R A D I AT I O N T H E R A P Y

When small things matter.

Small Field Dosimetry

Application Guide
 Contents
1 Introduction 2
2 The Physics of Small Fields 3
3 Detector Types 10
4 Detector Selection Guide 11
Overview:
Field Size Range 18
Overview:
Additional Selection Criteria 19
5 Absolute Dose Measurements
with PTW Small Field Detectors 21
6 Frequently Asked Questions 22
7 Detector Overview 25
8 References and Further Reading 34
2
1 Introduction
Dose determination in small photon fields is an
important and challenging task. Small photon
fields are used in stereotactic radiosurgery as
well as in IMRT and IMAT, where mini or micro
MLCs create fields of 1 cm x 1 cm or smaller.
Current dosimetry protocols such as [IAEA
398, AAPM TG51, DIN 6800-2] describe
procedures for absolute dose measurements
based on ionization chambers at field sizes of
typically 10 cm x 10 cm. No advice is given as
to appropriate procedures and detectors for
field sizes of 1 cm x 1 cm. Presently, national
and international committees are working on
dedicated dosimetry protocols for small field
dosimetry, see e.g. [Alfonso2008] or
[DIN6809-8_draft].
 2 The Physics of Small Fields
2.1 Under which conditions can you
consider a field as small?
} If the field is smaller than approximately
4 cm x 4 cm.
} If the focus is partially hidden by the
collimators.
} If lateral electron equilibrium is not given
in the center of the field.
Dose [%]
Figure 1 Size comparison of a 1.4 cm x 1.4 cm FWHM Gaussian shaped field with some small field detectors.
2.2 The dose volume effect
When the dose changes noticeably across the
detector, the signal is subject to the volume
effect. As a consequence of the volume effect,
the dose in the field is underestimated and the
width of the penumbra is overestimated.
In Figure 1 you can see a size comparison of
some small field detectors against a Gaussian
shaped field of FWHM1 1.4 cm x 1.4 cm.
From the figure it is apparent that a diode is
probably small enough to characterize such a
field but a Semiflex 0.125 cm³ chamber is not.
In Figure 2 the effect of a too large detector is
described in more detail, experimental results
are shown in Figure 3.
1
Full width at half maximum, this is the same as the
width of the 50 % isodose
3
 a

4
 c

Figure 2
Viewgraph showing the origin of the volume effect.
In part a) you can see the size of a Semiflex 0.125 cm³ chamber against a FWHM 1.4 cm x 1.4 cm
Gaussian field. Clearly, the chamber seems to be too big to characterize that field.
In part b) you can see what that chamber will actually do: it will average the dose across its
sensitive volume, depicted as a blue box. When you move the chamber through the field, it
will always average across its volume at every measurement position.
The result is shown in part c). The blue curve shows the signal after averaging. The CAX²
value of the dose is underestimated, and the penumbra is broadened.

2
CAX stands for central axis.

5
6
a

b
Dose normalized to Diamond CAX [%] Output factor
 c
100

Semiflex T31010
80
Signal [mm]

microDiamond T60019

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Position [mm]

Figure 3
Experimental verification of the volume effect.
In part a) the output factors3 for small square fields are shown. For the 1 cm x 1 cm field, the
reduction of the measured dose for the Semiflex and the PinPoint chamber is clearly visible.
Part b) shows a profile measurement in an 1 cm x 1 cm field. Again, the dose reduction
of the Semiflex chamber in the field center is apparent.
In part c) the penumbra broadening of the Semiflex chamber in a 10 cm x 10 cm field can
be seen. Note that the field width (50 % isodose) is measured correctly. This is always the
case when there is no volume effect in the field center.

3
Synonyms for output factor: relative dose factor and total scatter factor.

7
 Additional effects due to CAX is taken from Figure 3 b) and normalized to
normalization the respective CAX values of the curves. The
increase of the penumbra data leads to an
Usually, profiles are evaluated after performing
increase of the apparent field width (i.e. the
a CAX4 normalization, i.e. all profiles are nor-
FWHM is broadened).
malized such that their CAX-value corresponds
A similar effect can happen with percentage
to 100 %. For the example in Figure 3 b, this
depth dose curves (PDDs) if there is a strong
corresponds to multiplying the entire blue curve
volume effect present. As the volume effect
by 1.20. This includes the penumbra of the
depends on field size and the field size
measurement and the out-of-field part. Hence
depends on depth, the volume effect at the
if you combine the volume effect with a CAX
normalization point (at maximum dose) is dif-
normalization, the out-of-field dose and the
ferent compared to positions deep in the
penumbra dose will be slightly overestimated.
water. A PDD subject to this effect will overes-
This can be seen in Figure 4 where the data
timate the dose deep in the water.

Figure 4
Profiles of a 6 MV 1 cm x 1 cm field measured with a Diode E (similar to Diode SRS), a TM60003 Diamond
and a Semiflex 0.125 chamber after CAX normalization. The data is the same as in Figure 3 b). In addition
to penumbra broadening two more effects are visible, indicated by arrows. (i) The FWHM of the Semiflex
measurement seems larger than that of the other detectors. This is in contrast to the original measurement
without CAX normalization shown in Figure 3 b). (ii) The dose in the out-of-field region is overestimated.

4
CAX stands for central axis.

8
2.3 Low energy response
Low energy scattered radiation hardly
plays any role in small fields.
In large fields (roughly above 10 cm x 10 cm)
there is a large dose contribution due to low-
energy scattered radiation. In small fields, the
dose contribution by this radiation is compara­
tively small. Consequently, the low-energy res­
ponse (response to photons in the keV range)
does not play a large role in small fields.
What about the out-of-field region? In the
out-of-field region, the radiation consists
only of scattered photons. For small fields this
radiation contains a low-energy part but it is
less important than for large fields.
Hence, for small fields:
} Silicon diode detectors can be used.
} Shielding of the silicon diode is not necessary.
} In very small fields, shielding will lead to an
overestimated dose due to the density per-
turbation effect.
2.4 Other effects in small fields
}

The alignment of beam and detector is
much more important compared to large
field sizes.
}

Often, an irradiation is composed of many
small fields. To correctly add these up, the
penumbras of the fields must be determined
very accurately.
}

For small fields the field size must not equal
the set collimator value due to partial occlu-
sion of the focus by the collimators and
penumbra overlap.
}

In field sizes below roughly 2 cm x 2 cm,
lack of lateral electron equilibrium leads
to the density perturbation effect, see e.g.
[Fenwick2013]. We recommend to
thoroughly study small field literature
before working in such small fields.
}

Some small field systems are flattening filter
free linacs.

