degradation. The materials are green if
they are renewable. Cement is non-renewable and its production contributes heavily to human
health hazards, but bamboo leaves are renewable. BLA and PBCW production has no negative
environmental impact.
Another new area of interest lately is carbon footprint; this is defined by Wiedmann and Minx
(2008) as a measure of the exclusive total amount of carbon dioxide emissions that is directly
12
and indirectly caused by an activity or is accumulated over the life stages of a product. This
includes activities of individuals, populations, governments, companies, organizations,
processes, industry sectors etc. Products include goods and services. In any case, all direct (on-
site, internal) and indirect emissions (off-site, external, embodied, upstream, and downstream)
need to be taken into account. Production of cement is a major contribution to carbon footprint,
it is one of the greenhouse gas emissions.
New innovative materials such as bamboo leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay wastes are cheaply
and locally available compared to cement which is exorbitant in comparison. Ayangade et al.
(2004) indicated that materials’ cost is two-third of the building production cost, while Sujan
(2013) submitted that cement accounts for about 29% share of total construction cost. From
previous works (Ojo-Olotu, 2012 and Oni, 2012), the optimum replacement of Portland cement
with bamboo leaf ash or pulverized burnt clay waste is 10%. Hence, 10% of cement cost can
be saved for infrastructure constructions. Presently in Nigeria, the cost of a bag of cement (50
kg) is about 2000 Naira. If 200 Naira (10%) on every bag of cement can be saved, then, about
2.9% (10% of 29%) of building construction cost can be saved. With the implementation of
this study, more economical buildings are expected to be built. Moreover, there will be
reduction in bamboo leaf and burnt clay wastes. This work examined the effect of incorporating
ashes from these wastes on the compressive strength characteristics and resistance to acid
attack of a ternary blended cement concrete.
1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY
This work was limited to the determination of the physical and chemical properties of blended
calcined bamboo leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay waste including its compressive strength
characteristics, durability in acidic medium at various percentage Portland cement replacement.
This study did not investigate tensile strength characteristics, creep and shrinkage deformation
or thermal properties.
13
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 PREAMBLE
There exist a lot of literature on concrete and its constituents (cement, aggregates, water,
additives and admixtures) which are either age-long or latest as concrete itself is age-long with
latest improvements on its properties. Kong and Evans (1987) define concrete as a composite
material which consists essentially of a binding medium of cement and water called the cement
paste and particles of inert filler called aggregates. According to John et al., (1998), concrete is
a man made rock, that is a conglomerate of natural rock grains (fine and coarse aggregate)
encapsulated in a continuous matrix of hydrated Portland cement. Akers (2001) stated that
cement concrete is a mixture of cement, water, coarse and fine aggregates, and admixtures
proportioned to form a plastic mass capable of being cast, placed or mould into forms that will
harden to a solid mass. From the above definitions, concrete is identified to comprise of four
components which includes cement, water, aggregate and admixtures. Hoffman and Gustafson
(2001) defined admixture as a material other than hydraulic cement, aggregate or water used as
an ingredient of concrete and added to concrete before or during its mixing to modify its
properties.
More and more admixtures are being discovered and invented nowadays with a keen interest on
improving the properties of concrete. These admixtures include natural and artificial pozzolans,
plasticizers, super plasticizers, sulphur, polymers and fibres etc. These pozzolans include fly
ash, blast furnace slag, silica fume, rice husk ash, rice straw ash, surkhi, zeolites, scoria,
metakaolin, corn cob ash, saw dust ash, sugar cane bagasse ash, sugar cane straw ash, bamboo
leaf ash, periwinkle shell ash, pulverized burnt clay waste etc. (Thevarasah et al., 1979; Jose
and Dachamir, 2003; Elinwa and Ejeh, 2004; Velosa and Veiga, 2005; Dwivedi et al., 2006;
Khandaker, 2006; Raheem, 2006; Dipayan, 2007; Demirdag et al., 2008; Murthi and
14
Sivakumar, 2008; Shweta et al., 2008; Sumrerng and Prinya, 2008; Ata, 2012; Kolawole, 2012;
Ojo-Olotu, 2012; Oni, 2012; Umoh, 2012).
2.2 CONCRETE
Concrete is the most widely used man-made construction material in the world, and is second
only to water as the most utilized substance on the planet. It is relatively expensive in Nigeria,
but it is reliable and used extensively in the construction of a nation’s infrastructure. It is
obtained by mixing cementitious materials, water and aggregates (and sometimes admixtures) in
required proportions. The mixture of the materials hardens into a rock-like mass. The hardening
is caused by a chemical reaction between water and cement and it continues for a long time.
Concrete strength grows with age continually.
The strength, durability and other characteristics of concrete depend upon the properties of its
ingredients, on the proportions of mix, the method of compaction and other controls during
placing, compaction and curing. The key to producing a durable and uniform concrete lies in the
careful control of its basic and process components.
Manufacturing process of concrete
Concrete is manufactured by mixing its constituent elements which include cement (ordinary
Portland cement) and other ingredients such as coarse aggregates (gravel or crushed rock), fine
aggregates (sand), admixtures (chemical additives) and any other necessary fibres and water. In
addition to mix proportioning, the quality control includes selection of appropriate concrete
materials after proper tests, proper workmanship in batching, mixing, transportation, placing,
compacting and curing, coupled with necessary checks and tests for quality acceptance.
Concrete making is not just a matter of mixing ingredients to produce a plastic mass, but good
concrete has to satisfy performance requirements in the plastic or green state and also the
hardened state. In the plastic state, the concrete should be workable and free from segregation
15
and bleeding. Segregation is the separation of coarse aggregates and bleeding is the separation
of cement paste from the main mass. Segregation and bleeding result in poor quality concrete.
In its hardened state, concrete should be strong, durable and impermeable and it should have
minimum dimensional changes.
The processes involved include the following:
(i) Mixing
Cement is mixed with other ingredients such as aggregates (sand, gravel or crushed rock),
admixtures, fibres and water. Aggregates are pre-blended or added to the ready mixed concrete
plant under normal operating conditions. The mixing operation uses rotation or stirring to coat
the surface of the aggregates with cement paste and to blend the other ingredient uniformly.
Batch or mixers are used for this process.
The fibres can be added by direct spraying, premixing, impregnating or hand lying up. Silica
fume can then be used as a demystifying agent. Since the use of admixture necessitates a greater
degree of control than normally applies to the other mix constituents, most admixtures have to
be dispensed in small doses which are susceptible to proportionately large errors. Mixing must
be thorough, and evenness to colour, which is usually a good guide to uniform dispersion of an
admixture.
(ii) Transporting
A number of methods for transporting concrete are available, ranging from hand, wheelbarrows
to concrete pumps. The chosen method will depend on the size and the complexity of the site
and such factors as whether or not a crane is available. In all cases, concrete must be transported
so that it does not segregate and so that it does not contaminate with water or any other material
after it has left the mixer. Where concrete is to be placed at a low level of the supply, a chute
16
should be considered because gravity is the cheapest means of transport, but it must be borne in
mind that there is a danger of segregation.
(iii) Placing and compaction
Before the concrete is placed in its final position, the insides of the forms should be inspected to
make sure they are clean and have been treated with release agent. Where the forms are deep,
temporary openings should be provided for this inspection. Rubbish such as sawdust and wire
should be blown out with compressed air. The concrete should be placed in its final position
rapidly so that it is not too stiff to work. On no account should water be added after the concrete
has left the mixer. The concrete should be placed as closely as possible to its final position. It
should never be moved by vibrating it and allowing it to flow, as this may result in segregation
which will show on the surface of the finished work.
(iv) Curing
To prevent evaporation of moisture and the consequent formation of cracks on the surface, the
curing of horizontal surfaces exposed to the sun or to drying wind must begin immediately the
concrete has been placed and finished. Since the setting and hardening of cement depend on the
presence of water, drying out, if allowed taking place too soon, results in low strength and a
porous concrete. At the time the concrete is placed, there is normally adequate water present for
full hydration, but it is necessary to ensure that this water is retained so that the reaction
continues until the concrete has thoroughly hardened. If curing is efficient, the strength of the
concrete increases with age; this increase is rapid at early ages and then continues more slowly
for an indefinite period. Correct curing reduces the permeability and increases the durability of
concrete which is particularly important when it will be subjected to water pressure and severe
environmental conditions. The water which is satisfactory for mixing can also be used for
curing but should not produce any objectionable stain or unsightly deposit on the surface. Iron
and organic matter in the water are chiefly responsible for staining or discolouration and
17
especially when concrete is exposed to prolonged wetting, even a very low concentration of
these cause staining. It is generally recommended that sea water should not be used as mixing
water for hydraulic cement concrete works containing corrodible embedded ferrous metals,
particular in the tropics. However, under unavoidable circumstances, it may be used for mixing
in plain concrete after due evaluation of possible disadvantages and consideration of the use of
appropriate cement system.
2.3 CEMENT
Cement, which encompasses a wide variety of fine-ground powders that harden when mixed
with water, represents only one of several components in modern concrete. Cement can be
described generally as any material with adhesive and cohesive properties, which makes it
capable of bonding mineral fragments into a solid mass. BS EN 197-1: 2000 defines cement as
a hydraulic binder, which when mixed with water, forms a paste which sets and hardens by
means of hydration reactions and processes and which, after hardening, retains its strength and
stability even under water. Because the cement has the property of setting and hardening under
water by virtue of a chemical reaction with it, it is therefore known as hydraulic cement. Neville
(2000) stated that hydraulic cements consist mainly of silicates and aluminates of lime and can
be classified broadly as natural cements, Portland cements and alumina cements. Cement is a
well known building material and has occupied an indispensable place in construction works.
The function of cement is, first to bind the sand and coarse aggregates together, and second to
fill the voids in between sand and coarse aggregate particles to form a compact mass. Many
additives have been developed to increase the tensile strength of concrete, one way is to
combine polymeric materials such as polyvinyl alcohol, polyacrylamide, or hydroxyl-
propylmethyl cellulose with the cement, producing what is sometimes known as macro-defect-
free cement.
18
2.3.1 Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
Portland cement is more used for construction works while the most used cement in general
construction is the Ordinary Portland Cement. Globally, around 2 billion tonnes of calcined
minerals (cement, lime and magnesia) are produced annually (USGS, 2002). Portland cement is
by far the biggest proportion and production is in the order of 1.85 billion tonnes (Sabnis,
2003). The largest producers are China at over 500 million tonnes followed by India at over
111.3 million tonnes (Jain, 2003).
Different types of Portland cement are manufactured to meet different physical and chemical
requirements for specific purposes, such as durability, high early strength and low heat of
hydration. Cement exhibits different properties and characteristics depending on its chemical
composition. Changing the fineness of grinding and oxide composition can produce different
kinds of cement, suitable for different conditions. The use of different proportions of the raw
materials and use of additives have resulted in the availability of many types of cements to cater
for the diverse need of the construction industry. The types available are given in Table 2.1, this
work utilized Type I of Portland cement (Ordinary Portland Cement). It is the most common
and widely used type of Portland cement for construction works.
2.3.1.1 Brief history of Portland cement
Cement has been made since Roman times, but over time the recipes used to make cement have
been refined. The earliest cements were made from lime and pozzolana (a volcanic ash
containing significant quantities of SiO2 and Al2O3) mixed with ground brick and water. This
cement was not improved upon until 1759, when Smeaton noticed that using a limestone that
was 20 – 25% clay and heating the mixture resulted in cement that could harden under water.
He called this new cement “hydraulic lime”. When the mixture was heated, a small quantity of
it was sintered.
19
TABLE 2.1
Different types of Portland cement
Type I Cements used for general concrete Construction. (Ordinary Portland Cement)
Type II Cements used for general concrete construction exposed to moderate sulphate
action or where moderate heat of hydration is required (Moderate Portland
Cement)
Type III Cements used when high early strength is required. (Rapid Hardening Cement)
Type IV Cements used when low heat of hydration is required. (Low Heat Cement)
Type V Cements used when high sulphate resistance is required (Sulphate Resisting
Cement)
Type IA A type 1 cement containing an integral air-entraining agent
Type IIA A type II cement containing an integral air-entraining agent
Type IIIA A type III cement containing an integral air-entraining agent
Source: ASTM C 150 (1999).

20
Normally this was discarded as waste, but in the 1800s, Aspdin and Johnson discovered that
when the entire batch was sintered and then ground, superior cement was formed. This
substance became designated Portland cement (after the region in which they were working)
and is the most common cement in use today.
Portland cement was first produced commercially in New Zealand in 1886 by James Wilson and
Co., and has been produced ever since then. Portland cement is currently defined as a mixture of
argillaceous (i.e. clay-like) and calcareous (i.e. containing CaCO3 or other insoluble calcium
salts) materials mixed with gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) sintered and then pulverized into a fine
powder. Portland cement differs from its precursors primarily in the fact that it is sintered.
2.3.1.2 Chemical composition of ordinary Portland cement
OPC is obtained by burning together in a definite proportion, a mixture of naturally occurring
argillaceous (containing alumina) and calcareous (containing calcium carbonate or lime)
material to a partial fusion at high temperature (about 14500C). It can also contain iron oxide
and magnesia in minute amounts. The chemistry of Portland cement is rather complex. The
constituents of Portland cement are classified according to their quantity into major and minor
constituents. The major and minor compounds which are oxides are as given in Table 2.2. Since
limestone or chalk constitutes the bulk to the raw materials for cement production, it is referred
to as the primary raw material (Bruce Circle, 2000). The four main raw materials above
combine in the kiln at high temperature to form more complex compounds known as Bogue
compounds; these are given in Table 2.3. The potential composition of Portland cement is based
on the work of R.H. Bogue and others, and is often referred to as “Bogue’s composition”.
Bogue’s equations for the percentages of main compounds in cement are:
C3S = 4.07 (CaO) – 7.60 (SiO2) – 6.72 (Al2O3) – 1.43 (Fe2O3) – 2.85 (SO3) ------- (2.1)
C2S= 2.87 (SiO2) – 0.754 (3CaO.SiO2) -------- (2.2)

21
C3A= 2.65 (Al2O3) – 1.69 (Fe2O3) -------- (2.3)
C4AF = 3.04 (Fe2O3) -------- (2.4)
The terms in the brackets represent the percentage of the given oxide in the total mass of
cement.
22
TABLE 2.2
Oxide composition of ordinary Portland cement
Oxide Notation Source Percentage (%) Average

Lime, CaO C Limestone or 60 – 65 63
Chalk
Major
Silica, SiO2 S Limestone or 17 – 25 20
Constituents
Chalk
Alumina, Al2O3 A Clay or Shale 3–8 6.3
Iron Oxide, Fe2O3 F Clay 0.5 – 6 3.6
Magnesia, MgO 0.1 – 4 2.1
Alkalis i.e. Soda 0.4 – 1.3 0.9
Minor /Potash, Na2O/K2O
Constituents Others 1–3 2
i.e. Mn2O3, TiO2,
SO3 S
Source: Kong and Evans (1987); Shetty (2006).

23
TABLE 2.3
Bogue compound composition in ordinary Portland cement
Compound Notation Chemical formula (%) Cementing Heat of

values Hydration (J/g)
E: Early
U: Ultimate Rate of reaction
Tricalcium C3S 3CaO.SiO2 60 – 70 E: Poor 260

silicate U: Good Slow
Dicalcium C2S 2CaO.SiO2 10 – 20 E: Good 500
silicate U: Good Medium
Tricalcium C3A 3CaO.Al2O3 5 – 10 E: Good 865
aluminate U: Poor Fast
Tetracalcium C4AF 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 3–8 E: Poor 420
alumina-ferrate U: Poor Small
Source: Neville and Brooks (2005).

24
Of these compounds, C3S and C2S are mainly responsible for the strength of the cement. High
percentages of C3S (low C2S) results in high early strength but also high heat generation as the
concrete sets. The reverse combination of low C3S and high C2S develops strengths more
slowly (over 52 days rather than 28 days) and generates less heat. C3A causes undesirable heat
and rapid reacting properties, which can be prevented by adding CaSO4 to the final product.
C3A can be converted to the more desirable C4AF by the addition of Fe2O3 before heating, but
this also inhibits the formation of C3S. C4AF makes the cement more resistant to seawater and
results in a somewhat slower reaction which evolves less heat.
In addition to the four major compounds above, there are other minor compounds formed in the
kiln such as Na2O, SO3, TiO2, Mn2O3, MgO and trace metals. The proportion and effect of the
minor compounds on the properties of cement is not significant. However, two of the minor
compounds are of particular importance: the oxides of sodium and potassium, Na2O and K2O
are known as the alkalis. They have been found to react with some aggregates, the product of
which causes disintegration of the concrete (Neville, 2000). The alkalis have been observed to
affect the rate of gain of strength in cement thus; their composition is limited to between 0.3%
and 1.2% per mass of cement. Different types of Portland cement can be made by varying the
relative proportion of the four major compounds mentioned above and by grinding the clinker to
different degrees of fineness.
2.3.1.3 Manufacture process of ordinary Portland cement
OPC is made by heating raw materials rich in oxides of silicon, calcium, aluminium and iron
such as limestone, clay or shale, and an iron source, then firing to temperatures around 1300OC -
1500OC. The chemical reactions that occur within the partially molten mass result in the
formation of the four Bogue compounds mentioned earlier.
The cement manufacturing process involves four distinct stages, and these are outlined below.
25
STEP 1 – QUARRYING
The raw material for cement manufacture is a rock mixture which is about 80% limestone
(which is rich in CaCO3) and 20% clay or shale (a source of silica, alumina and Fe2O3). These
are quarried and stored separately. The lime and silica provide the main strength of the cement,
while the iron reduces the reaction temperature and gives the cement its characteristics grey
colour.
STEP 2 – RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION
The steps involved here depend on the process used. There are two main cement manufacturing
processes currently used: the dry process and wet process. The dry process uses more energy in
grinding but less in the kiln and wet process has slower overheads than the dry process. The two
processes are discussed separately below.
(i) The dry process
The quarried clay and limestone are crushed separately until nothing bigger than a tennis ball
remains. Samples of both rocks are then sent off to the laboratory for mineral analysis. If
necessary, minerals are then added to either the clay or the limestone to ensure that the correct
amount of aluminium, iron etc is present. The clay and limestone are then fed together into a
mill where the rock is ground until more than 85% of the material is less than 90µm in diameter.
(ii) The wet process
The clay is mixed to a paste in a wash mill – a tank in which the clay is pulverised in the
presence of water. Crushed lime is then added and the whole mixture further ground. Any
material which is too coarse is extracted and reground. The slurry is then tested to ensure that it
contains the correct balance of minerals, and any extra ingredients blended in as necessary.
26
STEP 3 – CLINKERING
This is the step which is characteristic of Portland cement. The finely ground material is dried,
heated (to enable the sintering reactions to take place) and then cooled down again. While it is
being heated various chemical reactions take place to form the major mineral constituents of
Portland cement.
The powder from the dry process doesn’t contain much moisture, so can be dried in a preheater
tower. As it falls through the tower (which takes 30 seconds) it is heated from 700C to 8000C.
The moisture evaporates, up to 20% of the decarbonation (loss of CO2) occurs and some
intermediate phases such as CaO.Al2O3 begin to appear. The mixture is then fed into the kiln.
The slurry from the wet process contains too much moisture to be successfully dried in a
preheater tower. Instead, the slurry is fed directly into the kiln where it is formed into dry balls
by heat and rotation of the kiln. Because of this extra role of the kiln, wet process kilns are
generally longer than dry process kilns. The kilns used in both processes are inclined on a
shallow angle and lined with heat-resistant bricks. The reaction processes occurring within the
kiln are not easily understood due to the wide variations in raw-mix chemistry, raw-mix
physical properties and kiln operating conditions, and the physical difficulties of extracting hot
materials from the process for investigation before they cool. By breaking the reaction processes
into a number of simple zones some approximations about the cement formation process can be
made.
Zone 1: 0 – 35min, 8000C – 11000C
Decarbonation, formation of 3CaO.Al2O3 above 9000C and melting of fluxing compounds
Al2O3 and Fe2O3.
CaCO3 CaO + CO2 ---------------------(2.1)

27
Zone 2: 35 – 40 minutes, 11000C – 13000C
Exothermic reactions and the formation of secondary silicate phases are as follows:
2CaO + SiO2 2CaO.SiO2 ---------------------(2.2)
Zone 3: 40 – 50 minutes, 13000C – 14500C – 13000C
Sintering and reactions to form ternary silicates and tetracalciumaluminoferrates:
2CaO.SiO2 + CaO 3CaO.SiO2 ---------------------(2.3)
3CaO.Al2O3 + CaO + Fe2O3 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 -------------(2.4)
Zone 4: 50 – 60 minutes, 13000C – 10000C
Cooling and crystallization of the various minerals phases formed in the kiln.
At this point in the process the materials would have been formed into all the required minerals
to make cement. Like cement, the clinker will react with water and harden, but because it is
composed of 1 – 3 cm diameter fragments and hence too coarse to be used.
STEP 4 – CEMENT MILLING
To produce the final product the clinker is mixed with gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) which is added as
a set retarder and ground for approximately 30 minutes in large tube mills. The cement grinding
process is highly energy intensive. The rotating mill generates significant quantities of energy
and water is often added to both the inlet and outlet ends of mills to cool the product and the
mill itself.
2.3.2 Testing of cement
The manufacture of cement requires stringent control to ensure that the cement is of the required
quality. In order to ensure that Portland cement satisfies the standard requirement as specified
by BS EN 197-1 (2009), it is subjected to series of tests during the manufacturing stage.

28
The following tests are usually conducted in the laboratory for the final product (Shetty 2001):
a) Fineness test
b) Consistency test
c) Setting time test
d) Soundness test
e) Strength determination
f) Heat of hydration
g) Chemical composition.
2.3.2.1 Fineness test
This is normally carried out to determine the specific surface area of the cement. The fineness
of cement has an important influence on the rate of hydration, evolution of heat and gain of
strength. The finer the cement, the faster the rate of hydration and the development of strength.
This is because hydration starts at the surface of the cement particles and it is the total area of
cement that represents the material available for hydration. However, higher fineness increases
shrinkage, grinding cost, water requirements for standard consistency and the requirements of
gypsum for set regulation (Breja, 1997). The fineness test is conducted either by dry sieving or
air permeability method. Sieving is done on 90um or 45um sieve and gives the percentage of
fine and coarse particles as tested by sieving. The air permeability method gives the specific
surface of cement as a measure of the time it takes for a certain quantity of air to flow through
the bed under specified conditions (Knofel, 1983). The Standards Organization of Nigeria
(SON) fixed the minimum specific surface area (SSA) for Ordinary Portland cement as 250
m2/kg (NIS 439, 2000). Average Blaine fineness of modern cement ranges from 300 – 500
m2/kg.
29
2.3.2.2 Consistency test
This concerns the determination of the water content of the paste, which will produce the
desired consistency. Evaluation of the consistency of cement paste is very important since it is
useful in the determination of initial and final setting times as well as the soundness test. The
consistency is measured with the aid of Vicat apparatus, using a 10mm diameter plunger fitted
into the needle holder. A trial paste of cement and water is mixed in a prescribed manner and
placed in the mould. The plunger is then brought into contact with the top surface of the paste
and then released. Under the action of its weight, the plunger will penetrate the paste to a depth
depending upon the consistency. It is considered to be standard when the plunger penetrates the
paste to a point 6±1mm from the bottom of the mould (Neville, 2000). The water content of the
standard paste is expressed as a percentage by mass of the dry cement.
2.3.2.3 Setting time test
This involves the determination of the time interval for which the cement products remain in
plastic condition. An arbitrary division has been made for the setting time of cement as initial
setting time and final setting time. Shetty (2001) defines initial setting time as the time elapsed
between when water is added to the cement, to the time the paste starts losing its plasticity; and
final setting time as the time elapsed between when water is added, to when the paste has lost its
plasticity and has attained sufficient firmness to resist certain definite pressure. According to
Breja (1997), the initial set corresponds to a rapid rise in temperature while the final set occurs
when the paste attains the peak temperature. Both tests are carried out with the aid of vicat
apparatus with different penetrating attachments. For initial setting, 1mm diameter needle is
used while for final setting the needle of the same diameter surrounded by 5mm diameter
circular cutting edge set 0.5mm behind the tip of the needle is used. Initial set is achieved when
the needle penetrates to a point 25mm from the top surface of the cement paste or 5 -7mm from
the bottom (Breja. 1997). The paste is said to have reached final setting when the needle, gently
30
lowered to the surface of the paste, penetrates it to a depth 0.5mm but the circular cutting edge
of the specified needle does not leave any impression on the paste (Neville, 2000). Shetty
(2001) puts the minimum initial setting time of Ordinary Portland cement at 30 minutes and the
maximum final setting time at 600 minutes. The setting of cement is affected by the
temperature and the humidity of the surrounding air.
2.3.2.4 Soundness test
This is performed on cement to ensure that it does not show any appreciable change in volume
after setting. Unsoundness in cement is due to excess of lime, excess of magnesia or excessive
proportion of sulphates (Shetty, 2001). The expansion of these elements results in volume
change in the cement paste. Unsoundness in cement does not come to surface for a very long
period of time. Thus, accelerated tests are required to detect it. Breja (1997) stated that the two
tests commonly used are the Le-Chateliar test and Autoclave method. The former is prescribed
in British standards and the latter in America standards. The Le-Chateliar test detect
unsoundness due to free lime only, while to Autoclave method is sensitive to both free magnesia
and free lime. No satisfactory test is available for detection of unsoundness due to excess of
sulphates. However, the content can be easily determined by chemical analysis.
The Le Chatelier test is the one mostly used by cement factories in the country to test the
soundness of cement. It involves the use of Le Chatelier apparatus, which consists of a small
brass cylinder, split along its generatrix. Two indicators with pointed ends are attached to the
cylinder on either side of the split to facilitate the measurement of the expansion of the cement.
The cylinder is placed on glass plate, filled with cement paste of standard consistency and
covered with another glass plate. The whole assembly is then placed in a cabinet at 20±1OC and
relative humidity of about 98 percent and kept for 24 hours. At the end of the period, the
distance between the indicators is measured. The mould is then immersed in water and
gradually brought to boil in about 30 minutes. The boiling is continued for 3 hours after which
31
the assembly is taken out, cooled and the distance between the indicators measured again. The
increase in distance represents the expansion of the cement (Neville, 2000). Most standards
limit the expansion to 10mm for Portland cement.
2.3.2.5 Strength test
This involves the determination of the compressive strength of harden cement which is the most
important of all the properties for its structural use. Strength test is not made on pure cement
paste due to the difficulties of excessive shrinkage and subsequent cracking of pure cement
(Shetty, 2001). The strength is indirectly found on cement sand mortar or concrete cube
specimens. Idorn (2005) submitted that laboratory testing of cement mortar and concrete
specimens has over the last two centuries remained the general principle for concrete quality
control, the mortar and concrete specimens are made with specified materials under strict
controlled conditions. The specimens are kept in the moulds at a temperature of 27±20C and at
least 90 percent relative humidity for 24 hours (Shetty 2001). Thereafter, the specimens are de-
moulded and further cured in clean water until the required age of testing which is a function of
the type of cement involved. The compressive strength is usually taken as the average of the
strengths of three specimens for each period.
2.3.2.6 Heat of hydration test
This is usually required for low heat cement only. The test is carried out to estimate the quantity
of heat evolved during the hydration of cement. The reaction of cement with water is
exothermic, liberating a considerable quantity of heat. Breja (1997) observed that about 120
calories of heat is generated in the hydration of 1 g of cement. Thus, a high quantum of heat is
produced in a conservative system such as the interior of a mass concrete dam. The excess heat
in the interior of the mass and existence of comparative low temperature in the exterior result in
the setting up of temperature stress, subsequently causing cracks in the mass. The test is carried
32
out for short duration by vacuum flash methods or over a longer period in an adiabatic
calorimeter (Shetty 2001).
2.3.2.7 Chemical composition test
This is carried out to ensure that both oxide and compound composition of the cement are in
their correct proportions in line with the operating standard. The resolution of chemical
compound cement into its constituents, both major and minor, is known as chemical analysis.
According to Mathur (1997), the major constituents of cement are loss on ignition (LOI). Silica
(SiO2) ferric oxide (Fe2O3), aluminum oxide (A12O3), calcium oxide (CaO), magnesium oxide
(MgO), sulphate (as SO3) and insoluble residue (IR). The minor constituents are sodium oxide
(Na2O), potassium oxide (K2O), manganese oxide (Mn2O3) titanium dioxide (TiO2), potassium
pentoxide (P2O5), and chloride (Cl). The chemical composition test is carried out to evaluate
the quality of cement produced by comparing the percentages of the constituents present in it
with known standards. The analysis of the cement is done by conventional or instrumental
techniques. The latter is being employed nowadays since it is faster and gives more accurate
results. According to Idorn (2005), X-ray diffractometry, X-ray fluorescence and electron
microscopy, all of which are instrumental methods, have become indispensable tools for cement
production work quality monitoring with advancement in cement chemistry knowledge.
2.4 AGGREGATES
Aggregates are the components of a composite material used to resist compressive stress. In
concrete, they are inert granular materials such as sand, gravel, granite, crushed stone that
strongly influence freshly mixed and hardened properties of concrete and its mixture
proportions. The aggregate is used primarily for the purpose of providing bulk to the concrete.
Aggregates are generally cheaper than cement and impart greater stability, volume and
durability to concrete. In concrete, aggregates account for up to 75% of the volume and hence
it’s important that they conform to industry standards in order for the concrete to be workable,
33
strong and durable. It must also be well graded, be of proper shape, clean, hard and strong.
Materials for aggregates are usually dug, dredged or mined from pit, rivers, lakes or sea beds.
Generally, aggregates processing consists of crushing, screening and washing to obtain proper
cleanliness and gradation.
The classification of the aggregates is generally based on geological origin, size, shape, unit
weight etc.
Classification according to geological origin
The aggregates are usually derived from natural sources and may have been naturally reduced to
size (e.g. gravel or shingle) or may have to be reduced by crushing. Such an aggregate may
further be divided into two categories, namely the natural aggregate and artificial aggregates.
Natural aggregate
These aggregates are generally obtained from natural deposits of sand and gravel or from
quarries by crushing rocks. These natural aggregates such as gravel and sand are reduced to
their present size by natural agents such as water, wind, snow etc. Natural rocks can be
classified according to their geological mode of formation, i.e. igneous, sedimentary or
metamorphic origin.
Artificial aggregate
The most widely used artificial aggregates are clean broken bricks and air-cooled fresh blast-
furnace-slag. The broken bricks of good quality provide a satisfactory aggregate for mass
concrete and is suitable for reinforced concrete work if its crushing strength is higher than 35
MPa. The brick should be free from lime mortar and lime sulphate plaster.
34
The blast furnace slag is the by-product obtained simultaneously with pig iron in the blast
furnace, which is cooled slowly in air. The other examples of the artificial slag are the expanded
shale, expanded slag, cinder etc.
Classification according to size
According to size of the aggregate, it is classified as: fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and all-in-
aggregate.
Fine aggregate
It is the aggregate most of which passes through a 4.75 mm BS sieve and contains only that
much coarser material as is permitted by the specifications. Sand is generally considered to have
a lower size limit of about 0.07 mm. The fine aggregate may be one of the following types:
a) Natural sand, i.e. the fine aggregate resulting from natural disintegration of rock,
b) Crushed stone sand, i.e. the fine aggregate produced by crushing hard stone, or
c) Crushed gravel sand, i.e. the fine aggregate produced by crushing natural gravel.
Coarse aggregates
The aggregates most of which are retained on the 4.75 mm BS sieve and contain only that much
of fine material as is permitted by the specification.
The coarse aggregate is described by its nominal size, i.e. 40 mm, 20 mm, 16 mm and 12 mm.
All-in-aggregate
Sometimes combined aggregates are available in nature comprising different fractions of fine
and coarse aggregates, which are known as all-in-aggregate. Like coarse aggregate, the all-in-
aggregate is also described by its nominal size. The all-in-aggregates are not generally used for
making high quality concrete.

