CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Brakes are most important safety parts in the vehicles. Generally all of the
vehicles have their own safety devices to stop their car. Brakes function to slow and
stop the rotation of the wheel. To stop the wheel, braking pads are forced
mechanically against the rotor disc on both surfaces. They are compulsory for all of
the modern vehicles and the safe operation of vehicles. In short, brakes transform the
kinetic energy of the car into heat energy, thus slowing its speed.

Brakes have been retuned and improved ever since their invention. The
increases in traveling speeds as well as the growing weights of cars have made these
improvements essential. The faster a car goes and the heavier it is, the harder it is to
stop. An effective braking system is needed to accomplish this task with challenging
term where material need to be lighter than before and performance of the brakes
must be improved. Today's cars often use a combination of disc brakes and drum
brakes. For normal sedan car, normally disc brakes are located on the front two
wheels and drum brakes on the back two wheels. Clearly shows that, together with
the steering components and tyres represent the most important accident avoidance
systems present on a motor vehicle which must reliably operate under various
conditions. However, the effectiveness of braking system depends on the design
itself and also the right selection of material. It is important to do some analysis on a
disc brake rotor which has been designed to predict the behavior of the systems than
follow with some improvements. In order to understand the behaviors of braking
system, there are three functions that must be complied for all the time

a) The braking system must be decelerate a vehicle in a controlled and repeatable

fashion and when appropriate cause the vehicle to stop.

b) The braking should permit the vehicle to maintain a constant speed when
traveling downhill.

c) The braking system must hold the vehicle stationary when on the flat or on a
gradient.

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1.1 Brake System Review

In this section History of brake system, Vehicle Brake System, Types of

Brakes, Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of brake system are explained
in the following sections

1.1.1 History of Brake System

In the early days of the automobile, drum brakes were standard. Drum brakes
offered several advantages over other types of brakes. One of these was that the
drum could keep out water and dust, materials that could damage disc brakes which
were out in the open.

Major advancement in brake technology came in 1918 with the invention of

four wheel hydraulic brake systems by Malcolm Longhead. The hydraulic brake
system replaced the mechanical brake system that was in use at this time. The
mechanical system had numerous disadvantages. It made it difficult to break all the
wheels evenly, often causing a loss of control. In addition, it required drivers to exert
tremendous amounts of force on the brake pedal to slow the car. The hydraulic brake
system multiplied the force that was applied to the brake, lessening the amount of
force needed to be applied to the brake pedal by the driver. This system was first
used in the 1918 Duisenberg. Its advantages quickly caught on and by 1929, four
wheel hydraulic braking systems were standard equipment on higher priced cars.

The main problem with drum brakes is that the heat is not efficiently
disbursed. The heat that is produced inside the drum does not escape easily since the
drum prevents wind from drawing it away. However, disc brakes killed the issues
when it allowed the heat to be carried away which increased the efficiency of the
brake. However, their use was limited up until the 1950's since their efficiency was
not required and they required more pedal pressure to operate. The reason for the
higher pedal pressure is that disc brakes have no self-servo effect or no self-
energizing capacity that the drum brakes have. The self-servo effect is caused by the
forward motion of the car. This forward motion helps pull the brake shoe into
contact with the drum. This helped lower the required pedal pressure. Now that their
efficiency was needed and the hydraulic brake system multiplied the force applied to
the brake pedal, disc brakes seemed to be the better alternative. Chrysler was the

2
first to widely introduce the disc brake in its cars in the early 1950's. The system did
not have much success till automaker Studebaker to reintroduce the system in 1964.
This time it saw much more success and in a few years, disc brakes were common
on most new cars.

One of the reasons that disc brakes were a success with the Studebaker and
not the Chrysler was due to the development of the power braking system. Power
brakes became common in the 195Ots, after Chrysler had developed and dropped its
disc brake program. The system assisted the movement of the piston in the master
cylinder which meant that the driver needed to apply less peddle pressure to get the
same braking effectiveness. Therefore, since ease of braking was no longer an issue,
the adoption of the more efficient disc brake became widespread.

1.1.2 Vehicle Brake System

It is know that, the basic functions of the brake system are to slow down a
vehicle speed to the point we need. It is also help to maintain acceleration during
moving downhill and keep the vehicle on static conditions. Brakes operate by
converting the kinetic energy (motion) of an automobile into heat energy. A typical
vehicle braking system is shown in Figure 1.1

Figure 1.1: Vehicle Brake System

Driver exerts a force on brake pedal which is further amplified by power
booster. The force on brake pedal pressurizes brake fluid in a master cylinder; brake
fluid is designed for extreme conditions, generally a silicon based DOT5 brake fluid
3
is recommended. The hydraulic force developed by brake fluid is transmitted to a
wheel cylinder or caliper at each wheel which is used to force friction material
against the drum or rotor. The friction between the friction material and rotating
drum or rotor causes the rotating part to slow and eventually stop.

In the passenger or commercial vehicle, there are always two main types of
brake assemblies have been used. Those types of brakes are drum and disc brakes
which have been described as below.

1.2 Types of Brakes

Brakes are of two types. They are Drum brakes and Disc brakes
1.2.1 Drum brakes

Drum brakes (Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3) have their pads located inside of a
drum. Like the disc in disc brakes, drum brakes also are attached to the wheels.
Usually, main components of drum brake for passenger or commercial vehicle
consist of brake shoes, backing plate, parking brake cable and wheel cylinder. When
the brake pedal is pressed the curved brake shoes (pads) are pushed outward so that
they make contact with the rotating drum. Retracting spring is used in this type of
brake. Just as with disc brakes, this causes friction which turns kinetic energy into
heat energy, thus slowing and stopping the car to the right point. There is an
advantage of using drum brakes, where there is low cost of common parts. However,
there are also some disadvantages, such as the drum heats up and expands away
from the lining material which increasing fading. It is also have lower efficiency in
wet braking action.

4
Figure 1.2: Components of Drum Brake

Figure1.3: Drum Brake System

5
1.2.2 Disc brakes

Disc brakes (Figure 1.4) operate in a similar step of bicycle. It involves

pushing a block against a spinning wheel. This contact causes friction, which
changes kinetic energy into heat energy. Usually, components of disc brake for
passenger or commercial vehicle consist of disc pads (brake pads), brake caliper and
brake disc rotor. Normal vehicle use two of these pads, one on each side of the
wheel, which helps keep the wheel more stable. When the brake pedal is pushed, the
pads (often called brake shoes) push up against the wheel disc. The wheel that
attached with the rotor will affected by force from pads and makes the wheel stop
rotate. Those for both of disc and drum brakes are refer to mechanical, hydraulic and
power brake systems in order to make the brake systems function smoothly.
According to many researchers, disc brake system has many advantages over drum
brakes. The major part of rotor is exposed to air; therefore there is sufficient air flow
over brakes to dissipate the heat generated resulting in cooling down of rotor
temperature easily. The rotor expands in the direction of the friction material in disc
brakes as opposed to drum brakes. The pressure applied on the rotor is more uniform
resulting in even braking action as compared with drum brakes. It is also possible on
wet stopping when water slide off the rotor surface.

Figure 1.4: Components of Disc Brake

6
1.2.2.1 Disc Calipers

There are two types of disc calipers where further classified as floating and
fixed caliper.

Figure 1.5: Floating Caliper Design

Figure 1.5 shows a type of floating caliper. This type of brake uses only a
single piston to squeeze the brake pad against the rotor. The reactive force shifts the
caliper housing and presses opposite side of braking pad against rotor. Referring to
Figure 1.5, the brake fluid pushes the piston when the brake is applied to the left of
the piston and immediately pushes the inner pads and presses it against the rotor
disc, the sliding caliper housing reacts by shifting towards right pushing the left pad
against the disc.

Other type of disc calipers is a fixed caliper. Figure 1.6 shows a type of fixed
caliper. In these types of brakes, the caliper body is fixed and uses two or more
pistons on each side of the rotor. The pistons are located in each half section of the
fixed caliper. Hydraulic pressure is applied during braking to each of the piston.
Each of the pistons has a function to press against the brake pads of the brake disc.
Shaped piston seals will retract the piston when the brakes are released. Referring to
Figure 1.6, the brake fluid pushes the both piston when the brake is applied to the
left and the right of the piston and immediately pushes the both inner pads and
presses it against the rotor disc. Normally, these types of brake caliper are used in
high performance and heavy duty vehicle due to high physical strength.