Summary:
} If your detector is larger than roughly 1/4th of the lateral field dimension, you should
watch out for a volume effect of several percent.
} keV scattered photon radiation is less important in small fields. Unshielded
silicon diodes can be used.
} If the volume effect is present,
• The dose in the field center will be underestimated;
• The penumbra appears wider than it is.
} If in addition to the volume effect you perform a CAX normalization in a small field,
• The field (50 % isodose) will appear wider than it is;
• The dose in the out-of-field region will be overestimated;
• The dose of PDDs at large depths can be overestimated.
} [IPEM 103] recommends to use more than one detector to perform a high quality
characterization.
} For a thorough introduction see, e.g., [Wuerfel2013]

9
 3 Detector Types
The following section presents a quick introduction into the various types of single detectors
used for dose measurements in a water phantom.
3.1 Medium-size vented ionization
chambers
Gold standard for dose measurements are
vented ionization chambers as specified in IEC
60731. The sensitive volume of such chambers
is usually between 0.1 cm³ and 1.0 cm³. Their
only disadvantage is the relatively large size.
When used in small fields, large detectors
can be subject to the dose volume effect,
see chapter 2.2.
3.2 Small-size vented ionization
chambers
Small-size vented ion chambers (PinPoint
chambers) have a sensitive volume in the order
of 0.01 cm³. They can typically be used for dose
measurements in fields down to 2 cm x 2 cm.
Care must be taken if PinPoint chambers are
used in very large fields when stem and cable
effects become important. Make sure that the
chamber you use does not have a steel elec-
trode.
10
3.3 Diamond detectors
Diamond detectors are solid state detectors
combining small size and high response. In
addition, their response is almost independent
upon energy, i.e. they are very much water
equivalent. They also feature a very good
directional response. Diamond detectors can
be constructed as solid state ionization cham-
bers (TM60003 diamond) or as diodes
(T60019 microDiamond).
3.4 Silicon diodes
Silicon diode detectors feature the highest
response per volume of all common detector
types. Hence their sensitive volume is usually
small enough to avoid dose volume effects
down to very small fields. However, the density
perturbation effect is still present.
The directional response of sillicon diodes is not
ideal, as well as the response to low-energy
scattered photons. To reduce the latter effect,
diodes exist in a shielded design where the
shield reduces the signal from these photons. In
small fields the low-energy scatter contribution
is low, hence diode shielding is not needed and
unshielded diodes are recommended for small
fields [IPEM 103].
4 Detector Selection Guide

Which detector
is best suited for
my application?

11
 Detector Selection Tree
Minimum field size required 1 cm x 1 cm

MAXIMUM
field size (cm)
required: 10 x 10 20 x 20

Type of
measurement: Absolute dose 1 & Profiles & Absolute dose & Profiles &
output factors PDDs output factors PDDs

Suitable Diode E Diode E Diode P Diode P

detectors: Diode SRS Diode SRS microDiamond microDiamond
Diode P Diode P
microDiamond microDiamond

Recommended microDiamond microDiamond microDiamond microDiamond

detectors:
Diode E or SRS Diode E or SRS

Remarks 1
In small fields absolute dose measurement
often requires cross calibration, see chapter 5.

12
 30 x 30 40 x 40

Absolute dose & Profiles & Absolute dose & Profiles &
output factors PDDs output factors PDDs

Diode P Diode P Diode P Diode P

microDiamond microDiamond microDiamond microDiamond

microDiamond microDiamond microDiamond microDiamond

for fields smaller for fields smaller for fields smaller for fields smaller
than 20 cm x 20 cm than 20 cm x 20 cm than 20 cm x 20 cm than 20 cm x 20 cm
Semiflex 3D Semiflex 3D Semiflex 3D Semiflex 3D
for larger fields for larger fields for larger fields for larger fields

Both microDiamond and Diode P are well

­suited for the entire field size range from
1 cm x 1 cm up to 40 cm x 40 cm. But if you
are aiming for utmost accuracy in large fields,
a medium sized air-filled ionization chamber
will be better than any solid state detector.
If you can choose between Diode P and
microDiamond, take the microDiamond.

13
 Detector Selection Tree
Minimum field size required 2 cm x 2 cm

MAXIMUM
field size (cm)
required: 10 x 10 20 x 20

Type of
measurement: Absolute dose 1 & Profiles & Absolute dose & Profiles &
output factors PDDs output factors PDDs

Suitable Diode E Diode E Diode P Diode P

detectors: Diode SRS Diode SRS microDiamond microDiamond
Diode P Diode P PinPoint 0.015 PinPoint 0.015
microDiamond microDiamond PinPoint 0.03 PinPoint 0.03
PinPoint 0.015 PinPoint 0.015 PinPoint 3D PinPoint 3D
PinPoint 0.03 PinPoint 0.03
PinPoint 3D

Recommended PinPoint 3D (new) microDiamond PinPoint 3D (new) microDiamond

detectors:

Remarks 1
In small fields absolute dose measurement The microDiamond detector is suitable for
often requires cross calibration, see chapter 5. absolute dose and output factor measurements.
However, whereas the microDiamond must be
cross-calibrated, the PinPoint 3D (new, T31022)
chamber can be directly applied according to
IAEA 398 and DIN 6800-2.

14
 30 x 30 40 x 40

Absolute dose & Profiles & Absolute dose & Profiles &
output factors PDDs output factors PDDs

Diode P Diode P Diode P Diode P

microDiamond microDiamond microDiamond microDiamond
PinPoint 0.015 PinPoint 0.015
PinPoint 0.03 PinPoint 0.03
PinPoint 3D PinPoint 3D

microDiamond microDiamond microDiamond microDiamond

for fields smaller for fields smaller for fields smaller for fields smaller
than 20 cm x 20 cm than 20 cm x 20 cm than 20 cm x 20 cm than 20 cm x 20 cm
Semiflex 3D Semiflex 3D Semiflex 3D Semiflex 3D
for larger fields for larger fields for larger fields for larger fields

Both microDiamond and Diode P are well ­suited

for the entire field size range from
1 cm x 1 cm up to 40 cm x 40 cm. But if you
are aiming for utmost accuracy in large fields, a
medium sized air-filled ionization chamber will
be better than any solid state detector.
If you can choose between Diode P and
microDiamond, take the microDiamond.

15
 Detector Selection Tree
Minimum field size required 3 cm x 3 cm

MAXIMUM
field size (cm)
required: 10 x 10 20 x 20

Type of
measurement: Absolute dose 1 & Profiles & Absolute dose & Profiles &
output factors PDDs output factors PDDs

Suitable Diode E Diode E Diode P Diode P

detectors: Diode SRS Diode SRS microDiamond microDiamond
Diode P Diode P PinPoint 0.015 PinPoint 0.015
microDiamond microDiamond PinPoint 0.03 PinPoint 0.03
PinPoint 0.015 PinPoint 0.015 PinPoint 3D PinPoint 3D
PinPoint 0.03 PinPoint 0.03 Semiflex 3D
PinPoint 3D PinPoint 3D Semiflex 0.125
Semiflex 3D
Semiflex 0.125

Recommended Semiflex 3D microDiamond Semiflex 3D microDiamond

detectors:

Remarks The Semiflex 3D is best suited for absolute
dose measurements as it does not need to be
cross-calibrated.
1
In small fields absolute dose measurement
often requires cross calibration, see chapter 5.
The microDiamond detector is suitable for
absolute dose and output factor measurements.
However, whereas the microDiamond must be
cross-calibrated, the Semiflex 3D chamber can
be directly applied according to IAEA 398 and
DIN 6800-2.

16
 30 x 30 40 x 40

Absolute dose & Profiles & Absolute dose & Profiles &
output factors PDDs output factors PDDs

Diode P Diode P Diode P Diode P

microDiamond microDiamond microDiamond microDiamond
PinPoint 0.015 PinPoint 0.015 Semiflex 3D
PinPoint 0.03 PinPoint 0.03 Semiflex 0.125
PinPoint 3D PinPoint 3D
Semiflex 3D
Semiflex 0.125

Semiflex 3D microDiamond Semiflex 3D microDiamond

for fields smaller than for fields smaller than
20 cm x 20 cm 20 cm x 20 cm
Semiflex 3D Semiflex 3D
for fields larger than for fields larger than
20 cm x 20 cm 20 cm x 20 cm

Though the PinPoint chambers, the
microDiamond and the Diode P are well
suited for measurements over the entire range
from 3 cm x 3 cm to 30 cm x 30 cm, we
recommend using a combination of two
detectors for the most accurate profile and
PDD measurements.
Both microDiamond and Diode P are well suited
for the entire field size range from 1 cm x 1 cm
up to 40 cm x 40 cm. But if you are aiming for
utmost accuracy in large fields, a medium sized
air-filled ionization chamber will be better than
any solid state detector. If you can choose
between Diode P and microDiamond, take the
microDiamond.
For accurate penumbra measurements in fields
smaller or equal than 20 cm x 20 cm, a detector
smaller than the Semiflex 0.125 should be used. 17
 Overview: Field Size Range

Field size range of PTW small field detectors. Data is taken from [DETECTORS] and valid for output factor measurements.