35
Classification according to shape
Depending upon the particle shape, the aggregate may be classified as rounded, irregular or
partly rounded, angular or flaky.
Rounded aggregate
The aggregate with rounded particle (river or seashore gravel) has minimum voids ranging from
32 to 33%. It gives minimum ratio of surface area to the volume, thus requiring minimum
cement paste to make good concrete. The only disadvantage is that the interlocking between its
particles is less and hence, the development of the bond is poor, making it unsuitable for high
strength concrete and pavement.
Irregular aggregate
The aggregate having partly rounded particles (pit sand and gravel) have higher percentage of
voids ranging from 35 to 38%. It requires more cement paste for a given workability. The
interlocking between particles, though better than that obtained with the rounded aggregate, is
adequate for high strength concrete.
Angular aggregate
The aggregate with sharp, angular and rough particles (crushed rock) has a maximum
percentage of voids ranging from 38 to 40%. The interlocking between the particles is good,
thereby providing a good bond. The aggregate requires more cement paste to make workable
concrete of high strength than that required by rounded particles. The angular aggregate is
suitable for high strength concrete and pavement subjected to tension.
Classification based on unit weight
The aggregates can also be classified according to their unit weights as normal-weight, heavy-
weight and light-weight aggregates.

36
Normal-weight aggregate
These are commonly used aggregates i.e. sands and gravels; crushed rocks such as granite,
basalt, quartz, sandstone and limestone and brick ballast etc. which specific gravities between
2.5 and 2.7 produces concrete with unit weight ranging from 23 to 26 kN/m3 and crushing
strength at 28 days between 15 to 40 MPa are termed normal-weight concrete.
Heavy-weight aggregate
Some heavy weight aggregate have specific gravities ranging from 2.8 to 2.9 and unit weights
from 28 to 29 kN/m3 such as magnetite (Fe3O4) and scrap iron which are used in the
manufacture of heavyweight concrete. The compressive strength of these concretes is of the
order of 20 to 21 MPa. The main drawback with these aggregates is that they are not suitably
graded and hence it is difficult to have adequate workability without segregation.
Light-weight aggregate
The lightweight aggregates have unit weight up to 12 kN/m3 and are used to manufacture
structural concrete and masonry blocks for reduction of the self-weight of the structure. These
aggregate can be natural such as diatomite, pumice, volcanic cinder etc. The concrete produced
by using light-weight aggregates provides better thermal insulation and improved fire
resistance.
For this particular study, washed sand and granite of 5 mm and 19 mm maximum size
respectively were utilized. These were natural aggregates; fine and coarse aggregates
respectively; normal-weight aggregates and they were angular in shape.
2.5 ADMIXTURES
Admixtures are substances or minerals which are added to concrete during mixing. Their
intention is to improve some properties of the concrete. The word “additive” is normally
37
reserved for chemical additions made to cement during manufacture and it is, strictly speaking,
not interchangeable with the word “admixture”.
Both admixture and additives (using the above distinction) can confer benefits on a concrete.
Indeed all Portland cements contain at least one intergrounded additive, gypsum, without which
it would be very difficult to control the stiffening of the mix within reasonable period of time. In
some cases, the benefits to be obtained using an admixture could more easily be obtained by
adjusting the proportions of other constituents of the mix. The suitability of admixture should be
based on the knowledge of their ingredients on available performance data, and on trial mixes.
As per the report of the ACI committee 212, as reported by Shetty (2001), admixtures have been
classified into 15 groups according to the type of materials constituting the admixtures, or
characteristic affecting the use. The 15 groups are as follow:
(i) Air-entraining agent
(ii) Pozzolans
(iii) Accelerator
(iv) Retarders
(v) Gas forming agents
(vi) Air-entraining agent
(vii) Alkali-aggregate expansion inhibitors
(viii) Damp-proofing and permeability reducing agents
(ix) Workability agents
(x) Grouting agents
(xi) Bonding agents
(xii) Fungicidal, germicidal and insecticidal agents
(xiii) Colouring agents
(xiv) Miscellaneous agents.

38
Mineral admixtures are finely ground insoluble materials, either from natural sources or from
by-products of some industry (Mehta and Monteiro, 2006). Some mineral admixtures are
pozzolanic, that is, they do not have inherent cementitious properties, but if combined with a
highly alkaline material they form cementitious product; their chemical compositions generally
contain a very high SiO2 and Al2O3, but very low in CaO (Umoh, 2012).
2.6 WATER
Water is an important and least expensive material in the manufacture of concrete. A part of
mixing water is utilized in the hydration of cement to form the binding matrix in which the inert
aggregates are held in suspension until the matrix has hardened. The remaining water serves as
a lubricant between the fine and coarse aggregates and makes concrete workable, i.e. readily
placeable in forms. Its use in mixes depends on the water-cement ratio. Water-cement ratio is an
important concrete design parameter for controlling durability. The water cement ratio is the
ratio between the water and cement in a concrete mix. Generally, cement requires about three-
tenth of its weight of water for hydration (Shetty, 2006). Hence, the minimum water-cement
ratio required is 0.30. In practice, a much higher water-cement ratio can be gotten by increasing
cement content or by lowering the use of mixing water through the use of super plasticizer.
If too much water is added to concrete, the excess water along with cement comes to the surface
by capillary action and this cement-water mixture forms a scum known as laitance. Excess
water may also leak through the joints of the formwork and this makes the concrete honey
combed. As a rule, the smaller the percentage of water, the stronger is the concrete subject to
the condition that the required workability is allowed for (Shetty, 2001).
39
2.7 POZZOLANS
According to ASTM C 618 (2008), a pozzolan is defined as a siliceous or siliceous and
aluminous material which, in itself, has little or no cementitious properties but in finely divided
form and in the presence of moisture can react with calcium hydroxide which is liberated during
the hydration of Portland cement at ordinary temperatures to form a compound possessing
cementitious properties. McCann (1994) defined it as an amorphous or glassy silicate or
aluminosilicate material that reacts with calcium hydroxide formed during the hydration of
Portland cement in concrete to create additional cementitious material in the form of calcium
silicate and calcium silicoaluminate hydrates. Amorphous silica present in pozzolanic materials
combines with lime to form cementitious materials; these materials can improve the durability
of concrete and the rate of gain in strength thus reducing the rate of liberation of heat, which is
beneficial for mass concrete (Hossain, 2005). According to Neville (1999), pozzolanic reactivity
results in increased concrete strength, a condition that underlines the fact that one of the
compelling reasons for incorporating pozzolans in concrete today is to improve the quality and
to extend the service life by enhancing the durability of this ubiquitous construction material.
The first known pozzolan was pozzolana, a volcanic ash, for which the category of materials
was named. The most commonly used pozzolana today is fly ash, though silica fume, high
reactivity metakaolin, ground granulated blast furnace slag and other materials are also used as
pozzolans. More than 2000 years ago, Greeks and Romans built structures that survive till today
that took advantage of the pozzolana-lime reaction. The Romans used a mixture of lime and
pozzolans (a fine volcanic ash) to produce hydraulic cement (hardening under water); they used
pozzolana cement from Pozzuoli, Italty near Mt. Vesuvius to build the Appian Way, the
Romans baths, the Coliseum and Pantheon in Rome, and the Pont du Gard aqueduct in south
France. Animal fat, milk and blood were used as admixture (to improve performance), these
structures still exist today.

40
Hence, the use of pozzolans as concrete component is as old as construction itself. It was
observed that the long-term strength and durability of concrete containing slag exceeds that of
normal Portland cement concrete (Ramezanianpour and Malhotra, 1995; and Khatib and
Hibbert, 2005). Gbrahgm et al. (2003) stated that with only a five percent addition silica fume
substituted for Portland cement, the concrete produced thereof is rendered impermeable to
harmful chemicals thereby increasing the life span of the concrete. The use of metakaolin as a
pozzolan was observed by Qian and Li (2001) to increase resistance of concrete to alkali-silica
reaction. It was also reported by Siddique (2004) that class F fly ash can be suitably used up to
50% level of cement replacement in concrete for use in precast elements and reinforced
concrete construction.
Modern pozzolanic cements are mix of natural or artificial pozzolans and Portland cement. In
addition to under water use, the pozzolans’ alkalinity makes it especially resistant to common
forms of corrosion from sulphates (McCann, 1994). Once fully hardened, the Portland cement
blended with pozzolan may be stronger than Portland cement due to its lower porosity, which
also makes it more resistance to water absorption and spalling (Sahmaran et al., 2007). The use
of pozzolans in mortars and concrete have been reported to mitigate the effect of sulphates and
alkali-silica reaction, especially deleterious in concrete structures, by development of a faster
pozzolanic reaction (Sahmaran et al., 2007). Although the addition of pozzolan to Portland
cement does not contribute to the compressive strength of concrete at early ages, strengths
similar to those of ordinary Portland cement can be expected at later ages provided the concrete
is cured under moist conditions for a sufficient period (Bhanja and Senguptab, 2002).
Currently, the utilization of waste materials as pozzolanic material for partial replacement in
concrete has been widely developed. Usually, mechanical treatment such as grinding is
successfully adopted in order to obtain a better pozzolanic property of waste ashes (Paya et al.,
1995; Kiattikomol et al., 2001; Shi and Day, 2001; Cheerarot and Jaturapitakkul, 2004;
41
Tangchirapat et al., 2007). However, the improvement of the pozzolanic property is based on a
higher value of the strength activity index (ASTM C 311, 1998), which is mainly caused by two
primary effects; the pozzolanic effect, and the packing effect of the finer particles (Goldman and
Bentur, 1993; Tangpagasit et al., 2005). Pozzolans can continue to react in concrete for many
years, further strengthening the concrete and making it harder and more durable during its
service life. The common feature of all these pozzolans is that they are silicates or
aluminosilicates that have been converted to amorphous or glass phases in a high temperature
furnace or combustion chamber, followed by rapid cooling or quenching under various
conditions. The amorphous or glassy form allows the silicates to react readily as the concrete
cures. For use in modern cement and concrete applications, pozzolans must be low in alkalis
(Na2O and K2O), which cause long term durability problems in concrete by expansion due to
the alkali-silicate reaction (ASR).
Pozzolans can either be natural or artificial. Natural pozzolans are those present on earth surface
such as diatomaceous earth, volcanic ash, opaline shale, pumice, tuff etc. These materials
require further processing such as grinding, calcining, drying etc., natural pozzolans have been
used in dams control and alkali-silica reaction. Artificial pozzolans are regarded as wastes by
other fields but are useful in the construction industry as construction materials having
cementitious properties. These wastes can either be agricultural or industrial and examples
include bamboo leaf ash, fly ash, corn cob ash, saw dust ash, grinded glass, burnt clay waste,
periwinkle shell, rice husk ash, saw dust ash etc. Fly ash for example is an artificial pozzolan
produced when pulverized coal is burned in electric power plants. The particle of fly ash, which
are mostly glassy spherical solids, range in size from 1 to 100 microns (0.1mm). The very
important advantage of fly ash in concrete is the reduction of thermal cracking.
Since pozzolans are numerous with various compositions different from one another. Even the
same pozzolan has a variability in the composition, this has been attributed to the type, region of
42
source and methods of processing the material (Pekmezci and Akyzuz, 2004; Shetty, 2006). For
any material to be accepted internationally as a standard construction material, it must conform
to some standard or requirement, otherwise, the same type of pozzolan used at different
geographical locations will produce a concrete with varying properties including its strength.
Hence, there exist standards made for both physical and chemical requirements for any material
to qualify as a pozzolan.
2.7.1 Physical requirement of pozzolans
It is generally agreed that although the chemical content of a raw material will determine
whether or not it is pozzolanic and will react when mixed with lime or Portland cement, the
degree of reaction and subsequent strength of the hydrated mixture cannot be accurately
deduced from just the chemical composition (except for a small number of known pozzolans)
(Umoh, 2012). Other characteristics of the pozzolan also affect its reactivity, such as fineness
and crystalline structure (Ansari et al., 2000). Some of the physical properties required for
accurate characterization of pozzolanic materials are: fineness, specific gravity, pozzolanic
activity index, lime reactivity, drying shrinkage, soundness, initial and final setting time and
water requirement among others.
Pozzolans are expected to have fineness as approximately as the cement so that silica is readily
available for reaction. Uniformity of properties is important, and BS 3892: part 1 (1996)
specified the fineness expressed as the mass proportion of the ash retained on a 45 micron mesh
sieve, to be at most 12%. Shetty (2006) states that when the fineness is less than 45 micron is
equivalent specific surface is about 400 – 600m2/kg measured by Blaine permeability method.
The fineness, measured by Blaine permeability method, should have specific surface of ≥ 320
m2/kg (IS 3812: part 1: 2003). The pozzolanic activity index with Portland cement is expected
to attain a compressive strength of between 75 to 80% of the control, while the water
43
requirement should not be greater than 105 to 115% of the control depending on the class of
pozzolan. The physical requirements of a pozzolan are presented in Tables 2.4 and 2.6.
44
TABLE 2.4
Physical requirements for pozzolans as per ASTM C 618: 2008
ASTM requirements
S/N Property of pozzolan Class
N F C
I Fineness:
Amount retained when wet-sieved on 45µm (No. 325)
sieve, max. % 34 34 34
II Strength activity index:
With Portland cement, at 7 days, min. percent of control 75 75 75
With Portland cement, at 28 days, min. Percent of control 75 75 75
III Water requirement, max. percent of control 115 105 105
IV Soundness:
Autoclave expansion or contraction, max. percent 0.8 0.8 0.8
V Uniformity requirements:
The density and fineness of individual samples shall not
vary from the average established by the ten preceding
tests, or by all preceding tests if the number is less than
ten, by more than:
Density, max. variation from average, % 5 5 5
Percent retained on 45µm (No. 325), max. variation %
points from average 5 5 5
Source: ASTM C 618: 2008

45
TABLE 2.5
Chemical requirements for pozzolans as per ASTM C 618: 2008
ASTM requirements
S/N Property of pozzolan Class
N F C
I Silicon dioxide (SiO2) + Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) + Iron
oxide (Fe2O3) (min. %) 70 70 70
II Sulphur trioxide, max. % 4.5 5.0 5.0
III Water requirement, max. percent of control 115 105 105
IV Moisture content, max. % 3.0 3.0 3.0
V Loss on Ignition (LOI), max. % 10.0 6.0 6.0
Source: ASTM C 618: 2008

46
TABLE 2.6
Requirements for pozzolans as per IS 3812: Part 1: 2003
Constituents Contents
Physical
Fineness – Specific surface (m2/kg Blaine) ≥ 320
Lime reactivity – Average compressive strength (N/mm2) ≥ 4.5
Compressive strength at 28 days (N/mm2) Not less than 80% of plain
cement mortar cubes
Soundness (by autoclave test expansion) ≤ 0.8
Chemical
Silica + alumina + ferric oxide ≥ 70%
Silica (SiO2) ≥ 35%
Calcium oxide (CaO) ≥ 20%
Manganese oxide (MgO) ≤ 5%
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) ≤ 3%
Sodium oxide (Na2O) ≤ 1.5%
Total Chloride ≤ 0.05%
Loss on ignition (LOI) ≤ 5%
Source: IS 3812: Part 1: 2003

47
2.7.2 Chemical requirements of pozzolans
Various standards are available that stipulates the required chemical composition/qualities for
any material to qualify as a pozzolan since they vary even within the same pozzolan. For any
material to be considered suitable as a pozzolan in concrete, ASTM C 618 (2008) stipulates that
the material should have a minimum content of 50 – 70% of silica (Si2O3), alumina (Al2O3) and
ferric oxide (Fe2O3) all combined; a maximum SO3 content of 5%; and a loss on ignition (LOI)
of 6 – 12% depending on the class of pozzolan, Table 2.5. While according to the Indian
standard, IS 3812-1 (2003), a pozzolan must have a combined percentage of not less than 70%
for silica, alumina and ferric oxide, it also states that silica alone should have not less than 35%
of the constituents, this is reproduced in Table 2.6. Unlike the latter, the Kenyan standard, KS
02-1261: 1994, differs slightly in the chemical composition of the silica, alumina and ferric
oxide; and rather recommends that a good pozzolan should have a combined silica and alumina
content of not less than 70%. In essence, for any material to qualify as a pozzolan, it must have
the three main components of Silica, Alumina and Iron Oxide whose combined composition
should not be less than 70% of the entire constituents; also, silica should have the highest
composition of at least 40%. Thus, an essential quality of a pozzolan is that it must contain
large amount of silica and alumina in a suitably reactive form, so that it can react with calcium
hydroxide (Knofel, 1983).
There are several methods of determining the chemical composition of a material. These
include the conventional gravimetric, volumetric, complexometric and instrumental techniques
(Mathur, 1997). The instrumental techniques have been found to be more useful in the
determination of the constituent elements in cement and cement raw materials. The instrumental
methods are much faster than purely chemical procedures and are normally applicable at
concentrations far too small to be amenable to determination by classical methods.

48
2.7.3 Pozzolanic reaction activity
The reaction between a pozzolan and calcium hydroxide is called the pozzolanic reaction. The
technical advantage of using pozzolans cements or incorporating pozzolans in concrete during
mixing is derived mainly from three features of the pozzolanic reaction. First, the reaction is
slow; thereby, the rate of heat liberation and strength development will be accordingly slow.
Second, the reaction is lime-consuming instead of lime-producing, which has an important
bearing on the durability of the hydrated paste in chemically aggressive environments (Al-
Dulaijan et al., 2003). Third, pore size distribution studies of hydrated pozzolan contents have
shown that the reaction products are very efficient in filling up capillary spaces, thus improving
the strength and impermeability of the system. The hydration of Portland cement and pozzolanic
reaction with respect to main C-S-H formation can be illustrated as follow:
Portland cement,
C3S + H C-S-H + CH ---------------------(2.5)

Portland-pozzolan cement,
Pozzolan + CH + H C-S-H ---------------------(2.6)
Pozzolans also contribute reactive alumina in addition to contributing reactive silica. The
reactive alumina in the presence of calcium hydroxide and sulphate ions in the system also
forms cementitious products such as C4AH13.
2.7.4 Pozzolan in blended cement
Blended cement as defined in ASTM C 618 (2008), is a mixture of Portland cement and a
pozzolan. Pozzolans are mainly used as mineral admixture in concrete; it can also be used as an
admixture, it is incorporated in the concrete mix by partially replacing the quantity of Portland
cement, either by volume or weight, depending upon the specific gravity value of the pozzolan,
by certain percentage. Intergrinding Portland cement clinker with pozzolan produces Portland
pozzolan cement. The former method gives freedom and flexibility to the user regarding the
49
percentage addition of the pozzolans. The type of pozzolan employed depends on the specific
requirement of the cement and the availability of the pozzolan. Since blended cement produces
less heat of hydration and offers greater resistance to the attack of aggressive waters than
Ordinary Portland Cement, it is particularly useful in hydraulic construction where mass
concrete is involved (Derucher and Korfiatis, 1988).
The urge for saving energy and disposing of waste materials in many countries led to the
development of blended or pozzolan cement (Bakker, 1999). Most of the materials used as
pozzolan are waste products obtained from industrial or agricultural sector of the countries. The
two most important materials used as pozzolan in blended cement of advanced countries are fly
ash and blast furnace slag. Fly ash is a waste product from electricity production in coal fired
electricity plants, while blast furnace slag is a waste product from the iron making process.
However, after searching and finding uses for these products, they were renamed from waste to
by–products. According to Bakker (1999), the country with the highest proportion of use of
these products is the Netherlands. About 60% of all cement produced is blast furnace cement (a
blend of about 25% clinker and 25% fly ash), and only about 20% is pure Portland cement. The
country has more than 70 years experience with blast furnace cement and about 15 years
experience with fly ash cement. Other types of Pozzolan that have been studied include: silica
fume, rice husk ash (RHA), saw dust ash (SDA), corn cob ash (CCA), periwinkle shell ash
(PSA). A brief discussion is given below.
2.7.4.1 Blast furnace slag
Also known as Ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS), it is defined as the non-metallic
product, essentially of silicates and aluminosilicates of calcium and other bases, which is
developed in a molten condition simultaneously with iron in a blast furnace (Derucher and
Korfiatis, 1988). The slag is a waste product in the manufacture of pig iron. Neville (2000)
stated that about 300kg of slag is being produced for each tonne of pig iron. Blast-furnace slag
50
varies greatly in composition and physical properties depending on the processes used and on
the method of cooling of the slag.
The percentage replacement of slag in cement ranges from 25% to 75% by weight. It was
generally observed by Khatib and Hibbert (2005) and Ramezanianpour and Malhotra (1995)
that provided a proper curing is adopted and depending on the GGBS content, the long term
strength and durability of concrete containing GGBS exceeds that of normal Portland Cement
concrete. Also, the presence of GGBS increases the workability of concrete. Table 2.7 shows
the composition and properties of GGBS as determined by Khatib and Hibbert (2005). The
specifications for slag can be obtained from ASTM C 618 (2008).

51
TABLE 2.7
Chemical composition and properties of ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS)
Elements Composition
SiO2 (%) 36.0
A12O3 (%) 9.0
Fe2O3 (%) 1.0
CaO (%) 43.0
MgO (%) 7.0
SO3 (%) -
Na2O (%) 1.0
K2O (%) -
IR (%) -
LOI (%) 0.42
Free Lime (%) -
Specific Surface -
Area (m2/kg) 390.0
Source: Khatib and Hibbert (2005).

52
2.7.4.2 Fly ash
Also known as Pulverized Fly Ash (PFA), it is defined as the finely divided residues that results
from the combustion of ground or powdered coal and is transported from the combustion
chamber by exhaust gasses (Derucher and Korfiatis, 1988). It is a waste product obtained from
coal-fired electricity generating plants. It is the most widely used supplementary cementations
material in concrete and according to Savva et al (2005), it has been under investigation since
the 1960’s. The particle sizes in fly ash vary from less than 1µm to more than 100µm with the
typical particle size measuring under 20um. In fact, only 10% to 30% of the particles by mass
are larger than 45µm (Cement Association of Canada, 2003).
Table 2.8 shows the chemical composition of fly ash as determined by Siddique (2004) and the
associated ASTM C 618: 2008 requirements. The material satisfies the requirement for a good
pozzolan. Various studies have been carried out on the use of fly ash in blended cement
(Kokubu and Yamala, 1974; Fraay, 1990; Katz, 1997; Hardtl, 1997; Krizan et al., 1997;
Gawlicki et al., 1997 and Bakker, 1999).

53
TABLE 2.8
Chemical composition of fly ash
Chemical parameter Class F fly ash (%) Requirement ASTM C 618
(%)
Silicon oxide SiO2 55.3 -
Aluminium oxide A12O3 25.70 -
Ferric oxide Fe2O3 5.3 -
SiO2+ A12O3 + Fe2O3 85.9 70.0 min
Calcium oxide CaO 5.6 -
Magnesium oxide MgO2 2.1 5.0 max
Titanium oxide TiO2 1.3 -
Potassium oxide K2O 0.6 -
Sodium oxide Na2O 0.4 1.5 max
Sulphur trioxide, SO3 1.4 5.0 max
Loss on ignition 1.9 6.0 max
Moisture 0.3 3.0 max
Source: Siddique (2004)

54
2.7.4.3 Silica fume
This is obtained as a by-product in the refining of silicon metal or ferrosilicon alloys. The
escaping gaseous silica (SiO) during the refining process, oxidizes and condenses in the form of
extremely fin spherical particles of amorphous silica (SiO2), hence the name silica fume
(Neville, 2000). Silica in the form of glass (amorphous) is highly reactive, and the smallness of
the particles accelerates the reaction with calcium hydroxide produced by the hydration of
Portland cement. This unique pozzolan has a number of properties that are desirable for high
performance concrete.
Previous studies (Shetty, 2001, Knofel, 1983 and Gbrahgm et al., 2003) revealed that with only
ten percent silica fume addition, the short term strength gain is much faster than concrete made
with Ordinary Portland Cement, while the long term strength gain is very similar to that of
Portland cement. The strength increase, which is noticeable within the first week, is associated
with the fineness of the silica fume. However, due to the fineness of the silica fume, the other
fine in the mix, such as sand need to be reduced to avoid the mix being sticky. Also, silica fume
concrete needs a lot of water for adequate curing in order to avoid plastic shrinkage. Another
great benefit of silica fume is its ability to make concrete impermeable. The reaction with
calcium hydroxide cause reduction in voids thereby leading to impermeability. With only a five
percent addition of silica fume substituted for Portland cement, the concrete produced thereof is
rendered impermeable to harmful chemicals thereby increasing the life span of the concrete
(Gbrahgm et al., 2003). Table 2.9 gives the chemical composition of silica fume as determined
by Lee et al. (2005).

55
TABLE 2.9
Chemical composition of silica fume
Constituents Composition (%)
SiO2 91.2
A12O3 1.3
Fe2O3 0.8
CaO 0.7
MgO 0.3
SO3 -
K2O -
N2O -
LOI 2.3
Source: Lee et al. (2005)

56
2.7.4.4 Rice husk ash (RHA)
This is produced by controlled incineration of rice husk to a temperature of about 700OC (Lin
and Hwang, 1997). The burning and grinding conditions were the key to getting active RHA.
Over burning or burning at low temperatures adversely affect the pozzolanic activity of RHA.
According to Zhang and Malhotra (1996) rice husks, an agricultural waste from which RHA is
produced, constitute about one fifth of 300 million tomes of rice produced annually in the
world; and it mainly contains 90-95% SiO2 and 1 – 5% carbon residue (Sugita et al., 1997). The
chemical composition and physical properties of rice husk ash as determined by Bui et al.
(2005); Table 2.10; the result of which is similar to that of silica fume with SiO2 being the
dominating constituent. Unlike silica fume however, the particles of rice husk ash posses a
cellular structure, which is responsible for the high surface area of the material even when the
particles are not very small in size.
The incorporation of rice husk in concrete as a lightweight material started over 60 years ago. It
was reported by Waswa-Sabuni et al. (2002) that in 1924 two German patent rice husk in
concrete were granted. In 1970’s the first papers dealing with the utilization of rice husk ash as
a pozzolan were published.

57
TABLE 2.10
Chemical composition and physical properties of rice husk ash (RHA)
Property/Constituents Composition (%)

SiO2 86.98
A12O3 0.84
Fe2O3 0.73
N2O 0.11
K2O 2.46
CaO 1.40
MgO 0.57
LOI 5.14
Physical Properties
Volumetric density (g/cm3) 2.10
Mean particle size (µm) 5
Source: Bui et al. (2005).
2.7.4.5 Saw dust ash (SDA)
This is produced from the combustion of sawdust, which is obtained from pieces of wood that
fall as powder when wood is cut with a saw. Saw dust is produced in abundance at sawmills
and disposal usually constitute a problem. The urge for finding ways of disposing this waste
product led to their being studied for use in concrete production. Udoeyo (2002) observed that
SDA concrete gain rapid strength at later ages, indicating the pozzolanic activity of the ash.
The slow setting and hardening of the SDA concrete was attributed to the content of tannins and
soluble carbon-hydrates (Shetty 2001). The addition of about 5% calcium chloride has been
found to be successful in offsetting the delay in setting and hardening. Saw dust ash can be
used in the manufacture of concrete products, jointless flooring and roofing tiles (Shetty, 2001).
58
2.7.4.6 Metakaolin
This is an ultrafine pozzolan produced by calcining kaolin at temperature between 700 and
9000C and consists predominantly of silica and alumina (Klimesch and Ray, 1998). It is a
highly reactive and effective pozzolan for the partial replacement of cement in concrete. Table
2.11 shows the chemical composition of metakaolin as determined by Khatib and Hibbert
(2005). The use of metakaolin as a pozzolan in cement and concrete is quite recent. Its
incorporation has however brought enhanced strength and durability properties to the composite
material. (Curcio et al., 1998; Khatib and Wild, 1998; Sabir et al., 2001; Zhang and Malhotra,
1995; Jones et al., 1992).