7
 HYPERLINK "E:\\Program

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Figure 1.6: Fixed Caliper Design

1.2.2.2 Brake Pads

As shown in Figure 1.7, brake pads consist of steel carrier which the pad are
bonded to the steel carrier. According to organically bonded pads consist of metallic,
ceramic or organic friction materials in a bonded mass such as rubber or synthetic
resin. The bonded friction materials can withstand temperatures up to 750°c, with
short term peaks-up to 950'~ where the friction coefficient is between 0.25 and 0.5.
8
There is an advantage of brake pads, where most of them are poor to thermal
conductivity which protects the hydraulic actuating elements from overheating. It is
also ease to manufacture and low cost. However, the pads needs to inspect
frequently due to rapid wear as result from higher temperatures and contact
pressures associated with the operation of a brake disc.

Figure 1.7: A Sample of Brake Pads

1.2.2.3 Brake Disc / Disc Brake Rotor

Figure 1.8, shows the heat generated on the surfaces of disc brake rotor when
brake applied. Materials of disc brake rotor usually are made from cast iron,
spheroidal-graphite cast iron or cast steel. It is chosen as a rotor material due to low
cost of material and performs high thermal resistance. This type of material normally
suit to normal passenger vehicle but not for high performance car. Once brake pads
contacts to rotating rotor, there will be huge amount of heat generated to stop or
slow down the vehicle.

Figure 1.8: Heat Generated on Rotor Surfaces

9
1.2.2.4 Disc Brake Rotor Description
Overall idea on vehicle brake system and disc brake theories has been
described as above. As similar to the type disc brake described above, the author
used the disc brake rotor from normal passenger vehicle. The disc brake rotor was
taken from normal passenger vehicle which having type of ventilated disc (Figure
1.9). Basically, disc brake rotor consists of rotating circular plate and cylinder disc
(hat) attached and rotated to wheel hub.

Figure 1.9: Non Ventilated Disc Brake Rotor

1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
1.3.1 Advantages

1. Ceramic brake discs are 50% lighter than metal brake discs. As a result, they can
reduce the weight of car by up to 20kg. In case of a high speed ICE like train
with 36 brake discs, these savings amount to 6 tons. And apart from saving fuel,
this also means a reduction in unsprung masses with a further improvement of
shock absorber response and behavior.

2. The ceramic brake disc ensures very high and, in particular, consistent frictional
values throughout the entire deceleration process. With Porsche ceramic brake
discs, a car was able to decelerate from 100Km to 0Km in less than 6 seconds. In
the case of Daewoo’s Nexia, it takes about 8 seconds to stop the vehicle.

3. Brake temperature – a factor crucial to stopping distances with metal brake discs
– is now only a minor factor, both the brake lining and ceramic brake disc
retaining their high level of friction regardless of whether they are hot or cold.
This not only shortens stopping distances by a couple of – often decisive –
meters, but also spares the driver unpleasant surprises whenever having to apply
the brakes, say, from a high speed.

10
4. Ceramics retain their resistance up to 2000 degree Celsius. Only if the
temperature is excess of this, they loose their dimensional stability.

5. Initial field studies have shown that ceramic brake discs can still reliably bring
an automobile to standstill even after 300,000 kilometers. Brake disc changes
will in future be unnecessary.

6. They are not subject to wear, are maintenance free and are heat and rust resistant.

7. Heavily commercial vehicles can be braked safely over long distances without
having to undergo brake maintenance. This dispenses with the need for
expensive maintenance.

8. Ceramic brake discs do not rust under high oxygen concentration.

9. Dry and wet performances are excellent. Ceramics are water proof materials and
the brake pads always remain dry.

1.3.2 Disadvantages

The main disadvantage of ceramic brake discs is their high initial cost.
Initially the ceramic matrix composite brake discs will be more expensive than the
current technology metal ones due to the low manufacturing volumes and high cost
of production. But, because of the advantages listed above, the ceramic brakes will
work out to be cheaper in the long run.

1.3.3 Applications

1. It was first introduced in Formula One, but applying to road cars seems
impractical (F1 cars have warm up lap to bring the discs into appropriate
working temperature), although the short-lived French sports car specialists
Venturi made history by applying it to its road cars in the mid-90s

2. The new 911 GT2 comes with the most effective braking system ever featured
on a production Porsche: the Porsche Ceramic Composite Brake (PCCB) - a
powerful new technology designed to cope with even the most extreme
conditions on racetrack and road?

3. Mercedes-Benz’s the futuristic Vision GST concept car features 22 inch wheels,
'butterfly' doors, three-dimensional instruments, a 360 horsepower 5.5 litre V8
engine, and carbon-fiber reinforced ceramic disc brakes. Mercedes Benz SLR IS
ALSO available with ceramic disc brakes.

11
12
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

The research contributions available around 21 articles are reviewed on the

DISC BRAKE on various materials and methods are discussed. Though lot of work
has been in progress there is a necessity in the investigation of performance
characteristics of different materials used as disc brake.

G P Voller, et. al, [1] (2003) Analysis of automotive disc brake cooling
characteristics have investigated about characteristics experimentally using a
specially developed spin rig and numerically using finite element (FE) and
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods. All three modes of heat transfer
(conduction, convection and radiation) have been analysed along with the design
features of the brake assembly and their interfaces. The spin rig proved to be very
valuable equipment; experiments enabled the determination of the thermal contact
resistance between the disc and wheel carrier. The analyses demonstrated the
sensitivity of this mode of heat transfer to clamping pressure. For convective
cooling, heat transfer coefficients were measured and very similar results were
obtained from spin rig experiments and CFD analyses.

Abd Rahim AbuBakar and Huajiang Ouyang [2](2006) Complex

eigenvalue analysis and dynamic transient analysis in predicting disc brake squeal
have investigated The positive real parts of complex eigenvalues indicate the degree
of instability of the disc brake and are thought to associate with squeal occurrence or
noise intensity. On the other hand, instability in the disc brake can be identified as an
initially divergent vibration response using transient analysis. From the literature it
appears that the two approaches were performed separately, and their correlation
was not much investigated. In addition, there is more than one way of dealing the
frictional contact in a disc brake. This paper explores a proper way of conducting
both types of analyses and investigates the correlation between them for a large
degree-of-freedom disc brake model.

Faramarz Talati and Salman Jalalifar [3](2009) Analysis of heat

conduction in a disk brake system have investigated the governing heat equations for
the disk and the pad are extracted in the form of transient heat equations with heat
13
generation that is dependant to time and space. In the derivation of the heat
equations, parameters such as the duration of braking, vehicle velocity, geometries
and the dimensions of the brake components, materials of the disk brake rotor and
the pad and contact pressure distribution have been taken into account. The problem
is solved analytically using Green’s function approach.

Pyung Hwang and Xuan Wu [4](2009) Investigation of temperature and

thermal stress in ventilated disc brake based on 3D thermo-mechanical coupling
model have investigated Ventilated disc brakes are widely used for reducing velocity
due to their braking stability, controllability and ability to prove a wide ranging
brake torque. During braking, the kinetic energy and potential energies of a moving
vehicle are converted into thermal energy through friction heating between the brake
disc and the pads. The object of the present study is to investigate the temperature
and thermal stress in the ventilated disc-pad brake during single brake. The brake
disc is decelerated at the initial speed with constant acceleration, until the disc
comes to a stop. The ventilated pad-disc brake assembly is built by a 3D model with
a thermo mechanical coupling boundary condition and multi-body model technique.

M.Z. Akop, et. al, [5](2009) Thermal Stress Analysis of Heavy Truck Brake
Disc Rotor have investigated for steady state and transient condition. The heat
dissipated along the brake disc surface during the periodic braking via conduction,
convection and radiation. In order to get the stable and accurate result of element
size, time step selection is very important and all of these aspects are discussed in
this paper. The findings of this research provide a useful design tool to improve the
brake performance of disc brake system.

Saw Chun Lin, et. al, [6](2009) Supressing Disc Brake Squeal Through
Structural Modification have investigated proposes a solution to suppress disc brake
using the finite element method. First a three dimensional finite element (FE) model
of a real disc brake assembly is developed and validated. Then, complex eigenvalue
analysis made available in commercial FE software package is performed to
determine stability of the brake system where positive real parts of the complex
eigenvalue indicate unstable system and in turn exhibit squeal generation in the
brake assembly. Then, various disc modifications are proposed to reduce the brake
squeal.

14
 Pevec.M , et. al, [7](2010) Numerical Temperature Analysis Of Brake Disc
Considering Cooling have investigated the temperature numerical calculation of a
ventilated front brake disc. The goal was to simulate the sequent vehicle brake test
that comprises 10 stops from 100 km/h. The film coefficient factors for the
ventilated brake disc were calculated using the CFD software and afterwards
considered in thermal numerical simulation.