18
Overview: Additional Selection Criteria

Detectors Additional Selection Criteria

Penumbra Out-Of-Field Dose Dose Rate Energy Energy Fast

Accuracy Dose Stability Independence Response Response Measure-
Accuracy (MeV) (keV) ment 1

Diode E,
unshielded
++++ ++ ++ +++ +++ – +

Diode SRS,
unshielded ++++ ++ ++ 2 ++++ +++ – +++

Diode P,
shielded ++++ +++ ++ +++ ++ ++ +

microDiamond
Detector ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ +++ +

PinPoint Chamber,
0.015 cm³, axial +++ ++++ ++++ ++++ 3 ++++ 4 +++ +++
orientation

PinPoint Chamber,
0.015 cm³, radial ++ ++++ ++++ ++++ 3 ++++ 4 +++ +++
orientation

PinPoint Chamber,
0.03 cm³, radial ++ ++++ ++++ ++++ 3 ++++ 5 +++ ++++
orientation

PinPoint Chamber 3D,

0.016 cm³, radial ++ ++++ ++++ ++++ 3 ++++ 6 +++ +++
orientation

Semiflex 3D Chamber,
0.07 cm³, radial or ++ ++++ ++++ ++++ 3 ++++ 5 +++ ++++
axial orientation

Semiflex Chamber,
0.125 cm³, radial + ++++ ++++ ++++ 3 ++++ 4 ++++ ++++
orientation

++++ excellent +++ very good ++ good + OK

1
see “Fast measurement” on next page
2
only <
_ 6MV
3
can be corrected, see e.g. [DIN6800-2]
4
can be corrected, kQ available in [DIN 6800-2] and [IAEA 398]
5
can be corrected, kQ available from PTW technical support
6
can be corrected, kQ available in [DETECTORS]

