The Definition and Scope of International Relations.

1) Introduction
2) Importance of IR
3) Level of analysis in IR
i. Palmer and Perkins definition of IR
ii. The term international was used by Jeromy Bentham in the
later 18th century with regards to laws of nations
From a broader perspective, IR may refer to all forms of
interactions between members of separate societies,
whether govt sponsored or not. Hoffman “IR is concerned
with the factors and activities which affect the external
policies and the powers of the basic units into which the
world is divided”
iii. The study of IR includes analysis of foreign policies or
political processes between nations, and also focuses on
international trade and civil society interaction
4) components of IR
i. The nature and principal forces of international
organizations
ii. The political, social, economic organization of political life,
psychological, social, pol science, economics aspects are
considered in order to understand what is happening
iii. elements of national power-political dynamics, every nation
is interested in other country's political conditions
iv. Instruments available for promotion of national interest-
how national power is attained and what is its effect on the
international level
v. Limitations and control of national power (china vs US in
Taiwan case due to capitalist vs communism theories
(phermosa island)
vi. Foreign policies of major powers and of smaller (strategic)
powers-HDI
 vii. Historical ingredients as a background for other factors
5) Comparative analysis of International Politics and International
Relations
i. IR is wider in scope than IP
ii. IP focuses on various styles of politics(capitalism vs.
communism); politics of violence, persuasion (japan
followed the plan of economic power and left military
power), hierarchical policies and pluralistic politics
iii. IR embraces the totality of relations among people and
groups of people in global society
6) Relevance of International Institutions in IR
i. Contemporary international institutions in which groups of
states or other actors can participate include INGOs or the
UN system (UNDP UNICEF)
ii. EU, NATO, SAARC or ASEAN are examples of regional
grouping with multiple functions
7) Scope of International Relations
i. Historically, only concerned with the study of diplomatic
history.
ii. Later on it was studied under the purview of International
Law.
iii. Field of study widened after the creation of League of
Nation as study of international organizations also included.
iv. Post World War II Scenario further widened the scope due
to emergence of two super powers, new states coming into
society of nations, danger of thermo-nuclear war, rising
expectations of underdeveloped states.
v. Emphasis on scientific study; study of military policies.
vi. Efforts to utilize the social science techniques (psychological
aspects)
vii. Modern scholars not willing to treat IR as an
independent discipline as it lacks unity of subject matter,
unanimity regarding scope and degree of objectivity.
 viii. IR has a descriptive-historical approach which leads to
immense data but a theoretical framework is required for
ordering and interpreting the facts, which new theories are
beginning to provide. Organski “…within next few decades
the basic foundations of a new discipline will be laid”
8) Significance of Study
i. It enables us to understand the basic motives underlying the
policies of various states.
ii. Having an insight to the problems facing the world
iii. Helping to understand that narrow nationalism is bane to
humanity, poses serious threats
iv. Various states view problems subjectively and give
preference to national interest
v. Traditional concept of national sovereignty has become out-
dated and requires modification
vi. Avoid policy of confrontation and instead focus on peaceful
co-existence, policy of co-operation, and universal
brotherhood.
9) Solution through the Core Principles of IR
i. The problem of shared interests versus conflicting interests
among members of a group, we will refer to the general
case as the collective goods problem.
ii. Dominance: The principle of dominance solves the collective
goods problem by establishing a power hierarchy in which
those at the top control those below.
iii. Reciprocity The principle of reciprocity solves the collective
goods problem by rewarding behavior that contributes to
the group and punishing behavior that pursues self-interest
at the expense of the group.
i. Identity: members of an identity community care about the
interests of others in that community enough to sacrifice
their own interests to benefit others.
10) Conclusion
The Nation-State System
1) Introduction
i. A nation denotes a common ethnic and cultural identity
shared by a single people, while a state is a political unit
with a governance system controlling a territory and its
inhabitants.
ii. The nation promotes emotional relationship amongst its
members, while states provide political and legal
foundation for the identity of its citizens.
iii. The term nation-state has been used by social scientists
to denote the gradual fusion of cultural and political
boundaries after a long control of political authority by a
central government.
iv. Palmer “the nation-state system is the pattern of
political life in which people are separately organized
into sovereign states that interact with one another in
varying degrees and in varying ways”
2) Historical Background
i. The treaty of Westphalia in 1648 created the modern
nation-state. (European states, different cultures,
languages started fusing e.g. Switzerland consists of half
German and half French but their identity is Swiss, plus
after partition Indian Muslims are separate than
Pakistani Muslims) It has to organize the different
national identities into one, many grievances with state
at times. Minority issue in Pakistan.
ii. The treaty established the principle of internal
sovereignty (preeminence of rulers from other
 claimants to power[state needs to have one ruler only
and is supreme]) and external sovereignty
(independence from outside powers)
iii. England, Spain and France obtained independence from
dominance by the Holy Roman Empire.
iv. Scholars like Machiavelli (the Prince), Bodin and Grotius
defended the authority of the state and provided
justification for the secular state independent from the
authority of the pope.
3) Approaches To International Relations Specifying Nation-
State Concept
i. There are three approaches to studying the socio-
cultural, political and economic forces at work within
different nation-states.
i. Objective (attributive Approach): identifies
nationalism and the nation-state in terms of
observable and quantifiable attributes, including
linguistic, racial and religious factors.
ii. Subjective (Emotional) Approach: views
nationalism and the nation-state as a set of
emotional, ideological and patriotic feelings
binding people regardless of their ethnic
backgrounds. (US) afro-Americans though have
serious problems.
iii. Eclectic (synthetic) Approach: A more subjective
than objective approach, seeking to supplement
notions of nationalism and patriotism with
interethnic interaction and education processes to
explain creation of a common identity.
 ii. Further Evolution of the Nation-State
i. State systems underwent further evolution on
account of rise of representative governments, the
industrial revolution, the population explosion,
independence of developing countries, economic
growth and growth of multi-lateral organizations.
4) Basic Features of Nation-State
i. Concept of Sovereignty
i. The concept of sovereignty is permanently
associated with a nation-state.
ii. It evolved in the 16th century in France during the
conflict between the state and the church.
iii. Many theorists have defined sovereignty. Hobbes
focused on its absolutist aspect, while Austin
focused on legalistic or juristic notions of
sovereignty.
iv. The modern doctrine of popular sovereignty has
transferred the source of absolute power from the
monarch to the people.
v. The notion of sovereignty is important but it can
become rigid unless applied to the evolving pattern
of inter-state relations.
ii. Nationalism in IR
i. Nationalism implies elevation of nation above all
other values.
ii. States usually control the mass media to propagate
their foreign policy objectives and centralize their
education systems to popularize nationalistic
values.
 iii. Power is gauged by both tangible and non-tangible
aspects.
iv. The economic output, size, population and military
strength of a state are tangible and quantifiable
aspects.
v. Power also rests on intangible factors like quality of
leadership, ideology, morale and manipulative or
diplomatic strength.
vi. Power purchases security and enables survival of
the state. Thus it is an end onto itself. This long run
objective to achieve power also requires exertion
of power. It is also a means to an end. (to get
power u need power.
iii. Ingredients of National power
i. Force-the explicit threat or use of military,
economic, nuclear and other instruments of
coercion by one state against another. Woodrow
Wilson ’talk softly but carry a stick’
ii. Influence-using instruments of persuasion by one
state to alter or maintain the behavior of another
state.
iii. Authority-voluntary compliance with directives and
orders of a state by other states out of respect,
solidarity, or in recognition of expertise.
5) Elements of Modern Nation-State
i. Sovereignty; right of self-government and promotion of
national interests through independent foreign policy
ii. Territorial Integrity
 iii. Legal Equality of the States; UN Charter; in reality this
principle has become a farce; a state which had general
interest and could protect those interests in all spheres
was considered a great power.
6) Setback to Nation-State System
i. Growing interdependence of the states due to
globalization. (national Sovereignty)
ii. Reconciliation of each other’s national interests
iii. Creation of regional blocs lead to dilution of nation-
state concept
iv. Rise of nuclear weapons; blow to concept of equality of
states
v. Growing role of public opinion alters foreign policy
objectives
vi. Growing dependence of developing nations on
developed states.
vii. Role played by Multi National Corporations.
7) Conclusion