Adam Adamowicz and Piotr Grzes [8](2010) Analysis of Disc Brake

Temperature Distribution During Single Braking Under Non-Axisymmetric Load
have investigated the temperature distributions caused by mutual sliding of two
members of the disc brake system basing on two- and three-dimensional FE
modelling techniques and complexity of the phenomenon. First step of the analysis
based on the previously developed model where the intensity of heat flux was
assumed to be uniformly distributed on the friction surface of disc during braking
process, and the heat is transferred exclusively in axial direction, whereas during the
second, the three-dimensional rotor is subjected to the non-axisymmetric thermal
load to simulate realistic thermal behaviour of the brake action.

M.A. Maleque , et. al, [9](2010) Material Selection Method in Design of

Automotive Brake Disc have investigated the material selection method and select
the optimum material for the application of brake disc system emphasizing on the
substitution of this cast iron by any other lightweight material. Two methods are
introduced for the selection of materials, such as cost per unit property and digital
logic methods. Material performance requirements were analyzed and alternative
solutions were evaluated among cast iron, aluminium alloy, titanium alloy, ceramics
and composites. Mechanical properties including compressive strength, friction
coefficient, wear resistance, thermal conductivity and specific gravity as well as
cost, were used as the key parameters in the material selection stages.

A.A. Adebisi , et. al, [10](2010) Surface Temperature distribution in a

Composite Brake Rotor have investigated the frictional heat generated on the rotor
surface can influence excessive temperature rise which in turn leads to undesirable
effects such as thermal elastic instability (TEI), premature wear, brake fluid
vaporization (BFV) and thermally excited vibrations (TEV). The purpose of this
study is to investigate the temperature distribution profile for brake calliper pressure
15
application of 0.5, 0.10, 1.5 and 2.0 MPa with a speed of 60km/h braking condition
on the disc rotor surface. The brake rotor assembly is built by using a 3 dimensional
finite element model of a real car brake rotor. To verify the simulation results, an
experimental investigation is carried out.

Mohd Firdaus Abu Bakar , et. al, [11](2011) Thermal Analysis of

Ventilated Disc Brake Rotor for UTeM Formula Varsity Race Car have investigated
the Compacted graphite cast iron (CGI) was proposed as the material for the disc
brake rotor. Thermal analysis was performed in this project to assess the component
performance using ABAQUS/CAE v6.7-1 finite element analysis software both in
transient condition. Results from the analysis show that the maximum temperature
generated on the disc brake surface at the end of the braking procedure for transient
condition was within the allowable service temperature of the ventilated rotor
material.

Sharath Kumar T. and S.Vinodh [12](2012) Novel Design and Analysis of

a Brake Rotor have investigated the propose a new automotive brake rotor design
and to compare it with automotive vented disk rotor. Static structural and transient
thermal analysis have been carried out on the vented disk rotor and proposed rotor
designs to evaluate and compare their performance. Finite element analysis was
employed for both static structural and transient thermal analysis. Structural analysis
was carried out to study the stress and deformation pattern of the rotors under
extreme loads. Time varying temperature load was applied on the rotors and the
temperature distribution was analysed considering cooling parameters (convection
and radiation).

G. Babukanth and M. Vimal Teja [13](2012) Transient Analysis of Disk

Brake By using Ansys Software have investigated the computational results are
presented for the distribution of heat flux and temperature on each friction surface
between the contacting bodies. Also, thermo elastic instability (TIE) phenomenon
(the unstable growth of contact pressure and temperature) is investigated in the
present study, and the influence of the material properties on the thermo elastic
behaviors (the maximum temperature on the friction surfaces) is investigated to
facilitate the conceptual design of the disk brake system. Based on these numerical
results, the thermo elastic behaviors of the carbon-carbon composites with excellent
mechanical properties are also discussed.

16
 Haripal Singh and Harshdeep Shergill [14](2012) Thermal Analysis of
Disc Brake Using Comsol have investigated the heat generation and dissipation in a
disc brake of an car during panic braking and the following release period by using
computer aided engineering software for three different materials of rotor disc. The
objective of this work is to investigate and analyze the temperature distribution of
rotor disc during operation using comsol multiphysics. The work uses the finite
element analysis techniques to predict the temperature distribution on the brake disc
and to identify the critical temperature of the brake rotor disc. All three modes of
heat transfer (conduction, convection and radiation) have been analyzed. The results
obtained from the analysis shows that different material on the same retardation of
the car during panic braking shows different temperature distribution.

Ali belhocine and mostefa bouchetara [13](2012) Simulation of fully

coupled thermo mechanical analysis of disc brake rotor have investigated The
frictional heat generated during braking application can cause numerous negative
effects on the brake assembly such as brake fade, premature wear, thermal cracks
and disc thickness variation (DTV). In the past, surface roughness and wear at the
pad interface have rarely been considered in studies of thermal analysis of a disc
brake assembly using finite element method.. The ventilated pad-disc brake
assembly is built by a 3D model with a thermo-mechanical coupling boundary
condition and multi-body model technique. The numerical simulation for the
coupled transient thermal field and stress field is carried out by sequentially thermal-
structural coupled method based on ANSYS to evaluate the stress fields and of
deformations which are established in the disc had with the pressure of the pads and
in the conditions of tightening of the disc thus the contact pressures distributions
field in the pads which is another significant aspect in this research.

Ameer Fareed Basha Shaik and Ch.Lakshmi Srinivas [14](2012)

Structural And Thermal Analysis Of Disc Brake With And Without Crosse drilled
Rotor Of Race Car have investigated The disc brake used in Honda Civic. Coupled
field analysis (Structural+Thermal) is done on the disc brake. The materials used are
Cast Iron. Analysis is also done by changing the design of disc brake. Actual disc
brake has no holes; design is changed by giving holes in the disc brake for more heat
dissipation. Modeling is done in Catia and Analysis is done in ANSYS.

17
 V.M.M.Thilak [15](2012) transient analysis of rotor disc of disc brake using
ansys have investigation into usage of new materials is required which improve
braking efficiency and provide greater stability to vehicle. This investigation can be
done using ANSYS software. ANSYS is a dedicated finite element package used for
determining the temperature distribution, variation of the stresses and deformation
across the disc brake profile. In the present work, an attempt has been made to
investigate the suitable hybrid composite material which is lighter than cast iron and
has good Young’s modulus, Yield strength and density properties. Aluminium base
metal matrix composite and High Strength Glass Fiber composites have a promising
friction and wear behaviour as a Disk brake rotor.

S Naveen Kumar and Dr. M B Kiran [16](2012) Redesign of Disc Brake

Assembly with Lighter Material have investigation the evaluating the performance
of disc brake of a car under severe braking conditions and there by assist in disc
rotor design and analysis. An attempt is made to suggest an alternative material for
disc brake by comparing the results obtained for different materials Cast Iron,
Carbon fibre reinforced ceramic composite, based on which yields a low
temperature variation across the rotor, less deformation, good heat dissipation and
minimum von-misses stress possible.

Moses Omolayo Petinrin and John Ogheneortega Oji [17](2012)

Numerical Simulation of Thermo elastic Contact Problem of Disc Brake with
Frictional Heat Generation have investigation the braking action by investigating
both the thermal and elastic actions occurring during the friction between the two
sliding surfaces, represented by the maximum temperature on the contact surface.
Brake pad and disc were selected, and parameters set to certain values from existing
literatures. Three dimensional thermo mechanical analysis model of the disc brake
system was created, and governing dynamics and heat equations described.
Comparison was also made of the selected pad material (aramid) with that of
asbestos to ascertain its viability as an effective substitute and to improve conceptual
designs.

M. K. Khalid, et. al, [18](2012) Performance Investigation of the UTeM

Eco- Car Disc Brake System have investigation The disc brake system utilized a
single cross-drilled rotor with fixed calliper design. The brake system performance
in term of its thermal property was determined in transient condition using
ABAQUS CAE finite element analysis software.

18
 Ştefan VOLOACĂ and Gheorghe FRĂŢILĂ [19](2012) concerns
regarding temperature distribution obtained by experiments and finite element
analyses for two types of brake discs have investigation the analyses causes of
thermal stress which appears in two different brake discs, with different geometries.
A case study was made for an intensive braking from 100 km/h. It was possible to
study, to compare and to explain the temperature distribution obtained by
experiments and finite element analyses (FEA). Further the study encompasses
temperature distribution inside the studied brake discs obtained by finite element
analyses, highlighting some thermal stress influence factors. It was observed the
non-uniform repartition of radiation and conduction over the surfaces and inside the
brake discs, due to characteristics of material, their processing and the braking
severity.

Guru Murthy Nathi , et. al, [20](2012) coupled structural thermal analysis
of disc brake have investigation the performance under severe braking conditions
and there by assist in disc rotor design and analysis. This study is of disc brake used
for cars. ANSYS package is a dedicated finite element package used for determining
the temperature distribution, variation of stresses and deformation across the disc
brake profile. In this present work, an attempt has been made to investigate the
effect of stiffness, strength and variations in disc brake rotor design on the predicted
stress and temperature distributions. By identifying the true design features, the
extended service life and long term stability is assured. A transient thermal analysis
has been carried out to investigate the temperature variation across the disc using
axisymmetric elements. Further structural analysis is also carried out by coupling
thermal analysis.