59
TABLE 2.11
Chemical composition of metakaolin
Constituents Percentage Composition (%)
SiO2 52.1
A12O3 41.0
Fe2O3 4.32
CaO 0.07
MgO 0.19
SO3 -
N2O 0.26
K2O 0.63
IR -
LOI 0.6
FREE LIME -
Source: Khatib and Hibbert (2005)
60
2.7.4.7 Corn cob ash (CCA)
This is produced from the burning of corn cob, which is obtained as a waste product from corn
or maize production. Maize or corn is a widely grown cereal crop in the Sub-Saharan tropical
Africa (Olakojo and Iken, 2001). With rice and wheat, maize constitutes one of the three most
important cereal crops in the world. Maize is an important component of many cropping
systems in Nigeria. A report by IITA (2002) puts the world average yield in 2000 as 4255kg per
hectare with Sub-Saharan Africa contribution 1316kg per hectare. The Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO, 2002), in one of its reports, puts the annual maize production of Nigeria in
2001 as 4,620,000 metric tonne. With this high production rate of maize in the country, corn
cob is readily available throughout the year.
Fowowe (1990) considered the use of corn cob ash in the production of roofing materials. The
result showed that 15% by weight of Ordinary Portland Cement OPC) could be replaced with
corn cob ash (CCA) to produce roofing materials that can compare favourably with others in
current usage. Adesanya (1993) investigated the use of corn cob in the manufacture of particle
boards. The results indicated that resin bonded particle boards are satisfactory for both
commercial and non-commercial usage as both particle boards and insulating boards. A study
on the use of corn cob ash to reduce thermal conductivity and chemical attack in concrete was
undertaken by Ogunfolaji (1995). The result showed that up to 23.2% decrease in thermal
conductivity was achieved by replacing 50% by volume of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
with corn cob ash (CCA) during concrete production. The study also indicated that up to 10%
CCA replacement is required for greater resistance of concrete to sulphate attack.
2.8 BAMBOO LEAF
Bamboo is the vernacular or common term for members of a particular taxonomic group of
large woody grasses (subfamily bambusoideae, family Andropogoneae/Poaceae). Another

61
definition gives bamboo as a perennial tree that grows up to a height of 12m with its trunk 8 to
15cm in diameter. Bamboo is a naturally occurring composite material which grows abundantly
in most of the tropical countries; it is considered a composite material because it consists of
cellulose fibres imbedded in a lignin matrix. Cellulose fibres are aligned along the length of the
bamboo providing maximum tensile and flexural strength and rigidity in that direction (Lakkad
and Patel, 1981). The annual production of bamboos all over the world is about 20 million
tonnes but about 10 million tonnes are produced in India, China and Japan (Vatsala, 2003).
Bamboos encompass 1250 species within 75 generas (Wang and Shen, 1987), most of which are
relatively fast growing, attaining fast maturity within 5 years, but flowering infrequently.
Bamboo belongs as member of a particular taxonomic group of large woody grasses belonging
to the subfamily Bambusoidene and family Andropogoneae/Poaceae. Dwarf bamboos may be
as little as 10 cm in height, but stands of tall species may attain 15 – 20 m, and the largest
known (e.g. Dendrocalamusgiganteous) grow up to 40m in height and 30 cm in culm (stem)
diameter. Bamboos are distributed mostly in the tropics but occur naturally in subtropical and
temperate zones of all continents except Europe, at latitudes from 46oN to 47oS and from sea
level to 4000 m elevation (IFAR/INBAR, 1991 and Tewari, 1992). Asia account for about 1000
species, covering an area of over 180,000 km2 (the size of Missouri, half the size of Germany or
about 2% of U.S. total land area). Most of this comprises natural stands of native species rather
than plantations. China alone has about 300 species covering 300 species in 44 genera,
occupying 33,000 km2 or 3% of the country’s total forest area (Qiu et al., 1992). Another major
bamboo-producing country is India, with 130 species covering 96,000 km2 or about 13% of the
total forested area (Shanmughavel and Francis, 1996); other nations with significant Bamboo
production and utilization include Bangladesh, Indonesia and Thailand.
Bamboo trees are always found in clusters. The dominant bamboo in Nigeria is commonly
referred to as the India bamboo. Analysis of result revealed that the bamboo species across
62
Nigeria have similar morphological characteristics, though there is variation in size, suggesting
influence of age and perhaps the soil conditions. Bamboo is particularly adapted to the rain
forest belt of Nigeria where it is found in abundance along riverbanks and other relatively
marshy areas (INBAR, 2005). The stem of the tree is round, smooth and hollow, with swollen
nodes. The tree has no branches but, the lower portions, that is, three-fourths of the tree, have
more spines between each node; it has simple, shiny, thin, stiff, smooth and dark green leaves
with flowers found in bunch and seeds resemble the corn of wheat, in shape. Bamboo contains
88.8% moisture, 3.9% protein, 0.5% fat, 1.1% minerals and 5.7% carbohydrate per 100 grams
of its edible portion. Calcium, iron, phosphorous, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin C are
amongst its vitamin and minerals. Bamboo leaves are a rich source of hydrocyanic and benzoic
acids and contains silica, mandoor, potash, lime alumina, some vegetable substances like collin,
carbohydrates etc. Tender bamboo-shoot contain various enzymes such as nuclease, deamidase,
proteolytic enzymes, amylase, amygdaline splitting and silicon splitting enzyme. Besides, the
juice of the pressed bamboo-shoots possesses protease activities which help digestion of
protein.
Bamboo ash is a good pozzolanic material which reacts with calcium hydroxide forming
calcium silicate hydrate and its pozzolanic activities increases with increase of time and
temperature (Dwivedi et al., 2006).Bamboo leaf ash improves the quality soil samples and
hence has the potential to effectively stabilized lateritic soils for high way construction (Amu
and Adetuberu, 2010). It has seldom been used in the production of concrete because it’s
limited by its low compressive strength.

63
2.8.1 Uses of bamboo
(i) Food
Bamboo shoots of a number of species are well known feature of Chinese and other Asian
cuisine, generally imported into developed countries like USA in canned form, this is estimated
at 30,000 tonnes/year in the early 1990s. Exports from Taiwan are worth 50 million dollars
annually, and those from Thailand 30 million dollars, with much of this going to meet Japanese
demand (Scurlock, 2005).
(ii) Construction and Fibres
These include agricultural and fishing tools, handcraft, musical instrument, furniture, kitchen
utensils, civil engineering uses such as for bridges and scaffolding poles, domestic building uses
(house frame, walls, window frames, roofs, interior divider).
(iii) Paper textiles and board (including rayon, plywood, oriented strand board,
laminated flooring)
Bamboo fibres are relatively long (1.5 – 3.2 mm) and thus ideal for paper production (Bassam,
1998). Paper production in China dates back 2000 years, whilst in India, 2.2 million tonnes of
bamboo per year are processed into pulp, making up about two-thirds of total pulp production
(Adamson et al., 1978 and IFAR/INBAR, 1991). At least eight North American suppliers are
importing and marketing tongue-and-groove flooring made from laminated bamboo, which is
said to be as hard, durable and dimensionally stable as oak or other hardwood flooring (e.g.
Plyboo America Inc., Kirkville, NY). Bamboo culms are sliced into strips, which are boiled to
remove starch, dried, and laminated into solid boards using urea-formaldehyde adhesives. The
boards may be treated with preservatives such as boric acid, before or after laminating, or both,
and a darker amber colour may be produced by formaldehyde for a long time after production,
the amount of urea formaldehyde resin in a laminated product is much less than in a panel board
product (Environmental Building News, 1999).

64
(iv) Fencing
The uses of indigenous bamboo have been mainly confined to local needs. As a result, nowhere
has specialization reached the Oriental scale. The main use of bamboo is for fencing of
homesteads and farms. The large size of culms of O. buchwaldii and also of A. alpine allows
their use in fencing for protection against pigs and other animals.
(v) Handicraft
Split culms of bamboo and reed are used in the production of handicraft articles such as mats
and various utility baskets. In East Africa, tea picking baskets are predominantly made of split
bamboo.
(vi) Water harvesting
In some drier regions, split bamboos have been used in the harvesting of rain water from house
roofs. In Tanzania, A. alpine has been used extensively as water pipes. About 100,000 people
scattered in 28 villages were being supplied with water through a network of 150 km of bamboo
pipelines by 1985. More people are expected to be covered by the project.
(vii) Brewing
In Ubena, Songea and Usangara areas of Iringa province of Tanzania, O. abyssinica is
cultivated for the production of bamboo wine. Tips of young shoots are cut off and the stem
portion bruised every morning and evening for about a week. The exudate is collected and
allowed to stand for two days to ferment. The fermented liquid can be kept for up to two weeks.
(viii) Medicinal
Roots of reed species are reported to be used as medicine for treating various maladies.
65
(ix) Combustion and other bioenergy applications
Molini and Irizarry (1983) proposed the use of bamboo as a fuel for power generation in Puerto
Rico, USA, in preference to sugar cane, since its lower moisture content at harvest obviates the
need for drying, but they provide few data in support of their case. Limited experience has been
gained using de-lignified bamboo pulp as a substrate for ethanol fermentation (Ram and
Seenayya, 1991).Early work on preparing a diesel – like fuel from bamboo culms has been
done; the process appears to have been the pyrolysis of "black liquor" from bamboo pulping,
but does not seem to have progressed beyond the laboratory (Piatti, 1947).
2.8.2 Properties of bamboo leaf
Chemical properties of bamboo leaf
Bamboo leaf contains hydrocyanic and benzoic acids, silica, potash, lime, ferrite, alumina, some
vegetable substances like collin and carbohydrates which affect concrete behaviour. It also
contains some trace elements which include Na2O, MgO, and TiO2.
Physical properties of bamboo leaf
The colour of bamboo leaf ranges from green to brown depending on the amount of drying it
has undergone; it has parallel veins with filling mesophyll cells; it has a finger like shape; when
dried, it is combustible giving off brown smoke when burning.
2.8.3 Bamboo leaf ash

This is the ash produced after the bamboo leaf has been calcined. There are limited literatures or
papers published on the use of bamboo leaf as pozzolan in concrete production. From the few
that were reviewed, it was discovered that the rate at which bamboo leaf ash react with calcium
hydroxide (from cement and water) increases with time and temperature (Dwivedi et al., 2006).
Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 increasingly dissociates in solution to give more Ca2+ and OH-
66
which quickly react with silica at a faster rate and the compressive strength develops gradually
until 28 days of hydration when its value becomes comparable with its control values.
Dwivedi et al. (2006) obtained bamboo leaf ash by first burning it in dried open air and then
further heating in a muffle furnace at 6000C for 2hours, upon testing with Vicat apparatus, 20%
by weight of BLA blended cement was found to be more consistent and of the optimum
replacement in terms of its initial and final settings times, Table 2.12.
Oni (2012) produced bamboo leaf ash at various calcinations temperatures and found out the
optimum temperature is at 10000C. The study also investigated the physical and chemical
properties of the blended cement with the mechanical and water absorption properties of various
percentage replacement of cement with BLA in blended cement concrete. The results shows that
the compressive strength of BLA blended cement concrete is lower than that of plain concrete at
early curing ages but was greater at later ages, but the opposite was the case concerning splitting
tensile strength and water absorption with 10% as the optimum replacement level for both.
2.8.4 Effects of calcination temperature on the properties of bamboo leaf ash
The reactivity of many pozzolans depends among others on the calcinations temperature.
According to Neville (2000), certain natural pozzolans improve their reactivity by calcinations
in the range of 5000C to 11000C. Calcination temperature partially or completely destroy the
crystalline structure of the material and thereby making it amorphous or reactive (ACI 232,
2000). The primary requirement for a pozzolan is a source of reactive silica.
Oni (2012) was able to confirm the optimum calcination temperature for bamboo leaf ash. The
study examined the elemental oxides present in BLA calcined at different temperatures of
5000C, 6000C, 7000C, 8000C, 9000C and 10000C.

67
TABLE 2.12
Chemical properties of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and bamboo leaf ash (BLA)
Composition (wt %)
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O TiO2 SO2 IR LOI
OPC 21.40 5.03 4.40 61.14 1.35 0.48 0.25 - 2.53 1.65 1.29
BLA 75.90 4.13 1.22 7.47 1.85 5.62 0.21 0.20 1.06 - -
Source: Dwivedi et al. (2006).

68
The result indicated that BLA had combined percentage of silica, alumina and iron oxide of not
less than 70% of the entire constituents, with silica alone having a composition greater than
40% at each of the calcining temperatures which satisfies the requirements for a good pozzolan.
The work revealed that BLA calcined to 10000C had the highest silica oxide content of 84.10%
composition while ash of 5000C, 6000C, 7000C, 8000C and 9000C had 80.25%, 83.33%,
83.00%, 83.16% and 83.65% silica content composition respectively. The results are
represented in Table 2.13.
Based on the value of 84.10% silica oxide content and a combined acidic oxide of 90.00%, ash
calcined at 10000C has been taken as the most amorphous and the temperature of 10000C as the
optimum.
69
TABLE 2.13
Elemental oxide % of bamboo leaf ash sample
Calcination Temperatures (0C)

Elemental Oxide
5000C 6000C 7000C 8000C 9000C 10000C
CaO 4.23 4.44 4.43 4.37 4.42 4.64

SiO2 80.25 83.33 83.00 83.16 83.65 84.10
A12O3 5.08 4.93 4.96 4.96 5.15 4.85
MgO 1.01 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.04 4.06
Fe2O3 1.97 1.95 2.01 2.02 1.98 1.95
K2O 3.15 3.09 3.09 3.20 3.10 3.16
MnO2 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.22 0.23 0.23
Cr2O3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

P2O5 0.74 0.72 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.74
SO3 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00
TiO2 0.35 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.33 0.36
LOI 2.93 0.40 0.58 -0.30 0.03 -0.73
Total SiO2+A12O3 + Fe2O3 87.3 90.21 89.97 90.14 90.78 90.90
Source: Oni (2012).

70
2.9 BURNT CLAY WASTE
This is a by-product from burnt clay products. In countries where there are large deposits of
clay from which burnt clay products are produced as building materials, the wastes from the
products could serve as raw material in cement manufacturing. Studies by Syagga et al. (2001)
and Shihembetsa and Waswa-Sabuni (2002) indicate that waste burnt clay has pozzolanic
properties for production of alternative pozzolan cement.
2.9.1 Clay bricks
Clay bricks are manufactured from clay, clayey soil or soft slate. The best material for brick
making is clay containing about 30% sand, which reduces the shrinkage occurring during the
burning of soft clay. Clays are first ground or crushed in mills and mixed with water, as
required to achieve the desired consistency for forming (Ojo-Olotu, 2012). Clay bricks could be
described as small units of building materials moulded from clay and fired or sun dried to
harden. Masonry units suitable for structural use cover a wide range of types and strengths.
They may be made from burnt clay, concrete or calcium silicate and range in strength from less
than 5 N/mm2 to over 100 N/mm2. In practice all over the world, burnt clay building
components are manufactured from clay compositions by moulding and subsequently burning
the moulded items to required temperature. Bricks may be made from clay, shale, soft slate,
calcium silicate, concrete or shaped from quarried stone. The maximum firing temperature
depends on the type of clay and on the desired characteristics of the bricks. The majority of
clays turn a red colour when fired at 900 – 10000C. Above this temperature, the colour turns to
dark red or purple then to brown or grey at 13000C.
2.9.2 Pulverized burnt clay waste
Calcined or burnt clay were the earliest pozzolans used, in the form of crushed reject clay
bricks, tiles or pottery which were mixed with lime to produce cement for mortars. This process
is still used in many countries today and is known as surkhi in India, homra in Egypt and semen
71
merah in Indonesia. These clays materials are readily available in Nigeria, but their potentials as
source of pozzolans cement remain unexploited.
Waste burnt clay has been extensively studied for use in Kenya to the extent that there is a
Kenyan Standard (KS 02-1261: 1994), which recommends the minimum composition for a
good pozzolan. According to the standard, a good pozzolan for manufacture of pozzolanic
cements should have a combined Si02 and A1203 of at least 70%. This is similar to what
operates at the international level. The use of waste burnt clay as a pozzolan is highly profitable
as it has been stipulated that it can replace up to 50% of Portland cement for masonry works
(Syagga et al., 2001). The elemental oxide composition of waste burnt clay is as shown in Table
2.14 according to Shihembetsa and Waswa-Sabuni (2002).
Ojo-Olotu (2012) investigated the compressive strength, sulphate resistance and water
absorption properties of pulverized burnt clay waste (PBCW). From the study, it became known
that pulverized burnt clay waste is pozzolanic (SiO2 + Al2O3 ≥ 70%); the optimum percentage
replacement for the above mentioned dependent variables is 10% (25N/mm2 design strength at
28 days of hydration, optimum obtained strength in sulphate medium and 2.52% porosity less
than 6.79% porosity for control concrete specimen). Table 2.15 shows the oxide composition of
pulverized burnt clay waste as carried out by Ojo-Olotu (2012).

72
TABLE 2.14
Elemental oxide composition for burnt clay
Elemental Samples
Oxides
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A12O3 12.13 14.3 17.1 9.3 10.4 14.5 15.2 14.8
CaO 4.90 0.33 0.7 0.3 0.7 2.1 0.6 0.4
CuO 0.005 - 0.006 0.006 0.003 0.003 0.01 0.006
Fe2O3 5.80 6.46 7.8 3.3 4.2 2.9 13.3 4.9
K2O 2.70 2.64 1.4 2.4 0.2 2.3 1.3 1.7
MgO 0.16 1.6 0.5 0.7 0.13 0.8 1.0 0.5
MnO2 0.21 - 0.10 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.3
Na2O 2.00 2.06 1.2 1.3 0.10 2.8 0.4 0.3
P2O5 0.11 - 0.10 0.10 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.01
SiO2 61.00 68.9 62.8 78.3 80.4 70.9 62.6 67.9
LOI 7.50 0.66 6.3 1.8 1.9 1.4 3.7 7.3
Total SiO2 + 73.13 83.20 79.90 89.70 90.08 85.40 77.80 82.70
A12O3
Source: Shihembetsa and Waswa-Sabuni (2002).

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TABLE 2.15
Elemental oxide composition for pulverized burnt clay waste
Elemental Oxides % Composition

CaO 0.17
SiO2 67.05
Al2O3 19.73
MgO 0.44
Fe2O3 9.41
K2O 1.58
MnO2 0.04
Na2O 0.00
Cr2O3 0.04
P2O5 0.07
SO3 0.00
TiO2 1.52
LOI 0.52
SUM 100.57
Source: Ojo-Olotu (2012).