19
 Why is it relevant?
Penumbra accuracy
In IMRT and IMAT treatments, many small
fields are superimposed to get the full dose.
To make this work, the penumbra should be
known to a high accuracy.
Dose stability
When the dose stability is good, you seldom
have to recalibrate your detector. A bad dose
stability requires more frequent recalibrations.
Dose rate independence
A possible dose rate dependence of the detec-
tor will be part of the measurement uncertainty.
The better the dose rate independence, the
higher the accuracy of the measurement.
Energy response (keV)
The keV energy response is important when
the beam contains a lot of scattered radia-
tion. This is the case for large fields (more than
10 cm x 10 cm), especially in the out-of-field
region. In small fields (below 5 cm x 5 cm), the
effect is not important within the field and of
medium importance outside of the field.
Energy response (MeV)
A good MeV energy response corresponds to
a quality correction factor kQ close to 1 for all
energies above 60Co. For air-filled ionization
chambers, kQ is known, for other detectors this
is not the case. Hence, the better the energy
response, the smaller is the induced uncertainty.
Note, the mean energy of a beam can slightly
change over a beam cross section or with depth
in the water.
20
Out-of-field dose accuracy
In IMRT and IMAT treatments, many small fields
are superimposed to get the full dose. The
out-of-field dose can be several percent of the
central dose and will add up to a background
dose. In addition, it is a main contribution to
the dose in the surrounding healthy tissue.
Fast measurement
A good signal to noise ratio (SNR) is preferable
for profile and PDD measurements. The better
the SNR, the faster the measurement can be
performed.
Every detector is subject to quantum noise of
the radiation. The following quantities influ-
ence quantum noise: (i) the number of quanta
of the primary radiation, (ii) the material of the
detector (i.e. air, silicon, diamond, …) and (iii)
the size of the detector (large detector: better
SNR). Hence, depending on your detector, the
signal to noise ratio will be different. We have
classified detectors with a high SNR as fast
detectors. Note, the SNR is mainly a material
property of the detector, it is not a function of
the response of the detector.
Rule of thumb: if you use a high quality elec-
trometer, the smallest air-filled ionization cham-
ber (PinPoint 0.015 cm³) will have a better SNR
than any diode, even though the response is a
lot lower.
5 Absolute Dose Measurements with
PTW Small Field Detectors
} Fields < 2 cm × 2 cm
Cross-calibrate your small field detector
for each radiation quality in a 4 cm x 4 cm
or 5 cm x 5 cm field against a Semiflex 3D
or Semiflex 0.125 cm³ ionization chamber.
} Fields 2 cm × 2 cm … 4 cm x 4 cm
Use a PinPoint ionization chamber directly
or cross-calibrate your small field detector
for each radiation quality in a 4 cm x 4 cm
or 5 cm x 5 cm field against a Semiflex 3D
or Semiflex 0.125 cm³ ionization chamber.
} Fields >
_ 4 cm x 4 cm
Use a Semiflex 3D or Semiflex 0.125 cm³
ionization chamber.
} Detector orientation
Perform a new cross-calibration if you
change the detector orientation.
Note: when you use an ionization chamber
directly, follow one of the international or
national dosimetry protocols, e.g. [IAEA 398,
AAPM TG51, DIN 6800 2]. Additional kQ
correction factors for the PinPoint chambers
are given in [Muir2011], [DETECTORS], or can
be obtained from PTW technical support.
5.1 How to perform the cross-
calibration
For absolute dose measurements, all small field
detectors except air-filled ionization chambers
must be cross-calibrated against a medium-
size ionization chamber such as a Semiflex 3D
or Semiflex 0.125.
The cross-calibration is done in a phantom
for each radiation quality. It should be per-
formed in two steps in a field of 4 cm x 4 cm
or 5 cm x 5 cm:
1. Use a medium-size vented ionization
chamber, e.g. a Semiflex 3D or a Semiflex
0.125 chamber, to determine the dose Dref
for the radiation quality and depth of interest.
Use one of the international or national dosi­
metry protocols, e.g. [IAEA 398, AAPM TG51,
DIN 6800-2].
2. Replace the medium-size ionization chamber
by the small-size detector to be cross-calibrat-
ed. Make sure the effective points of measure-
ment are located at the same depth. Apply the
same number of monitor units as before and
determine the reading Msmall of the small-size
detector. The cross-calibration factor for the
small-size detector is the ratio Dref/Msmall.
After cross-calibration, the small-size detector
can be used in fields smaller than the cross-cali-
bration field and at different depths, but always
at the same radiation quality and detector
orientation. In literature, this approach is
sometimes addressed as “daisy chaining”.
21
 6 Frequently Asked Questions
How can I tell whether my detector is
too big for my field size?
As a crude rule of thumb: if the dimension of
your detector is more than 25 % of the field
width, you might observe a volume effect
of several %. To make sure, cross-calibrate a
smaller detector against yours in a 4 cm x 4 cm
or 5 cm x 5 cm field and compare their respec-
tive signals in the targeted small field. If the
measured doses clearly deviate, you are prob-
ably experiencing a volume effect.
Do I need special detectors to perform
dosimetry in small fields?
Yes. There exists no detector that is suitable to
perform high accuracy measurements in very
small as well as very large fields. In larger fields
highest accuracy is reached with ionization
chambers, especially the semiflex chambers.
In small fields, small field detectors should be
used.
Is film dosimetry the best solution for
small fields?
No. The main advantage of film dosimetry is
the very good spatial resolution. Unfortunately
this is the only advantage. Silver films exhibit
a very bad energy response in the keV-energy
range and their quality depends a lot on the
development process. [IPEM 103] recommends
not to use that type of film. Radiochromic films
have a better energy dependence, but require
a high dose for development, their result
depends on handling, i.e. on staff, they darken
by a few percent after exposure, their response
can vary by several percent over the area of the
film, and there are batch-to-batch variations
[IPEM 103].
22
Is a scintillation detector the best
solution for small fields?
Theoretically, a scintillator has a good water-
equivalence because it can be built from
plastic. In practice a dosemeter also needs
good dosimetric properties. Scintillators can
be subject to LET-, dose rate- and temperature
dependence. Because of the low optical signal
output, which even reduces with accumulated
dose, scintillation detectors cannot be built as
small as solid state detectors and they feature
a fairly high quantum noise. The optical signal
transfer (if performed in a PMMA light guide)
leads to very strong stem- and cable-irradiation
effects. If you correct for these effects using
a two-color-channel method, measurements
have to be performed without a reference
signal. In addition, this correction method
is very prone to handling-errors. All in all,
using scintillation detectors is similar to using
gafchromic film: if you want accurate results,
you need to know exactly what you are doing.
Can I use any detector to perform
absolute dosimetry?
Usually absolute dosimetry is performed in
10 cm x 10 cm fields and according to inter­
national dosimetry protocols. Currently there
is no such protocol describing dose measure-
ments in small fields. Hence, in small fields
we recommend to cross-calibrate the
to-be-used detector against a Semiflex 3D
or Semiflex 0.125 chamber in a 4 cm x 4 cm
or 5 cm x 5 cm field. Any detector can be
cross-calibrated as long as it is stable during
the entire measurement. We recommend to
perform the cross-calibration before each
measurement session to check for detector
dose and temperature stability (this is especially
important when using silicon diodes or
­scintillators) and to check for the reproduci­
bility of the calibration procedure.
My field is smaller than 1 cm x 1 cm.
Which detector can I use?
If you need to measure smaller field sizes, we
recommend to use non-shielded detectors with
a small cross-section perpendicular to the beam.
These are the Diode E (T60017) for all photon
energies and the Diode SRS (T60018) for pho-
ton energies of 6 MV and below. You can also
consider the microDiamond T60019 for such
measurements.
For any detector we recomend to look up
correction factors for very small fields in
scientific literature.
My field is not square. Which detector
is suitable?
There are formulas to calculate an equivalent
square field size for non-square field shapes.
The aim of these calculations is to predict the
output factor of an irregular field. To estimate
whether a detector will be prone to the volume
effect, these formulas cannot be used. Instead,
the smallest dimension of the field plays the
central role. For rectangular fields, this is the
small edge. For example, if your field size is
2 cm x 10 cm, take a detector that is suited for
a 2 cm x 2 cm field.
For circular fields, the vendor of your irra-
diation unit will in most cases recommend
a detector for the measurements. As rule of
thumb: to measure output factors, i.e. when
measuring in the center of the field, take the
diameter of the field as smallest dimension.
For example, to measure the output factor in a
3 cm diameter field, take a detector that is suited
for a 3 cm x 3 cm field. For profile measurements,
it is difficult to give a precise recommendation.
If you are unsure which detector to use, take
the smaller one.
What is the advantage of silicon diodes
over air-filled ionization chambers?
Due to the higher density of atoms in silicon
compared to air, a diode detector can be
constructed very small and still have a good
response. Hence in high-gradient regions,
such as the penumbra, a diode detector will
be more accurate. The microDiamond detector
combines the advantages of silicon diodes and
air-filled ionization chambers, but its cross-
section in the beam is slightly larger than for
the PTW silicon diode detectors.
What is the advantage of air-filled
ionization chambers over silicon diodes?
In contrast to silicon diodes the response of
air-filled ionization chambers to low-energy
scattered radiation is excellent, except if they
have a steel central electrode. For this reason,
they are suited to precisely deduce the dose
in large fields and in the out-of-field region.
In addition, air-filled ionization chambers are
perfectly suited to deduce the absolute dose
according to international dosimetry protocols.
Air-filled ionization chambers do not suffer any
response degradation due to irradiation.
When do I use a shielded diode?
In shielded diodes, the over-response to
keV-energy scattered radiation – which is
mainly present in fields >
_ 10 cm x 10 cm – is
compensated by a metal shield absorbing that
type of radiation. Due to this combination,
shielded diodes can be used in the entire field size
range from 1 cm x 1 cm up to 40 cm x 40 cm.
Nevertheless one must keep in mind that this
large field size range does not come free of
costs. Shielded diodes are a compromise.
They can be used for small and large fields,
but if you want to increase the accuracy, we
23
 recommend to use a microDiamond instead of
a Diode P. For highest accuracy use a small field
detector for small fields (e.g. an unshielded sili-
con diode or a microDiamond) and an air-filled
ionization chamber for large fields.
How can I check if my detector is
accurately positioned in the field?
The option CenterCheck of the MEPHYSTO
package allows you to check the positioning
and alignment of your detector in the beam.
In addition, you can improve reproducibility
and ease of use by mounting your detectors
using the TRUFIX system.
It is important to check the positioning at
shallow and large depths in the water. Use the
PTW technical note D811.200.01 to optimize
CenterCheck for small fields.
How can I tell the effective point of
measurement and water equivalent
window thickness of PTW solid state
detectors?
Each PTW solid state detector has a colored
ring which is situated at the water equivalent
depth of the effective point of measurement of
the detector. To find the “zero” water position,
make the ring level with the water surface
and define this as zero water level. The detec-
tor should be used in axial orientation for this
procedure.
If you are using TRUFIX and the stop thimble
corresponding to your detector, the detector
will directly be positioned in the correct depth.
This, of course, requires that you first have
correctly set the zero position with TRUFIX.
24
Where do I place the reference detector
in a small field?
Placing a reference detector in a very small
field without disturbing the main detector
is not feasible. Simply placing the reference
detector outside the field border is not a very
good solution either, because the signal of the
reference will then be very noisy and will lead
to a noisy measurement (i.e. the curves will not
be flat). There are several options what you
could do:
}
ou can use the PTW T-REF chamber. This is
Y
a very thin transmission chamber providing a
strong and very low noise reference signal
I
} f you are very sure that your linac is very sta-
ble, measure without reference
ou can use a very large ionization chamber,
}
Y
e.g. a Bragg-Peak chamber or a 100 mm
CT-chamber as reference right next to the
beam. The larger the chamber the better,
a Farmer chamber is still better than a semi-
flex chamber. Note, that this technique will
increase the noise of your measurement.
Do not use a diode as reference as diodes
exhibit strong quantum noise
}
ou can increase your integration time. Four
Y
times longer integration time leads to half
the noise
ou can measure the PDD, profile, etc.
}
Y
several times. If several curves coincide, the
linac was stable
ou can measure step by step irradiating a
}
Y
fixed number of MUs for each data point
If you use a reference chamber outside of the
beam, remember to pre-irradiate it if it has not
been in the beam before. A more thorough
description including measured data can be
found in [Wuerfel2013].
7 Detector Overview

Dimensions, specs Radiation Quality

T31021 0.07 cm³ radius of sensitive 60

Co … 50 MV photons
Semiflex 3D Chamber volume 2.4 mm, (9 … 45) MeV electrons
length 4.8 mm