S. Sarip [21](2013) Design Development of Lightweight Disc Brake for

Regenerative Braking – Finite Element Analysis have investigation the automotive
industry has for many years identified weight reduction as a way of improving
product competitiveness and thus the ability to make profits. One area that has been
examined for weight reduction is vehicle with Regenerative Braking System
(RBS) .The greatest advantages of electric vehicles (EVs), and hybrid electric
vehicles (HEVs) is their ability to recover significant amounts of braking energy
using a RBS. Regenerative braking is an effective method to extend brake disc life,

19
minimise disc rotor weight, minimise brake pad wear and to extend the working
range of an EV or HEV. Regenerative braking would extend the working range of an
EV or HEV provided that any extra energy consumption e.g. from increased vehicle
mass and system losses did not outweigh the saving from energy recuperation, also
reduce duty levels on the brakes themselves, giving advantages including extended
brake rotor and friction material life, but more importantly reduced brake mass,
minimise brake pad wear. The objective of this research is to define thermal
performance on lightweight disc brake models. Thermal performance was a key
factor which was studied using the 3D model in Finite Element Analysis
simulations. Ultimately a design method for lightweight brakes suitable for use on
any car-sized hybrid vehicle was used from previous analysis. The design
requirement, including reducing the thickness, would affect the temperature
distribution and increase stress at the critical area. Based on the relationship
obtained between rotor weight, thickness, undercut effect and offset between hat and
friction ring, criteria have been established for designing lightweight brake discs in a
vehicle with regenerative braking.

The contributions of various research and experts contained in so many

articles in the field of Finite Element Analysis of Spur disc brake have been
reviewed. The advantages and limitations of 3-D models have been brought-out.
Further the advantages of 3-Dimensional simulation model over the experimental
studies were highlighted. The software such as ANSYS, RADIOSS ABACUS, LS-
DYNA are available for static and thermal analysis of disc brake. In the present
work RADIOSS is used. Based on the detailed analysis of the literature, the
objective of the present work has been brought-out as given below

1. To design the model of disc brake using CATIA V5R20.

2. To analyze the model for displacement and stress using Hyper Mesh 11

3. To analyze the model for grid temperature using Hyper Mesh 11

4. To find the best material for disc brake among the selected materials
using comparative study.

20
 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction to CATIA

CATIA (Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive Application) (in

English usually pronounced) is a multi-platform CAD/CAM/CAE commercial
software suite developed by the French company Dassault Systems. Written in the
C++ programming language, CATIA is the cornerstone of the Dassault Systems
product lifecycle management software suite.

3.1.1 About CATIA V5

CATIA version 5 is a process-centric computer-aided design/computer-

assisted manufacturing/computer-aided engineering (CAD/CAM/CAE) system that
fully uses next generation object technologies and leading edge industry standards.
Seamlessly integrated with Dassault Systems Product Lifecycle Management (PLM)
solutions, it enables users to simulate the entire range of industrial design processes
from initial concept to product design, analysis, assembly, and maintenance. The
CATIA V5 product line covers mechanical and shape design, styling, product
synthesis, equipment and systems engineering, NC manufacturing, analysis and
simulation, and industrial plant design. In addition, CATIA Knowledge ware enables
broad communities of users to easily capture and share know-how, rules, and other
intellectual property (IP) assets.

CATIA V5 builds on powerful smart modelling and morphing concepts to

enable the capture and reuse of process specifications and intelligence. The result is
an easily scaleable, Web-enabled system that covers all user requirements within the
digital extended enterprise, from the simplest design to the most complex processes.
This capability allows optimization of the entire product development process while
controlling change propagation. CATIA V5 moves beyond traditional parametric or
variation approaches, accelerating the design process and helping designers,
engineers, and manufacturers increase their speed and productivity.

CATIA V5 has an innovative and intuitive user interface that unleashes the
designer's creativity. Context-sensitive integrated workbenches provide engineers
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with the tools they need for the task at hand, and they are beneficial for multi-
discipline integration. The workbenches have powerful keyboard-free direct object
manipulators that maximize user productivity.

CATIA V5 applications are based on a hybrid modelling technology. These

applications provide expanded digital product definitions, process definitions, and
review functions capable of operating on projects with any degree of design
complexity. CATIA V5 has produced domain-specific applications that have
addressed global digital enterprise requirements that span the areas of mock-up,
manufacturing, plant, and operations.

CATIA V5 expands scalability across processes, functions, and platforms to

deliver the right solution to the desktop of each team member in the product
development chain. Tailored solutions meet the needs of a broad range of users,
from a small supplier shop to a large multinational corporation.

3.2 Part Modelling

Modelling is a pre-processor tool, the modelling of disc brake rotor are

created using the Computer aided three-dimensional interactive application (CATIA)
V5 R20 software tool. CATIA helps us to draw the disc brake rotor parts. There are
various platform and workbench features are available to design disc brake. Main
workbenches available in CATIA are part workbench, wire frame workbench,
surface design, assembly design and drafting workbench etc. A feature is defined as
the smallest building that can be modified individually, block. The different
workbenches designs are saved in CATIA are sketcher, part design, wire frame and
surface design: CAT Part, Assembly design: .CAT Part, Cat drawing: .CAT drawing.
The reason for selecting CATIA software, this software a user tool makes it possible
for mechanical designers to create quickly. Sketch required ideas, experimentally
with features, dimensions and models and drawings. The modelling of disc brake
rotor are created using the two dimensional drawing designed for the disc brake
rotor, the models are created using varies commands in the CATIA work bench.

CATIA V5 is a feature-based, parametric solid modelling design tool that

takes advantage of the easy-to-learn Windows graphical user interface. We can
create fully associative 3D solid models, with or without constraints, while using
automatic or user-defined relations to capture the design intent. Generative Shape

22
Design is used to model the rotor blade. It is a complete surfacing tool used to create
complex shape parts such as steam turbine blades.

The geometrical module of the rotor and blade is created using CATIA V5
R20 software, CATIA is a pre-processor were the solid geometry is created using 2-
D drawings, module created in CATIA is exported as IGES file for the next pre-
processor for meshing. The figure 3.2 contains the disc brake rotor and the stages of
the Modeling of disc brake rotor is done by importing nodal data entered in
Microsoft excel sheet into CATIA v5 generate shape design work bench by running
micros.

Figure 3.1 Part design of the Disc brake in Catia

3.3 Disc Brake Modeling In Part Design

Part and Shape design are the basic modules of design in CATIA software.
They are based on several tools for easy and qualitative modeling of any kind of
machine elements. First step of design any part is to define position (plane) of
Sketch and to draw profile in chosen Sketch. After that there are several groups of
options that give designers opportunity to make a 3D model: Sketch-Based Features
are entities you combine to make up your part. The features are obtained by applying
commands on initial profiles created in the Sketcher workbench, or in the
Generative Shape Design workbench as well as surfaces.

Some operations consist in adding material, others in removing material like

23
Create a Pad, Create a Pocket, Create a Shaft, Create a Hole, Create a Loft etc.

3.3.1 Dress-Up Features

Applying commands to one or more supports does dressing up features.

CATIA provides a large number of possibilities to achieve the features meeting your
needs. The application lets you create the following dress-up features: Create an
Edge Fillet, Create a Chamfer, and Create a Shell, Create Basic Draft etc.

3.3.2 Transformation Features

These features are very useful for different transformations such as: Create a
Translation, Create a Rotation, Create Symmetry, Create a Circular Pattern,
Exploding Patterns, Create a Scaling etc.,

3.4 Displaying and Editing Properties

You must use bodies as entities you will eventually associate to the Part
Body using the capabilities described below to finish the design of your part. Here
are Displaying and Editing Parts Properties, Bodies and Features Properties.

3.4.1 Special tools

This commands are use for some analysis such as Perform a Surface
Curvature Analysis, Analyze Disc brake , Apply a Material, Display Parents and
Children, Define an Axis System, Publish Elements etc. For designing simplest Disc
brake it is first right sketch to define, where should be imported involutes profile

3.4.2 Fundamentals

CATIA V5 employs two operating modes for part modeling, model made for
modeling 3Dparametric parts and drawing mode for creating 2D drawings of them.
These modes operate independently but share the same design data. Part modeling
requires beginning the design work in model mode where a model of the part is
immediately built. Then the drawing mode can be used at any point to document the
design. In traditional CUMPUTER AIDED DESIGN, a 2D drawing is created at the
beginning and then 3D model is built to analyze, and verify the initial concept.