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Surkhi
Surkhi was the commonest pozzolanic material used in India. It has been used alone with lime
in many of her old structures, before modern Portland cement got its roots in India. Even after
Portland cement made its appearance in the field of construction, surkhi was used as an
admixture to waterproofing treatments in conjunction with lime and sometimes even with
cement for extending valuable pozzolanic action to make the treatment impervious (Shetty,
2002).
Surkhi is an artificial pozzolana made by powdering bricks or burnt clay balls. In some major
works, for large scale production of surkhi, clay balls are specially burnt for this purpose and
then powdered. By its nature, it is a very complex material differing widely in its qualities and
performances. Being derived from soil, its characteristics are greatly varying and there has been
much confusion of account of contradictory results obtained by various research workers.
In the past, the term surkhi was used for a widely varying material with respect to composition,
temperature of burning, fineness of grinding, specific property and composition to this
construction material. IS 1344 of 1981 covers the specification for calcined clay pozzolana for
use in mortar and concrete. IS 1727 of 1967 covers the methods of test for pozzolanic materials.
In India, there are a large number of pozzolanic clay deposits of stained and impure kaolins,
ferruginous or ocherous earth, altered laterites, bauxites and shales etc., available in different
parts of the country, which will yield highly reactive pozzolanic materials. Central Road
Research Institute, New Delhi, have considered an all India survey of pozzolanic clay deposits.
During late 1970’s and early 80’s, when there was an acute shortage of cement in the country
(India), the cement manufacturers used all kinds of calcined clay pozzolanic materials, that are
not strictly conforming to the specification limits in the manufacture of pozzolanic Portland
cement (PPC). This has led to the bad impression about the quality of PPC in the minds of
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common builders in the country. The qualities of PPC as manufactured in India today,
especially by those companies who generates and use fly ash in their own plant, is of high
quality. Often PPC could be considered better than OPC. Inspite of this, the users at large, as the
saying goes, “once bitten, twice shy”, have not yet overcome their bad experience of 1980’s in
respect of qualities of PPC (Shetty, 2002).
2.10 CONCRETE AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
Concrete as a structural material can be classified into three broad categories based on its unit
weight. Concrete containing natural sand and gravel or crushed-rock aggregates, generally
weighing about 2400kg/m3, is called normal-weight concrete, and it is the most commonly used
concrete for structural purposes. For applications where a higher strength-to-weight ratio is
desired, it is possible to reduce the unit weight of concrete by using natural or pyro-processed
aggregates with lower bulk density. The term lightweight concrete is used for concrete that
weighs less than about 1800kg/m3. Heavy-weight concrete, used for radiation shielding, is a
concrete produced from high-density aggregates and generally weighs more than 3200kg/m3
(Mehta and Monterio, 2006).
Also, concrete can be divided into three general categories based on compressive strength.
These are low-strength concrete, which has compressive strength value of less than 20N/mm2;
moderate-strength concrete, with strength between 20 N/mm2 and 40 N/mm2, and high-strength
concrete of strength more than 40 N/mm2. Moderate-strength concrete also referred to as
ordinary or normal concrete is used for most structural works.
Strength of concrete is its resistance to rupture induced by external forces. It may be measured
in a number of ways such as, strength in compression, in tension, in shear or in flexure (Umoh,
2012). The resistance of concrete to compressive, tensile and flexural (bending) stresses is
known as compressive strength, tensile strength and flexural or bending strength respectively.
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Compressive strength is considered one of the most important properties of hardened concrete
and as a criterion of quality in structural design, while tensile strength has a great influence on
the serviceability limit state of cracking.
2.10.1 Concrete workability
Workability is one of the most important characteristics of fresh concrete. Workability is
described as the amount of useful internal work necessary to produce full compaction (Neville
and Brooks, 2005). Hoffman and Gustafson (2001) defined it as provision of sufficient water to
permit concrete to be placed and consolidated without honeycomb or excessive water rise; to
make concrete “pumpable” if it is to be placed by pumps; and for slabs, to provide a surface that
can be finished properly. It is a term used to describe qualitatively, the ease with which concrete
can be mixed, placed and finished. There is no precise definition of the term “workability”
since it signifies much wider properties and qualities of concrete. According to Kong and Evans
(1987), workability of concrete is intimately related to:
a) Mobility: the property that determines how easily the concrete can flow into the moulds
and around the reinforcement;
b) Stability: the property which determines the ability of the concrete to remain stable and
coherent mass during handling and vibration and
c) Compactibility: the property which determines how easily it can be compacted to
remove air voids.
Thus, workability assumes full significance of the type of work, thickness of section, extent of
reinforcement and mode of compaction. The various factors that have been identified to have
effect on workability of concrete include water content, mix proportions, aggregate type and
characteristics, use of admixtures, fineness of cement, aggregate/cement ratio, length of time of
mixing and other ambient conditions such as humidity, temperature and wind velocity (Kayyali,
1984; Kong and Evans, 1987; Neville and brooks, 2005 and Shetty, 2006). Of all these factors,
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the water content of the mix has the most significant effect on workability (Neville, 2000).
Thus, the water/cement ratio of any mix is an important consideration for structural concrete.
Most researchers agree that no single test can satisfactorily measure all the properties associated
with workability. Some of the tests can satisfactorily measure all the properties associated with
workability. Some of the tests which measure parameters that can serve as an index to
workability are:
a) Slump test
b) Compacting factor test
c) Vee Bee Consistometer test
d) Flow test and
e) Ketty ball test.
The slump test measures mainly the stability and mobility of the concrete. It is very useful in
detecting batch by batch variations in the uniformity of concrete during production and is the
most commonly used type of test. It is particularly suitable for richer mixes and more workable
concrete (Kong and Evans, 1987).
The compacting factor test measure the compatibility of concrete by determining the degree of
compaction achieved. As stated by Shetty (2001), it is more precise and sensitive than the
slump test, and is particularly useful for concrete mixes of very low workability (i.e. dry mixes).
The Vee Bee consistometer test measures the vibration time required for moulding a cone of
concrete into that of a cylinder with a level top surface. It is a good laboratory test, particularly,
for very dry mixes with little or no slump. According to Neville (2000), it has the advantage that
the treatment of concrete, during the test is comparatively closely related to the method of
placing concrete.
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The flow test gives an indication of quality of concrete with respect of consistency,
cohesiveness and proneness to segregation. It is widely used for concrete of high and very high
workability, including flowing concrete, which would exhibit a collapse slump (Neville, 2000).
The Kelly ball test is a simple field test consisting of the measurement of the indentation made
by 15cm diameter metal hemisphere weighing 13.6kg when freely placed on fresh concrete. In
practice, the ball test is essentially used to measure variation in the moisture content of the
concrete (Neville and Brooks, 2005).
The procedure for carrying out the Slump, Compacting Factor, Vee Bee and Flow tests are fully
described respectively in BS EN 12350: 2: 2009; BS EN 12350: 3: 2009; BS EN 12350: 4: 2009
and BS EN 12350: 5: 2009. However, based on limitations posed by availability of equipment,
only slump test was carried out in measuring workability in this study.
2.10.2 Compressive strength of concrete
The compressive strength of concrete is considered to be its most valuable properties in the
hardened state. This is due to the fact that for most structural applications, concrete is employed
primarily to resist compressive stresses. Derucher and Korfiatis (1988) confirm that concrete
exhibits its best strength characteristics when subjected to compressive loading. Thus,
compressive strength is the most common measure for assessing the quality of hardened
concrete due to its ease of determination and influence in other properties of concrete. Shetty
(2006) however states that compressive strength gives only an approximate value of other
properties of hardened concrete and that where precise results are required for other properties,
relevant tests should be employed.
The compressive strength can be determined using cubical or cylindrical shaped concrete
specimens. The cube specimen is of the size 100 x 100 x 100mm. However, if the maximum
aggregate size does exceed 20mm, the 150 x 150 x 150mm size cubes may be used (Shetty,
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2001). The cylindrical test specimen is of the size 150 x 300mm. The compressive strength
obtained using cylindrical specimens has been shown to be lower than that obtained using cube
specimens. Kong and Evan (1987), stated that the cylinder strength is usually only above 70 –
90% of the cube strength, while Rajput (2006) gave a range of 75% - 90% of the cube strength.
The standard procedures for determination of compressive strength of concrete are described in
BS EN 12390: 3: 2009 for cube specimens and ASTM C 39 (1993) for cylindrical specimens. In
this study, cube specimens will be used for the determination of the compressive strength.
Compressive strength also serves as a useful index for estimating other properties of concrete.
The tensile strength is about 10% of the compressive strength (Mosley et al., 1999) while the
flexural strength of plain concrete is about 15 – 20% of the compressive strength (Derucher and
Korfiatis, 1988).
The primary factor that governs the compressive strength of concrete is the water/cement ratio.
Bhanja and Senguptab (2002) reported that there exists an inverse relationship between the
compressive strength and water-to-cement ratio of concrete. However, at a particular
water/cement ratio, the percentage of cement replaced by pozzolan also affects the compressive
strength. Generally, it has been discovered that the higher the percentage replacement of
pozzolan, the lower the compressive strength especially at early ages of curing (Bhanja and
Sengutab, 2002; Nedhi et al., 2003; Sidique, 2004 and Antiohos et al., 2005). Another
important factor when considering compressive strength is the mode and length of curing. It
has been revealed that concrete perform better during hydration of cement, eliminates shrinkage
and absorbs the heat of hydration produced, thus creating a favourable environment for strength
development, the longer the curing age, the higher the strength developed.
Concrete incorporating pozzolanic material have been known to gain strength gradually
especially during the early ages. This is because pozzolanic reaction at room temperature is
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slow, therefore, a long curing period is needed to observe its positive effects. The present work
however investigated the curing of concrete cube specimens for up to 120 days, so as to allow
more time for pozzolanic reaction to take place.
2.10.3 Tensile strength of concrete
The tensile strength of concrete is of importance as it has a great influence on the serviceability
limit state of cracking. The knowledge of tensile strength is of value in estimating the load
under which cracking will develop. Cracking problems occur when diagonal tension arising
from shearing stresses develops, especially, as a result of restrained shrinkage and temperature
gradient (Neville, 2000). The absence of cracking is of considerable importance in maintaining
the continuity of a concrete structure and in the prevention of corrosion of the embedded
reinforcement due to ingress of water.
The incorporation of pozzolanic materials into concrete has been identified to enhance its tensile
properties. Previous studies by Bhanja and Sengubtap (2002) and Almusallam et al., (2004)
indicated that the incorporation of silica fume in concrete result in significant improvements in
tensile strength of concrete. Chaowat (2001) also stated that partial replacement of OPC by rice
husk ash (RHA) increases the tensile strength of concrete.
The tensile strength of concrete can be experimentally determined using three methods given by
Beshr et al. (2003) as follows:
a) Uniaxial tensile test
b) Split cylindrical or split cube test and
c) Beam test in flexure or third- point loading test.
The first method is referred to as direct test for determining tensile strength. The direct
measurement of tensile strength is rarely carried out because the direct application of pure
tension force, free from eccentricity, is very difficult and is further complicated by secondary
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stresses induced by grips or the embedded studs (Luong, 1990; Neville, 2000; Exadaktylos et
al., 2001 and Osunade 2002). The second and third methods are called indirect test and are the
ones commonly used to estimate tensile strengths.
2.10.4 Durability of concrete
Portland cement concrete is said to be durable when it has the ability to resist weathering action,
chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process of deterioration; that is, durable concrete will
retain its original form, quality and serviceability when exposed to its environment (ACI 201-
2R, 2003). Neville and Brooks (2005) affirms that it is one of the most important properties of
concrete because it is essential that concrete should be capable of withstanding the conditions
for which it has been designed throughout the life of a structure. In essence, concrete must be
able to perform in accordance with its intended level of functionality and serviceability over an
expected life cycle.
Lack of durability has become a major concern in construction for the past 20 to 30 years. In
some developed countries, it is not uncommon to find large amount of resources, such as 30 to
50% of total infrastructure budget, applied to repair and maintenance of existing structures. As a
result, many government and private developers are looking into lifecycle costs rather than first
cost of construction. Durability of concrete depends on many factors including its physical and
chemical properties, the service environment and design life. As such, durability is not a
fundamental property. One concrete that performs satisfactory in a severe environment may
deteriorate prematurely in another situation where it is considered as moderate (Kolawole,
2011). This is due to the differences in the failure mechanism from various exposure conditions.
High strength factor in concrete has been considered as a measuring tool for durability of
concrete over the years but recently, more other factors have being recognized including both
external factors and internal factors in the concrete itself. The various actions can be physical,
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chemical or mechanical. The mechanical damages is caused by impact, abrasion, erosion or
cavitations; physical causes arises from the actions of frost and from difference between the
thermal properties of aggregate and the cement paste, while chemical causes are attack by
sulphates, acids, sea water, and also by chloride, which induce electro-chemical corrosion of
steel reinforcement; alkali-silica reaction etc.
There are two approaches in the specification of concrete for durable structures and these are
prescriptive and performance based specifications. Current prescriptive method focuses on
important factors including service life, exposure environment, quality of concrete, and other
independent considerations such as cover thickness, strength, curing and workmanship. An
alternative approach based on performance tests and fitness for purpose has occasionally been
suggested and used (Ho and Lewis, 1988). However, there are difficulties in its implementation.
One difficulty lies in developing a commonly accepted test, which directly assesses the
resistance of concrete to a particular deterioration process. Others include the establishment of
relationship between the test and real performance, availability of standard sampling and test
procedure, and guidance on the level of performance required under various exposure
conditions.
2.10.5 Chemical durability of concrete
Chemical attack on concrete occurs by way of decomposition of the products of hydration and
formation of new compounds, which, if soluble, may be leached out, and, if not soluble may be
disruptive in-situ. The most vulnerable cement hydrate is Ca(OH)2, however, the calcium-
silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) and calcium-aluminate-hydrate (C-A-H) can also be attacked. Also
calcareous aggregates are also vulnerable. Deleterious chemical effects include among others
leaching of the cement paste by acidic solutions, expansive reactions involving alkali-aggregate
reaction, and corrosion of embedded steel in concrete. Chemical attack is aided by the
permeability of concrete, which is the ease with which fluid can pass through the concrete. In
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fact, the durability of concrete is intimately related to its permeability, this made Long et al.
(2001) to conclude that the permeability of concrete to the macro-environment during its service
life can be used as a measure of its durability. Sources identified by Sadiq et al. (1996) of
chemical attack include:
(i) Natural sources – sea water and soils rich in sulphates, nitrates, chlorides and
carbonates and
(ii) Artificial sources – chemical manufacturing industries, sales and usage of industrial
chemicals and catchment areas of effluents from rearing units.
The concentration of the aggressive ions as well as their ability to be freely transported within
the concrete can influence the progress of the attack. Bakker (1999) cited in Raheem (2006)
identified three forms of chemical attack: sulphate attack, chloride attack and alkali-silica
reaction (ASR), while Umoh (2012) listed acid attack, alkali attack, sulphate attack and chloride
attack.
2.10.5.1 Chloride attack
The major effects of chloride attack manifest itself in reinforcement steel. In general, the high
alkalinity medium provided by the cement matrix in concrete maintains the reinforcing steel in a
passive state, where the corrosion rate is insignificantly low due to the formation of a layer of
iron oxide on the steel. However, a localized breakdown of the passivation layer occurs when a
sufficient amount of chloride reach the reinforcing bars and the corrosion process is then
initiated (Ata, 2012). According to Neville (2000) and Brown and Doerr (2000), chlorides can
be introduced to concrete by being incorporated in the mix through the use of contaminated
aggregates or seawater or admixtures containing chlorides. Likewise, chloride ion ingress from
outside through de-icing salts or from seawater in contact with concrete can take place. Rust
which is the corrosion product occupies considerably greater volume than the original steel.
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Rusting in concrete can therefore cause cracking and spalling of the concrete covering the steel,
followed by more rapid corrosion of the exposed steel and eventual loss of structural integrity.
2.10.5.2 Sulphate attack
Sources of sulphate attack can be from sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium sulphate or
sulphuric acid which can occur in soil or groundwater. Of all of these sources, magnesium
sulphate is the most detrimental (Al-Amoudi et al., 1995; Torii et al., 1995; Al-Amoudi, 1998
and Shetty, 2001). There have been numerous studies on the distress caused to concrete
structures due to sulphate attack (Lawrence, 1992; Khatri and Sirivivathnanon, 1997; Hobbs and
Taylor, 2000; Al-Amoudi, 2002; and Lee et al., 2005). Sodium sulphate attacks Ca(OH)2
resulting in part of the SO3 being deposited as gypsum. Calcium sulphate attacks calcium
aluminate hydrate, forming calcium sulphoaluminate, known as ettringite. On the other hand,
magnesium sulphate attacks calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) as well as Ca(OH)2 and calcium
aluminate hydrate. The attack by magnesium sulphate is most severe, resulting in the
destruction of the C-S-H gel.
Many of these sulphates are soluble in water, except calcium sulphate (CaSO4) and barium
sulphate (BaSO4), which can only be soluble in organic solvents and the most abundant
naturally occurring sulphates are sodium sulphate (or Glauber’s salt), magnesium sulphate (or
Epsom salt) and calcium sulphate (or Gypsum). Neville (2000) revealed that sulphates may be
present in ground water and are of natural origin and that it can as well come from fertilizers
and industrial effluents. Also, water used in the concrete cooling towers in a source of sulphate
attack because of the gradual build-up of sulphate from evaporation of the water. Decay of
organic matter in marshes, shallow lakes, mining pit and sewer pipes often lead to the formation
of hydrogen sulphide (H2S). Sulphide can oxidize to sulphate under some conditions e.g. under
compelled air used in excavation. Seawater contains the sodium, magnesium and calcium
sulphate in the dissolved form; hence sulphate attack is the common occurrence in concrete
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environments. Sulphate attack manifests in the form of loss in strength, expansion, surface
spalling, mass loss and eventually disintegration.
2.10.5.3 Alkali attack
An alkali is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal element, alkalis are
known for being bases when dissolved in water and their pH values are above 7, also, alkali
compounds easily dissolve in water and produce alkali hydroxides (Ata, 2012). There are two
forms of alkali attack, viz: alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR). In
ASR, it is the siliceous phase present in certain aggregate that are responsible while in ACR, it
is the carbonate phase. ASR is the more common of the two. Marzoulk and Langdon (2003)
stated that ASR is caused by a reaction between the hydroxyl ions in the alkali cement solution
in the concrete and reactive forms of silica in the aggregate. According to Raheem (2006), ASR
involves the reaction between the active silica constituents of the aggregate and the alkalis in
cement, resulting in the formation of alkali-silicate gel, which destroys the bond between the
aggregate and the surrounding hydrated cement paste. The alkali-silicate gel is of the “unlimited
swelling” type having the tendency to increase in volume as it imbibes water. Because the gel is
confined by surrounding hydrated cement paste, internal pressures result, leading to expansion,
cracking and disruption of the hydrated cement paste, thus, adversely affecting the concrete
(Neville, 2000 and Smaoui et al., 2005).
2.10.5.4 Acid attack
Concrete is alkaline in nature and therefore susceptible to acid attack (Neville, 2000). There is a
breakdown of concrete components when it comes in contact with acids but it is only
pronounced when the pH of the attack medium is less than 6, it leads to the dissolution of
calcium hydroxide. Factors that affect the aggressiveness of the attack include the porosity of
the cement paste, concentration of the acid, solubility of the acid calcium salts and the fluid
transport through the concrete. Acids such as sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric and acetic acids are
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very aggressive as their calcium salts are readily soluble and removed from the attack front;
other acids such as phosphoric and humid acids are less harmful, their calcium salts, due to their
low solubility, inhibit the attack by interconnected cracks, voids and porosity. Quality concrete
will resist occasional exposure to mild acids, but no concrete offers good resistance to attack by
strong acids or compounds that convert to acids (ACI 201.2R-01, 2001 and Neville and Brooks,
1987).
Although acids generally attack and leach away the calcium compounds of the paste, they may
not readily attack certain aggregates, such as siliceous aggregates but calcareous aggregates
often react readily with acids (Bassel et al., 2012). However the sacrificial effect of calcareous
aggregates is often a benefit over siliceous aggregate in mild acid exposures or in areas where
water is not flowing (Chang et al., 2005). With calcareous aggregate, the acid attacks the entire
exposed concrete surface uniformity, reducing the rate of attack on the paste and preventing loss
of aggregate particles at the surface. Also, calcareous aggregates tend to neutralize the acid,
especially in stagnant locations (Bassel et al., 2012).
In general, Portland cement does not have good resistance to acids, although, some weak acids
can be tolerated, particularly if the exposure is occasional (ACI 201.2R-01, 2001). Sulphuric
acid is particularly aggressive because, in addition to the sulphate attack of the aluminate phase,
there is an acid attack on calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate phase. A reduction in
the cement content of the concrete is therefore beneficial, provided the density of the concrete is
unimpaired (Neville, 1995). The rate of attack depends more on the rate of water movement
over the surface and on the quality of the concrete, than on the type of cement or aggregate:
(i) Acidic groundwater that are not mobile appear to have little effect on buried concrete,
(ii) Mildly acidic (pH above 5.5) mobile water will attack concrete significantly, but the rate
of attack will be generally slow, particularly if the acids are primarily organic in origin.
87
(iii)Flowing acidic water may cause rapid deterioration of concrete, therefore high quality is
needed.
The resistance of concrete to acid attack can be improved by ensuring that the concrete
produced is adequately durable for many common circumstances by giving attention to low
permeability and good curing. Concrete containing pozzolans have been reported to show better
resistance to acid attack and this is due to lower calcium hydroxide content as a result of
pozzolanic consumption (Neville and Brooks, 2005).
A work carried out by Reddy et al. (2012) examined the effects of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) on
cement concrete blended with fly ash. Sulphuric acid dosage of 100, 150, 300, 500 and 900mg/l
added in deionised water was used in producing the blended cement concrete while the control
specimens were without sulphuric acid for comparison. The result gotten from this study shows
that as the acid concentration increases, there is retardation in the initial and final setting while
the compressive strength of the blended cement concrete came down in the range of 2 to 23%.
Reddy et al. (2012) established the fact that presence of acids in concrete matrix do surely affect
its strength including initial and final setting times.
Phosphoric acid attack on concrete blended with microsilica, water proofer and super plasticizer
was examined by Bassel et al., (2012). The level of deterioration undergone by the concrete
specimens was evaluated by measuring the percentage changes in the weight of concrete cubes.
Other parameters investigated include workability, air content, modulus of elasticity, durability
to freezing thawing, compressive strength and modulus of rupture after 28 days of curing. The
combined effect of microsilica and water proofer was found to be the best enhancement to the
durability of concrete with optimum dosage at 10%.
Adesanya and Raheem (2010) used corncob ash (CCA) blended cement to investigate the
durability of concrete to chemical attack involving sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acids. The
88
results indicated that the use of CCA blended cement reduces the water absorption of concrete,
and the resistance to chemical attack was improved as a result of the addition of CCA up to 15%
replacement level, but this caused a decrease in permeability and a reduction in weight loss due
to the reaction of the specimens with HCl and H2SO4 acid water.
Few works have been carried out to examine the practical long term concrete exposure to
environmental acids; most of those available in literature are not even up to a year. Meanwhile,
typical concrete structures are designed to perform even in aggressive environments, for 50 to
100 years with minimal maintenance. However, in 1995, Balachandran and Vipulanandan
examined the long term strength loss of concrete in sulphate and acidic environments and found
out that a total compressive strength loss of 20 to 80% were observed over a period of 5 years
for both dry and wet concrete specimens.
This study examined the durability of ternary blended cement concrete (bamboo leaf ash +
pulverized burnt clay waste + cement) in varying concentrations of sulphuric acid medium as a
form of accelerated exposure for a maximum period of 120 days.
2.10.6 Permeability of concrete
The surface contact between concrete and its immediate external environment is very important
in any deterioration process and progress such as ingress of chlorides and sulphates, carbonation
or wetting/drying cycles. Hence, an evaluation of concrete permeability gives a better insight
into its durability properties. Permeability is the ease with which liquid or gases can travel
through concrete. Concrete durability depends largely on the ease or difficulty with which fluids
in the form of liquid or gas can migrate through the hardened concrete paste. Concrete is a
porous material, therefore, moisture movement can occur by flow, diffusion or absorption,
which all depends on the structure of the hydrated cement paste. The overall potential for
moisture and ion ingress in concrete by these three modes is referred to as its permeability
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(deBeer et al., 2005). It was identified by Aln (2005) that permeability reduction is a major
parameter for controlling chemical attack in concrete; and this parameter may be achieved by:
reducing the water/cemetitious ratio, selecting proper material and mix proportions, replacing
cement with mineral admixtures, adequately consolidating concrete and providing adequate
curing.
Porosity and permeability are totally different terms although they are erroneously used
interchangeably. Porosity is a measure of the proportion of the total volume of concrete
occupied by pores and is usually expressed in percent. It is the interconnectivity of these pores
that determines concrete permeability. In essence, a concrete with a high proportion of
disconnected pores may be less permeable than a concrete with a much smaller proportion of
connected or continuous pores. It is the overall nature of the matrix pore structure that
ultimately affects its permeability, sorptivity and diffusivity.
2.10.6.1 Diffusion
Diffusion is said to occur when fluid moves under a differential concentration, that is, it moves
from a place of higher concentration to a place of lower concentration. In concrete structure,
gasses and ions of aggressive character, notably chlorides and sulphates move by diffusion in
the pore water (Umoh, 2012). Gasses can diffuse either in water filled space or air filled space,
but the former case is slower than the latter. Gasses that diffuse with significant effect in
concrete include carbon dioxide and oxygen; carbon dioxide leads to carbonation of hydrated
cement paste while oxygen makes possible the progress of corrosion of hydrated cement paste.
It is in the pore water that reactions with hydrated cement paste take place so that ionic
diffusion is of importance with respect to sulphate attack, acidic attack and chloride attack of
embedded steel. Ionic diffusion is most efficient when the pores in the hardened cement paste
are saturated but it also can take place in partially saturated concrete.
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2.10.6.2 Absorption and sorptivity
Absorption is the measurement of the volume of pore space in concrete. It is usually measured
by drying a specimen to a constant mass, immersing it in water and measuring the increase in
mass as a percentage of dry mass. Various procedures can be used and widely different results
are obtained. One reasons for this variation in the values of absorption is that, at one extreme,
drying at ordinary temperature may be ineffective in removing all the water, on the other hand,
drying at high temperatures may remove some of the combined water. Though absorption is not
used as a measure of quality of concrete, but most good concrete have an absorption well below
10% by mass (Neville, 2000). Absorption tests are not used frequently except for routine quality
control of precast products such as paving flags, slabs or kerb units. An absorption test on
concrete is detailed in BS 1881: Part 122: 1983.
Sorptivity arises because of the difficulties associated with the absorption tests on one hand,
and, on the other, because permeability tests measure the response of concrete to pressure,
which is rarely the driving force of fluid entering concrete. Sorptivity test measures the rate of
absorption of water by capillary suction of unsaturated concrete placed in contact with water
(Kelham, 1988). Hence, the sorptivity test determines the rate of capillary rise absorption by a
concrete prism which rests on small support in a manner such that only the lowest 2-5mm of the
prism is submerged. The increase in the mass of the prism with time is recorded.
2.10.6.3 Permeation
Flow or permeation is when fluid movement occurs under a pressure differential, that is, from a
location of high pressure to a location of low pressure. It is measurable by a simple laboratory
test, where the sides of a concrete specimen are sealed and water under pressure is applied to the
top surface only. When steady state conditions have been reached (and this may take about 10
days) the quantity of water flowing through a given thickness of concrete in a given time is
measured.
91
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 PREAMBLE
This work covered laboratory tests carried on bamboo leaf ash (BLA) and pulverized burnt
clay waste (PBCW) blended cement and it’s concrete. It involved calcining bamboo leaf ash to
1000OC, pulverizing burnt clay waste; determining the physical and chemical properties of the
pozzolans and ternary blended cement; determining the compressive strength and acid attack
resistance of the blended cement concrete. The method adopted was a combination of empirical
and graphical relationships. Also, principles of factorial experimental design in treating
generated data from laboratory test was utilized.
The laboratory experiments were carried out at the following locations based on availability of
equipment:
i. Construction and Materials Laboratory, Building Department, Obafemi Awolowo
University (OAU), Ile Ife;
ii. Federal Institute of Industrial Research Oshodi (FIIRO), Lagos;
iii. Lafarge WAPCO Cement Factory, Ewekoro, Ogun State.
3.2 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
3.2.1 Material collection
All the materials used for the blended cement were sourced from Ile Ife, Osun state. These
materials include cement, sand, granite chippings, bamboo leaf and burnt clay waste. The
ordinary Portland cement used was the Elephant product produced to the requirements of BS
EN 197-1: 2000 and sourced from a dealer. The bamboo leaves were got from same location
at Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife, while burnt clay brick waste was sourced from a
collapsed St. David Grammar School building, Ile-Ife. The sand and granite were sourced
through a local supplier.

92
3.2.2 Sample test and analysis
All material samples were tested and analysed by various methods to ensure that they comply
with the various established standards on which this project is based. Physical tests carried out
were sample grading, specific gravity, fineness, soundness, consistency and setting times.
These were done as detailed in BS EN 12620: 2002 + A1: 2008, BS EN 197-1: 2009 and ASTM
C 311: 2007. Chemical property tests carried out included chemical composition, loss on
ignition (LOI), free lime content and insoluble residue.
3.2.3 Water-to-cement ratio (w/c)
The water/cement ratio (w/c) used was pre-determined through a preliminary investigation on
the specimens. Workability was measured for all the blended cement concrete mixes and
recorded. This is to determine the trend and effect of incorporation of BLA and PBCW in the
blended cement concrete on its workability.
3.3 INSTRUMENTATION
Equipment used include compression testing machine (ELE 2000 kN), mechanical weighing
balance (500 g) etc. which are available in the Department of Building Laboratory, Obafemi
Awolowo University, Ile Ife, Osun State.
3.4 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
The laboratory experiments were designed as the following:
a) open air burning and calcination of bamboo leaf ash (BLA) to 10000C and
pulverizing burnt clay waste (PBCW);
b) determination of physical and chemical properties of BLA and PBCW and its
blended cements;
c) determination of the underlisted characteristics of concrete specimens made from
cement blended with BLA and PBCW

93
i) compressive strength
ii) acid attack resistance (durability test).
3.5 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
3.5.1 Pozzolan processing
The bamboo leaf ash (BLA) used for this work was subjected to the following treatments:
Sun drying to reduce moisture content, open air burning to ashes in a drum and quick cooling
on a clean surface which were done at Building Laboratory, O.A.U., Ile-Ife; and calcination to
a temperature of 1000oC, this was done at Federal Institute of Industrial Research (FIIRO),
Oshodi, Lagos.
The pulverized burnt clay waste (PBCW) used was treated as follows:
Grinding/pulverization by milling to powder which was done at Federal Institute of Industrial
Research (FIIRO), Oshodi, Lagos; and sifting to 150 micrometres (µm) size which was done
at Building Laboratory, O.A.U., Ile-Ife.
3.5.2 Chemical composition of BLA and PBCW
Determination of chemical composition of BLA and PBCW was carried out at Lafarge
WAPCO Cement Factory, Ewekoro, Ogun State. X-ray fluorescence method was used to
determine the elemental composition of both BLA and PBCW.
3.5.3 Production and mixing of the blended cement
The mix proportion adopted in this work was 1:2:4 (cement:sand:granite) which is the ordinary
mix used for general reinforced/structural concrete. Ten different mix proportions of cement,
bamboo leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay waste were adopted for this work as shown in Table
3.1.
94
The water/cement ratio (w/c) used was as predetermined in the preliminary investigation.
Batching was by weight and mixing was manually done. The blended cement was spread over
already mixed aggregates and remixed thoroughly before water was added gradually to the dry
mixture while stirring continuously until a homogeneous mix was obtained.

95
TABLE 3.1
Percentage replacement of cement with bamboo leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay waste
Pulverized Burnt
Bamboo Leaf Ash
S/N Cement (OPC) Clay Waste
(BLA)
(PBCW)
1 100% 0% 0%
2 90% 5% 5%
3 90% 10% 0%
4 90% 0% 10%
5 80% 5% 15%
6 80% 10% 10%
7 80% 15% 5%
8 70% 10% 20%
9 70% 15% 15%
10 70% 20% 10%
96
3.5.4 Physical properties of blended cement
The following physical characteristics of the blended cement produced were determined;
i) Fineness (Residues on 45 µm and 90 µm sieves)
ii) Consistency
iii) Soundness
iv) Initial and Final setting times
3.5.5 Chemical properties of blended cement
The following chemical characteristics of the blended cement were carried out:
i) Chemical composition
ii) Loss on ignition
iii) Free lime content
iv) Insoluble residue
3.5.6 Workability test
Immediately after mixing, slump test was carried out to determine the workability of each mix.
The tests was done in accordance with the requirements of BS EN 12350-2: 2009.
3.5.7 Casting and curing of test specimens
The inner parts of the 100 mm cubes moulds were cleaned and lubricated with mould oil to
facilitate easy moulding and smoother surface. Casting was done according to BS EN 12390-
3: 2009.
The specimens were demoulded 24 hours after casting and kept in a place free from vibration,
dehydration and direct rays of sunlight or other sources of heat. Water curing method was
adopted as all the specimens were wholly submerged in water. After 28 days of continuous
water curing, some specimens were exposed to various concentrations of sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) solution for a maximum period of 120 days. That is, some of the concrete specimens
97
were cured in water for a maximum of 120 days while others were exposed to H2SO4 solution
with concentrations of 1%, 3% and 5% for a maximum period of 120 days after 28 days of
initial water curing.
3.5.8 Compressive strength test
Compressive strength of the concrete specimens after various curing ages was determined by
using a compression testing machine conforming to BS EN 12390-4: 2009 in accordance with
BS EN 12390-3: 2009. The specimens were loaded to failure, the maximum load sustained by
the specimens was recorded and the compressive strength of the sample was calculated.
Strength deterioration factor (SDF)
The deterioration of concrete cube specimens cured in acidic medium was investigated by
measuring the strength deterioration factor (SDF) (Hewayde et al., 2007; Murthi and
Sivakumar, 2008). The compressive strength of three replicates of each percentage
replacement’s concrete cube was determined. Both exposed to the control medium and acidic
mediums was determined. The SDF was calculated as equation 3.1:
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
SDF = x 100% ----------------------- (3.1)
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Where Fcw = Average compressive strength of concrete cube specimen in water

(control)
Fca = Average compressive strength of concrete cube specimen in
respective concentration of sulphuric acid (1%, 3% and 5%)
3.6 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS
The results obtained from the laboratory experiments served as data for the work. A full
factorial experimental design approach was used. This aimed at determining which of the
variables has significant effect on the measured parameter being considered under each
objective (Johnson, 1994 cited by Umoh, 2012). In the analysis of data collated, graphical
98
illustrations, means, percentages, standard deviation, regression analysis and Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) were adopted. The software packaged used was Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS).
The specific method used for each objectives are as discussed below.
i) Objective one
Data obtained for this include the physical and chemical properties of BLA, PBCW and ternary
blended cement. That is,
a. Physical properties: fineness, specific gravity, consistency, setting times and soundness
b. Chemical properties: chemical composition, loss on ignition, free lime content and
insoluble residue.
The values obtained were compared with relevant standard requirements of ASTM C 618:
2008, IS 3812 part 1: 2003, BS 3892 Part 1: 1996 and BS EN 197-1: 2009.
ii) Objective two
The data obtained for this objective include compressive strengths of ternary blended cement
concrete cured in water. These cubes were of size 100 x 100 x 100mm. The independent
variables and their associated levels of treatment are:
a. Specimen size – 100 mm cubes;
b. Mix proportion at one level – 28 days design strength of 25 N/mm2;
c. Percentage replacement of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with BLA and PBCW at
10 levels as presented in Table 3.1;
d. Curing ages at seven levels of 3, 7, 14, 28, 58, 88 and 118 days;
The number of replicate was three; hence, the total number of specimens was 10 x 7 x 3 = 210
concrete cubes for compressive strength test.

99
Values got were analysed using means, percentages, graphical illustrations, ANOVA, multi
range test, correlation and regression analysis and thereafter interpreted.
iii) Objective three
The data collected were compressive strength of concrete cubes after immersion in varying
concentration of acid. The independent variables and their various levels of treatment are listed
below.
a. Specimen size – 100 mm cubes;
b. Mix proportion at one level – 28 days design strength of 25 N/mm2;
c. Percentage replacement of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with BLA and PBCW at
10 levels as presentec in Table 3.1;
d. Exposure periods in sulphuric acid at four levels of 30, 60, 90, 120 days after curing in
water for 28 days;
e. Percentage concentrations of sulphuric acid at four levels of 0%, 1%, 3%, 5%.
The number of cubes cast for this was 10 x 4 x 3 x 3 = 360 cubes.
Strength deterioration factors were calculated based on the values gotten. These values were
further analysed using means, graphical illustrations, ANOVA, multi range test, correlation
and regression analysis.
iv) Objective four
Data obtained in objective three was used to assess the relationship that exists between the
compressive strength of the concrete cubes and its exposure periods to acidic environment.
This was analysed using graphical illustration, ANOVA and correlation analysis.
The total number of cubes cast was 210 + 360 = 570 cubes.
100
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 PREAMBLE
This chapter covers the analysis and discussion of results for the characterization of the
materials used in this research namely ordinary Portland cement (OPC), bamboo leaf ash
(BLA), pulverized burnt clay waste (PBCW) and blended cements. It also presents and
discusses the results of compressive strength and durability tests carried out on the blended
cement concrete.
To provide a coherent explanation, the chapter is divided into sections. The first section
explains the characteristics of the aggregates used. In the second section, the physical and
chemical properties of OPC, BLA and PBCW were presented while in the third section, the
physical and chemical characteristics of the blended cements were discussed. The fourth
section contains the characteristics of the blended cement concrete which include the
discussion and analysis of its workability, compressive strength and acid attack resistance.
4.2 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF AGGREGATES USED
The sieve analysis of the sand and granite used are presented in Tables A1 and A2, respectively
in the Appendix; while the grading curves for the aggregates used are shown in Figure 4.1. The
fineness modulus, specific gravity, coefficient of uniformity (Cu) and coefficient of curvature
(Cc) for both fine and coarse aggregates are also shown in Table 4.1. According to the Unified
Soil Classification System, for granite to be classified as well graded, its Cu must be greater
than four (Cu ≥ 4) and Cc between one and three (1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3) while sand must possess Cu greater
than six (Cu ≥ 6) and Cc between one and three (1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3) to be regarded as well graded.
101
120.0
100.0
Percentage passing (%)
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
0.050 0.500 5.000 50.000
BS sieve size (mm)
Sand Granite
Fig. 4.1 Grading curves of aggregates used

102
TABLE 4.1
Physical properties of aggregates used
Specific Fineness Coefficient of Coefficient of

Gravity Modulus uniformity curvature
(Cu) (Cc)
Sand 2.65 2.5 6 1
Granite 2.8 7.1 2 1.1
103
The granite (Cu = 6 and Cc = 1) and sand (Cu = 2 and Cc = 1.1) used for these work therefore
satisfied the requirements to be regarded as well graded. According to Shetty (2006), a sample
of sand is regarded as fine when it has a fineness modulus within the range of 2.2 and 2.6 while
granite/gravel is regarded well coarse when the fineness modulus falls within the range of 6.5
and 8.0. The fineness modulus of the sand used (2.5) shows that it is relatively fine while that
of granite (7.1) implies it is well coarse. The specific gravities of the sand and granite (2.65
and 2.8 respectively) lie within the range of natural aggregate (2.6 to 2.8). The results therefore
show that according to BS EN 12620 (2013), the aggregates used are well graded and suitable
for making good concrete.
4.3 CHARACTERIZATION OF CEMENTITIOUS AND POZZOLANIC

MATERIALS
4.3.1 Physical properties of ordinary Portland cement, bamboo leaf ash and
pulverized burnt clay waste
The physical properties of the OPC, BLA and PBCW used for this work are presented in Table
4.2. The fineness of OPC used was got by percentage of mass retained on 45 µm and 90 µm
sieves and are presented in Table 4.2 as 30% and 4%, respectively. For BLA, 30% and 3.76%
were observed to be retained, respectively while 34% and 3.93% were got for PBCW. BLA is
a bit finer than PBCW and this may be due to the 10000C calcination, however, all the materials
were within limit set by ASTMC 618 (2008) as 34%. The standard consistency of OPC, BLA
and PBCW are 28%, 100% and 50%, respectively. The values for BLA and PBCW differ by
257% and 78.6%, respectively from OPC. Factors affecting consistency of cementitious
materials include its chemical composition and fineness. BLA requires more water as its bulk
density is low, hence, more volume will be required for the mass needed for consistency test.
The initial and final setting times of OPC, BLA, PBCW were got as 110 mins and 210 mins;
140 mins and indefinite; 480 mins and indefinite, respectively. The setting times of ordinary
Portland cement is within the limit stipulated by BS EN 197-1: 2000.