T31010 0.125 cm³ radius of sensitive 66 kV … 50 MV photons
Semiflex Chamber volume 2.75 mm, (10 … 45) MeV electrons
length 6.5 mm (50 … 270) MeV protons

T31014 0.015 cm³ radius of sensitive 60
Co … 50 MV photons
PinPoint Chamber volume 1 mm,
length 5 mm

T31015 0.03 cm³ radius of sensitive 60

Co … 50 MV photons
PinPoint Chamber volume 1.45 mm,
length 5 mm

T31022 0.016 cm³ radius of sensitive 60

Co … 25 MV photons
PinPoint 3D Chamber volume 1.45 mm,
length 2.9 mm

T60019 microDiamond sensitive volume 100 kV … 25 MV photons

Detector 0.004 mm³, (6 … 25) MeV electrons
radius 1.1 mm, (70 … 230) MeV protons
thickness 0.001 mm (115 … 380) MeV/u
carbon ions
T60016 Dosimetry Diode P sensitive volume 60
Co … 25 MV photons
0.03 mm³, radius of
sensitive volume
0.6 mm, shielded

T60017 Dosimetry Diode E sensitive volume 60

Co … 25 MV photons
0.03 mm³, radius of (6 … 25) MeV electrons
sensitive volume
0.6 mm, unshielded

T60018 Dosimetry Diode SRS sensitive volume 60

Co … 6 MV photons
0.3 mm³, radius of
sensitive volume
0.6 mm, unshielded,
high response
25
 0.07 cm3 Semiflex
3D Chamber
Type 31021
Standard therapy chamber with excel-
lent 3D characteristics for scanning
systems and for absolute dosimetry

Features Materials and measures:

Waterproof, semiflexible design for easy mounting in Wall of sensitive volume 0.57 mm PMMA,
scanning water phantoms 1.19 g/cm3
0.09 mm graphite,
Excellent 3D characteristics 1.85 g/cm3
Sensitive volume of 0.07 cm3 Total wall area density 84 mg/cm2
Outperforms all requirements of IEC 60731 Dimension of sensitive radius 2.4 mm
and AAPM TG-51 volume length 4.8 mm
Designed for axial and radial irradiation Central electrode Al 99.98, diameter 0.8 mm
The 31021 Semiflex 3D chamber is ideal for dose meas- Build-up cap PMMA, thickness 3 mm
urements in small fields as encountered e.g. in IORT, IMRT
and stereotactic beams as well as for dose measurements Ion collection efficiency at nominal voltage:
in standard fields up to 40 x 40 cm2. Relative dose distri- Ion collection time 118 µs
bution can be measured with high spatial resolution in
Max. dose rate for
any direction. The waterproof, fully guarded chamber can ≥ 99.5 % saturation 6.7 Gy/s
be used in air, solid state phantoms and in water. ≥ 99.0 % saturation 13.4 Gy/s
Specification Max. dose per pulse for
Type of product vented cylindrical ≥ 99.5 % saturation 0.68 mGy
ionization chamber ≥ 99.0 % saturation 1.42 mGy
Application absolute dosimetry in Useful ranges:
radiotherapy beams
Chamber voltage ± (50 ... 400) V
Measuring quantities absorbed dose to water,
air kerma, exposure Radiation quality 60Co ... 50 MV photons
(9 ... 45) MeV electrons
Reference radiation 60Co
quality Field size (2.5 x 2.5) cm2 ... (40 x 40) cm2
(3.0 x 3.0) cm2 ... (40 x 40) cm2
Nominal sensitive 0.07 cm3 ≥ 18 MV
volume
Temperature (10 ... 40) °C
Design waterproof, vented, fully (50 ... 104) °F
guarded
Humidity (10 ... 80) %, max 20 g/m3
Reference point on chamber axis, 3.45 mm
from chamber tip Air pressure (700 ... 1060) hPa
Direction of incidence axial, radial
Nominal response 2 nC/Gy Ordering Information
TN31021 Semiflex 3D chamber 0.07 cm3,
Long-term stability ≤ 0.3 % over 2 years
connecting system BNT
Chamber voltage 400 V nominal
± 500 V maximal TW31021 Semiflex 3D chamber 0.07 cm3,
connecting system TNC
Polarity effect at 60Co photons ≤ ± 0.8 %
electrons ≤ ± 1 % TM31021 Semiflex 3D chamber 0.07 cm3,
connecting system M
Directional response in ≤ ± 0.5 % for rotation
water around the chamber axis Options
≤ ± 1 % for tilting of the
axis up to ± 90° T48012 Radioactive check device 90Sr
Leakage current ≤ ± 4 fA T48002.1.004 Chamber holding device for check
device
Cable leakage ≤ 100 fC/(Gy·cm)

26
 0.125 cm3 Semiflex
Chamber
Type 31010
Standard therapy chamber for
scanning systems and for absolute
dosimetry

Features Materials and measures:

Waterproof, semiflexible design for easy mounting in Wall of sensitive volume 0.55 mm PMMA,
scanning water phantoms 1.19 g/cm3
0.15 mm graphite,
Minimized directional response 0.82 g/cm3
Sensitive volume 0.125 cm3, vented to air Total wall area density 78 mg/cm2
Radioactive check device (option) Dimension of sensitive radius 2.75 mm
The 31010 semiflexible chamber is the ideal compromise volume length 6.5 mm
between small size for reasonable spatial resolution and Central electrode Al 99.98, diameter 1.1 mm
large sensitive volume for precise dose measurements. Build-up cap PMMA, thickness 3 mm
This makes the 31010 chamber to one of the most com-
monly used chambers in scanning water phantom sys- Ion collection efficiency at nominal voltage:
tems. The chamber volume of 0.125 cm3 gives enough Ion collection time 121 µs
signal to use the chamber also for high precision
absolute dose measurements. The sensitive volume is Max. dose rate for
approximately spherical resulting in a flat angular ≥ 99.5 % saturation 6 Gy/s
≥ 99.0 % saturation 12 Gy/s
response and a uniform spatial resolution along all three
axes of a water phantom. Max. dose per pulse for
≥ 99.5 % saturation 0.5 mGy
Specification ≥ 99.0 % saturation 1.0 mGy
Type of product vented cylindrical
ionization chamber Useful ranges:
Application absolute dosimetry in Chamber voltage ± (100 ... 400) V
radiotherapy beams Radiation quality 140 kV ... 50 MV photons
Measuring quantities absorbed dose to water, (10 ... 45) MeV electrons
air kerma, exposure (50 ... 270) MeV protons
Reference radiation 60Co Field size (3 x 3) cm2 ... (40 x 40) cm2
quality Temperature (10 ... 40) °C
Nominal sensitive 0.125 cm3 (50 ... 104) °F
volume Humidity (10 ... 80) %, max 20 g/m3
Design waterproof, vented, fully Air pressure (700 ... 1060) hPa
guarded
Reference point on chamber axis, 4.5 mm Ordering Information
from chamber tip
TN31010 Semiflex chamber 0.125 cm3,
Direction of incidence radial
connecting system BNT
Nominal response 3.3 nC/Gy TW31010 Semiflex chamber 0.125 cm3,
Long-term stability ≤ 1 % per year connecting system TNC
Chamber voltage 400 V nominal TM31010 Semiflex chamber 0.125 cm3,
± 500 V maximal connecting system M
Polarity effect at 60Co <2%
Photon energy response ≤ ± 2 % (140 kV ... 280 kV) Options
≤ ± 4 % (140 kV ... 60Co) T48012 Radioactive check device 90Sr
Directional response in ≤ ± 0.5 % for rotation T48002.1.004 Chamber holding device for check
water around the chamber axis device
and for tilting of the axis up
to ± 10°
Leakage current ≤ ± 4 fA
Cable leakage ≤ 1 pC/(Gy·cm)