3.5. Flow chart of Disc brake optimization

24
Figure 3.2

25
 CHAPTER 4
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
4.1 Introduction to Finite Element Method

The finite element method is a powerful tool to obtain the numerical solution
of wide range of engineering problems. The method is general enough to handle any
complex shape or geometry, for any material under different boundary and loading
conditions. The generality of the finite element method fits the analysis requirement
of today’s complex engineering systems and designs where closed form solutions of
governing equilibrium equations are usually not available. In addition, it is an
efficient design tool by which designers can perform parametric design studies by
considering various design cases, (different shapes, materials, loads, etc.) and
analyze them to choose the optimum design.

The method originated in the aerospace industry as a tool to study stress in a

complex airframe structures. It grows out of what was called the matrix analysis
method used in aircraft design. The method has gained increased popularity among
both researchers and practitioners. The basic concept of finite element method is that
a body or structure may be divided into small elements of finite dimensions called
“finite elements”. The original body or the structure is then considered, as an
assemblage of these elements connected at a finite number of joints called nodes or
nodal points.

4.2 History of Finite Element Method

The concept of finite element method has been used several centuries back,
although it has named recently. Basic ideas of the finite element method originated
from the aircraft structural analysis, the concept of finite element method was first
used by courant in 1943. He used the principle of stationary potential energy and
piece-wise polynomial interpolation over triangular sub regions, to study the torsion
problems. In 1956 Turner and Clough derived stiffness matrices for truss, beam and
other elements in their presentation. The term finite element was first coined and
used by Clough in 1960. Paper presented by the Clough and Turner presents the
application of simple finite elements for the analysis of aircraft structure and is
considered as one of the key contribution in the development of the finite element
method. The digital computer provided performs many calculations rapidly involved

26
in the finite element analysis and make the method practical viable. Along with
development of high-speed digital computers, the application of the finite element
method also progressed at a very impressive rate. Large general-purpose finite
element computer program emerged during the late 1960s and early1970s.

In the early 1960s, engineers used the method for approximate solution of
problems in stress analysis, fluid flow, heat transfer and other areas. The book by
Prezemieniecki presented the finite element method as applied to the solution of
stress analysis problems. Zienkiewicz and Cheung presented the broad interpretation
of the method and its applicability to any general field problem. In the late 1960s
and early 1970s finite element analysis was applied to non-linear problems and large
deformations. In 1963, the finite element method gained popularity, when it was
recognized as having a sound mathematical foundation. In 1970s study is focused on
new element development and convergence studies. With this broad interpretation of
the finite element method, it has been found that using a weighted residual method
such as Gale kin method or least squares approach can also derive finite element
equations. With all the progress, today the finite element method or least squares
approach is considering as one of the well-established and convenient analysis tool
by engineers and applied scientists.

4.3 General Procedure of Finite Element Method

The finite element method is a method of piecewise approximation in which

the structure or body is divided into small elements of finite dimensions called finite
elements and then the original body or the structure is considered as an assemblage
of these elements connected at finite number of joints called nodal points or nodes.
Since the actual variation of field variables like displacement, stress, temperature,
pressure or velocity inside the continuum are not known, the variation of the field
variable inside a finite element can be approximated by a simple function. These
approximation functions called interpolation models are defined in terms of the
values of the field variables of the nodes. The nodal values of the field variable are
obtained by solving the field equations, which are generally in the form of matrix
equations. Once the nodal values are known, the approximating functions define the
field variable throughout the assemblage of elements. The solutions of general
continuum problems by the finite element method always follow an orderly step-by-
step process.

27
The step-by-step procedure for static structural problem can be stated as follows:

Step 1:- Description of Structure (Domain). The first step in the finite element
method is to divide the structure of solution region in to sub divisions or
elements.

Step 2:- Selection of proper interpolation model. Since the displacement (field
variable) solution of a complex structure under any specified load
conditions cannot be predicted exactly, some suitable solution, is assumed
within an element to approximate the unknown solution. The assumed
solution must be simple and it should satisfy certain convergence
requirements.

Step 3:- Derivation of element stiffness matrices (characteristic matrices) and load
vectors. From the assumed displacement model the stiffness matrix [K(e)]
and the load vector P(e) of element „e‟ are to be derived by using either
equilibrium conditions or a suitable Variation principle.

Step 4:- Assemblage of element equations to obtain the equilibrium equations. Since
the structure is composed of several finite elements, the individual element
stiffness matrices and load vectors are to be assembled in a suitable manner
and the overall equilibrium equation has to be formulated as

[K]φ = P

Where [K] is called assembled stiffness matrix,

Φ is called the vector of nodal displacement

P is the vector or nodal force for the complete structure.

Step 5:- Solution of system equation to find nodal values of displacement (field
variable) the overall equilibrium equations have to be modified to account
for the boundary conditions of the problem. After the incorporation of the
boundary conditions, the equilibrium equations can be expressed as

[K]φ = P

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 For linear problems, the vector „φ‟ can be solved very easily. But for non-
linear problems, the solution has to be obtained in a sequence of steps, each step
involving the modification of the stiffness matrix [K] and „φ‟ or the load vector P.

Step 6:- Computation of element strains and stresses. From the known nodal
displacements, if required, the element strains and stresses can be
computed by using the necessary equations of solid or structural
mechanics. In the above steps, the words indicated in brackets implement
the general FEM step-by-step procedure.

4.4 Convergence Requirement

The finite element method provides a numerical solution to a complex problem.

It may therefore be expected that the solution must converge to the exact
formulation of the structure. Hence as the mesh is made finer the solution should
converge to the correct result and this would be achieved if the following three
conditions are satisfied by the assumed displacement function.

 The displacement function must be continuous within the element. Choosing

polynomials for the displacement model can easily satisfy this condition.

 The displacement function must be capable of representing rigid body

displacement of the element. This is when the nodes are given such displacement
corresponding to a rigid body motion; the element should not experience and
hence leads to zero nodal forces. The constant terms in the polynomials used for
displacement models would usually ensure this condition.

 The displacement function must be capable of representing constant strain states

within the element. The reason for the requirement can be understood if we
imagine the Condition when the body or structure is divided in to smaller and
smaller elements. As these elements approach infinitesimal size the strain in each
element also approach constant strain states. For one, two and three-dimensional
elasticity problems the linear terms present in the polynomials satisfy the
requirement. However, in constant curvature instead of constant strains.

4.4.1 Advantages of FEM

29
 The properties of each element are evaluated separately, so an obvious
advantage is that we can incorporate different material properties for each element.
Thus almost any degree of non-homogeneity can be included. There is no restriction
on to the shape of medium; hence arbitrary and irregular shapes cause no difficulty
like all numerical approximations FEM is based on the concept of description.
Nevertheless as either the variations or residual approach, the technology recognizes
the multidimensional continuous but also requires no separate interpolation process
to extend the approximate solution to every point with the continuum.

One of the important advantages of FEM is that it makes use of boundary

conditions in the form of assembled equations. This is relatively an easy process and
requires no special technology. Rather than requiring every trial solution to satisfy
boundary conditions, one prescribes the conditions after obtaining the algebraic
equations for individual’s finite elements.

4.4.2 Limitations of FEM

FEM reached high level of development as solution technology; however the

method yields realistic results only if coefficient or material parameters that describe
basic phenomena are available.

The most tedious aspects of use of FEM are basic process of sub-dividing the
continuum of generating error free input data for computer.

4.4.3 Applications of FEM

The finite element method was developed originally for the analysis of
aircraft structures. However, the general nature of its theory makes it applicable to
wide variety of boundary value problem in engineering. A boundary value problem
is one in which a solution is sought in domain or region of a body subject to the
satisfaction of prescribed boundary conditions. Finite element method is the best
tool in investigation of aircraft structures involving static analysis of wings,
structures of rockets and missiles, dynamic analysis, response to random loads and
periodic loads. In mechanical design, stress concentration problems, stress analysis
of pressure vessels, dynamic analysis of mechanical linkages can be effectively dealt
using finite element method.

30
 The specific application of the finite element method in the three major
categories of boundary value problems, namely equilibrium of steady state or time
independent problems, Eigen value problems, and propagation or transient
problems. In the equilibrium problems steady state displacement or stress
distribution is found for a solid mechanics problem, temperature or heat flux
distribution in the case of heat transfer problem. Referring to Eigen value problems
in solid mechanics or structural problem, natural frequencies, buckling loads and
mode shapes are found, stability of laminar flows is found if it is a fluid mechanics
problem and resonance characteristics are obtained if it is an electrical circuit
problem, while for the propagation or transient problem, the response of the body
under time varying force is found in the area of solid mechanics.