104
TABLE 4.2
Physical properties of materials used
Parameters OPC BLA PBCW

Fineness (% residue on 45 µm sieve) 29 30 34
(% residue on 90 µm sieve) 4 3.66 3.93
Standard consistency (%) 28 100 50
Initial setting time (min) 110 140 480
Final setting time (min) 210 - -
Soundness (mm) 0.0 0.0 -1.0
Specific gravity 3.14 2.00 1.70
Bulk density(g/cm3) (Uncompacted) 1.04 0.40 0.9
(Compacted) 1.30 0.60 1.11
105
The values obtained for BLA and PBCW are greater than that obtained for OPC as they contain
little or no cementitious chemical property (lime – CaO) on their own. Likewise, they possess
virtually no final setting time. The lower initial setting time of BLA relative to PBCW may be
due to its higher content of lime and increased fineness. Also, BLA absorbs more water to form
sticky mixture. There exist virtually no unsoundness in all except for PBCW that shrank by
1mm. The specific gravity of OPC is higher than BLA, and BLA is higher than PBCW (3.14,
2.00 and 1.70 respectively). Umoh et al. (2013) reported a specific gravity of 1.72 for BLA
which is smaller than the value of 2.00 obtained for BLA used in this research. This might be
attributed to the latter being calcined to 1000OC and the former to 600OC. While the bulk
density of OPC is higher than that of BLA and PBCW, that of PBCW is higher than that of
BLA. As the batching of the blended cements is done by weight, more volume of BLA was
used and hence, more water was required to achieve the desired workability.
4.3.2 Chemical properties of ordinary Portland cement, bamboo leaf ash,
pulverized burnt clay waste
The chemical properties of the materials used for the blended cements are presented in Table
4.3. It shows that BLA contains higher silica content than PBCW while PBCW is higher in
alumina and ferrite content, hence stronger ability to withstand acid attack. As categorized by
ASTM C 618-08 (2008), BLA fall under class F pozzolans while PBCW is a class N pozzolan.
As stipulated by BS EN 197-1 (2009), both BLA and PBCW have a silica content higher than
25%. Also, the combined oxide content (SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3) of BLA and PBCW is higher
than the minimum of 70% requirement for classes F and N pozzolans stated by ASTM C 618-
08 (2008). Sulphur trioxide (SO3) composition in BLA (0.55%) and PBCW (0.00%) is lower
than the maximum of 5% and 4% stipulated for class F and N pozzolans respectively by ASTM
C 618-08 (2008).
106
TABLE 4.3
Chemical properties of materials used
Elemental oxides (%) OPC BLA PBCW

SiO2 16.82 72.97 52.17
Al2O3 4.35 2.85 27.86
Fe2O3 2.43 2.31 13.05
CaO 60.39 4.98 0.71
MgO 1.43 1.23 0.52
SO3 1.64 0.55 0.00
K2O 0.16 6.07 0.13
Na2O 0.02 0.00 0.00
Mn2O3 0.04 0.41 0.20
Cr2O3 0.01 0.05 0.03
P2O5 0.21 2.37 0.05
TiO2 0.24 0.41 1.40
LOI 9.84 4.20 1.68
IR 1.67 80.71 88.04
Free Lime 0.36 0.05 0.00
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 23.6 78.13 93.08
107
Likewise, the same standard limits maximum loss on ignition (LOI) of class F and N pozzolans
to 6% and 10%, respectively. BLA and PBCW satisfied this specification since they exhibited
4.20% and 1.68% LOI. The CaO and free lime content of BLA and PBCW as indicated in
Table 4.3 are 4.98%, 0.05% and 0.71%, 0.00% respectively, therefore, they cannot be regarded
as cementitious materials but pozzolans (Shetty, 2006; Umoh, 2012).
The chemical composition of BLA for this research conforms to that of Alamene and Adewuyi
(2013) that reported a silica content of 76.4% and an oxide composition (SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3)
of about 82%. Similarly, Ademola and Buari (2014) reported a silica of 75.9% and a combined
oxide of about 81%. However, Oni (2012) observed a slightly higher combined oxide
composition of about 91%. PBCW has a relatively stable chemical composition from different
research reports. Nuran and Mevlut (2000) reported a silica content of 63.29%, alumina of
18.29% and ferrite of 4.32% (total acidic oxide of 85.90%) while Bektas et al. (2007) reported
a silica content of 69.9%, alumina of 15.38% and ferrite of 6.78% (total acidic oxide of
92.06%). Ojo-Olotu (2012) reported an acidic oxide composition of 96.19% (silica of 67.05%,
alumina of 19.73% and ferrite of 9.41%). These are close to what was obtained for the total
acidic oxide of PBCW (93.08%) used for this research work; these slight differences occurring
in composition of both BLA and PBCW as reported by different authors can be attributed to
different places of source, geological conditions and method of processing (Pekmezci and
Akyzuz, 2004; Shetty, 2006; Oymael, 2007; Umoh, 2012).
4.4 CHARACTERIZATION OF BLENDED CEMENTS
4.4.1 Physical characteristics of blended cements
The physical characteristics of the blended cements used for this research are presented in Table
4.4. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC), bamboo leaf ash (BLA) and pulverized burnt clay waste
(PBCW) constituted the blended cement at different percentages of replacements. As observed
from the table, the fineness is expressed as percentage (%) retained on 45 µm and 90 µm
108
standard sieves. For 45 µm, the fineness ranged from 3.36% to 4% and for 90 µm, it ranged
between 29% and 31%. The residue on 90 µm sieve for the blended cements is less than that
of the control, this shows that finer blended cements were formed. Approximately 96% and
70% of the particles’ size falls below 90 µm and 45 µm, respectively for all cements. All these
satisfy the maximum requirement stipulated by BS 3892-1 (1996) and ASTMC 618-08 (2008).
The consistency of the blended cements increased from replacement level 1 to 10. This is
expected as both BLA and PBCW requires more water for standard consistency in comparison
to OPC, Table 4.2.
The initial and final setting times, Table 4.4, for all the blended cements ranged from 45 to 110
minutes and 103 to 244 minutes, respectively. All blended cements have initial setting times
less than or equal to that of the control (OPC) and likewise for the final setting times except for
replacement levels 5 and 7. This is probably because BLA and PBCW are finer than OPC,
hence, they possess more specific area to react and hydrate faster. The high values of final
setting times compared to the initial setting time can be attributed to the pozzolanic nature of
the blended cements. That is, the pozzolans (BLA and PBCW) gain their cementitious
properties from the end product [Ca(OH)2] of OPC hydration, hence, a low heat of hydration
and later days gain in strength of the blended cement concrete were experienced. All values
got for the initial setting times were within the limit stated by BS EN 197-1 (2009) as 75
minutes minimum except for replacement levels 3, 5, 6, 9 and 10.
The values of initial setting time (I.S.T.) were plotted against final setting time (F.S.T.) in
Figure 4.2. The line of best fit shows an average relationship between them with a coefficient
of determination as 0.4419. This depicts that approximately 44% of the final setting time is
explained by the initial setting time. Table 4.5 shows the percentage deviation of the predicted
F.S.T. from the actual F.S.T., only the F.S.T. of replacement level 6 was predicted accurately
(118 minutes).
109
TABLE 4.4
Physical properties of BLA and PBCW blended cements
Replacement levels*
Parameters 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fineness
(% residue on 45 µm sieve) 30 31 31 31 30 30 30 31 29 31
(% residue on 90 µm sieve) 4 3.76 3.76 3.8 3.72 3.76 3.76 3.6 3.36 3.52
Standard consistency (%) 28 29 29 29 29 29 32 30 32 32
Initial setting time (min) 110 90 50 88 65 45 110 77 65 60
Final setting time (min) 210 192 126 158 244 118 227 150 103 110
Soundness (mm) 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 1.0
Specific gravity 3.14 2.80 1.95 2.35 2.17 2.09 2.45 2.45 1.70 2.25
*Replacement levels (OPC:BLA:PBCW)%

1 = (100:0:0), 2 = (90:5:5), 3 = (90:10:0), 4 = (90:0:10), 5 = (80:5:15), 6 = (80:10:10), 7 =
(80:15:5), 8 = (70:10:20), 9 = (70:15:15), 10 = (70:20:10)
110
That is, other factors accounts for the final setting times such as percentage of OPC replacement
with BLA and PBCW. In other words, the final setting time cannot be predicted accurately
knowing the initial setting time, as in equation 4.1.
Tf = 1.4789 Ti + 51.403 ----------------- (4.1)
Where Tf = final setting time (minutes)
Ti = initial setting time (minutes).
Soundness of all the blended cements as indicated in Table 4.4 satisfied the requirement
stipulated by IS 3812-1 (2003), ASTMC 618-08 (2008) and BS EN 197-1 (2009). Unsoundness
in cement is often due to excess free lime, magnesia and sulphate in the form of SO3 (Shetty,
2006). Table 4.6 shows the composition of these compounds were smaller in the blended
cements to that of the control and hence, possessed virtually no unsoundness. Specific gravities
of the blended cements are lesser to that of the control as presented in Table 4.4. This is
expected as the specific gravities of both BLA and PBCW were smaller than OPC’s.
111
260
240
220
y = 1.4789x + 51.403
R² = 0.4419
200
Final setting time (minutes)
180
160
140
120
100
80
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Initial setting time (minutes)
Fig. 4.2 Relationship between initial and final setting times of the bended cements
112
TABLE 4.5
Deviation of predicted F.S.T. from actual F.S.T.
I.S.T Actual Predicted %

Replacement levels
(min) F.S.T. F.S.T. Deviation
(OPC:BLA:PBCW)
(min) (min)
1 (100:0:0) 110 210 214 1.9
2 (90:5:5) 90 192 185 -3.6
3 (90:10:0) 50 126 125 -0.8
4 (90:0:10) 88 158 182 15.2
5 (80:5:15) 65 244 148 -39.3
6 (80:10:10) 45 118 118 0.0
7 (80:15:5) 110 227 214 -5.7
8 (70:10:20) 77 150 165 10.0
9 (70:15:15) 65 103 148 43.7
10 (70:20:10) 60 110 140 27.3
113
4.4.2 Chemical characteristics of blended cements

Table 4.6 depicts the chemical composition and properties of the blended cements. Ordinary
Portland cement (OPC) was blended with bamboo leaf ash (BLA) and pulverized burnt clay
waste (PBCW) at different percentages of replacement. Batching by weight was used for
blending the pozzolans with ordinary Portland cement. The compositions at all replacement
levels satisfied requirements for pozzolan cement in various standards (ASTM C 150, 2007;
BS EN 197-1, 2009).
It is observed that acidic oxides (SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3) composition for the blended cements
increased as the level of replacement increased while the composition of lime (CaO) decreases.
This is expected as acidic oxides composition for both BLA and PBCW is higher than acidic
composition of OPC while the lime composition of both is lesser than OPC. An increase in the
acidic oxides will boost pozzolanic reaction of BLA and PBCW content with OPC hydration
end product [slaked lime – Ca(OH)2] to form cementitious products (Shihembetsa and Waswa-
Sabuni, 2002; Shetty, 2006). This observed phenomenon was also reported by various
researchers on pozzolanic cements (Raheem, 2006; Umoh, 2012; Ojo-Olotu, 2012; Oni, 2012).
According to BS EN 197-1 (2009), the sulphate (as SO3) limit acceptable in blended cement is
4.0%. All the blended cements in Table 4.6 satisfy this requirement. The SO3 composition
reduces as the percentage of replacement increases depicting a sound blended cement. The
same trend is observed for free lime content and magnesia (MgO), decreasing from 0.36% in
control to 0.16% at replacement level 10 and 1.43% to 1.19%, respectively. Shetty (2006)
stated that unsoundness in cement is due to excess of lime, magnesia and sulphates which result
to volume change in cement paste. The limit stipulated by Shetty (2006) for magnesia and free
lime content is 6 and 5% respectively. All blended cements and OPC satisfy the limit. The loss
on ignition (LOI) of the BLA and PBCW blended cements was lower than that of the control
(OPC).
114
TABLE 4.6
Chemical properties of BLA and PBCW blended cements
Elemental *Replacement levels

Oxides (%) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SiO2 16.82 21.78 22.58 20.54 24.82 26.21 26.96 29.94 31.16 32.15
Al2O3 4.35 5.59 4.19 6.82 7.95 6.67 5.34 9.28 7.84 6.52
Fe2O3 2.43 2.90 2.38 3.31 3.67 3.28 2.80 4.11 3.63 3.18
CaO 60.39 55.10 55.22 54.77 48.69 49.04 49.55 43.02 43.44 44.08
MgO 1.43 1.38 1.39 1.31 1.24 1.30 1.35 1.19 1.25 1.28
SO3 1.64 1.55 1.54 1.72 1.38 1.45 1.45 1.26 1.41 1.27
K2O 0.16 0.37 0.75 0.17 0.48 0.78 1.04 0.80 1.13 1.38
Na2O 0.02 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.60 0.60 0.60
Mn2O3 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06
Cr2O3 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04
P2O5 0.21 0.25 0.32 0.19 0.23 0.28 0.36 0.27 0.34 0.41
TiO2 0.24 0.27 0.25 0.29 0.31 0.29 0.25 0.34 0.30 0.29
LOI× 9.84 8.53 9.13 8.20 8.13 8.28 8.49 7.55 7.71 7.84
IR+ 1.67 11.10 12.19 9.77 18.96 17.67 17.24 18.13 25.81 27.51
Free lime 0.36 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.16 0.21 0.26 0.16 0.21 0.16

1 = (100:0:0), 2 = (90:5:5), 3 = (90:10:0), 4 = (90:0:10), 5 = (80:5:15), 6 = (80:10:10), 7 =
(80:15:5), 8 = (70:10:20), 9 = (70:15:15), 10 = (70:20:10)
×
LOI – Loss on ignition
+
IR – Insoluble residue
115
The lowest being 7.55% compared to 9.84% of the control. The indicated percentages of LOI
indicate a sizeable quantity of carbon content in the cementitious materials. Insoluble residue
(IR) of the blended cements are far higher than that of the control; a maximum of 27.51% was
recorded for blended cement of replacement level 10 while that of the control was 1.67%. The
high value of IR in blended cements is probably due to high content of acidic oxides in BLA
and PBCW which are insoluble in hydrochloric acid (HCl). To avoid alkali-silica reaction
which is deleterious to concrete, Shetty (2006) limits the alkali content (Na2O+K2O) in cement
to 1%. OPC which is the control (Na2O+K2O = 0.18%) satisfies this specification while
blended cements up to replacement level 6 only satisfy the specification.
4.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF BLENDED CEMENT CONCRETE
The characteristics of BLA and PBCW blended cement concrete were determined. These
include workability, compressive strength and acid attack resistance (durability). A concrete of
characteristic strength of 25 N/mm2 at 28 days of curing was adopted as the control.
4.5.1 Workability
For this study, the slump of every wet concrete mix was carried out and their averages with
water-to-binder ratio tabulated as Table 4.7. The slump test is to give an indication of the
workability of each mix. The table reveals that as the percentage of OPC replacement increases,
the water required for mixing to achieve a slump between 50 to 100 mm increases. That is, the
blended cement concrete becomes stiffer and less workable as the level of replacement
increases. According to Raheem (2006), the higher the silica content of a cementitious material,
the higher the water required for hydration. Also, the silica-lime reaction of a pozzolan cement
requires more water in addition to water required during hydration of cement (Raheem, 2006).
From Table 4.6, the silica (SiO2) content of the blended cement increases as the level of
replacement increases, hence, more water will be required for hydration and silica-lime
reaction.
116
TABLE 4.7
Slump and water/cement ratio for BLA and PBCW blended cement concrete
Replacement levels Slump value Actual water Quantity of water Slump value to
(OPC:BLA:PBCW) (mm) to binder ratio to control (%) control (%)
1 (100:0:0) 50 0.5 100 100
2 (90:5:5) 100 0.53 106 200
3 (90:10:0) 60 0.66 132 120
4 (90:0:10) 50 0.63 126 100
5 (80:5:15) 100 0.61 122 200
6 (80:10:10) 80 0.71 142 160
7 (80:15:5) 100 0.71 142 200
8 (70:10:20) 100 0.61 122 200
9 (70:15:15) 80 0.67 134 160
10 (70:20:10) 100 0.70 140 200
117
As shown in Table 4.7, levels of replacement with higher BLA content required more water to
achieve required slump than those with higher PBCW content. This can be attributed to the
higher fineness of BLA than that of PBCW (Table 4.2), which means a greater specific area to
be wetted and lubricated (Umoh, 2012). Similarly, from Table 4.3, the silica (SiO2) content of
BLA (72.97%) is higher to that of PBCW (52.17%), hence, more water was required for
hydration of replacement levels containing higher content of BLA than for PBCW (Raheem,
2006).
Table 4.8 shows the correlation analysis of the workability parameters and the factors (BLA,
PBCW contents) influencing it. The table reveals that BLA has the highest positive correlation
coefficient with water/cement ratio while OPC has the highest negative correlation coefficient
with the slump. That is, as explained earlier, BLA has the strongest influence on the quantity
of water required for mixing the blended cement concrete (water/cement ratio); similarly, OPC
has the strongest influence on the slump of the wet blended cement concrete.
118
TABLE 4.8
Correlation analysis of workability parameters
OPC BLA PBCW w/c slump

OPC 1
BLA -0.78446 1
PBCW -0.78446 0.230769 1
w/c -0.6288 0.748016 0.238531 1
slump -0.67054 0.565267 0.486758 0.243923 1
119
4.5.2 Compressive strength
The results of the compressive strength for bamboo leaf ash (BLA) and pulverized burnt clay
waste (PBCW) blended cement concrete cubes are presented in Table 4.9. It entails the curing
ages of the concrete cubes, percentages of replacement of OPC with BLA and PBCW,
compressive strengths of three replicates of blended cement concrete cubes, the mean
compressive strength values and percentage attainment of the target strength of 25 N/mm2 at
28 days of curing.
Generally, the compressive strength increases with curing age and decreases with increase in
bamboo leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay waste content. At 3 days of curing, the control
(replacement level 1) attained 53.5% of the target strength, this is closely followed by
replacement level 4 (10% PBCW) with 53.3% of the target strength and the next is replacement
level 3 (10% BLA) with 33.9% of the target strength. According to Domone and Illston (2010),
at 3 days of curing, the expected strength of concrete is 40% - 65% of the 28 days target
strength. Only replacement level 1 and 4 satisfied this condition.
The results at 7 days of curing as presented in Table 4.9 reveal that the control (0% BLA and
0% PBCW) achieved 70.9% of the 28 N/mm2 target strength, it therefore satisfied the
requirement of normal concrete strength development of 66% as stipulated by BS 8110-2
(1985) for 7 days of curing. Replacement level 4 (10% PBCW) has 63.7% of the target strength
and closely followed by 10% of BLA that has 44.5% of the target strength. Replacement level
2 which has both BLA and PBCW content (5% BLA and 5% PBCW) achieved 42.4% of the
target strength at 7 days of curing. Replacement levels 1 and 4 satisfied 60% - 80% percentage
attainment of concrete target strength as specified by Domone and Illston (2010); similar trend
as that of 3 and 7 days of curing was observed for 14 days of curing – control (98.7%), level 4
(77.1%), level 3 (56.5) and level 2 (55.7).

120
TABLE 4.9
Compressive strength of BLA and PBCW blended cement concrete cubes
Curing age *Replacement Compressive Mean compressive Percentage

(days) levels strength (N/mm2) strength target strength
1 2 3 (N/mm2) (%)
1 13.4 12.6 14.1 13.4 53.5
2 8.0 7.3 14.1 7.8 31.1
3 7.4 7.4 8.6 8.5 33.9
4 14.4 12.4 13.2 13.3 53.3
5 6.0 5.0 7.0 6.0 24.0
3
6 7.8 8.2 8.0 8.0 32.0
7 4.8 4.2 4.5 4.5 18.0
8 4.4 3.2 3.6 3.7 14.9
9 5.6 6.1 5.0 5.6 22.3
10 3.4 3.6 3.2 3.4 13.6
1 17.0 17.4 18.8 17.7 70.9
2 10.6 9.8 11.4 10.6 42.4
3 10.8 11.4 11.2 11.1 44.5
4 16.2 15.0 16.6 15.9 63.7
5 9.0 11.0 10.4 10.1 40.5
7
6 10.5 9.0 10.0 9.8 39.3
7 7.0 9.4 7.6 8.0 32.0
8 4.5 5.6 6.0 5.4 21.5
9 7.6 7.8 8.6 8.0 32.0
10 4.5 5.6 4.0 4.7 18.8
1 24.0 24.0 26.0 24.7 98.7
2 13.6 12.8 15.4 13.9 55.7
3 14.8 13.6 14.0 14.1 56.5
4 18.0 19.0 20.8 19.3 77.1
5 13.4 12.5 12.8 12.9 51.6
14
6 12.8 11.0 14.0 12.6 50.4
7 10.4 9.2 10.0 9.9 39.5
8 9.2 10.2 10.0 9.8 39.2
9 12.0 13.2 11.8 12.3 49.3
10 9.2 9.6 8.4 9.1 36.3
1 29.0 30.5 28.0 29.2 116.7
2 18.4 15.0 16.0 16.5 65.9
3 20.8 17.0 17.0 18.3 73.1
4 26.2 25.0 24.0 25.1 100.3
28 5 13.0 17.4 15.8 15.4 61.6
6 15.0 18.0 21.0 18.0 72.0
7 13.0 14.6 13.6 13.7 54.9
8 11.0 12.0 11.5 11.5 46.0
9 13.0 14.5 14.3 13.9 55.7
10 10.0 11.0 12.2 11.1 44.3
121
TABLE 4.9
Compressive strength of BLA and PBCW blended cement concrete cubes (CONT’D)
Curing age *Replacement Compressive strength Mean compressive Percentage target

(days) levels (N/mm2) strength strength
1 2 3 (N/mm2) (%)
1 30.5 30.0 30.5 30.3 121.3
2 20.0 27.6 20.0 22.5 90.1
3 26.1 24.8 24.6 25.2 100.7
4 30.0 29.2 30.0 29.7 118.9
5 25.5 23.5 25.8 24.9 99.7
56
6 21.2 23.6 20.6 21.8 87.2
7 15.8 18.2 17.4 17.1 68.5
8 13.8 16.6 15.0 15.1 60.5
9 16.4 17.8 16.8 16.8 67.2
10 13.6 14.8 15.2 14.5 58.1
1 30.5 31.5 31.0 31.0 124.0
2 29.0 28.5 30.0 29.2 116.7
3 30.0 32.5 34.5 32.3 129.3
4 31.5 35.0 34.3 33.6 134.4
5 32.0 30.5 34.3 30.7 122.7
90
6 24.6 27.7 25.1 25.8 103.2
7 21.5 24.9 27.0 24.5 97.9
8 20.4 26.3 18.9 21.9 87.5
9 21.2 24.0 19.0 21.4 85.6
10 16.8 18.3 18.5 17.9 71.5
1 30.5 31.5 33.0 31.7 126.7
2 28.5 30.5 34.5 31.2 124.7
3 32.5 36.0 31.5 33.3 133.3
4 32.5 35.8 36.5 34.9 139.7
5 32.0 30.5 31.5 31.3 125.3
120
6 29.0 30.8 26.5 28.8 115.1
7 23.1 25.9 25.8 24.9 99.7
8 25.9 27.3 21.6 24.9 99.7
9 20.5 23.8 23.8 22.7 90.8
10 17.5 21.3 20.8 19.9 79.5

1 = (100:0:0); 2 = (90:5:5); 3 = (90:10:0); 4 = (90:0:10); 5 = (80:5:15); 6 = (80:10:10); 7 =
(80:15:5); 8 = (70:10:20); 9 = (70:15:15); 10 = (70:20:10)
122
At 28 days of curing, the control specimen achieved 116.7% of the target strength while
replacement levels 4, 3 and 6 achieved 100.3%, 73.1% and 72.0% of the target strength
respectively. Therefore, blended cement concrete containing 10% of PBCW satisfied the 25
N/mm2 target strength. This is in accordance with Solomon-Ayeh (2009) and Ojo-Olotu (2012)
that reported 10% replacement of OPC by calcined ground clay and PBCW respectively as
giving satisfactory results for normal strength concrete. Ojo-Olotu (2012) stated a compressive
strength of 28 N/mm2 at 28 days of water curing for a blended cement concrete containing 10%
PBCW. Vejmelkova et al. (2012) and Bektas et al. (2009) reported a higher value of 20% fine-
ground ceramics and 25% ground clay bricks (GCB), respectively in blended cement concrete
producing comparable strength values to that of the control. Nuran and Mevlut (2000) also
reported a value of up to 35% replacement as satisfactory, however, the study was on blended
cement mortars and not concrete.
As revealed, 56 days of curing improved the strength of BLA and PBCW blended cement
concrete. The control attained 121.3% of the target strength while level 3, 4 and 5 attained
100.7%, 118.9% and 99.7% respectively. Level 4 (10% PBCW) of blended cement concrete
has similar strength to 116% of target strength (25 N/mm2) attainment by 10% PBCW in
blended cement concrete at 60 days of curing reported in Ojo-Olotu (2012). The strength value
of 25.2 N/mm2 of level 3 (10% BLA) is higher than that reported by Oni (2012) as 21.73 N/mm2
at 10% of OPC replacement with BLA at 60 days of curing. 90 days of curing improved further
the compressive strength of the blended cement concrete. Replacements level 1 to 6 have
strength higher than the target strength. In fact, replacement levels 3 and 4 have strengths higher
than that of the OPC concrete (control) while replacement level 5 has approximately the same
strength as that of the control. At 120 days of curing, the same phenomenon occurred with
replacement levels 1 to 6 surpassing the target strength; levels 3 and 4 surpassing the control
strength while levels 2 and 5 have approximately the same strength as the control.
123
All these trends attest to the established fact that pozzolanic blended cement concrete have
slow strength development at early ages but out-perform ordinary concrete at later ages
(Udoeyo, 2002; Khatib and Hibbert, 2005; Bui et al., 2005; Solomon-Ayeh, 2009; Ojo-Olotu,
2012; Oni, 2012; Umoh, 2012). It can be concluded that ordinary Portland cement can be
replaced by 10% PBCW (level 4) to make blended cement concrete with no undesirable
reduction in strength (ASTMC 618-08, 2008), especially for normal reinforced concrete. For
mass concreting, OPC can be replaced by 10% BLA (level 3) or 5% BLA + 10% PBCW (level
5) or 10% BLA + 10% PBCW (level 6). Replacement level 6 (80% OPC + 10% BLA + 10%
PBCW) would be better as ideal replacement for mass concreting. None of the ternary
combinations performed favourably to have similar strength as that of the control at 28 curing
days probably because BLA and PBCW have no adequate lime content to make them serve as
supplementary cementitious material to the used cement. The lesser comprehensive strength
recorded for BLA may be due to higher content of less reactive crystalline silica (SiO2) than
highly reactive amorphous silica.
In conformity to the above, previous researches on ternary combination of pozzolans with
cement revealed that there is an increase in the total percentage of replacement of cement with
the combined pozzolans in comparison to individual blending with cement. Umoh et al. (2013)
studied a ternary combination of bamboo leaf ash, periwinkle shell ash (PSA) and ordinary
Portland cement in concrete; the study concluded that a combination of 10% BLA and 10%
PSA was adequate for ordinary structural mix concrete, attributing this to the fact that PSA is
a cementitious material containing a high content of lime (CaO). According to the study, the
28 days curing surpassed that of the reference mix (control). Shannag (2000) studied silica
fume and volcanic tuff, and concluded that silica fume and natural volcanic tuff can both be
used to replace cement as a ternary combination to the tune of 15% each with no reduction in
compressive strength. Sathawane et al. (2013) worked on rice husk ash and fly ash. The study
124
concluded that 22.5% of fly ash and 7.5% of rice husk ash could optimally replace Portland
cement in concrete to give desired strength.
4.5.3 Graphical and statistical analysis of compressive strength results
Figures 4.3 to 4.6 show the effect of considered factors (independent variables) on the
compressive strength of the blended cement concrete. These factors include curing age and
percentage replacement. Figure 4.3 shows the effect of percentage replacement of OPC with
BLA and PBCW on the compressive strength of the blended cement concrete for each days of
curing in water. From the figures, generally, the strength decreases as the level of replacement
increases. It decreases from the control (level 1) and then increase from level 2 up to level 4
where it begins to decrease up to level 10 for all curing ages. However, replacement levels 4
and 6 have higher compressive strength than other levels for 28 days of curing, hence, they
may serve as best replacements. Figure 4.4 depicts the effect of replacement levels on
compressive strength by comparing the strength at other days of curing to that of 28 days. For
each percentage replacements, all curing days above 28 days performed better except for the
control that clustered around the 28 days. Replacement level 8 had the highest compressive
strength value at 120 days in relation to its strength value at 28 days followed by level 5, that
is, both gained strength faster after 28 days compared to level 1 and 4 with slow gain in strength
after 28 days. It is noted that replacement levels 5 and 8 have higher contents of PBCW (25%
for level 5 and 20% for level 8) than BLA (5% for level 5 and 10% for level 8). This may imply
PBCW exhibits more pozzolanic nature than BLA. Figure 4.5 shows the effect of curing age
on the compressive strength of the blended cement concrete. As the curing age increases, the
compressive strength increases, though not in a straight line. Replacement levels of 2, 3, 4, 5
and 6 have their compressive strengths almost equal to or higher than the control at later days
of curing. Figure 4.6 displays the effect of curing age on compressive strength as a percentage
125
of the control (level 1). It shows that the blended cement concrete gained strength faster after
14 days of curing in reference to the control.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) on the compressive strength results is presented in Table 4.10.
It shows the effects of curing age and replacement level (independent factors) on the
compressive strength (dependent factor) of OPC, BLA and PBCW ternary blended cement
concrete. The table shows that, when considered individually, the independent factors have
statistically significant effect on the compressive strength at 5% level of significance.
Similarly, combined effect of the independent factors also shows a statistically significant
effect on the compressive strength. Also, an R Squared of 0.98 (i.e. the coefficient of
determination) implies a strong statistical association between the independent variables and
the dependent variable. The independent variables are estimated to explain 98% of the variance
in the mean of the compressive strength as observed across all groups.
The multi range test of the compressive strengths at varying levels of replacement shows that
the compressive strength is highest at level 1 which is the control with a mean of 25.23 N/mm2
(Table 4.11). The strength at level 4 with a mean of 24.23 N/mm2 is not significantly different
(p ≤ 0.05) from the strength obtained in the control mixture. Hence, both replacement levels
can be used interchangeably for concrete purposes. After these two, the next best strength was
then obtained at level 3 (20.40 N/mm2). Levels 2, 5 and 6 were also not significantly different
from one another with 18.8048 N/mm2, 18.4810 N/mm2 and 17.8286 N/mm2 respectively. The
compressive strength is least at level 10 with a mean of 11.5000 N/mm2, followed by level 8
(13.1905 N/mm2).
126
40.0
35.0
30.0
Compressive strength (N/mm2)
3 days
25.0
7 days
R² = 0.7815
20.0 14 days
R² = 0.7866
28 days
15.0
R² = 0.7515 56 days
R² = 0.6038
90 days
10.0
R² = 0.5979 120 days
5.0 R² = 0.6985
R² = 0.6157
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Replacement levels
Fig. 4.3 Variation of compressive strength with replacement levels at varying curing days
127
250.0
200.0
Compressive strength (%)
3 days
150.0
7 days
14 days
28 days
100.0
56 days
90 days
120 days
50.0
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Replacement levels
Fig. 4.4 Variation of compressive strength with replacement levels as a percent of 28 days
curing
128
40.0
35.0
30.0 Level 1 R² = 0.6124

Compressive strength (N/MM2)
Level 2 R² = 0.957
25.0
Level 3 R² = 0.9453
Level 4 R² = 0.887
20.0
Level 5 R² = 0.9245
15.0
Level 6 R² = 0.931
Level 7 R² = 0.9358
10.0
Level 8 R² = 0.9631
5.0 Level 9 R² = 0.9011
Level 10 R² = 0.9127
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Curing age
Figure 4.5 Variation of compressive strength with curing days at varying replacement levels
129
120.0
110.0
100.0
control
90.0
Level 2
Compressive strength (%)
80.0 Level 3
Level 4
70.0
Level 5
60.0 Level 6
Level 7
50.0 Level 8
Level 9
40.0
Level 10
30.0
20.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Curing days
Figure 4.6 Variation of compressive strength with curing days as a percent of the control
130
TABLE 4.10
ANOVA for compressive strength results
Source Type III Sum df Mean F Sig. Partial Eta

of Squares Square Squared
Corrected Model 16336.139a 69 236.756 96.999 0.000 0.980
Intercept 67605.097 1 67605.097 27697.818 0.000 0.995
Curing 11627.500 6 1937.917 793.965 0.000 0.971
Replacement 4127.223 9 458.580 187.880 0.000 0.924
Curing * Replacement 581.416 54 10.767 4.411 0.000 0.630
Error 341.713 140 2.441
Total 84282.950 210
Corrected Total 16677.853 209
R Squared = .980 (Adjusted R Squared = .969)

131
TABLE 4.11
Multi range test for compressive strength with varying percentages of
BLA and PBCW (%)
Subset Mean N Replacement

6 25.2286 21 1
6 24.2286 21 4
5 20.4048 21 3
4 18.8048 21 2
4 18.4810 21 5
4 17.8286 21 6
3 14.6619 21 7
3 14.3905 21 9
2 13.1905 21 8
1 11.5000 21 10
132
Levels 7 (14.6619 N/mm2) and 9 (14.3905 N/mm2) have relatively higher compressive strength
than those obtained in levels 8 and 10, though they are also not significantly different. Table
4.12 shows the multi range test of the compressive strength at varying curing days. It reveals
that as the curing age increases, the compressive strength increases with significant difference
between each days of curing. 120 curing days has the highest mean compressive strength while
3 curing days has the lowest.
The correlation and regression analysis on the compressive strength of the BLA and PBCW
blended cement concrete are presented in Tables 4.13 to 4.16. Table 4.13 shows that a good
correlation exists between all the considered independent variables and the dependent variable
(compressive strength). Hence, all these variables were considered in the regression analysis.
As presented in Table 4.14, curing age, BLA and PBCW significantly explained for 87.2% of
the variations in compressive strength. This means that the regression line has a good fit to the
observed data. The remaining 13.8% of the total variation in compressive strength may be
attributed to factors not included in the random variables. Also, ANOVA table of Table 4.15
shows that all the considered factors are statistically significant to the regression model. The
regression equation is given in Equation 4.2.
Fcu = 17.598 + 1.710 Ca – 0.580 (BLA) – 0.246 (PBCW) ----------------- (4.2)
Where Fcu – compressive strength (N/mm2)
Ca – curing age (days)
BLA – bamboo leaf ash content (%)
PBCW – pulverized burnt clay waste content (%)
The equation shows the influence of curing age and various percentages of BLA and PBCW
on the compressive strength of blended cement concrete. When BLA and PBCW are kept
constant, a unit change in curing age will lead to an increase of 1.710 in the compressive
133
strength of the blended cement concrete. Also, when curing age and PBCW are kept constant,
a unit change in BLA will lead to a decrease of 0.580 in the compressive strength of the blended
cement concrete. When curing age and BLA are kept constant, a unit change in PBCW will
lead to a decrease of 0.246 in the compressive strength of the blended cement concrete.
134
TABLE 4.12
Multi range test for compressive strength with varying curing days
Subset Mean N Curing days

7 28.3633 30 120 days
6 26.8167 30 90 days
5 21.6100 30 56 days
4 17.2600 30 28 days
3 13.8567 30 14 days
2 10.2767 30 7 days
1 7.4133 30 3 days
135
TABLE 4.13
Correlation analysis on compressive strength of the blended cement concrete
Curing Compressive BLA PBCW

strength
Pearson Correlation 1
Curing Sig. (2-tailed)
N 210
Pearson Correlation 0.803 1
Compressive strength Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000
N 210 210
Pearson Correlation 0.000 -0.446 1
BLA Sig. (2-tailed) 1.000 0.000
N 210 210 210
Pearson Correlation 0.000 -0.266 0.231 1
PBCW Sig. (2-tailed) 1.000 0.000 0.001
N 210 210 210 210
136
TABLE 4.14
Model summary of regression analysis on compressive strength of the blended cement
concrete
Model R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of

Square the Estimate
1 0.934a 0.872 0.870 3.22376

137
TABLE 4.15
ANOVA table of regression analysis on compressive strength of the blended cement concrete
Model Sum of df Mean F Sig.