Topic 3: Evolution of International Society

1. Introduction
i. The basic structures and principles of international
relations are deeply rooted in historical
developments.
ii. 'International society' is any association of distinct
political communities which accept some common
values, rules, and institutions.
 iii. It is the central concept of the 'English School' of
International Relations.
iv. Although originally coined to refer to relations among
European states, the term may be applied to many
different sets of political arrangements among
distinct political communities.
2. Historical Background
i. Elements of international society may be found from
the time of the first organized human communities.
ii. Early forms of diplomacy and treaties existed in the
ancient Middle East.
iii. Relations among the city-states of ancient Greece
were characterized by more developed societal
characteristics, such as arbitration.
iv. Ancient China, India, and Rome all had their own
distinctive international societies.
v. Medieval Europe's international society was a
complex mixture of supranational, transnational,
national, and subnational structures
vi. The Catholic Church played a key role in elaborating
the normative basis of medieval international society.
vii. Islam developed its own distinctive
understanding of international society.
3. Evolution of International Society
i. The main ingredients of contemporary international
society are the principles of sovereignty and non-
intervention and the institutions of diplomacy, the
balance of power, and international law.
ii. These took centuries to develop, although the Peace
of Westphalia (1648) was a key event in their
establishment throughout Europe.
iii. The Napoleonic Wars were followed by a shift to a
more managed, hierarchical, international society
within Europe and an imperial structure in Europe's
relations with much of the rest of the world.
iv. World Wars I and II dominated the 20th century, yet
they seem to offer contradictory lessons about the
utility of hardline or conciliatory foreign policies.
v. The League of Nations was an attempt to place
international society on a more secure organizational
foundation.
vi. For nearly 50 years after World War II, world politics
revolved around the East-West rivalry of the Cold
War. This bipolar standoff created stability and
avoided great power wars, including nuclear war, but
turned states in the global South into proxy
battlegrounds.
 vii. The United Nations was intended to be a much
improved League of Nations but the cold war
prevented it from functioning as such.
viii. The post–Cold War era holds hope of growing
peace and great-power cooperation despite the
appearance of new ethnic and regional conflicts
ix. Decolonization led to the worldwide spread of the
European model of international society.
x. The collapse of the Soviet Union completed this
process.
xi. Globalization poses serious problems for a
sovereignty-based international society.
xii. These include the challenges emanating from
new forms of community, failing states in Africa,
American hyperpower, growing resistance to Western
ideas, and global poverty and environmental issues.
4. Conclusion