Finite element method finds its application in the field of civil engineering in
carrying out the static analysis of trusses, frames and bridges. The dynamic analysis
of the structure is to obtain natural frequencies, modes and response of the structures
to periodic loads. Nuclear engineering also uses finite element method concept in
the static and dynamic characterization of its systems such as nuclear pressure
vessels, containment structure and dynamic response of reactor component
containment structures. Even the Bio-medical engineering applies finite element
method, for impact analysis of skulls. Finite element method can be applied to
analysis of excavation, underground openings and dynamic analysis of dam
reservoir systems, which come under Geo-mechanics.

4.5 Hypermesh 11

Fastest, Solver Neutral CAE Environment for High Fidelity Modeling

Figure 4.1 Hypermesh

31
 Altair HyperMesh is a high-performance finite element pre-processor to
prepare even the largest models, starting from import of CAD geometry to exporting
an analysis run for various disciplines.

HyperMesh enables engineers to receive high quality meshes with maximum

accuracy in the shortest time possible. A complete set of geometry editing tools
helps to efficiently prepare CAD models for the meshing process. Meshing
algorithms for shell and solid elements provide full level of control, or can be used
in automatic mode. Altair’s BatchMeshing technology meshes hundreds of files
precisely in the background to match user-defined standards. HyperMesh offers the
biggest variety of solid meshing capabilities in the market, including domain
specific methods such as SPH, NVH or CFD meshing.

A long list of CAD formats ensures a high level of CAD interoperability.

Altair’s connector technology automatically assembles individual parts with their
Finite Element representation. HyperMesh is entirely customizable. An extensive
API library can be used to automate repeating tasks or do complicated math
operations for model generation.

With a focus on engineering productivity, HyperMesh is the user-preferred

environment for:

• Solid Geometry Modeling • Surface Geometry Modeling

• Shell Meshing • Solid Mesh Generation
• Model Morphing • Automatic Mid-surface Generation
• Detailed Model Setup • Batch Meshing

4.5.1 Benefits

Figure 4.2 A Powerful FEA Modeling Solution for the Enterprise

32
 With the broadest set of direct CAD and CAE interfaces and the ability to define
custom integrations, HyperMesh works seamlessly within any engineering
environment.

 HyperMesh provides a robust, common FEA modeling framework across the

corporation - minimizing niche modeling tool investments and training costs.

High-speed, High-quality Meshing

 With automatic and semi-automatic shell, tetra, and hexa meshing capabilities,
HyperMesh simplifies the modeling process of complex geometries.

Increase End-user Efficiency with Batch Meshing and Automated Model Assembly

 Batch Mesher technology eliminates the need to perform manual geometry

cleanup and meshing thus accelerating the model development process.

 Highly automated methods for rapid model assembly including the assignment
and management of connections such as bolts spot welds, adhesives and seam
welds.

Interactive Feature and Volume-based Morphing for Geometric Shape

Changes and Design Variable Definition

 A flexible set of morphing tools allows users to modify legacy meshes without
re-meshing to automate the investigation new design proposals.

Close the Loop between CAD and FEA

 Extract shell meshes straight from a thin solid geometry including thickness
assignments with the powerful Mid-map Mesh Generation tools.

 Extract composite data from geometry files and transfer it to finite element data
with minimal user interaction.

 Retrieve 3D CAD geometries from finite element models to communicate design

direction to design and engineering teams.

33
4.5.2 Capabilities

Figure 4.3 Capabilities

Best In Class Meshing

HyperMesh presents users with an advanced suite of easy-to-use tools to

build and edit CAE models. For 2D and 3D model creation, users have access to a
variety of mesh-generation capabilities, as well as HyperMesh’s powerful
automeshing module.

High Fidelity Meshing

 Surface meshing

 Solid map hexa meshing

 Tetra meshing

 CFD meshing

 SPH meshing

4.5.2.1 Mesh Morphing

HyperMorph is powerful solution for interactively and parametrically

changing the shape of a finite element model. Its unique approach enables rapid
shape variations on the finite element mesh without sacrificing mesh quality. During
the morphing process, HyperMorph also allows the creation of shape variables,
which can be used for subsequent design optimization studies.

4.5.2.2 Batch Meshing

Using Altair BatchMesher™ is the fastest way to automatically generate

high-quality finite element meshes for large assemblies. By minimizing manual

34
meshing tasks, this auto-meshing technology provides more time for value-added
engineering simulation activities. BatchMesher provides user-specified control over
meshing criteria and geometry clean-up parameters as well as the ability to output to
customized model file formats.

4.5.2.3 CAD Interoperability

HyperMesh provides direct readers for industry-leading CAD data formats for
generating finite-element models. Moreover, HyperMesh has robust tools to clean up
imported geometry containing surfaces with gaps, overlaps and misalignments that
prevent high-quality mesh generation. By eliminating misalignments and holes, and
suppressing the boundaries between adjacent surfaces users can mesh across larger,
more logical regions of the model while improving overall meshing speed and
quality. Boundary conditions can be applied to these surfaces for future mapping to
underlying element data.

 CATIA V5
 IGES
 PRO-ENGINEER
 PARASOLID
 UNIGRAPHICS
 STEP
 ACIS
 JT Precise
4.5.2.4 Connectors

Connectors are geometric entities used to connect geometry or FE entities.

They are used to create spot- and seamwelds, adhesives, bolts or masses. Connectors
can be realized from geometric entities into various solver specific FE
representations. It is possible to unrealize them to change the representation to a
different type or solver profile on the next realization. Connectors contain their
location, linking partners, connection rules and realization types. They can be
created manually, absorbed from FE existing FE connections or imported and
generated from text files.

35
4.5.2.5 Composites

HyperMesh holds strong features for modeling highly complex composites

structures. Ply entities allow defining the shape of individual layers based on
geometry or elements. The laminate entity defines the stacking order of a composite
part. The composites definition is generic and can be realized into many solver
profiles.

For review purposes composites structures can be visualized in 3D,

individual layers isolated and ply orientations visualized graphically.

For a highly efficient workflow the CATIA reader has been enhanced to read
composite definitions, such as ply shapes, material and ply orientations, directly
from the geometry file. Fibersim drape data can be imported in a very similar way.
HyperMesh offers sophisticated mapping algorithms to transfer the geometric input
data to an FE mesh and associated properties.

4.5.3 CAE Solver Interfacing

HyperMesh supports a host of different solver formats for both import and
export. Along with fully supported solvers, HyperMesh provides a completely
tailored environment (user profile) for each supported solver. It also provides the
flexibility to support additional solvers through a unique and straightforward
interfacing language

4.5.3.1 Collaboration Tools

HyperMesh Collaboration Tools are available with the standard installation

and work out-of-the-box. Users are enabled to work in a powerful and truly
collaborative environment. The Explore dialog is tightly integrated into all
HyperMesh file dialogs and allows for efficient searching of databases and
retrieving of files. The Organize Browser helps to structure simulation data and file
versions. Personal or team data can be efficiently managed to ensure that always the
latest file versions will be used. Keyword search allows efficient research of
databases. Connect is the connection to a common team database or corporate PLM
systems. Files can be retrieved or uploaded from or to the database.
36
4.5.3.2 Customize HyperMesh to Fit Your Environment

 Configure the HyperMesh Interface:

 Customize your modeling experience through an easy-to-use interface

containing drag-and-drop toolbars, configurable pull-down menus and
keyboard-controlled shortcuts.

 Custom Utilities: Create custom applications that are fully integrated within
the HyperMesh interface.

 Solver Input Translators: Users can extend HyperMesh’s interface support by

adding input translators to read different analysis data decks.

 Solver Export Templates: Export templates allow the HyperMesh database to

be written out to user defined formats for non-supported solvers.

4.6 Radioss

Altair RADIOSS is a leading structural analysis solver for highly non-linear

problems under dynamic loadings. It is highly differentiated for Scalability, Quality
and Robustness, and consists of features for multiphysics simulation and advanced
materials such as composites. RADIOSS is used across all industry worldwide to
improve the crashworthiness, safety, and manufacturability of structural designs.

For over 20 years, RADIOSS has established itself as a leader and an

industry standard for automotive crash and impact analysis. Automotive and
aerospace companies value the contribution it makes in understanding and
predicting design behavior in complex environments such as automotive crash
simulation. In recent years thru the addition of implicit finite element solver
capabilities RADIOSS has become a viable option also for standard analyses and
linear dynamics.

The tight integration with Hyper Works environment makes RADIOSS a

powerful design tool. Aside from modeling and visualization, RADIOSS models are
ready for optimization. Transition to the optimization solver OptiStruct and Hyper
Study is easy.

37
4.6.1 Aerospace

Figure 4.4 Aerospace

Every design organization in the aerospace industry struggles day by day to
deliver on-time and on-budget products of the highest technical complexity which
meet the most severe safety and performance requirements.