27
 PinPoint Chambers
Type 31014, 31015

Ultra small-sized therapy chambers

for dosimetry in high-energy photon
beams

Features Materials and measures:

Small-sized sensitive volumes of only 0.015 cm3 and Wall of sensitive volume 0.57 mm PMMA,
0.03 cm3, 2 mm and 2.9 mm in diameter, vented to air 1.19 g/cm3
0.09 mm graphite,
Very high spatial resolution when used for scans 1.85 g/cm3
perpendicular to the chamber axis
Total wall area density 85 mg/cm2
Aluminum central electrode
Dimensions of sensitive radius 1 mm, 1.45 mm
Radioactive check device (option) volume length 5 mm
The PinPoint chambers are ideal for dose measurements Central electrode Al 99.98, diameter 0.3 mm
in small fields as encountered e.g. in IORT, IMRT and Build-up cap PMMA, thickness 3 mm
stereotactic beams. Relative dose distributions can be
measured with very high spatial resolution when the Ion collection efficiency at nominal voltage:
chambers are moved perpendicular to the chamber axis. Ion collection time 20 µs, 50 µs
The waterproof, fully guarded chambers can be used in
air, solid state phantoms and in water. Max. dose rate for
≥ 99.5 % saturation 265 Gy/s, 29 Gy/s
Specification ≥ 99.0 % saturation 580 Gy/s, 55 Gy/s
Type of products vented cylindrical Max. dose per pulse for
ionization chambers ≥ 99.5 % saturation 3.5 mGy, 1.2 mGy
≥ 99.0 % saturation 7 mGy, 2.3 mGy
Application dosimetry in high-energy
photon beams with high
spatial resolution Useful ranges:
Measuring quantities absorbed dose to water, Chamber voltage ± (100 ... 400) V
air kerma, exposure Radiation quality 60Co ... 50 MV photons
Reference radiation 60Co Field size (2 x 2) cm2 ... (30 x 30) cm2
quality Temperature (10 ... 40) °C
Nominal sensitive 0.015 cm3, 0.03 cm3 (50 ... 104) °F
volume Humidity (10 ... 80) %, max 20 g/m3
Design waterproof, vented, fully Air pressure (700 ... 1060) hPa
guarded
Reference point on chamber axis, 3.4 mm
from chamber tip Ordering Information
Direction of incidence radial, axial (31014) TN31014 PinPoint chamber 0.015 cm3,
connecting system BNT
Pre-irradiation dose 2 Gy
TW31014 PinPoint chamber 0.015 cm3,
Nominal response 400 pC/Gy, 800 pC/Gy connecting system TNC
Long-term stability ≤ 1 % per year TM31014 PinPoint chamber 0.015 cm3,
Chamber voltage 400 V nominal connecting system M
± 500 V maximal TN31015 PinPoint chamber 0.03 cm3,
Polarity effect ≤±2% connecting system BNT
Directional response in ≤ ± 0.5 % for rotation TW31015 PinPoint chamber 0.03 cm3,
water around the chamber axis, connecting system TNC
≤ ± 1 % for tilting of the TM31015 PinPoint chamber 0.03 cm3,
axis up to connecting system M
± 20° (radial incidence)
± 15° (axial incidence) Options
Leakage current ≤ ± 4 fA T48012 Radioactive check device 90Sr
Cable leakage ≤ 1 pC/(Gy·cm) T48002.1.007 Chamber holding device for check
device

28
 PinPoint 3D Chamber
Type 31022

New ultra small-sized therapy chamber

with 3D characteristics for dosimetry in
high-energy photon beams

Features Materials and measures:

Small polarity effect Wall of sensitive 0.57 mm PMMA,
volume 1.19 g/cm3
Minimal cable irradiation effect 0.09 mm graphite,
Short ion collection time 1.85 g/cm3
Large field size range Total wall area density 84 mg/cm2
The new 31022 PinPoint 3D chamber is ideal for meas- Dimensions of sensitive radius 1.45 mm
urements in small fields but can also be used for measure- volume length 2.9 mm
ments in large fields. Designed for radial beam orientation, Central electrode Al 99.98, diameter 0.6 mm
the small-sized chamber shows excellent 3D characteris- Build-up cap PMMA, thickness 3 mm
tics. Relative dose distributions can be measured with high
spatial resolution in any direction. It is waterproof and fully Ion collection efficiency at nominal voltage:
guarded, thus it can be used in air, solid state phantoms Ion collection time 45 µs
and in water.
Max. dose rate for
Specification ≥ 99.5 % saturation 46 Gy/s
Type of product vented cylindrical ≥ 99.0 % saturation 91 Gy/s
ionization chamber Max. dose per pulse for
Application dosimetry in photon beams ≥ 99.5 % saturation 0.8 mGy
≥ 99.0 % saturation 2.2 mGy
Measuring quantities absorbed dose to water,
air kerma, exposure Useful ranges:
Reference radiation 60Co
Chamber voltage ± (100 ... 400) V
quality
Radiation quality 60Co ... 25 MV photons
Nominal sensitive 0.016 cm3
volume Field size (2 x 2) cm2 … (40 x 40) cm2
Design waterproof, vented, guarded Temperature (10 ... 40) °C
(50 ... 104) °F
Reference point on chamber axis, 2.4 mm
from chamber tip Humidity (10 ... 80) %, max 20 g/m3
Direction of incidence radial Air pressure (700 ... 1060) hPa
Pre-irradiation dose 1 Gy
Nominal response 400 pC/Gy Ordering Information
Long-term stability ≤ 1 % per year TN31022 PinPoint 3D chamber 0.016 cm3,
connecting system BNT
Chamber voltage 300 V nominal
± 500 V maximal TW31022 PinPoint 3D chamber 0.016 cm3,
connecting system TNC
Polarity effect ≤ ± 0.8 %
TM31022 PinPoint 3D chamber 0.016 cm3,
Directional response in ≤ ± 0.5 % for rotation connecting system M
water around the chamber axis,
≤ ± 1 % for tilting of the
axis up to ± 10° Options
Leakage current ≤ ± 4 fA T48012 Radioactive check device 90Sr
T48002.1.010 Chamber holding device for check
Cable leakage ≤ 100 fC/(Gy·cm) device

29
 microDiamond
Type 60019

Diamond Detector for dosimetry in

high-energy photon and electron beams,
especially useful for small field dosimetry

Features Materials and measures:

Small sensitive volume of 0.004 mm3 Entrance window 0.3 mm RW3
0.6 mm Epoxy
Excellent radiation hardness and temperature 0.01 mm Al 99.5
independence
Total window 101 mg/cm2
Near tissue-equivalence area density
Operates without high voltage Water-equivalent 1.0 mm
All connecting systems available (BNT, TNC, M) window thickness
The new microDiamond detector is a synthetic single Sensitive volume radius 1.1 mm, circular,
crystal diamond detector (SCDD), based on a unique thickness 1 µm
fabrication process [1, 2]. Significant advantages of the Outer dimensions diameter 7 mm,
synthetic production are standardised assembly and length 45.5 mm
consequently a high reproducibility of the dosimetric
properties and good availability of the detector. Useful ranges:
Radiation quality 100 keV ... 25 MV photons
Specification (6 ... 25) MeV electrons
Type of product synthetic single crystal (70 … 230) MeV protons
diamond detector (115 … 380) MeV/u carbon
Application dosimetry in radiotherapy ions
beams Field size2 (1 x 1) cm2 ... (40 x 40) cm2
Measuring absorbed dose to water Temperature (10 ... 35) °C, (50 ... 95) °F
quantitiy Humidity range (10 ... 80) %, max 20 g/m3
Reference 60Co
radiation quality
Ordering Information
Nominal sensitive 0.004 mm3
volume TN60019 microDiamond Detector, connecting system BNT
TW60019 microDiamond Detector, connecting system TNC
Design waterproof, disk-shaped,
TM60019 microDiamond Detector, connecting system M
sensitive volume perpendi-
cular to detector axis
The microDiamond detector is realized in collaboration with Marco
Reference point on detector axis, 1 mm from Marinelli and Gianluca Verona-Rinati and their team, Industrial
detector tip, marked by ring Engineering Department of Rome Tor Vergata University, Italy.