Squares Square
Regression 14536.974 3 4845.658 466.260 0.000
Residual 2140.878 206 10.393
Total 16677.853 209

138
TABLE 4.16
Coefficient table of regression analysis on compressive strength of the blended cement
concrete
Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. Correlations

Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Beta Zero- Partial Part

Error order
(Constant) 17.598 0.524 33.559 0.000
Curing days 0.171 0.005 0.803 32.159 0.000 0.803 0.913 0.803
BLA -0.580 0.037 -0.407 -15.847 0.000 -0.446 -0.741 -0.396
PBCW -0.246 0.037 -0.172 -6.707 0.000 -0.266 -0.423 -0.167

139
4.5.4 Acid attack resistance
Tables 4.17 to 4.20 display the compressive strength of BLA and PBCW blended cement
concrete exposed to sulphuric acid (H2SO4) of different concentrations at various exposure
periods. The concrete specimens of this research were subjected to 0%, 1%. 3% and 5% of
sulphuric acid for 30 days, 60 days, 90 days and 120 days after curing in water for 28 days.
Strength deterioration factor (Hewayde et al., 2007; Murthi and Sivakumar, 2008) was also
calculated as the percentage reduction in compressive strength in relation to the control
exposure (0% H2SO4). Sulphuric acid behaves in two ways in its attack on concrete viz., as an
acid and as a sulphate (Balachandran and Vipulanandan, 1995). As an acid, it reacts with the
calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate product in concrete (Shetty, 2006). As a
sulphate, it attacks calcium aluminate hydrate in concrete (Shetty, 2006; Neville and Brooks,
2010). Hence, its attack on concrete is severe and damaging (Borsoi et al., 2000; Balachandran
and Vipulanandan, 1995; Reddy et al., 2002; Shetty, 2006; ACI 201.2R, 2008).
As observed generally, the first 30 days of exposure for all acid concentrations experienced
little or no reduction in compressive strength. This trend was also observed by some previous
researches on durability of concrete (Olusola, 2005; Raheem, 2006; Ata, 2012; Ojo-Olotu,
2012; Umoh, 2012). For 60 days exposure in 1% of H2SO4 (Table 4.18), there was a reduction
of 13.4% in compressive strength for replacement level 1 (0% of BLA and PBCW) and the
least was a reduction of 2.1% at level 10 while there was an increment at level 6 and 8 (0.1%
and 2.1%) respectively. After exposing the specimens for 90 days in 1% of H2SO4, the least
reduction in strength was at level 4 (10.8%) and level 3 (13.0%) while at 120 days of exposure,
replacement level 1 and 4 reduced in strength by 39.7 and 9.5% respectively and the percentage
strength reduction of level 4 was the least.
At 3% concentration of sulphuric acid, compressive strength was generally lower than that of
1% for corresponding exposure periods (Table 4.19).

140
TABLE 4.17
Compressive strength of BLA and PBCW blended cement concrete cubes exposed to 0%
sulphuric acid concentration
Curing age Replacement Compressive strength Mean compressive Strength
2
(days) levels (N/mm ) strength deterioration
1 2 3 (N/mm2) factor (%)
1 30.5 30.0 30.5 30.3 0.0
2 20.0 27.6 20.0 22.5 0.0
3 26.1 24.8 24.6 25.2 0.0
4 30.0 29.2 30.0 29.7 0.0
5 25.5 23.5 25.8 24.9 0.0
30
6 21.2 23.6 20.6 21.8 0.0
7 15.8 18.2 17.4 17.1 0.0
8 13.8 16.6 15.0 15.1 0.0
9 16.4 17.8 16.8 16.8 0.0
10 13.6 14.8 15.2 14.5 0.0
1 30.5 31.5 31.0 31.0 0.0
2 29.0 28.5 30.0 29.2 0.0
3 30.0 32.5 34.5 32.3 0.0
4 31.5 35.0 34.3 33.6 0.0
5 32.0 30.5 34.3 30.7 0.0
60
6 24.6 27.7 25.1 25.8 0.0
7 21.5 24.9 27.0 24.5 0.0
8 20.4 26.3 18.9 21.9 0.0
9 21.2 24.0 19.0 21.4 0.0
10 16.8 18.3 18.5 17.9 0.0
1 30.5 31.5 33.0 31.7 0.0
2 28.5 30.5 34.5 31.2 0.0
3 32.5 36.0 31.5 33.3 0.0
4 32.5 35.8 36.5 34.9 0.0
5 32.0 30.5 31.5 31.3 0.0
90
6 29.0 30.8 26.5 28.8 0.0
7 23.1 25.9 25.8 24.9 0.0
8 25.9 27.3 21.6 24.9 0.0
9 20.5 23.8 23.8 22.7 0.0
10 17.5 21.3 20.8 19.9 0.0
1 33 32.5 31.5 32.3 0.0
2 30.5 30.5 35 32.0 0.0
3 31 35.5 33.5 33.3 0.0
4 33 36 36 35.0 0.0
5 33 31.5 31 31.8 0.0
6 30.5 30 27 29.2 0.0
120
7 24 22.5 28 24.8 0.0
8 26 27.8 20.9 24.9 0.0
9 21 24.2 24 23.1 0.0
10 16 24 21.5 20.5 0.0

1 = (100:0:0); 2 = (90:5:5); 3 = (90:10:0); 4 = (90:0:10); 5 = (80:5:15); 6 = (80:10:10); 7 =
(80:15:5); 8 = (70:10:20); 9 = (70:15:15); 10 = (70:20:10)
141
TABLE 4.18
2
1 2 3 (N/mm2) factor (%)
1 29.4 30 31.6 30.3 0.0
2 21 22.8 21.4 21.7 3.6
3 25.2 23.5 22.8 23.8 5.3
4 29.4 28.8 33 30.4 -2.2
5 21 19.2 22.2 20.8 9.3
30
6 22 23.8 22.2 22.7 -4.0
7 17.2 22.8 18 19.3 -12.8
8 15.2 16.4 15.6 15.7 -4.0
9 16.8 15.4 13.7 15.3 8.9
10 13.7 14.5 14.5 14.2 2.1
1 28 25.5 27 26.8 13.4
2 27 25 24 25.3 13.1
3 27 26.5 32 28.5 11.9
4 29.5 29 30.5 29.7 11.7
5 27 27 26.5 26.8 12.5
60
6 25.5 27 25 25.8 -0.1
7 20.5 25 25 23.5 4.0
8 21 24 22 22.3 -2.1
9 20 19 21.5 20.2 5.8
10 17 17.5 18 17.5 2.1
1 24 23 24.5 23.8 24.7
2 26.5 27 26.5 26.7 14.4
3 30.5 31.5 31.5 29.0 13.0
4 29 28.5 29.5 31.2 10.8
5 26 26.5 24 25.5 18.6
90
6 26 23 24 24.3 15.4
7 21 20.5 23 21.5 13.8
8 20 19 19 19.3 22.5
9 20.5 18 18 18.8 17.0
10 16.5 17 16 16.5 16.9
1 21 19 18.5 19.5 39.7
2 25 25 25.5 25.2 21.4
3 32 31 32 26.7 20.0
4 27 27.5 25.5 31.7 9.5
5 25 23 23 23.7 25.7
120
6 21 22 22 21.7 25.7
7 19.5 20 20 19.8 20.1
8 17.5 17 16.5 17.0 31.7
9 16 15 15 15.3 33.5
10 14 13 14 13.7 33.3

1 = (100:0:0); 2 = (90:5:5); 3 = (90:10:0); 4 = (90:0:10); 5 = (80:5:15); 6 = (80:10:10); 7 =
(80:15:5); 8 = (70:10:20); 9 = (70:15:15); 10 = (70:20:10)
142
TABLE 4.19
2
1 2 3 (N/mm2) factor (%)
1 29 30.5 30.5 30.0 1.1
2 22 21 23.5 22.2 1.6
3 23 26.5 20 23.2 7.9
4 30 29 30 29.7 0.2
5 21.5 20 20.5 20.7 9.9
30
6 21 20.5 23.5 21.7 0.6
7 16 22.5 18 18.8 -9.9
8 15.5 16 14.5 15.3 -1.3
9 16 15.5 13.5 15.0 10.7
10 14 14 13.5 13.8 4.8
1 25 24.5 26 25.2 18.8
2 25 22 24 23.7 18.9
3 27 27.5 29 27.3 15.5
4 30 25 27 27.8 17.2
5 26.5 25 27 26.2 14.7
60
6 23 25 26 24.7 4.4
7 19.5 24.5 23.5 22.5 8.0
8 20 23.5 23 22.2 -1.4
9 19 20.5 21 20.2 5.8
10 18 18.5 16.5 17.7 1.1
1 22 20.5 20 20.8 34.2
2 25 25 24 24.7 20.9
3 30 30.5 31 26.7 20.0
4 27 26.5 26.5 30.5 12.7
5 25 23 26 24.7 21.3
90
6 25 22 22 23.0 20.0
7 20 19 18 19.0 23.8
8 18.5 18.5 17 18.0 27.8
9 19 17 16.5 17.5 22.9
10 15.5 15 16 15.5 22.0
1 17 18 15 16.7 48.5
2 21 22 22.5 21.8 31.8
3 30 30.5 32 24.8 25.5
4 26 24 24.5 30.8 11.9
5 21 24 21 22.0 30.9
120
6 20 19.5 21 20.2 30.9
7 18.5 17 17 17.5 29.5
8 16 16 15 15.7 37.1
9 13 13.5 12 12.8 44.4
10 12 11 13.5 12.2 40.7

1 = (100:0:0); 2 = (90:5:5); 3 = (90:10:0); 4 = (90:0:10); 5 = (80:5:15); 6 = (80:10:10); 7 =
(80:15:5); 8 = (70:10:20); 9 = (70:15:15); 10 = (70:20:10)
143
For 60 days of exposure, the control (level 1) and replacement level 2 were reduced by 18.8%
and 18.9% while only replacement level 8 had an increment of 1.4%. Replacement level 10
had the least strength reduction of 1.1%. After 90 days of acid exposure, the control
replacement had the largest strength reduction of 34.2% while replacement level 4 had the least
strength reduction of 12.7%. Replacement levels 3 and 6 had the next least strength reduction
of 20%. 120 days of sulphuric acid exposure had the greatest effect on the blended cement
concrete. The control replacement strength was reduced to almost half (48.5%) that of the 0%
acid concentration. Replacement levels 9 and 10 were next after level 1 with percentage
reduction of 44.4 and 40.7 respectively. Replacement level 4 had the least reduction of 11.9%
followed by level 3 with 25.5% reduction while level 5 and 6 had 30.9% reduction.
5% sulphuric acid concentration had the maximal effect on the blended cement concrete (Table
4.20). At 60 days of exposure, the control replacement suffered the greatest strength reduction
of 26.9% while replacement level 10 had the least strength reduction of 3.0%. Replacement
level 4, 5 and 6 had percentage strength reduction of 19.1%, 16.8% and 9.6% respectively.
After 90 days of exposure to 5% sulphuric acid, the control replacement level had a largest
strength reduction of 37.4% while replacement level 4 had the least strength reduction of
16.5%. Replacement levels 3, 5 and 6 had percentage reductions of 23, 27.7 and 29.3 next to
level 4. At 120 days of exposure, the control replacement level suffered heavily by a reduction
of 52.1% while replacement level 4 had the least strength reduction of 19%. Replacement levels
3, 5 and 6 suffered 30.0%, 37.7% and 38.9% strength reductions respectively.
Generally, the strength reduction became more manifested with increase in percentage
concentration of sulphuric acid and exposure age of the blended cement concrete. The strength
reduction became more pronounced at 3% and 5% of sulphuric acid and exposure periods of
90 and 120 days.

144
TABLE 4.20
2
1 2 3 (N/mm2) factor (%)
1 29.5 31 30.5 30.3 0.0
2 22.5 21.5 21 21.7 3.8
3 25.5 24 25 24.8 1.3
4 30.5 29.5 30 30.0 -0.9
5 22 21 20 21.0 8.4
30
6 22.5 22 23 22.5 -3.2
7 17 22.5 19 19.5 -13.8
8 16.5 15 16 15.8 -4.6
9 17 16 14 15.7 6.7
10 14 13.5 13 13.5 7.1
1 22 23.5 22.5 22.7 26.9
2 24 22 21 22.3 23.4
3 27.5 26.5 30.5 26.2 19.1
4 27.5 26.5 27.5 27.2 19.1
5 27 24 25.5 25.5 16.8
60
6 22 24.5 23.5 23.3 9.6
7 20.5 22.5 24 22.3 8.7
8 19.5 21.5 21.5 20.8 4.7
9 18 20 20 19.3 9.7
10 17.5 18 16.5 17.3 3.0
1 20 21.5 18 19.8 37.4
2 23 23 25.1 23.7 24.0
3 30 28.5 29 25.7 23.0
4 25 26 26 29.2 16.5
5 20.5 22 25.5 22.7 27.7
90
6 21 20 20 20.3 29.3
7 16 16 17.5 16.5 33.8
8 16 16.5 15 15.8 36.5
9 17 14 13 14.7 35.4
10 15 12.5 12.5 13.3 32.9
1 16.5 15 15 15.5 52.1
2 20 22.5 20.5 21.0 34.4
3 29 29 27 23.3 30.0
4 24 22 24 28.3 19.0
5 20 18.5 21 19.8 37.7
120
6 18 16.5 19 17.8 38.9
7 15 14.5 14 14.5 41.6
8 13.5 13 14 13.5 45.8
9 12 12 11 11.7 49.4
10 10 12 12 11.3 44.7

1 = (100:0:0), 2 = (90:5:5), 3 = (90:10:0), 4 = (90:0:10), 5 = (80:5:15), 6 = (80:10:10), 7 =
(80:15:5), 8 = (70:10:20), 9 = (70:15:15), 10 = (70:20:10)
145
4.5.5. Graphical and statistical analysis of acid attack resistance results
Figure 4.7 to 4.13 show the effect of various factors (independent variables) on the compressive
strength (dependent variable) of the blended cement concrete as a measure of its durability.
These factors include acid concentration, exposure period and replacement levels. From Figure
4.7, the plot representing concentrations of sulphuric acid cluster around one another. This
means that at 30 days of exposure, the acid concentrations had little or no difference in its effect
on the compressive strength of the blended cement concrete. However at 60 days of exposure
as presented in Figure 4.8, the effect of sulphuric acid concentration on the compressive
strength became visible at replacement level 1 up to 6 where it ceases to have obvious effect
further. In Figure 4.9 and 4.10 representing 90 and 120 days of exposure respectively, there
exists a wide gap between the effects of each concentration of acid on the compressive strength
of each replacement level. 5% of sulphuric acid at 120 days of exposure had the most
deleterious effect on the BLA and PBCW blended cement concrete. Figures 4.7 to 4.10 made
it obvious that the higher the concentration of acid and exposure period, the higher the
deleterious reduction in compressive strength of the blended cement concrete.
Figures 4.11 to 4.13 show the resistance of each replacement level to sulphuric acid attack for
each acid concentration. At 1% sulphuric acid (Figure 4.11), replacement level 4 performed
best followed by replacement levels 3, 2, 5 and 6 respectively. As depicted in Figure 4.12 (3%
sulphuric acid), replacement level 4 out-performed all other replacement levels followed by
replacement level 3. Replacement levels 2 and 5 performed equally at later days of exposure,
although, replacement level 5 did better than 2 at early days of exposure. Figure 4.13 shows
the performance of different levels of replacements in 5% sulphuric acid. Replacement level 4
performed best. At all acid concentrations, replacement levels 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 provided better
resistance than the control.

146
35.0
30.0
Compressive strength
25.0
water
1% acid
20.0 3% acid
5% acid
15.0
10.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Replacement levels
Fig. 4.7 Variation of compressive strength with replacement levels exposed to

sulphuric acid for 30 days
147
35.0
33.0
31.0
29.0
27.0
water
25.0
1% acid
3% acid
23.0
5% acid
21.0
19.0
17.0
15.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Replacement levels

148
40.0
35.0
30.0
water
25.0
1% acid
3% acid
20.0 5% acid
15.0
10.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Replacement levels

149
35.0
30.0
25.0 water
1% acid
3% acid
20.0
5% acid
15.0
10.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Replacement levels

150
35.0
30.0
control
level 2
25.0 level 3
level 4
level 5
20.0 level 6
level 7
level 8
15.0 level 9
level 10
10.0
20 40 60 80 100 120
Exposure period (days)
Fig. 4.11 Variation of compressive strength with exposure period of blended cement
concrete exposed to 1% H2SO4
151
30.0
control
level 2
25.0
level 3
level 4
level 5
20.0
level 6
level 7
level 8
15.0 level 9
level 10
10.0
20 40 60 80 100 120
Fig. 4.12 Variation of compressive strength with exposure period of blended cement
152
30.0
control
25.0 level 2
level 3
level 4
level 5
20.0
level 6
level 7
level 8
15.0 level 9
level 10
10.0
20 40 60 80 100 120
Figure 4.13 Variation of compressive strength with exposure period of blended cement
153
Hence, it would be recommended that when concrete will be exposed to severe acid/sulphate
environment, OPC in concrete can be replaced by 10% PBCW for better durability. For the
case of mild environment of concrete exposure, replacement levels 5 or 6 can be adopted.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out and the result presented in Table 4.21. It shows
that the exposure period, replacement levels and acid concentration have statistical significant
effect on the compressive strength. This is true for the second level interaction effect but the
third level interaction doesn’t have a significant effect on the compressive strength. R2 of 0.95
(i.e. the coefficient of determination) implies a strong statistical association between the
independent variables and the dependent variable. The independent variables are estimated to
explain 95.0% of the variance in the compressive strength. The coefficient of correlation
(Square root of adjusted R-Squared) obtained as R= 0.975 also shows that a relatively strong
linear relationship exists between the independent variables and the dependent variable.
The multi range test of the compressive strengths at varying levels of replacement (Table 4.22)
shows that the compressive strength is strongest at replacement level 4 with a mean of 30.60
N/mm2 followed by replacement level 3 with a mean of 28.89 N/mm2. The strength at
replacement level 1 with a mean of 24.23 N/mm2 and the strength at replacement level 5 with
a mean of 24.75 N/mm2 are not statistically significantly different from each other. The next
best strength was then obtained at replacement level 2 (24.68 N/mm2) and then replacement
level 6 (23.35 N/mm2). Replacement level 7, 8 and 9 were also not statistically significantly
different from one another with mean of 20.39 N/mm2, 18.65 N/mm2 and 17.53 N/mm2
respectively. The compressive strength is weakest at replacement level 10 with a mean of 15.61
N/mm2. Hence, after replacement levels 3 and 4, replacement level 5 can be taken as ideal
containing both BLA and PBCW.

154
TABLE 4.21
ANOVA for acid attack resistance result
Source Type III Sum df Mean F Sig. Partial Eta

of Squares Square Squared
Corrected Model 15215.979a 159 95.698 38.130 0.000 0.950
Intercept 249924.641 1 249924.641 99579.009 0.000 0.997
Replacement 9189.742 9 1021.082 406.836 0.000 0.920
Exposure 776.272 3 258.757 103.098 0.000 0.491
ConcAcid 2323.732 3 774.577 308.620 0.000 0.743
Replacement * Exposure 1308.731 27 48.472 19.313 0.000 0.620
Replacement * ConcAcid 214.735 27 7.953 3.169 0.000 0.211
Exposure * ConcAcid 1155.417 9 128.380 51.151 0.000 0.590
Replacement * Exposure
247.349 81 3.054 1.217 0.121 0.235
* ConcAcid
Error 803.140 320 2.510
Total 265943.760 480
R Squared = .950 (Adjusted R Squared = .925)
ConcAcid – Acid concentration
CompStren1 – Compressive strength

155
TABLE 4.22
Multi range test for acid attack resistance for varying replacement levels
Subset Mean N Replacement

7 30.6041 48 Level 4
6 28.8854 48 Level 3
5 25.4271 48 Level 1
5 24.7542 48 Level 5
4 24.6750 48 Level 2
3 23.3458 48 Level 6
2 20.3875 48 Level 7
2 18.6500 48 Level 8
2 17.5271 48 Level 9
1 15.6146 48 Level 10
156
Multi range test of the compressive strengths at varying levels of acid concentrations (Table
4.23) shows that 0% of H2SO4 has the least deleterious effect on the blended cement concrete
with a mean compressive strength of 26.37 N/mm2 while 5% of H2SO4 had the least mean
compressive strength of 20.55 N/mm2. Table 4.24 displays the multi range test for compressive
strength with varying days of exposure. The mean strength at 60 days is higher than that at 30
days probably because as at 30 and 60 days of exposure, the compressive strength of the
concrete cubes was increasing. That is, the deleterious ettringite being produced by the
sulphuric acid reaction was still filling available pores in the concrete cubes (Meng-Cheng et
al., 2013). At 90 and 120 days of exposure, the mean compressive strength had dropped to
23.56 and 21.81, that is, the sulphuric acid had taken its toll on the blended cement concrete.
The correlation and regression analysis of acid attack resistance of the BLA and PBCW blended
cement concrete are presented in Table 4.25 to 4.28. Table 4.25 shows that a good correlation
exist between all the considered independent variables and the dependent variable
(compressive strength) except for exposure period. Exposure period has zero correlation with
the compressive strength, that is, it has no definite relationship nor variation with the
compressive strength. Hence, exposure period was removed from the variables considered in
the regression analysis. As presented in Table 4.26, acid concentration, BLA and PBCW
significantly explained for 54.7% of the variations in compressive strength. This means that
the regression line doesn’t have the best fit to the observed data. The remaining 45.3% of the
total variation in compressive strength may be attributed to factors not included in the random
variables. Also, ANOVA table of Table 4.27 shows that all the considered factors are
statistically significant to the regression model. The regression equation is therefore:
Fcu = 31.861 – 1.027 Ac – 0.498 (BLA) – 0.250 (PBCW) --------- (4.3)
Where Fcu – compressive strength (N/mm2)
Ac – acid concentration (%)

157
BLA – bamboo leaf ash content (%)
PBCW – pulverized burnt clay waste content (%)
The equation shows the influence of acid concentration and various percentages of BLA and
PBCW on the acidic resistance of the blended cement concrete. When BLA and PBCW is kept
constant, a unit change in acid concentration will lead to a decrease of 1.027 in the compressive
strength of the blended cement concrete. Also, when acid concentration and PBCW is kept
constant, a unit change in BLA will lead to a decrease of 0.498 in the compressive strength of
the blended cement concrete. When acid concentration and BLA is kept constant, a unit change
in PBCW will lead to a decrease of 0.250 in the compressive strength of the blended cement
concrete.
158
TABLE 4.23
Multi range test for acid attack resistance for varying concentration of sulphuric acid
Subset Mean N ConcAcid

4 26.3717 120 0%
3 22.7925 120 1%
2 21.5625 120 3%
1 20.5467 120 5%

159
TABLE 4.24
Multi range test for acid attack resistance for varying days of exposure
Subset Mean N Days of exposure

3 120 24.5125 60 days
2 120 23.5583 90 days
1 120 21.8117 120 days
1 120 21.3908 30 days

160
TABLE 4.25
Correlation analysis on acid attack resistance of the blended cement concrete
ConcAcid Exposure Compstren1 BLA PBCW

Pearson
1
Correlation
ConcAcid
Sig. (2-tailed)
N 480
Pearson
0.000 1
Correlation
Exposure
Sig. (2-tailed) 1.000
N 480 480
Pearson
0.341 0.006 1
Correlation
Compstren1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.896
N 480 480 480
Pearson
0.000 0.000 -0.601 1
Correlation
BLA
Sig. (2-tailed) 1.000 1.000 0.000
N 480 480 480 480
Pearson
0.000 0.000 -0.395 0.231 1
Correlation
PBCW
Sig. (2-tailed) 1.000 1.000 0.000 0.000
N 480 480 480 480 480

161
TABLE 4.26
Model summary of regression analysis on acid attack resistance of the blended cement
concrete
R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of

Square the Estimate
0.739 0.547 0.544 3.90654

162
TABLE 4.27
ANOVA table of regression analysis on acid attack resistance of the blended cement concrete
Model Sum of df Mean Square F Sig.

Squares
Regression 8754.845 3 2918.282 191.224 0.000
Residual 7264.273 476 15.261
Total 16019.119 479

163
TABLE 4.28
Coefficient table of regression analysis on acid attack resistance of the blended cement
concrete

B Std. Beta Zero-order Partial Part
Error
(Constant) 31.861 0.427 74.531 0.000
ConcAcid -1.027 0.093 -0.341 -11.063 0.000 -0.341 -0.452 -0.341
BLA -0.498 0.029 -0.538 -16.967 0.000 -0.601 -0.614 -0.524
PBCW -0.250 0.029 -0.270 -8.523 0.000 -0.395 -0.364 -0.263

164
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION
Based on the results obtained in this study, the following conclusions can be made.
1. BLA and PBCW are suitable materials as pozzolan based on their meeting the minimum
requirements stipulated by relevant standards and codes.
2. Blended cements obtained from BLA, PBCW and OPC satisfied the requirements of
relevant standards on their physical and chemical properties and hence, can be referred to
as good pozzolanic cement.
3. The addition of BLA and PBCW in blended cement concrete reduced its workability,
hence, more water is required to make a workable mix. BLA required more water than
PBCW.
4. BLA and PBCW blended cement concrete had low compressive strength relative to
conventional concrete at early ages of hydration but had higher strength at later ages.
However, 10% of PBCW attained the targeted strength of 25 N/mm2 at 28 days of curing,
hence, it is regarded as optimum replacement for structural concrete. For concreting when
early strength is not paramount, a replacement of 10% PBCW and 5% BLA is regarded as
good while for mass concreting, a replacement of 10% PBCW and 10% BLA is regarded
as good. For medium performance concrete (e.g. 35 N/mm2) designed for later days of
hydration, 10% of PBCW as replacement can be utilized.
5. Incorporation of BLA and PBCW in concrete improved its resistance to sulphuric acid
attack in both mild and severe conditions. In mild conditions, a replacement of 10% PBCW
and 10% BLA is taken as good, but in severe conditions, 10% of PBCW as replacement is
regarded as having best performance.