To succeed in this task, the aerospace product developers and their extended
enterprise need to exploit full potential of CAE; on one side early in the process to
predict performances supporting decision making, and on the other to accurately
verify designs to meet requirements. Altair HyperWorks provides best-in-class
simulation tools to the aerospace industry for:

 Minimum weight design

 Composite Design

 Modern structural modeling

 Stress, mechanism and vulnerability simulation

 Automated design processes

CAE tools like HyperMesh, HyperView, OptiStruct and RADIOSS are

becoming the new standard bringing aerospace simulation to the next generation.

EADS companies such Airbus, EADS Defence and Security, Eurocopter.

EADS Innovation works as well as Boeing, Embraer, Bombardier Aerospace, GE
Aviation, Pratt & Witney and many more have all chosen to work with Altair to
improve their design processes.

38
4.6.2 Automotive

Figure 4.5 Automotive

In Automotive CAE, Altair is the recognized leader, with more than 20
years of providing best-in-class modeling, solution and optimization tools.
HyperWorks is used by most of the world’s leading automotive companies and
their suppliers, who employ our common licensing model for maximum value.
HyperWorks offer the widest span of solutions in Automotive CAE, including:

 Design Optimization

 Crash and safety simulation

 Noise and vibration simulation

 Durability analysis

 Vehicle dynamics simulation

 Computational fluid dynamics

 Manufacturing simulation

HyperWorks has a proven track record of success in a variety of automotive

systems applications, including:

 Interiors: Seats, Instrument Panels, Trim

 Body: BIW, Closures, Trim

 Powertrain systems

39
  Chassis systems

 Climate control systems

 Energy management and safety restraint systems

 Electrical and control systems

Sustainable Mobility: Aerodynamic performance, low mass structures, low

rolling resistance/high driveline efficiency and reduced accessory loads

 HyperWorks has the widest array of best-in-class software products for

automotive:

 Finite element modeling and setup (HyperMesh and HyperCrash)

 Crash (RADIOSS) , NVH (OptiStruct)

 Multi-body dynamics solution (MotionView and MotionSolve)

 Optimization (OptiStruct and HyperStudy)

 Computational Fluid Dynamics(AcuSolve)

HyperWorks Enabled Partner products offer additional benefit to HyperWorks

unique licensing model, including solutions in Occupant simulation, Fatigue analysis,
Electromagnetics and CFD.

4.7 Hyper view

High-performance Post-processing and Visualization Environment for CAE

and Test Data:

Figure 4.6 Hyper view

40
 Altair HyperView is a complete post-processing and visualization
environment for finite element analysis, multi-body system simulation, digital video,
and engineering data. HyperView combines advanced animation and XY plotting
features with window synching to enhance results visualization. HyperView also
saves 3D animation results in Altair's compact H3D format, so users can visualize
and share CAE results within a 3D web environment using Altair HyperView Player.

Amazingly fast 3D graphics and unparalleled functionality set a new standard

for speed and integration of CAE results post-processing. Coupling these features
with HyperView’s advanced process automation tools dramatically improves results
visualization and reporting.

4.7.1 Benefits of Hyper view

 HyperView is a complete visualization environment for FEA, CFD, and multi-

body system simulation data.

 Through a complete, extendable library of direct model and results readers,

users can post-process any CAE analysis.

 HyperView’s animation capabilities and speed make it ideal for working with
extremely large models and results files.

 A multi-window, multi-page environment enables users to study several model

configurations simultaneously.

 To check for correlations between two models or simulation and reality, results
can be overlaid with a model or video within the same window.

 The Results Browser enables users to efficiently navigate though complicated

models. The Results View gives quick access to all analysis results. Plot styles
help to efficiently generate contour plots based on common settings.

 Results Math is a powerful tool to generate new results from existing

simulations by using mathematical expressions or external scripting languages.
Time consuming result manipulation tasks can be performed in batch using
HVTrans and saved in H3D.

41
  All post-processing sessions can be stored in a session file or a report template.
Session files help to reopen a complete session spanning across multiple pages
and applications. Report templates similarly reopen previous sessions but can
be used to generate sessions for model variations or similar simulations.

 Users can explore CAE models with HyperView’s in-depth model and results
interrogation tools that are based on user-defined criteria.

 HyperView’s synchronization capabilities help users gain insight into model

integrity and behavior. This allows users to synchronize and visualize FEA
results, multi-body systems results, XY plotting (simulation or test data) and
digital video data.

 HyperView enables users to share CAE results within a 3D web environment or

Microsoft PowerPoint using Altair HyperView Player® via Altair’s compact
.h3d file.

 Export HyperView session reports directly to HTML or PowerPoint including

text, images, AVIs & .h3d files.

 Users can create custom model views such as section cuts and exploded views
by combining functionality from HyperView’s comprehensive post-processing
tool and utility set.

 HyperView contains HyperGraph, a powerful XY plotting and data analysis

package that is tightly integrated within the HyperView environment.

 HyperView contains a completely open environment that enables users to

expand the

Post-Processing Toolset in Virtually any way. Users can:

 Generate plot macros to capture and replay often-used mathematical curves.

 Create custom math functions and algorithms.

 Completely customize the GUI to cater to the user’s preferences and needs.

 Automate any post-processing procedure and embed logical control through the

42
 command layer and Tcl/Tk programming.

 Automate the generation and presentation of standard animations, plots and

tables, as well as quickly compare results and correlation studies using the
Overlay Results option.

4.7.2 Capabilities

Figure 4.7 CAE Animation

HyperView delivers a complete suite of interactive animation, data plotting

and digital video functionality that dramatically improves results visualization,
analysis and correlation. Its synchronization capabilities enable users to explore
detailed model integrity and behavior. By utilizing HyperView’s extensive post-
processing platform users can easily synchronize, compare and visualize FEA results,
multi-body systems results, XY plotting (simulation or test data) and digital video
data simultaneously in the same environment.

Animations
 Contours (Scalar & Tensor)

 Vector plots

 Tensor plots

 Deformation plots

 CFD streamline plots

43
  Deformed animations

 Linear animations

 Modal animations

 Transient animations

 Multi-body dynamics animations with flex-bodies

4.7.3 Solver Interfacing

HyperView supports many popular CAE solver formats through direct

readers, providing a flexible and consistent high-performance post-processing
environment for animating and plotting CAE simulation results. Additional solver
formats can be supported through user defined results translators, that convert results
into the Altair H3D compressed binary format.

HyperWorks also offers two translators, HvTrans and HgTrans, for working
with any type of engineering data. HvTrans allows you to extract, translate, and
compress CAE results while HgTrans enables you to convert, compress and process
data files using custom math expressions that can be built from the embedded math
function library.

Solvers Supported Include:

 Radioss
 OptiStruct
 MotionSolve

 ABAQUS

 LS-DYNA

 NASTRAN

 ANSYS

 PAMCRASH

 Adams

44
  MADYMO

 DADS

 SIMPACK

 MOLDFLOW

 MARC

 NIKE3D

 LLNL DYNA

 Others

4.7.4 Report Generation

Generating a standard report is made easy with HyperView by using the

“Publish Session” capability along with the report Templates functionality.
HyperView allows the user to export the active session to a HTML or PowerPoint
XML report and provides users with the control to decide which information gets
exported and in which format.

 Report export — HTML, PowerPoint

 Animation export — AVI, H3D

 Image export — BMP, JPEG, PNG, TIFF

 Summary data export — Multi-column, customizable formatting.

4.8 Step by Step process in FEM

For using any commercial software there are 3 steps -

1. Preprocessing- Consumes most the out of the three steps.

2. Processing (or solution) - just click on “Solve"& it's the software's turn to do
the job

45
 3. Post processing- Result viewing & interpretation

Step 1 - Pre processing

a) CAD data

b) Meshing (or discretization to convert infinite dof to finite one)

C) Boundary conditions

In early stage of industrial applications of Finite Element Analysis, CAD,

meshing & analysis al1 used to be carried out by a single engineer only. Soon it was
realized that separation of the jobs &forming dedicated subgroups i.e. CAD group,
Meshing group & Analysis or calculation group is necessary for optimum output and
efficiency.

CAD & Meshing -There are specialized software’s for CAD, Meshing &
Analysis. CAD & meshing consumes most of the time For example - Typical time for
a single person to mode1 (CAD) 4cylinder engine block is 6 weeks & for brick
meshing 7 weeks (For tetra mesh about 2 weeks).

Boundary Conditions -Consumes least time but it is the most Important step
(typically applying load cases is about 1 day job). 3 months hard work of meshing &
CAD data preparation of engine block would be undone in just 1 day if boundary
conditions are not applied properly.

After completion of preprocessing i.e., CAD, Meshing and Boundary

conditions, software internally forms mathematical equations of the form [F] = [K]
[δ].