Direction of axial [1] I. Ciancaglioni, M. Marinelli, E. Milani, G. Prestopino, C. Verona,

incidence G. Verona-Rinati, R. Consorti, A. Petrucci and F. De Notaristefani,
Dosimetric characterization of a synthetic single crystal diamond
Pre-irradiation dose 5 Gy detector in clinical radiation therapy small photon beams,
Nominal response 1 nC/Gy Med. Phys. 39 (2012), 4493

Long-term stability ≤ 0.5 % per year [2] C. Di Venanzio, M. Marinelli, E. Milani, G. Prestopino, C. Verona,
G. Verona-Rinati, M. D. Falco, P. Bagalà, R. Santoni and M. Pimpinella,
Dose stability < 0.25 % / kGy at 18 MV Characterization of a synthetic single crystal diamond Schottky diode for
radiotherapy electron beam dosimetry, Med. Phys. 40 (2013), 021712
Temperature ≤ 0.08 % / K
response
Energy response ± 13 % (100 keV ... 60Co)
Bias voltage 0V
Signal polarity positive 1 At the high end of the temperature range, higher leakage currents may
Directional ≤ 1 % for tilting ≤ ± 40° occur.
response in water
2 This detector is well suited for measurements in field sizes smaller than
Leakage current1 ≤ 20 fA 1 cm x 1 cm. Depending on the accuracy required by the user, correction
factors may be necessary as described in international scientific publications.
Cable leakage ≤ 200 fC / (Gy·cm) This applies to any detector used in very small fields.

30
 Dosimetry Diode P
Type 60016

Waterproof silicon detector for

dosimetry in high-energy photon
beams up to field size 40 cm x 40 cm

Features Directional response in ≤ ± 0.5 % for rotation

Useful for measurements in small and large photon water around the chamber axis,
≤ ± 1 % for tilting ≤ ± 40°
fields
Leakage current ≤ ± 50 fA
Excellent spatial resolution
Minimized energy response for field size independent Cable leakage ≤ 1 pC/(Gy·cm)
measurements up to 40 cm x 40 cm
Materials and measures:
The 60016 Dosimetry Diode P is ideal for dose measure- Entrance window 1 mm RW3,
ments in small photon fields as encountered in IORT, IMRT 1.045 g/cm3
and stereotactic beams. The excellent spatial resolution 1 mm epoxy
makes it possible to measure very precisely beam profiles Total window area density 250 mg/cm2
even in the penumbra region of small fields. The superior
Water-equivalent 2.42 mm
energy response enables the user to perform accurate window thickness
percentage depth dose measurements which are field size
independent up to field sizes of (40 x 40) cm2. The water- Sensitive volume 1 mm2 circular
proof detector can be used in air, solid state phantoms 30 µm thick
and in water. Outer dimensions diameter 7 mm,
length 47 mm
Specification
Type of product p-type silicon diode Useful ranges:
Application dosimetry in radiotherapy Radiation quality 60Co ... 25 MV photons
beams Field size (1 x 1) cm2 ... (40 x 40) cm2
Measuring quantity absorbed dose to water Temperature (10 ... 40) °C
Reference radiation 60Co (50 ... 104) °F
quality Humidity (10 ... 80) %, max 20 g/m3
Nominal sensitive 0.03 mm3
volume
Ordering Information
Design waterproof, disk-shaped
sensitive volume perpendi- TN60016 Dosimetry Diode P, connecting system BNT
cular to detector axis TW60016 Dosimetry Diode P, connecting system TNC
TM60016 Dosimetry Diode P, connecting system M
Reference point on detector axis, 2.42 mm
from detector tip
Direction of incidence axial
Nominal response 9 nC/Gy
Dose stability ≤ 0.5 %/kGy at 6 MV
≤ 1 %/kGy at 15 MV
≤ 0.5 %/kGy at 5 MeV
≤ 4 %/kGy at 21 MeV
Temperature response ≤ 0.4 %/K
Energy response at higher depths than dmax,
the percentage depth dose
curves match curves meas-
ured with ionization cham-
bers within ± 0.5 %
Bias voltage 0V
Signal polarity negative

31
 Dosimetry Diode E
Type 60017

Waterproof silicon detector for

dosimetry in high-energy electron
and photon beams

Features Directional response in ≤ ± 0.5 % for rotation

Useful for measurements in all electron fields and water around the chamber axis,
≤ ± 1 % for tilting ≤ ± 20°
for small photon fields
Leakage current ≤ ± 50 fA
Excellent spatial resolution
Minimized energy response Cable leakage ≤ 1 pC/(Gy·cm)
Thin entrance window for measurements in the Materials and measures:
vicinity of surfaces and interfaces
Entrance window 0.3 mm RW3,
The 60017 Dosimetry Diode E is ideal for dose measure- 1.045 g/cm3
ments in small electron and photon fields as encoun- 0.4 mm epoxy
tered in IORT, IMRT and stereotactic beams. The excel- Total window area density 140 mg/cm2
lent spatial resolution makes it possible to measure very Water-equivalent 1.33 mm
precisely beam profiles even in the penumbra region of window thickness
small fields. The Dosimetry Diode E is recommended for
Sensitive volume 1 mm2 circular
dose measurements in all electron fields and for photon 30 µm thick
fields up to (10 x 10) cm2. The waterproof detector can
be used in air, solid state phantoms and in water. Outer dimensions diameter 7 mm,
length 45.5 mm
Specification
Type of product p-type silicon diode Useful ranges:
Application dosimetry in radiotherapy Radiation quality (6 ... 25) MeV electrons
60Co ... 25 MV photons
beams
Measuring quantity absorbed dose to water Field size 1 (1 x 1) cm2 ... (40 x 40) cm2
for electrons
Reference radiation 60Co
(1 x 1) cm2 ... (10 x 10) cm2
quality for photons
Nominal sensitive 0.03 mm3 Temperature (10 ... 40) °C
volume (50 ... 104) °F
Design waterproof, disk-shaped Humidity (10 ... 80) %, max 20 g/m3
sensitive volume perpendi-
cular to detector axis
Ordering Information
Reference point on detector axis, 1.33 mm
from detector tip TN60017 Dosimetry Diode E, connecting system BNT
Direction of incidence axial TW60017 Dosimetry Diode E, connecting system TNC
TM60017 Dosimetry Diode E, connecting system M
Nominal response 9 nC/Gy
Dose stability ≤ 0.5 %/kGy at 6 MV 1 This detector is well suited for measurements in field sizes smaller than
≤ 1 %/kGy at 15 MV 1 cm x 1 cm. Depending on the accuracy required by the user, correction
≤ 0.5 %/kGy at 5 MeV factors may be necessary as described in international scientific publications.
This applies to any detector used in very small fields.
≤ 4 %/kGy at 21 MeV
Temperature response ≤ 0.4 %/K
Energy response at higher depths than dmax,
the percentage depth dose
curves match curves meas-
ured with ionization cham-
bers within ± 0.5 %
Bias voltage 0V
Signal polarity negative