165
5.2 RECOMMENDATION
From the conclusions made above, the following recommendations are made.
1. BLA and PBCW can be used and commercialized as pozzolans since they exist as waste in
our environment. This will help in reducing the consumption of ordinary Portland cement
and thereby saving cost.
2. Using BLA and PBCW as an additive to cement rather than an admixture should yield
results better than those of this study. Hence, cement manufacturers can produce pozzolan
cements with BLA and PBCW, reducing their capital cost, production waste, energy
expense, CO2 emission etc.
3. Chemical resistant concrete can be achieved with the use of BLA and PBCW. Results of
this study on durability are promising, however, if they can be used as additives, a more
durable concrete is expected.
For further study, the following are recommended.
4. Since PBCW out-performed BLA, various alternatives can be explored with PBCW by
combining it with other known/established pozzolan.
5. The use of superplasticizers with the blended cement concrete can be investigated in-order
to study the prospects of reducing the high water/cement ratio required to achieve desired
workability and thereby increasing strength.
6. Other strength properties such as tensile, shear and flexural can be studied for the ternary
combination of BLA, PBCW and OPC in concrete.
7. Other durability parameters of concrete can be undertaken for these pozzolans, these
include diffusivity, absorption, alkali-silica reaction, freeze and thaw, corrosion, abrasion
etc.
8. Anchorage bond of steel with the new blended cement concrete can also be looked into.
166
9. The inclusion of BLA and PBCW in the manufacture of cement can be studied as a better
option to mixing it on site with other concrete constituents.

167
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187
APPENDIX A
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS USED

188
TABLE A1
Sieve analysis and physical properties of sand used
Weight Percentage Cumulative Percentage

BS sieve Retained Retained Percentage Passing
size (g) (%) Retained (%) (%)
4.75 mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
2.36 mm 85.0 17.0 16.0 84.0
1.18 mm 130.2 26.0 42.0 58.0
600 µm 100.8 20.2 62.2 37.8
425 µm 60.1 12.0 74.2 25.8
300 µm 40.0 8.0 82.2 17.8
212 µm 36.0 7.2 89.3 10.6
150 µm 23.5 4.7 94.1 5.9
75 µm 15.0 3.0 97.1 2.9
63 µm 7.9 1.6 98.7 1.3
Receiver 1.5 0.3 99.0 1.0
Total 500
Sum of % retained on the 9 sieves:
(150 µm, 300 µm,600 µm, 1.18 mm, 2.36 mm, 4.75 mm, 10
mm, 20 mm, 40 mm) 254.5
254.5
Fineness Modulus = = 2.5
100
𝐷𝐷60 1.18 × 10−3

Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) = = = 5.60 ≈ 6
𝐷𝐷10 212 × 10−6
(𝐷𝐷30 )2 (486 × 10−6 )2

Coefficient of curvature (Cc) = = = 0.94 ≈ 1
𝐷𝐷10 × 𝐷𝐷60 1.18 × 10−3 × 212 × 10−6
Where, D60 is the diameter of aggregates at 60 percent passing;
D30 is the diameter of aggregates at 30 percent passing;
D10 is the diameter of aggregates at 10 percent passing.

189
TABLE A2
Sieve analysis and physical properties of granite used
Weight Percentage Cumulative Percentage

BS sieve Retained Retained Percentage Passing
size (g) (%) Retained (%) (%)
37.5 mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
28 mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
20 mm 630.0 15.8 15.8 84.3
14 mm 2150.0 53.8 69.5 30.5
10 mm 876.7 21.9 91.4 8.6
6.3 mm 310.0 7.8 99.2 0.8
Receiver 33.3 0.8 100.0 0.0
4000.0 324.2
Sum of % retained on the 9 sieves:
(150 µm, 300 µm,600 µm, 1.18 mm, 2.36 mm, 4.75
mm, 10 mm, 20 mm, 40 mm) 707.2
707.2
Fineness Modulus = = 7.1
100
𝐷𝐷60 17.3
Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) = = = 1.67 ≈ 2
𝐷𝐷10 10.3
(𝐷𝐷30 )2 142
Coefficient of curvature (Cc) = = = 1.099 ≈ 1.1
𝐷𝐷10 × 𝐷𝐷60 17.3 × 10.3
Where, D60 is the diameter of aggregates at 60 percent passing;
D30 is the diameter of aggregates at 30 percent passing;
D10 is the diameter of aggregates at 10 percent passing.

190
SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF BLENDED CEMENT CONCRETE MATERIALS
TABLE A3
Specific gravity of sand used
S/N Description Weight (g)
1 Weight of Empty Pycnometer (g) W1 188
2 Weight of Empty Pycnometer + Sample (g) W2 368
3 Weight of Empty Pycnometer + Sample + Water (g) W3 586
4 Weight of Pycnometer + Water (g) W4 474
Specific Gravity 2.65
TABLE A4
Specific gravity of granite used
TABLE A5
Specific gravity of bamboo leaf ash used
191
TABLE A6
Specific gravity of pulverized burnt clay waste used
TABLE A7
Specific gravity of ordinary Portland cement used
TABLE A8
Specific gravity of OPC, BLA, PBCW (90%:5%:5%) blended cement used
192
TABLE A9
TABLE A10
Specific gravity of OPC, BLA, PBCW (90%:0%:10%) blended cement used used
TABLE A11
193
TABLE A12
TABLE A13
TABLE A14
194
TABLE A15
TABLE A16
2 Weight of Empty Pycnometer + Sample (g)W2 301
195
TABLE A17
Fineness of OPC, blended cement and pozzolans
S/N OPC BLA PBCW Particles Particles Particles 90 45
% % % Retained on Retained on Retained Microns Microns
90 Mic 45 Mic on Pan
Sieve (g) Sieve (g) (g)
1 100 0 0 7.68 52.32 140 3.84 30
2 90 5 5 7.52 54.48 138 3.76 31
3 90 10 0 7.52 54.48 138 3.76 31
4 90 0 10 7.60 54.40 138 3.8 31
5 80 5 15 7.44 52.56 140 3.72 30
6 80 10 10 7.52 52.48 140 3.76 30
7 80 15 5 7.36 52.64 140 3.68 30
8 70 10 20 7.20 54.80 138 3.6 31
9 70 15 15 6.72 51.28 142 3.36 29
10 70 20 10 7.04 54.96 138 3.52 31
11 0 100 0 7.52 52.48 140 3.76 30
12 0 0 100 7.82 54.18 138 3.92 31
196
STANDARD CONSISTNECY, INITIAL AND FINAL SETTING TIMES

OF OPC, BLENDED CEEMNTS AND POZZOLANS
TABLE A18
Standard consistency, initial and final setting times of OPC, BLA and PBCW (100%:0%:0%)
blended cement
Mass Water cement Ratio Initial Setting Final Setting
(g) for Consistency Time (min) Time (min)
200 0.28 110 210
TABLE A19
blended cement
200 0.29 90 192
TABLE A20
blended cement
200 0.29 50 126
TABLE A21
blended cement
200 0.29 88 158
197
TABLE A22
blended cement
200 0.29 65 244
TABLE A23
Standard consistency, initial and final setting times of OPC, BLA and PBCW
(80%:10%:10%) blended cement
200 0.29 45 118
TABLE A24
blended cement
200 0.32 110 227
TABLE A25
200 0.30 77 150
198
TABLE A26
200 0.32 65 103
TABLE A27
200 0.32 60 110
199
TABLE A28
Sample OPC BLA PBCW Cracks Dimension change
% % %
1 100 0 0 no no
2 90 5 5 no Expanded by 1mm
3 90 10 0 no no
4 90 0 10 no no
5 80 5 15 no no
6 80 10 10 no no
8 70 10 20 no no
9 70 15 15 no no
11 0 100 0 no no
12 0 0 100 no Shrank by 1mm

200
BULK DENSITIES OF CEMENT AND POZZOLANS
TABLE A29
Uncompacted bulk density of OPC

1 Weight of proctor mould (g) W1 1374 g
2 Weight of proctor mould + Sample (g) W2 2342 g
3 Volume of proctor mould (g) W3 929.5 cm3
Bulk density 1.04 g/cm3
TABLE A30
Compacted bulk density of OPC

TABLE A31
Uncompacted bulk density of BLA

201
TABLE A32
Compacted bulk density of BLA

TABLE A33
Uncompacted bulk Density of PBCW

TABLE A34
Compacted bulk Density of PBCW

202
APPENDIX B
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH ANALYSIS
203
UNIANOVA Compstren1 BY Replacement Curing
/METHOD=SSTYPE(3)
/INTERCEPT=INCLUDE
/POSTHOC=Replacement Curing(TUKEY DUNCAN)
/PLOT=PROFILE(Replacement*Curing Curing*Replacement)
/EMMEANS=TABLES(OVERALL)
/PRINT=ETASQ HOMOGENEITY DESCRIPTIVE
/CRITERIA=ALPHA(.05)
/DESIGN=Replacement Curing Replacement*Curing.
Univariate Analysis of Variance
Between-Subjects Factors
Value Label N
1.00 Mixture 1 21
2.00 Mixture 2 21
3.00 Mixture 3 21
4.00 Mixture 4 21
5.00 Mixture 5 21
Replacement
6.00 Mixture 6 21
7.00 Mixture 7 21
8.00 Mixture 8 21
9.00 Mixture 9 21
10.00 Mixture 10 21
1.00 3 days 30
2.00 7 days 30
3.00 14 days 30
Curing 4.00 28 days 30
5.00 56 days 30
6.00 90 days 30
7.00 120 days 30

204
Descriptive Statistics
Dependent Variable: Compstren
Replacement Curing Mean Std. Deviation N
3 days 13.3667 .75056 3
7 days 16.4000 .40000 3
14 days 24.6667 1.15470 3
28 days 29.1667 1.25831 3

Mixture 1
56 days 30.3333 .28868 3
90 days 31.0000 .50000 3
120 days 31.6667 1.25831 3
Total 25.2286 7.13086 21

3 days 7.7667 .40415 3
7 days 10.6000 .80000 3
14 days 13.9333 1.33167 3
28 days 16.4667 1.74738 3
Mixture 2
56 days 22.5333 4.38786 3
90 days 29.1667 .76376 3
120 days 31.1667 3.05505 3
Total 18.8048 8.79468 21
3 days 8.4667 1.00664 3
7 days 11.1333 .30551 3
14 days 14.1333 .61101 3
28 days 18.2667 2.19393 3
Mixture 3
56 days 25.1667 .81445 3
90 days 32.3333 2.25462 3
120 days 33.3333 2.36291 3
Total 20.4048 9.61439 21
3 days 13.3333 1.00664 3
7 days 18.6000 .87178 3
14 days 19.2667 1.41892 3
28 days 25.0667 1.10151 3
Mixture 4
56 days 29.7333 .46188 3
90 days 33.6000 1.85203 3
120 days 34.9333 2.13620 3
Total 24.9333 7.87803 21
3 days 6.0000 1.00000 3
7 days 10.1333 1.02632 3
14 days 12.9000 .45826 3
Mixture 5 28 days 15.4000 2.22711 3
56 days 22.9333 2.53246 3
90 days 30.6667 1.25831 3
120 days 31.3333 .76376 3
205
Total 18.4810 9.56659 21

3 days 8.0000 .20000 3
7 days 9.8333 .76376 3
14 days 12.6000 1.50997 3
28 days 18.0000 3.00000 3
Mixture 6
56 days 21.8000 1.58745 3
90 days 25.8000 1.66433 3
120 days 28.7667 2.15948 3
Total 17.8286 7.75971 21
3 days 4.5000 .30000 3
7 days 8.0000 1.24900 3
14 days 9.8667 .61101 3
28 days 13.7333 .80829 3
Mixture 7
56 days 17.1333 1.22202 3
90 days 24.4667 2.77549 3
120 days 24.9333 1.58850 3
Total 14.6619 7.63718 21
3 days 3.7333 .61101 3
7 days 5.3667 .77675 3
14 days 9.8000 .52915 3
28 days 11.5000 .50000 3
Mixture 8
56 days 15.1333 1.40475 3
90 days 21.8667 3.91195 3
120 days 24.9333 2.97041 3
Total 13.1905 7.74938 21
3 days 5.5667 .55076 3
7 days 8.0000 .52915 3
14 days 12.3333 .75719 3
28 days 13.9333 .81445 3
Mixture 9
56 days 16.8000 .40000 3
90 days 21.4000 2.50599 3
120 days 22.7000 1.90526 3
Total 14.3905 6.18530 21
3 days 3.4000 .20000 3
7 days 4.7000 .81854 3
14 days 9.0667 .61101 3
28 days 11.0667 1.10151 3
Mixture 10
56 days 14.5333 .83267 3
90 days 17.8667 .92916 3
120 days 19.8667 2.06478 3
Total 11.5000 6.03871 21
3 days 7.4133 3.50386 30
Total
7 days 10.2767 4.28716 30
206
14 days 13.8567 4.69113 30
28 days 17.2600 5.76856 30
56 days 21.6100 5.70743 30
90 days 26.8167 5.42053 30
120 days 28.3633 5.12381 30
Total 17.9424 8.93299 210
Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variancesa

F df1 df2 Sig.
2.910 69 140 .000
Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the

dependent variable is equal across groups.
a. Design: Intercept + Replacement + Curing +
Replacement * Curing
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Source Type III Sum of df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta

Squares Squared
Corrected Model 16336.139a 69 236.756 96.999 .000 .980

Intercept 67605.097 1 67605.097 27697.818 .000 .995
Replacement 4127.223 9 458.580 187.880 .000 .924
Curing 11627.500 6 1937.917 793.965 .000 .971
Replacement * Curing 581.416 54 10.767 4.411 .000 .630
Error 341.713 140 2.441
Total 84282.950 210
a. R Squared = .980 (Adjusted R Squared = .969)

Estimated Marginal Means
Grand Mean
Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound Upper Bound
17.942 .108 17.729 18.156

207
Post Hoc Tests
Replacement
Multiple Comparisons
(I) Replacement (J) Replacement Mean Difference Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval
(I-J) Lower Bound Upper Bound
Mixture 2 6.4238* .48214 .000 4.8735 7.9741
Mixture 3 4.8238* .48214 .000 3.2735 6.3741
Mixture 4 .2952 .48214 1.000 -1.2550 1.8455
Mixture 5 6.7476* .48214 .000 5.1974 8.2979
Mixture 1 Mixture 6 7.4000* .48214 .000 5.8497 8.9503
Mixture 7 10.5667* .48214 .000 9.0164 12.1169
Mixture 8 12.0381* .48214 .000 10.4878 13.5884
Mixture 9 10.8381* .48214 .000 9.2878 12.3884
Mixture 10 13.7286* .48214 .000 12.1783 15.2788
Mixture 1 -6.4238* .48214 .000 -7.9741 -4.8735
Mixture 3 -1.6000* .48214 .037 -3.1503 -.0497
Mixture 4 -6.1286* .48214 .000 -7.6788 -4.5783
Mixture 5 .3238 .48214 1.000 -1.2265 1.8741
Mixture 2 Mixture 6 .9762 .48214 .583 -.5741 2.5265
Mixture 7 4.1429* .48214 .000 2.5926 5.6931

Tukey HSD
Mixture 8 5.6143* .48214 .000 4.0640 7.1646
Mixture 9 4.4143* .48214 .000 2.8640 5.9646
Mixture 10 7.3048* .48214 .000 5.7545 8.8550
Mixture 1 -4.8238* .48214 .000 -6.3741 -3.2735
Mixture 2 1.6000* .48214 .037 .0497 3.1503
Mixture 4 -4.5286* .48214 .000 -6.0788 -2.9783
Mixture 5 1.9238* .48214 .004 .3735 3.4741
Mixture 3 Mixture 6 2.5762* .48214 .000 1.0259 4.1265
Mixture 7 5.7429* .48214 .000 4.1926 7.2931
Mixture 8 7.2143* .48214 .000 5.6640 8.7646
Mixture 9 6.0143* .48214 .000 4.4640 7.5646
Mixture 10 8.9048* .48214 .000 7.3545 10.4550
Mixture 1 -.2952 .48214 1.000 -1.8455 1.2550
Mixture 4 Mixture 2 6.1286* .48214 .000 4.5783 7.6788
Mixture 3 4.5286* .48214 .000 2.9783 6.0788

208
Mixture 5 6.4524* .48214 .000 4.9021 8.0026
Mixture 6 7.1048* .48214 .000 5.5545 8.6550
Mixture 7 10.2714* .48214 .000 8.7212 11.8217
Mixture 8 11.7429* .48214 .000 10.1926 13.2931
Mixture 9 10.5429* .48214 .000 8.9926 12.0931
Mixture 10 13.4333* .48214 .000 11.8831 14.9836
Mixture 1 -6.7476* .48214 .000 -8.2979 -5.1974
Mixture 2 -.3238 .48214 1.000 -1.8741 1.2265
Mixture 3 -1.9238* .48214 .004 -3.4741 -.3735
Mixture 4 -6.4524* .48214 .000 -8.0026 -4.9021
Mixture 5 Mixture 6 .6524 .48214 .939 -.8979 2.2026
Mixture 7 3.8190* .48214 .000 2.2688 5.3693
Mixture 8 5.2905* .48214 .000 3.7402 6.8407
Mixture 9 4.0905* .48214 .000 2.5402 5.6407

Mixture 10 6.9810* .48214 .000 5.4307 8.5312
Mixture 1 -7.4000* .48214 .000 -8.9503 -5.8497
Mixture 2 -.9762 .48214 .583 -2.5265 .5741
Mixture 3 -2.5762* .48214 .000 -4.1265 -1.0259
Mixture 4 -7.1048* .48214 .000 -8.6550 -5.5545
Mixture 6 Mixture 5 -.6524 .48214 .939 -2.2026 .8979
Mixture 7 3.1667* .48214 .000 1.6164 4.7169
Mixture 8 4.6381* .48214 .000 3.0878 6.1884
Mixture 9 3.4381* .48214 .000 1.8878 4.9884
Mixture 10 6.3286* .48214 .000 4.7783 7.8788
Mixture 1 -10.5667* .48214 .000 -12.1169 -9.0164
Mixture 2 -4.1429* .48214 .000 -5.6931 -2.5926
Mixture 3 -5.7429* .48214 .000 -7.2931 -4.1926
Mixture 4 -10.2714* .48214 .000 -11.8217 -8.7212

Mixture 7 Mixture 5 -3.8190* .48214 .000 -5.3693 -2.2688
Mixture 6 -3.1667* .48214 .000 -4.7169 -1.6164
Mixture 8 1.4714 .48214 .078 -.0788 3.0217
Mixture 9 .2714 .48214 1.000 -1.2788 1.8217
Mixture 10 3.1619* .48214 .000 1.6116 4.7122
Mixture 1 -12.0381* .48214 .000 -13.5884 -10.4878
Mixture 2 -5.6143* .48214 .000 -7.1646 -4.0640
Mixture 8 Mixture 3 -7.2143* .48214 .000 -8.7646 -5.6640
Mixture 4 -11.7429* .48214 .000 -13.2931 -10.1926
Mixture 5 -5.2905* .48214 .000 -6.8407 -3.7402

209
Mixture 6 -4.6381* .48214 .000 -6.1884 -3.0878
Mixture 7 -1.4714 .48214 .078 -3.0217 .0788
Mixture 9 -1.2000 .48214 .284 -2.7503 .3503
Mixture 10 1.6905* .48214 .021 .1402 3.2407
Mixture 1 -10.8381* .48214 .000 -12.3884 -9.2878
Mixture 2 -4.4143* .48214 .000 -5.9646 -2.8640
Mixture 3 -6.0143* .48214 .000 -7.5646 -4.4640
Mixture 4 -10.5429* .48214 .000 -12.0931 -8.9926
Mixture 9 Mixture 5 -4.0905* .48214 .000 -5.6407 -2.5402
Mixture 6 -3.4381* .48214 .000 -4.9884 -1.8878
Mixture 7 -.2714 .48214 1.000 -1.8217 1.2788
Mixture 8 1.2000 .48214 .284 -.3503 2.7503
Mixture 10 2.8905* .48214 .000 1.3402 4.4407
Mixture 1 -13.7286* .48214 .000 -15.2788 -12.1783

Mixture 2 -7.3048* .48214 .000 -8.8550 -5.7545
Mixture 3 -8.9048* .48214 .000 -10.4550 -7.3545
Mixture 4 -13.4333* .48214 .000 -14.9836 -11.8831
Mixture 10 Mixture 5 -6.9810* .48214 .000 -8.5312 -5.4307
Mixture 6 -6.3286* .48214 .000 -7.8788 -4.7783
Mixture 7 -3.1619* .48214 .000 -4.7122 -1.6116
Mixture 8 -1.6905* .48214 .021 -3.2407 -.1402
Mixture 9 -2.8905* .48214 .000 -4.4407 -1.3402
Based on observed means.

The error term is Mean Square(Error) = 2.441.
*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
Homogeneous Subsets
Compstren
Replacement N Subset
1 2 3 4 5 6
Mixture 10 21 11.5000
Mixture 8 21 13.1905
Mixture 9 21 14.3905
Tukey HSDa,b Mixture 7 21 14.6619
Mixture 6 21 17.8286
Mixture 5 21 18.4810
Mixture 2 21 18.8048
210
Mixture 3 21 20.4048
Mixture 4 21 24.9333
Mixture 1 21 25.2286
Sig. 1.000 .078 .583 1.000 1.000

Mixture 10 21 11.5000
Mixture 8 21 13.1905
Mixture 9 21 14.3905
Mixture 7 21 14.6619
Mixture 6 21 17.8286
Duncana,b Mixture 5 21 18.4810
Mixture 2 21 18.8048
Mixture 3 21 20.4048
Mixture 4 21 24.9333
Mixture 1 21 25.2286
Sig. 1.000 1.000 .574 .057 1.000 .541
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 21.000.
b. Alpha = .05.
Curing
(I) Curing (J) Curing Mean Difference Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval
7 days -2.8633* .40339 .000 -4.0701 -1.6565
14 days -6.4433* .40339 .000 -7.6501 -5.2365
28 days -9.8467* .40339 .000 -11.0535 -8.6399

3 days
56 days -14.1967* .40339 .000 -15.4035 -12.9899
90 days -19.4033* .40339 .000 -20.6101 -18.1965

Tukey HSD
120 days -20.9500* .40339 .000 -22.1568 -19.7432
3 days 2.8633* .40339 .000 1.6565 4.0701
14 days -3.5800* .40339 .000 -4.7868 -2.3732

7 days
28 days -6.9833* .40339 .000 -8.1901 -5.7765
56 days -11.3333* .40339 .000 -12.5401 -10.1265

211
90 days -16.5400* .40339 .000 -17.7468 -15.3332
120 days -18.0867* .40339 .000 -19.2935 -16.8799
3 days 6.4433* .40339 .000 5.2365 7.6501
7 days 3.5800* .40339 .000 2.3732 4.7868
28 days -3.4033* .40339 .000 -4.6101 -2.1965

14 days
56 days -7.7533* .40339 .000 -8.9601 -6.5465
90 days -12.9600* .40339 .000 -14.1668 -11.7532
120 days -14.5067* .40339 .000 -15.7135 -13.2999
3 days 9.8467* .40339 .000 8.6399 11.0535
7 days 6.9833* .40339 .000 5.7765 8.1901
14 days 3.4033* .40339 .000 2.1965 4.6101

28 days
56 days -4.3500* .40339 .000 -5.5568 -3.1432
90 days -9.5567* .40339 .000 -10.7635 -8.3499
120 days -11.1033* .40339 .000 -12.3101 -9.8965

3 days 14.1967* .40339 .000 12.9899 15.4035
7 days 11.3333* .40339 .000 10.1265 12.5401
14 days 7.7533* .40339 .000 6.5465 8.9601

56 days
28 days 4.3500* .40339 .000 3.1432 5.5568
90 days -5.2067* .40339 .000 -6.4135 -3.9999
120 days -6.7533* .40339 .000 -7.9601 -5.5465
3 days 19.4033* .40339 .000 18.1965 20.6101
7 days 16.5400* .40339 .000 15.3332 17.7468
14 days 12.9600* .40339 .000 11.7532 14.1668

90 days
28 days 9.5567* .40339 .000 8.3499 10.7635
56 days 5.2067* .40339 .000 3.9999 6.4135
120 days -1.5467* .40339 .004 -2.7535 -.3399
3 days 20.9500* .40339 .000 19.7432 22.1568
7 days 18.0867* .40339 .000 16.8799 19.2935

14 days 14.5067* .40339 .000 13.2999 15.7135
120 days
28 days 11.1033* .40339 .000 9.8965 12.3101
56 days 6.7533* .40339 .000 5.5465 7.9601
90 days 1.5467* .40339 .004 .3399 2.7535

212
Homogeneous Subsets
Compstren
Curing N Subset
1 2 3 4 5 6
3 days 30 7.4133
7 days 30 10.2767
14 days 30 13.8567
28 days 30 17.2600
Tukey HSDa,b
56 days 30 21.6100
90 days 30 26.8167
120 days 30
Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

3 days 30 7.4133
7 days 30 10.2767
14 days 30 13.8567
28 days 30 17.2600
Duncana,b
56 days 30 21.6100
90 days 30 26.8167
120 days 30
Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

b. Alpha = .05.
Profile Plots
213
214
215
REGRESSION
/MISSING LISTWISE
/STATISTICS COEFF OUTS R ANOVA ZPP
/CRITERIA=PIN(.05) POUT(.10)
/NOORIGIN
/DEPENDENT Compstren1
/METHOD=ENTER bla.
Regression
Variables Entered/Removeda
Model Variables Variables Method

Entered Removed
1 BLAb . Enter
a. Dependent Variable: Compressive strength

b. All requested variables entered.
Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of the

Square Estimate
1 .446a .199 .195 8.01334
a. Predictors: (Constant), BLA
ANOVAa
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Regression 3321.427 1 3321.427 51.725 .000b
1 Residual 13356.426 208 64.214
Total 16677.853 209

b. Predictors: (Constant), BLA
216
Coefficientsa

B Std. Error Beta Zero- Partial Part

order
(Constant
23.674 .970 24.407 .000
1 )
BLA -.637 .089 -.446 -7.192 .000 -.446 -.446 -.446
REGRESSION
/MISSING LISTWISE
/NOORIGIN
/METHOD=ENTER pbcw.
Regression
Model Summary

Square Estimate
1 .266a .071 .066 8.63209
a. Predictors: (Constant), PBCW
ANOVAa
Regression 1179.143 1 1179.143 15.825 .000b
1 Residual 15498.710 208 74.513
Total 16677.853 209

b. Predictors: (Constant), PBCW
Coefficientsa

217

order
(Constant
21.357 1.045 20.440 .000
1 )
PBCW -.379 .095 -.266 -3.978 .000 -.266 -.266 -.266
REGRESSION
/MISSING LISTWISE
/NOORIGIN
/METHOD=ENTER bla pbcw.
Regression
Model Summary

Square Estimate
1 .477a .227 .220 7.89083
a. Predictors: (Constant), PBCW, BLA
ANOVAa
Regression 3788.964 2 1894.482 30.426 .000b
1 Residual 12888.888 207 62.265
Total 16677.853 209

b. Predictors: (Constant), PBCW, BLA
218
Coefficientsa


order
(Constant
25.374 1.139 22.278 .000
)
1
BLA -.580 .090 -.407 -6.474 .000 -.446 -.410 -.396
PBCW -.246 .090 -.172 -2.740 .007 -.266 -.187 -.167
GET
FILE='C:\Users\FOLAMI\Desktop\Tope\data\Water curing.sav'.
DATASET NAME DataSet1 WINDOW=FRONT.
REGRESSION
/MISSING LISTWISE
/NOORIGIN
/METHOD=ENTER Curing.
Regression

Entered Removed
1 Curingb . Enter

Model Summary

Square Estimate
1 .803a .644 .643 5.33937
a. Predictors: (Constant), Curing

219
ANOVAa
Regression 10748.010 1 10748.010 377.006 .000b
1 Residual 5929.843 208 28.509
Total 16677.853 209

b. Predictors: (Constant), Curing
Coefficientsa

B Std. Error Beta Zero-order Partial Part
(Constant) 10.166 .544 18.682 .000

1
Curing .171 .009 .803 19.417 .000 .803 .803 .803
Regression

Entered Removed
PBCW, Curing,
1 . Enter
BLAb

Model Summary

Square Estimate
1 .934a .872 .870 3.22376
a. Predictors: (Constant), PBCW, Curing, BLA
ANOVAa
Regression 14536.974 3 4845.658 466.260 .000b

1
Residual 2140.878 206 10.393
220
Total 16677.853 209

b. Predictors: (Constant), PBCW, Curing, BLA
Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized t Sig. Correlations

Coefficients
(Constant) 17.598 .524 33.559 .000
Curing .171 .005 .803 32.159 .000 .803 .913 .803

1
BLA -.580 .037 -.407 -15.847 .000 -.446 -.741 -.396
PBCW -.246 .037 -.172 -6.707 .000 -.266 -.423 -.167

221
Correlations
Notes
Output Created 05-OCT-2014 07:46:15

Comments
C:\Users\FOLAMI\Desktop\To
Data
pe\data\Water curing.sav
Active Dataset DataSet1
Filter <none>
Input
Weight <none>
Split File <none>
N of Rows in Working Data
210
File
User-defined missing values
Definition of Missing
are treated as missing.
Statistics for each pair of
Missing Value Handling
variables are based on all the
Cases Used
cases with valid data for that
pair.
CORRELATIONS
/VARIABLES=Curing
Syntax Compstren1 opc bla pbcw
/PRINT=TWOTAIL NOSIG
/MISSING=PAIRWISE.
Processor Time 00:00:00.06
Resources
Elapsed Time 00:00:00.08
[DataSet1] C:\Users\FOLAMI\Desktop\Tope\data\Water curing.sav

222
Correlations
Curing Compressive OPC BLA PBCW
strength
Pearson Correlation 1 .803** .000 .000 .000
Curing Sig. (2-tailed) .000 1.000 1.000 1.000
N 210 210 210 210 210
Pearson Correlation .803** 1 .454** -.446** -.266**
Compressive strength Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000
N 210 210 210 210 210
Pearson Correlation .000 -.446** -.784** 1 .231**
BLA Sig. (2-tailed) 1.000 .000 .000 .001
N 210 210 210 210 210
Pearson Correlation .000 -.266** -.784** .231** 1
PBCW Sig. (2-tailed) 1.000 .000 .000 .001
N 210 210 210 210 210
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
223
APPENDIX B
ACID ATTACK RESISTANCE ANALYSIS

224
UNIANOVA Compstren1 BY Replacement Exposure ConcAcid

/METHOD=SSTYPE(3)
/INTERCEPT=INCLUDE
/POSTHOC=Replacement Exposure ConcAcid(TUKEY DUNCAN)
/PLOT=PROFILE(Replacement*Exposure Exposure*Replacement
Replacement*Exposure*ConcAcid)
/EMMEANS=TABLES(OVERALL)
/PRINT=ETASQ HOMOGENEITY DESCRIPTIVE
/CRITERIA=ALPHA(.05)
/DESIGN=Replacement Exposure ConcAcid Replacement*Exposure
Replacement*ConcAcid Exposure*ConcAcid Replacement*Exposure*ConcAcid.
Univariate Analysis of Variance
Between-Subjects Factors
Value Label N
1.00 Mixture 1 48
2.00 Mixture 2 48
3.00 Mixture 3 48
4.00 Mixture 4 48
5.00 Mixture 5 48
Replacement
6.00 Mixture 6 48
7.00 Mixture 7 48
8.00 Mixture 8 48
9.00 Mixture 9 48
10.00 Mixture 10 48
1.00 30 120
2.00 60 120
Exposure
3.00 90 120
4.00 120 120
1.00 0 120
2.00 1 120
ConcAcid
3.00 3 120
4.00 5 120
225
Dependent Variable: Compstren1
Replacement Exposure ConcAcid Mean Std. Deviation N
0 30.3333 .28868 3
1 30.3333 1.13725 3
30 3 30.0000 .86603 3
5 30.3333 .76376 3
Total 30.2500 .71795 12
0 31.0000 .50000 3
1 26.8333 1.25831 3
60 3 25.1667 .76376 3
5 22.6667 .76376 3
Total 26.4167 3.25320 12
0 31.6667 1.25831 3
1 23.8333 .76376 3
Mixture 1 90 3 20.8333 1.04083 3
5 19.8333 1.75594 3
Total 24.0417 4.96560 12
0 32.3333 .76376 3
1 19.5000 1.32288 3
120 3 16.6667 1.52753 3
5 15.5000 .86603 3
Total 21.0000 7.07107 12
0 31.3333 1.02986 12
1 25.1250 4.26915 12
Total 3 23.1667 5.26279 12
5 22.0833 5.72409 12
Total 25.4271 5.63502 48

0 22.5333 4.38786 3
1 21.7333 .94516 3
30 3 22.1667 1.25831 3
5 21.6667 .76376 3
Total 22.0250 2.04723 12
0 29.1667 .76376 3
Mixture 2
1 25.3333 1.52753 3
60 3 23.6667 1.52753 3
5 22.3333 1.52753 3
Total 25.1250 2.92423 12
0 31.1667 3.05505 3
90
1 26.6667 .28868 3
226
3 24.6667 .57735 3
5 23.7000 1.21244 3
Total 26.5500 3.32251 12
0 32.0000 2.59808 3
1 25.1667 .28868 3
120 3 21.8333 .76376 3
5 21.0000 1.32288 3
Total 25.0000 4.70493 12
0 28.7167 4.64657 12
1 24.7250 2.05918 12
Total 3 23.0833 1.52007 12
5 22.1750 1.48454 12
Total 24.6750 3.67641 48
0 25.1667 .81445 3
1 23.8333 1.23423 3
30 3 23.1667 3.25320 3
5 24.8333 .76376 3
Total 24.2500 1.76558 12
0 32.3333 2.25462 3
1 28.5000 3.04138 3
60 3 27.8333 1.04083 3
5 28.1667 2.08167 3
Total 29.2083 2.68378 12
0 33.3333 2.36291 3
1 31.1667 .57735 3
Mixture 3 90 3 30.5000 .50000 3
5 29.1667 .76376 3
Total 31.0417 1.92423 12
0 33.3333 2.25462 3
1 31.6667 .57735 3
120 3 30.8333 1.04083 3
5 28.3333 1.15470 3
Total 31.0417 2.23056 12
0 31.0417 3.96449 12
1 28.7917 3.54977 12
Total 3 28.0833 3.55370 12
5 27.6250 2.05741 12
Total 28.8854 3.51186 48
0 29.7333 .46188 3
1 30.4000 2.27156 3
Mixture 4 30 3 29.6667 .57735 3
5 30.0000 .50000 3
Total 29.9500 1.08334 12
227
0 33.6000 1.85203 3
1 29.6667 .76376 3
60 3 27.3333 2.51661 3
5 26.1667 3.32916 3
Total 29.1917 3.56306 12
0 34.9333 2.13620 3
1 29.0000 .50000 3
90 3 26.6667 .28868 3
5 25.6667 .57735 3
Total 29.0667 3.88103 12
0 35.0000 1.73205 3
1 26.6667 1.04083 3
120 3 24.8333 1.04083 3
5 23.3333 1.15470 3
Total 27.4583 4.83575 12
0 33.3167 2.65461 12
1 28.9333 1.84998 12
Total 3 27.1250 2.16506 12
5 26.2917 2.93458 12
Total 28.9167 3.61729 48
0 22.9333 2.53246 3
1 20.8000 1.50997 3
30 3 20.6667 .76376 3
5 21.0000 1.00000 3
Total 21.3500 1.67196 12
0 30.6667 1.25831 3
1 26.8333 .28868 3
60 3 26.1667 1.04083 3
5 25.5000 1.50000 3
Total 27.2917 2.30077 12
0 31.3333 .76376 3
Mixture 5 1 25.5000 1.32288 3
90 3 24.6667 1.52753 3
5 22.6667 2.56580 3
Total 26.0417 3.65848 12
0 31.8333 1.04083 3
1 23.6667 1.15470 3
120 3 22.0000 1.73205 3
5 19.8333 1.25831 3
Total 24.3333 4.87262 12
0 29.1917 4.02322 12
Total 1 24.2000 2.56373 12
3 23.3750 2.52375 12
228
5 22.2500 2.65004 12
Total 24.7542 3.95646 48
0 21.8000 1.58745 3
1 22.6667 .98658 3
30 3 21.6667 1.60728 3
5 22.5000 .50000 3
Total 22.1583 1.16343 12
0 25.8000 1.66433 3
1 25.8333 1.04083 3
60 3 24.6667 1.52753 3
5 23.3333 1.25831 3
Total 24.9083 1.59856 12
0 28.7667 2.15948 3
1 24.3333 1.52753 3
Mixture 6 90 3 23.0000 1.73205 3
5 20.3333 .57735 3
Total 24.1083 3.46868 12
0 29.1667 1.89297 3
1 21.6667 .57735 3
120 3 20.1667 .76376 3
5 17.8333 1.25831 3
Total 22.2083 4.55501 12
0 26.3833 3.45618 12
1 23.6250 1.90317 12
Total 3 22.3750 2.13334 12
5 21.0000 2.37410 12
Total 23.3458 3.17000 48
0 17.1333 1.22202 3
1 19.3333 3.02875 3
30 3 18.8333 3.32916 3
5 19.5000 2.78388 3
Total 18.7000 2.51432 12
0 24.4667 2.77549 3
1 23.5000 2.59808 3
60 3 22.5000 2.64575 3
Mixture 7
5 22.3333 1.75594 3
Total 23.2000 2.29387 12
0 24.9333 1.58850 3
1 21.5000 1.32288 3
90 3 19.0000 1.00000 3
5 16.5000 .86603 3
Total 20.4833 3.42128 12
120 0 24.8333 2.84312 3
229
1 19.8333 .28868 3
3 17.5000 .86603 3
5 14.5000 .50000 3
Total 19.1667 4.15240 12
0 22.8417 3.93480 12
1 21.0417 2.47550 12
Total 3 19.4583 2.70906 12
5 18.2083 3.43418 12
Total 20.3875 3.55184 48
0 15.1333 1.40475 3
1 15.7333 .61101 3
30 3 15.3333 .76376 3
5 15.8333 .76376 3
Total 15.5083 .85329 12
0 21.8667 3.91195 3
1 22.3333 1.52753 3
60 3 22.1667 1.89297 3
5 20.8333 1.15470 3
Total 21.8000 2.11445 12
0 24.9333 2.97041 3
1 19.3333 .57735 3
Mixture 8 90 3 18.0000 .86603 3
5 15.8333 .76376 3
Total 19.5250 3.77435 12
0 24.9000 3.57911 3
1 17.0000 .50000 3
120 3 15.6667 .57735 3
5 13.5000 .50000 3
Total 17.7667 4.76299 12
0 21.7083 4.94836 12
1 18.6000 2.73596 12
Total 3 17.7917 3.01103 12
5 16.5000 2.88413 12
Total 18.6500 3.91261 48
0 16.8000 .40000 3
1 15.3000 1.55242 3
30 3 15.0000 1.32288 3
5 15.6667 1.52753 3
Mixture 9 Total 15.6917 1.31042 12
0 21.4000 2.50599 3
1 20.1667 1.25831 3
60
3 20.1667 1.04083 3
5 19.3333 1.15470 3
230
Total 20.2667 1.56921 12

0 22.7000 1.90526 3
1 18.8333 1.44338 3
90 3 17.5000 1.32288 3
5 14.6667 2.08167 3
Total 18.4250 3.35563 12
0 23.0667 1.79258 3
1 15.3333 .57735 3
120 3 12.8333 .76376 3
5 11.6667 .57735 3
Total 15.7250 4.72501 12
0 20.9917 3.03688 12
1 17.4083 2.48613 12
Total 3 16.3750 3.02358 12
5 15.3333 3.11400 12
Total 17.5271 3.55670 48
0 14.5333 .83267 3
1 14.2333 .46188 3
30 3 13.8333 .28868 3
5 13.5000 .50000 3
Total 14.0250 .62686 12
0 17.8667 .92916 3
1 17.5000 .50000 3
60 3 17.6667 1.04083 3
5 17.8333 .28868 3
Total 17.7167 .66172 12
0 19.8667 2.06478 3
1 16.5000 .50000 3
Mixture 10 90 3 15.5000 .50000 3
5 13.3333 1.44338 3
Total 16.3000 2.70185 12
0 20.5000 4.09268 3
1 13.6667 .57735 3
120 3 12.1667 1.25831 3
5 11.3333 1.15470 3
Total 14.4167 4.22564 12
0 18.1917 3.16241 12
1 15.4750 1.70514 12
Total 3 14.7917 2.25084 12
5 14.0000 2.61116 12
Total 15.6146 2.88820 48
0 21.6100 5.70743 30
Total 30
1 21.4367 5.66237 30
231
3 21.0333 5.63385 30
5 21.4833 5.62857 30
Total 21.3908 5.59057 120
0 26.8167 5.42053 30
1 24.6500 3.89330 30
60 3 23.7333 3.37008 30
5 22.8500 3.33257 30
Total 24.5125 4.30367 120
0 28.3633 5.12381 30
1 23.6667 4.57379 30
90 3 22.0333 4.60871 30
5 20.1700 5.11301 30
Total 23.5583 5.68746 120
0 28.6967 5.22867 30
1 21.4167 5.36766 30
120 3 19.4500 5.58840 30
5 17.6833 5.35222 30
Total 21.8117 6.77997 120
0 26.3717 6.02393 120
1 22.7925 5.06260 120
Total 3 21.5625 5.07240 120
5 20.5467 5.23835 120
Total 22.8183 5.78298 480
Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variancesa

F df1 df2 Sig.

2.720 159 320 .000
Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the

dependent variable is equal across groups.
a. Design: Intercept + Replacement + Exposure +
ConcAcid + Replacement * Exposure + Replacement
* ConcAcid + Exposure * ConcAcid + Replacement *
Exposure * ConcAcid
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

232
Source Type III Sum of df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta

Squares Squared
Corrected Model 15215.979a 159 95.698 38.130 .000 .95

Intercept 249924.641 1 249924.641 99579.009 .000 .99
Replacement 9189.742 9 1021.082 406.836 .000 .92
Exposure 776.272 3 258.757 103.098 .000 .49
ConcAcid 2323.732 3 774.577 308.620 .000 .74
Replacement * Exposure 1308.731 27 48.472 19.313 .000 .62
Replacement * ConcAcid 214.735 27 7.953 3.169 .000 .21
Exposure * ConcAcid 1155.417 9 128.380 51.151 .000 .59
Replacement * Exposure *
247.349 81 3.054 1.217 .121 .23
ConcAcid
Error 803.140 320 2.510
Total 265943.760 480
a. R Squared = .950 (Adjusted R Squared = .925)
Estimated Marginal Means
Grand Mean
Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound Upper Bound
22.818 .072 22.676 22.961
Post Hoc Tests
Replacement
(I) Replacement (J) Replacement Mean Difference Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval
Mixture 2 .7521 .32338 .375 -.2783 1.7824
Mixture 3 -3.4583* .32338 .000 -4.4887 -2.4280

Tukey HSD Mixture 1
Mixture 4 -3.4896* .32338 .000 -4.5199 -2.4592
Mixture 5 .6729 .32338 .542 -.3574 1.7033

233
Mixture 6 2.0813* .32338 .000 1.0509 3.1116
Mixture 7 5.0396* .32338 .000 4.0092 6.0699
Mixture 8 6.7771* .32338 .000 5.7467 7.8074
Mixture 9 7.9000* .32338 .000 6.8696 8.9304
Mixture 10 9.8125* .32338 .000 8.7821 10.8429
Mixture 1 -.7521 .32338 .375 -1.7824 .2783
Mixture 3 -4.2104* .32338 .000 -5.2408 -3.1801
Mixture 4 -4.2417* .32338 .000 -5.2720 -3.2113
Mixture 5 -.0792 .32338 1.000 -1.1095 .9512
Mixture 2 Mixture 6 1.3292* .32338 .002 .2988 2.3595
Mixture 7 4.2875* .32338 .000 3.2571 5.3179
Mixture 8 6.0250* .32338 .000 4.9946 7.0554
Mixture 9 7.1479* .32338 .000 6.1176 8.1783
Mixture 10 9.0604* .32338 .000 8.0301 10.0908

Mixture 1 3.4583* .32338 .000 2.4280 4.4887
Mixture 2 4.2104* .32338 .000 3.1801 5.2408
Mixture 4 -.0313 .32338 1.000 -1.0616 .9991
Mixture 5 4.1313* .32338 .000 3.1009 5.1616
Mixture 3 Mixture 6 5.5396* .32338 .000 4.5092 6.5699
Mixture 7 8.4979* .32338 .000 7.4676 9.5283
Mixture 8 10.2354* .32338 .000 9.2051 11.2658
Mixture 9 11.3583* .32338 .000 10.3280 12.3887
Mixture 10 13.2708* .32338 .000 12.2405 14.3012
Mixture 1 3.4896* .32338 .000 2.4592 4.5199
Mixture 2 4.2417* .32338 .000 3.2113 5.2720
Mixture 3 .0313 .32338 1.000 -.9991 1.0616
Mixture 5 4.1625* .32338 .000 3.1321 5.1929
Mixture 4 Mixture 6 5.5708* .32338 .000 4.5405 6.6012

Mixture 7 8.5292* .32338 .000 7.4988 9.5595
Mixture 8 10.2667* .32338 .000 9.2363 11.2970
Mixture 9 11.3896* .32338 .000 10.3592 12.4199
Mixture 10 13.3021* .32338 .000 12.2717 14.3324
Mixture 1 -.6729 .32338 .542 -1.7033 .3574
Mixture 2 .0792 .32338 1.000 -.9512 1.1095
Mixture 3 -4.1313* .32338 .000 -5.1616 -3.1009

Mixture 5
Mixture 4 -4.1625* .32338 .000 -5.1929 -3.1321
Mixture 6 1.4083* .32338 .001 .3780 2.4387
Mixture 7 4.3667* .32338 .000 3.3363 5.3970

234
Mixture 8 6.1042* .32338 .000 5.0738 7.1345
Mixture 9 7.2271* .32338 .000 6.1967 8.2574
Mixture 10 9.1396* .32338 .000 8.1092 10.1699
Mixture 1 -2.0813* .32338 .000 -3.1116 -1.0509
Mixture 2 -1.3292* .32338 .002 -2.3595 -.2988
Mixture 3 -5.5396* .32338 .000 -6.5699 -4.5092
Mixture 4 -5.5708* .32338 .000 -6.6012 -4.5405
Mixture 6 Mixture 5 -1.4083* .32338 .001 -2.4387 -.3780
Mixture 7 2.9583* .32338 .000 1.9280 3.9887
Mixture 8 4.6958* .32338 .000 3.6655 5.7262
Mixture 9 5.8188* .32338 .000 4.7884 6.8491
Mixture 10 7.7313* .32338 .000 6.7009 8.7616
Mixture 1 -5.0396* .32338 .000 -6.0699 -4.0092
Mixture 2 -4.2875* .32338 .000 -5.3179 -3.2571

Mixture 3 -8.4979* .32338 .000 -9.5283 -7.4676
Mixture 4 -8.5292* .32338 .000 -9.5595 -7.4988
Mixture 7 Mixture 5 -4.3667* .32338 .000 -5.3970 -3.3363
Mixture 6 -2.9583* .32338 .000 -3.9887 -1.9280
Mixture 8 1.7375* .32338 .000 .7071 2.7679
Mixture 9 2.8604* .32338 .000 1.8301 3.8908
Mixture 10 4.7729* .32338 .000 3.7426 5.8033
Mixture 1 -6.7771* .32338 .000 -7.8074 -5.7467
Mixture 2 -6.0250* .32338 .000 -7.0554 -4.9946
Mixture 3 -10.2354* .32338 .000 -11.2658 -9.2051
Mixture 4 -10.2667* .32338 .000 -11.2970 -9.2363
Mixture 8 Mixture 5 -6.1042* .32338 .000 -7.1345 -5.0738
Mixture 6 -4.6958* .32338 .000 -5.7262 -3.6655
Mixture 7 -1.7375* .32338 .000 -2.7679 -.7071

Mixture 9 1.1229* .32338 .021 .0926 2.1533
Mixture 10 3.0354* .32338 .000 2.0051 4.0658
Mixture 1 -7.9000* .32338 .000 -8.9304 -6.8696
Mixture 2 -7.1479* .32338 .000 -8.1783 -6.1176
Mixture 3 -11.3583* .32338 .000 -12.3887 -10.3280
Mixture 4 -11.3896* .32338 .000 -12.4199 -10.3592

Mixture 9
Mixture 5 -7.2271* .32338 .000 -8.2574 -6.1967
Mixture 6 -5.8188* .32338 .000 -6.8491 -4.7884
Mixture 7 -2.8604* .32338 .000 -3.8908 -1.8301
Mixture 8 -1.1229* .32338 .021 -2.1533 -.0926

235
Mixture 10 1.9125* .32338 .000 .8821 2.9429
Mixture 1 -9.8125* .32338 .000 -10.8429 -8.7821
Mixture 2 -9.0604* .32338 .000 -10.0908 -8.0301
Mixture 3 -13.2708* .32338 .000 -14.3012 -12.2405
Mixture 4 -13.3021* .32338 .000 -14.3324 -12.2717
Mixture 10 Mixture 5 -9.1396* .32338 .000 -10.1699 -8.1092
Mixture 6 -7.7313* .32338 .000 -8.7616 -6.7009
Mixture 7 -4.7729* .32338 .000 -5.8033 -3.7426
Mixture 8 -3.0354* .32338 .000 -4.0658 -2.0051
Mixture 9 -1.9125* .32338 .000 -2.9429 -.8821

Homogeneous Subsets
Compstren1
Replacement N Subset
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mixture 10 48 15.6146
Mixture 9 48 17.5271
Mixture 8 48 18.6500
Mixture 7 48 20.3875
Mixture 6 48 23.3458
Tukey HSDa,b Mixture 2 48 24.6750
Mixture 5 48 24.7542
Mixture 1 48 25.4271
Mixture 3 48 28.8854
Mixture 4 48 28.9167
Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 .375 1.000

Mixture 10 48 15.6146
Mixture 9 48 17.5271
Mixture 8 48 18.6500
Duncana,b Mixture 7 48 20.3875
Mixture 6 48 23.3458
Mixture 2 48 24.6750
Mixture 5 48 24.7542
236
Mixture 1 48 25.4271
Mixture 3 48 28.8854
Mixture 4 48 28.9167
Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 .807 1.000 .923

b. Alpha = .05.
Exposure
(I) Exposure (J) Exposure Mean Difference Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval
60 -3.1217* .20452 .000 -3.6499 -2.5935
30 90 -2.1675* .20452 .000 -2.6957 -1.6393
120 -.4208 .20452 .169 -.9490 .1074
30 3.1217* .20452 .000 2.5935 3.6499
60 90 .9542* .20452 .000 .4260 1.4824
120 2.7008* .20452 .000 2.1726 3.2290

Tukey HSD
30 2.1675* .20452 .000 1.6393 2.6957
90 60 -.9542* .20452 .000 -1.4824 -.4260
120 1.7467* .20452 .000 1.2185 2.2749
30 .4208 .20452 .169 -.1074 .9490
120 60 -2.7008* .20452 .000 -3.2290 -2.1726
90 -1.7467* .20452 .000 -2.2749 -1.2185

237
Homogeneous Subsets
Compstren1
Exposure N Subset
1 2 3 4
30 120 21.3908
120 120 21.8117
Tukey HSDa,b 90 120 23.5583
60 120 24.5125
Sig. .169 1.000 1.000

30 120 21.3908
120 120 21.8117
Duncana,b 90 120 23.5583
60 120 24.5125
Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

b. Alpha = .05.
ConcAcid
(I) ConcAcid (J) ConcAcid Mean Difference Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval
1 3.5792* .20452 .000 3.0510 4.1074
0 3 4.8092* .20452 .000 4.2810 5.3374
5 5.8250* .20452 .000 5.2968 6.3532
0 -3.5792* .20452 .000 -4.1074 -3.0510
1 3 1.2300* .20452 .000 .7018 1.7582

Tukey HSD
5 2.2458* .20452 .000 1.7176 2.7740
0 -4.8092* .20452 .000 -5.3374 -4.2810
3 1 -1.2300* .20452 .000 -1.7582 -.7018
5 1.0158* .20452 .000 .4876 1.5440
5 0 -5.8250* .20452 .000 -6.3532 -5.2968

238
1 -2.2458* .20452 .000 -2.7740 -1.7176
3 -1.0158* .20452 .000 -1.5440 -.4876

Homogeneous Subsets
Compstren1
ConcAcid N Subset
1 2 3 4
5 120 20.5467
3 120 21.5625
Tukey HSDa,b 1 120 22.7925
0 120 26.3717
Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

5 120 20.5467
3 120 21.5625
Duncana,b 1 120 22.7925
0 120 26.3717
Sig. 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

b. Alpha = .05.
Profile Plots
239
240
Replacement * Exposure * ConcAcid

241
242
243
244
245
REGRESSION
/MISSING LISTWISE
/NOORIGIN
/METHOD=ENTER ConcAcid.
Regression

Entered Removed
1 ConcAcidb . Enter
a. Dependent Variable: Compstren1

Model Summary

Square Estimate
1 .341a .117 .115 5.44109
a. Predictors: (Constant), ConcAcid
ANOVAa
Regression 1867.713 1 1867.713 63.087 .000b
1 Residual 14151.406 478 29.605
Total 16019.119 479

b. Predictors: (Constant), ConcAcid
Coefficientsa

(Constant) 25.130 .383 65.687 .000

1
ConcAcid -1.027 .129 -.341 -7.943 .000 -.341 -.341 -.341

REGRESSION
/MISSING LISTWISE
/NOORIGIN
246
/METHOD=ENTER Exposure.
Regression

Entered Removed
1 Exposureb . Enter

Model Summary

Square Estimate
1 .006a .000 -.002 5.78892
a. Predictors: (Constant), Exposure
ANOVAa
Regression .570 1 .570 .017 .896b
1 Residual 16018.548 478 33.512
Total 16019.119 479

b. Predictors: (Constant), Exposure
Coefficientsa

(Constant) 22.741 .647 35.137 .000

1
Exposure .001 .008 .006 .130 .896 .006 .006 .006
REGRESSION
/MISSING LISTWISE
/NOORIGIN
/METHOD=ENTER bla.
247
Regression

Entered Removed
1 BLAb . Enter

Model Summary

Square Estimate
1 .601a .361 .359 4.62858
a. Predictors: (Constant), BLA
ANOVAa
Regression 5778.556 1 5778.556 269.726 .000b
1 Residual 10240.563 478 21.424
Total 16019.119 479

b. Predictors: (Constant), BLA
248
Coefficientsa

(Constant) 27.819 .371 75.067 .000

1
BLA -.556 .034 -.601 -16.423 .000 -.601 -.601 -.601
REGRESSION
/MISSING LISTWISE
/NOORIGIN
/METHOD=ENTER bla.
Regression

Entered Removed
1 PBCWb . Enter

Model Summary

Square Estimate
1 .395a .156 .154 5.31935
a. Predictors: (Constant), PBCW
ANOVAa
249
Regression 2493.899 1 2493.899 88.138 .000b
1 Residual 13525.220 478 28.295
Total 16019.119 479

b. Predictors: (Constant), PBCW
Coefficientsa


(Constant) 26.103 .426 61.291 .000
1
PBCW -.365 .039 -.395 -9.388 .000 -.395 -.395 -.395
REGRESSION
/MISSING LISTWISE
/NOORIGIN
/METHOD=ENTER bla pbcw.
Regression

Entered Removed
1 PBCW, BLAb . Enter

Model Summary

Square Estimate
1 .656a .430 .428 4.37546
a. Predictors: (Constant), PBCW, BLA

250
ANOVAa
Regression 6887.133 2 3443.566 179.871 .000b
1 Residual 9131.986 477 19.145
Total 16019.119 479

b. Predictors: (Constant), PBCW, BLA
Coefficientsa

(Constant) 29.550 .418 70.740 .000
1 BLA -.498 .033 -.538 -15.148 .000 -.601 -.570 -.524
PBCW -.250 .033 -.270 -7.610 .000 -.395 -.329 -.263
GET
FILE='C:\Users\FOLAMI\Desktop\Tope\data\Acid Exposure.sav'.
DATASET NAME DataSet1 WINDOW=FRONT.
REGRESSION
/MISSING LISTWISE
/NOORIGIN
/METHOD=ENTER ConcAcid bla pbcw.
Regression
Model Variables Entered Variables Method

Removed
PBCW,
1 . Enter
ConcAcid, BLAb
251

Model Summary

Square Estimate
1 .739a .547 .544 3.90654
a. Predictors: (Constant), PBCW, ConcAcid, BLA
ANOVAa
Regression 8754.845 3 2918.282 191.224 .000b
1 Residual 7264.273 476 15.261
Total 16019.119 479

b. Predictors: (Constant), PBCW, ConcAcid, BLA
Coefficientsa

(Constant) 31.861 .427 74.531 .000
ConcAcid -1.027 .093 -.341 -11.063 .000 -.341 -.452 -.341

1
BLA -.498 .029 -.538 -16.967 .000 -.601 -.614 -.524
PBCW -.250 .029 -.270 -8.523 .000 -.395 -.364 -.263
CORRELATIONS
/VARIABLES=ConcAcid Exposure Compstren1 bla pbcw
/PRINT=TWOTAIL NOSIG
/STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES
/MISSING=PAIRWISE.
Correlations
Mean Std. Deviation N
ConcAcid 2.2500 1.92229 480

252
Exposure 75.0000 33.57601 480

Compstren1 22.8183 5.78298 480
BLA 9.0000 6.25151 480
PBCW 9.0000 6.25151 480
Correlations
ConcAcid Exposure Compstren1 BLA PBCW
Pearson Correlation 1 .000 -.341** .000 .000
ConcAcid Sig. (2-tailed) 1.000 .000 1.000 1.000
N 480 480 480 480 480
Pearson Correlation .000 1 .006 .000 .000
Exposure Sig. (2-tailed) 1.000 .896 1.000 1.000
N 480 480 480 480 480
Pearson Correlation -.341** .006 1 -.601** -.395**
Compstren1 Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .896 .000 .000
N 480 480 480 480 480
Pearson Correlation .000 .000 -.601** 1 .231**
BLA Sig. (2-tailed) 1.000 1.000 .000 .000
N 480 480 480 480 480
Pearson Correlation .000 .000 -.395** .231** 1
PBCW Sig. (2-tailed) 1.000 1.000 .000 .000
N 480 480 480 480 480
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
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DURABILITY OF TERNARY BLENDED CEMENT CONCRETE CONTAINING

Thesis · March 2015

John Temitope Kolawole

Plastic cracking of concrete View project

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KOLAWOLE JOHN TEMITOPE

DURABILITY OF TERNARY BLENDED CEMENT CONCRETE

JOHN TEMITOPE KOLAWOLE

OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY, ILE-IFE, NIGERIA

AUTHOR: KOLAWOLE, JOHN TEMITOPE

TITLE: Durability of ternary blended cement concrete containing bamboo

leaf ash and pulverized burnt clay

DEGREE: B.Sc (Building Structures)

my thesis, in whole or in part; in response to request from individual researchers and/or

organizations for the purpose of private study or research.

Structures of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.

for making this project a success.

Lafarge cement factory, Ewekoro, for giving me access to their equipment.

way or the other during this project.

List of Figures xiv

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem 7

1.3 Aim and Objectives 10

1.4 Justification of Study 10

1.5 Scope of Study 12

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.3.1 Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) 18

2.3.1.1 Brief history of Portland cement 18

2.3.1.2 Chemical composition of ordinary Portland cement 20

2.3.1.3 Manufacture process of ordinary Portland cement 24

2.3.2 Testing of cement 27

2.3.2.1 Fineness test 28

2.3.2.2 Consistency test 29

2.3.2.3 Setting time test 29

2.3.2.4 Soundness test 30

2.3.2.5 Strength test 31

2.3.2.6 Heat of hydration test 31

2.3.2.7 Chemical composition test 32

2.7.1 Physical requirements of pozzolans 42

2.7.2 Chemical requirements of pozzolans 47

2.7.3 Pozzolanic reaction activity 48

2.7.4 Pozzolan in blended cement 48

2.7.4.1 Blast furnace slag 49

2.7.4.2 Fly ash 52

2.7.4.3 Silica fume 54

2.7.4.4 Rice husk ash 56

2.7.4.5 Saw dust ash 57

2.7.4.7 Corncob ash 60

2.8 Bamboo Leaf 60

2.8.1 Uses of bamboo 63

2.8.2 Properties of bamboo leaf 65

2.8.3 Bamboo leaf ash 65

2.8.4 Effects of calcination temperature on the properties of bamboo leaf ash 66

2.9 Burnt Clay Waste 70

2.9.1 Clay bricks 70

2.9.2 Pulverized burnt clay waste 70

2.10 Concrete as a Structural Material 75

2.10.1 Concrete workability 76

2.10.2 Compressive strength of concrete 78

2.10.3 Tensile strength of concrete 80