32
 Dosimetry Diode SRS
Type 60018

Waterproof silicon detector for

dosimetry in 6 MV photon beams up
to field size 10 cm x 10 cm

Features Materials and measures:

Designed for measurements in small photon fields Entrance window 0.3 mm RW3,
with maximum 6 MV 0.27 mm epoxy
Excellent spatial resolution Total window area density 140 mg/cm2
High response Water-equivalent 1.31 mm
window thickness
Very low noise
Sensitive volume 1 mm2 circular
Thin entrance window for measurements in the
250 µm thick
vicinity of surfaces and interfaces
Outer dimensions diameter 7 mm,
The 60018 Dosimetry Diode SRS is ideal for dose meas- length 45.5 mm
urements in photon fields with a maximum field size
of 10 cm x 10 cm and with a maximum energy of 6 MV. Useful ranges:
The very high response of this detector allows to meas- Radiation quality 60Co ... 6 MV photons
ure beam profiles with a very high resolution and very
Field size 1 (1 x 1) cm2 ... (10 x 10) cm2
short dwell time. Typical use is beam profile measure-
ment for stereotactic radio surgery (SRS). Temperature (10 ... 40) °C
(50 ... 104) °F
Specification Humidity (10 ... 80) %, max 20 g/m3
Type of product p-type silicon diode
Application dosimetry in radiotherapy Ordering Information
beams
TN60018 Dosimetry Diode SRS, connecting system BNT
Measuring quantity absorbed dose to water TW60018 Dosimetry Diode SRS, connecting system TNC
Reference radiation 60Co
TM60018 Dosimetry Diode SRS, connecting system M
quality
Nominal sensitive 0.3 mm3
1 This detector is well suited for measurements in field sizes smaller than
volume
1 cm x 1 cm. Depending on the accuracy required by the user, correction
Design waterproof, disk-shaped factors may be necessary as described in international scientific publications.
sensitive volume perpendi- This applies to any detector used in very small fields.
cular to detector axis
Reference point on detector axis, 1.31 mm
from detector tip
Direction of incidence axial
Nominal response 175 nC/Gy
Dose stability ≤ 0.8 %/kGy at 6 MV
Temperature response ≤ (0.1 ± 0.05) %/K
Energy response at higher depths than dmax,
the percentage depth dose
curves match curves meas-
ured with ionization cham-
bers within ± 0.5 %
Bias voltage 0V
Signal polarity negative
Directional response in ≤ ± 0.5 % for rotation
water around the chamber axis,
≤ ± 1 % for tilting ≤ ± 20°
Leakage current ≤ ± 50 fA
Cable leakage ≤ 1 pC/(Gy·cm)

33
 8 References and Further Reading

[AAPM TG51] AAPM’s TG-51 protocol for clinical reference dosimetry of high-energy
photon and electron beams. Med. Phys. 26 (9), September 1999, 1847-1870

[Alfonso2008] A new formalism for reference dosimetry of small and nonstandard fields,
Med. Phys. 35 (2008), 5179-5186

[Crop2009] F. Crop et al., The influence of small field sizes, penumbra, spot size and
measurement depth on perturbation factors for microionization chambers,
Phys. Med. Biol. 54 (2009) 2951

[Cyarnecki2013] D. Cyarnecki and K. Zink, Monte Carlo calculated correction factors for diodes
and ion chambers in small photon fields, Phys. Med. Biol. 58 (2013) 2431–2444

[DETECTORS] PTW DETECTORS catalog, available at www.ptw.de

[DIN 6800-2] Dosismessverfahren nach der Sondenmethode für Photonen- und Elektronen-
strahlung. Teil 2: Dosimetrie hochenergetischer Photonen- und Elektronen-
strahlung mit Ionisationskammern, März 2008

[DIN 6809-8_draft] Klinische Dosimetrie – Teil 8: Dosimetrie kleiner Photonen-Bestrahlungsfelder,

draft, 2014

[Fenwick2013] J.D. Fenwick et al., Using cavity theory to describe the dependence on detector
density of dosimeter response in non-equilibrium small fields, Phys. Med. Biol.
58 (2013), 2901

[Francescon2012] P. Francescon et al., Monte Carlo simulated correction factors for machine spe-
cific reference field dose calibration and output factor measurement using fixed
and iris collimators on the CyberKnife system, Phys. Med. Biol. 57 (2012), 3741

[IAEA 398] Absorbed Dose Determination in External Beam Radiotherapy.

Technical Report Series No 398. International Atomic Energy Agency,
Vienna, 2000

[IPEM 103] Report Number 103, Small Field MV Photon Dosimetry, Institute of Physics and
Engineering in Medicine, 2010, ISBN 978 1 903613 45 0

[Looe2015] H.K. Looe et al, Understanding the lateral dose response functions of high-res-
olution photon detectors by reverse Monte Carlos and deconvolution analysis,
Phys. Med. Biol. 60 (2015), 6585

[Muir2011] Muir et al., Measured and Monte Carlo calculated kQ factors: Accuracy and
comparison, Med. Phys. 38 (2011), 4600

34
[PTW D560.210.03] Absorbed Dose Determination in Small Fields of High Energy Photon Beams
based on the German Standard DIN 6809-9

[PTW D811.200.01] How to Center a Detector in Small Fields with the TBA System, Technical Note

[Scott2012] A.J.D. Scott et al., Characterizing the influence of detector density on dosi­
meter response in non-equilibrium small photon fields, Phys. Med. Biol. 57
(2012) 4461–4476

[Sterpin2012] E. Sterpin et al., Monte Carlo computed machine-specific correction factors
for reference dosimetry of TomoTherapy static beam for several ion cham-
bers, Med. Phys. 39 (2012), 4066

[Pantelis 2012] E. Pantelis et al., On the output factor measurements of the CyberKnife iris
collimator small fields: Experimental determination of the k[..] correction
factors for microchamber and diode detectors, Med. Phys. 39 (2012), 4875

[Wuerfel2013] J.U. Wuerfel, Dose measurements in small fields, Medical Physics International
1 (2013), 81. You can download this article from the PTW website:
http://www.ptw.de/. Go to Literature > small field

8.1 PTW Small Field Detectors in Use

[Bruggmoser2007] G. Bruggmoser et al., Determination of the recombination correction
factor kS for some specific plane-parallel and cylindrical ionization chambers
in pulsed photon and electron beams, Phys. Med. Biol. 52 (2007), N35

[Chalkley2014] Chalkley A, Heyes G. Evaluation of a synthetic single-crystal diamond detec-

tor for relative dosimetry measurements on a CyberKnife . Br J Radiol 87
(2014), 20130768

[Ciancaglioni2012] I. Ciancaglioni et al., Dosimetric characterization of a synthetic single crystal

diamond detector in clinical radiation therapy small photon beams,
Med. Phys. 39 (2012), 4493

[Francescon2011] P. Francescon et al., Calculation of k_Qclin,Qmsr_fclin,fmsr for several small

detectors and for two linear accelerators using Monte Carlo simulations,
Med. Phys. 38 (2011), 6513

[Gago-Arias2013] A. Gago-Arias et al., Correction factors for ionization chamber dosimetry in
CyberKnife: Machine-specific, plan-class, and clinical fields, Med. Phys. 40
(2013) 011721

35
 H E A LT H P H Y S I C S NUCLEAR MEDICINE DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY R A D I AT I O N T H E R A P Y

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growing into a global market leader of dosimetry applications, well known for its product excellence and
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