Step 2 - Processing or Solution

During preprocessing user has to work hard while solution step is the turn of
computer to do the job. User has to just click on solve icon & enjoy a cup of tea!
Internally software carries out matrix formations, inversion, multiplication &
solution for unknown e.g. displacement & then find strain stress for static analysis.

Today FEA being used just because of availability of computers. FEM has
been known to Mathematicians & engineers right from late 50's but since solving so
many equations manually was not possible, in true sense FEA got recognition only

46
after emergence of high capacity Computers.

Step 3 - Post processing

Post processing is viewing results, verifications, conclusions & thinking

about what steps could be taken to improve the design.

Consider a simple example which involves al1 the above Steps Probably at
the moment you are sitting on a chair or stool & reading this book. In this example
we will analyses the stool itself for stress & displacement for a load of 200 kg
(assuming it could be used for sitting as well as supporting any object up to max. 200
kg wt.)

47
 CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.1 Assumptions Review paper (20)

1. The analysis is done taking the distribution of the braking torque between the
front and rear axle is 70:30

2. Brakes are applied on all the four wheels.

3. The analysis is based on pure thermal loading .The analysis does not
determine the life of the disc brake.

4. The kinetic energy of the vehicle is lost through the brake discs i.e. no heat
loss between the tyres and the road surface and the deceleration is uniform.

5. The disc brake model used is of solid type and not the ventilated one.

6. The thermal conductivity of the material used for the analysis is uniform
throughout.

7. The specific heat of the material used is constant throughout and does not
change with the temperature.

8. Heat flux on each front wheel is applied on one side of the disc only.

9. Displacement in axial direction on flange is constrained in one side of the

disc.

5.2 Static Calculations

Weight of car W = 1.4 tons

Wheel diameter =19 inches

= 19*25.4 ( 1inch=25.4mm)

= 482.6 mm

Time to come rest = t=6 sec

48
5.2.1 For Velocity 60 kmph:

Velocity of car = 16.6 m/s=60 kmph

Stopping distance (D) =

D= 16.66*6

D=99.96 meters

Torque T=F.r

Stopping force

a=2.77 m/sec2

F = 1400*2.77(kg.m/sec2)

F=3878 N

Torque =F.r

= 3878* (482.6/2)

= 935761.4 N-mm

= 935.761 N- m

Brake set=4

Torque per brake = Torque/4

= 233.94 N-m

Breaking normal force

Tf =µ N rm

N=

N=

49
µ=0.4 from the review paper (20)

rm= disc brake mean radius

= mm

rm =0.131 m

N=

N=4464 N

Pressure (P) =

= 0.579 MPa

5.2.2 For Velocity 100 kmph

Velocity of car = 27.77 m/s=100 kmph

Stopping distance (D) =

D= 27.77*6

D=166.62 meters

Torque T=F.r

Stopping force

50
 a=4.6283 m/sec2

F = 1400*4.6283

F=6479.62 N

Torque =F.r

= 6479.62* (482.6/2)

= 1563532.306 N-mm

= 1563.53 N- m

Brake set=4

Torque per brake = Torque/4

= 390.88 N-m

Breaking normal force

Tf =µ N rm

N=

N=

rm= disc brake mean radius

= mm

rm =0.131 m

N=

51
 N=7459.54 N

Pressure (P) =

= 0.9636 MPa
5.3 Thermal Calculations
5.3.1 Disc Brake Calculations for 100 kmph:
Given Data:
Velocity of the vehicle =100 km/h

υ = 27.77 m/s

υ2= (27.77)2 = 771.17

Time for stopping the vehicle = 6 seconds

Mass of the vehicle = 1400 kg.

Step-1:
Kinetic Energy (K.E) = ½ * m * υ2

= ½ * 1400 *(27.77)2

= 539821.03 Joules

The above said is the Total Kinetic Energy induced while the vehicle is under
motion.

Step-2:

The total kinetic energy = the heat generated

Qg = 539821.03 Joules

52
Step-3:
The area of the rubbing faces

A = 15482.202 mm2 (calculated from drawings per disc)

= 61928.808 mm2 (for 4 discs’)

Step-4:
Heat Flux (q) = Heat Generated / Second / rubbing area
= 539821.03/6/ 61928.808
= 1.3014 Watts / mm2

The analysis is done by taking the distribution of braking torque between the front
and rear axle is 70:30
Thus
Heat Flux on each front wheel = (1.3014* 0.7)/2
= 0.4559 Watts / mm2

5.3.2 Disc Brake Calculations for 60 kmph:

Given Data:
Velocity of the vehicle =60 km/h

υ = 16.66 m/s

υ2= (16.66)2 = 277.55

Time for stopping the vehicle = 6 seconds
Mass of the vehicle = 1400 kg.

Step-1:
Kinetic Energy (K.E) = ½ * m * υ2

= ½ * 1400 *(16.66)2
= 194288.42 Joules
The above said is the Total Kinetic Energy induced while the vehicle is under
motion.

53
Step-2:
The total kinetic energy = the heat generated
Qg = 194288.42 Joules

Step-3:
The area of the rubbing faces

A = 10321.456mm2 (calculated from drawings per disc)

= 41285.824 mm2 (for 4 discs’)
Step-4:
Heat Flux (q) = Heat Generated / Second / rubbing area
= 194288.42/6/ 41285.824
=0.7843 Watts / mm2

The analysis is done by taking the distribution of braking torque between the
front and rear axle is 70:30

Thus
Heat Flux on each front wheel = (0.7843* 0.7)/2
= 0.2745 Watts / mm2

5.4 The properties of materials :

The Properties of the materials selected for present study is shown in table 5.1.
Table5.1 Properties of materials used

Properties Steel Aluminum Aluminum based metal

2014-T6 matrix composite

Density( ) in kg/mm3 7.9e-6 2.8e-6 2.765e-6

Young’s Modulus(E) in 210e3 72.4e3 98.5e3

MPa
Thermal Conductivity 1.6e-2 155e-3 181e-3
in W/mm 0C
Specific Heat in J/kg 500 880 836.6
0
C

54
 Poisson’s Ratio 0.3 0.3 0.33
Coefficient of Thermal 1e-5 2.3e-5 17.6e-6
Expansion in /0C

5.5 Static Results

The static results such as stress, displacement at velocity 60 Kmph and 100
Kmph are given in table 5.2.

Table-5.2 Static Results

Velocity 60kmph Velocity 100kmph

Material Displacement
Stress in Stress in Displacement in
in
N/mm2 N/mm2 mm
mm
Steel 0.5923 7.09e-5 0.9857 1.18e-4
Aluminum
0.5923 2.06e-4 0.9857 3.42e-4
2014-T6
Aluminum
based Metal
0.5897 1.56e-4 0.9815 2.60e-4
Matrix
Composite
5.6 Static Analysis for displacement and stress of disc using Hyper Mesh

Static analysis for displacement and stress have been carried out for materials
such as steel, Aluminum and Aluminum matrix material composite at velocities
60kmph and 100kmph are given in the sub sections

At velocity 60kmph

Fig5.1: Displacement of Steel disc at 60 kmph

55
 Fig 5.2: Stress of Steel disc at 60 kmph

Fig 5.3: Displacement of Al disc at 60 kmph

Fig 5.4: Stress of Al disc at 60 kmph

56
 Fig 5.5: Displacement of AlMMC disc at 60 kmph

Fig5.6: Stress of AlMMC disc at 60 kmph

At velocity 100kmph

Fig5.7: Displacement of Steel disc at 100 kmph

57
 Fig5.8: Stress of Steel disc at 100 kmph

Fig 5.9: Displacement of Al disc at 100 kmph

Fig5.10: Stress of Al disc at 100 kmph

58
 Fig5.11: Displacement of AlMMC disc at 100 kmph

Fig5.12: Stress of AlMMC disc at 100 kmph

Static loads are those which are applied to a structure very gradually,
increasing from zero to their final value and then either do not change their
magnitude, direction or point of application with time at all or change them very
slightly, so that accelerations occurred in this case can be neglected.

5.7 Thermal Results

The Grid temperature at 60 and 100kmph for three selected materials are given
in the table 5.3
Table 5.3 Thermal Results

Velocity 60kmph Velocity 100kmph

Grid Temperatures in 0C Grid Temperatures in 0C

59
 Steel 1079 433
Aluminum 508 204
Aluminum based Metal 435 174
Matrix Composite

5.8 Thermal Analysis for Grid Temperature of disc using Hyper Mesh

Thermal analysis for Grid temperature has been carried out for materials
such as steel, Aluminum and Aluminum matrix material composite for velocities
60kmph and 100kmph are given in the sub sections

At velocity 60kmph

Fig5.13: Grid Temperature of Steel disc at 60 kmph

Fig5.14: Grid Temperature of Al disc at 60 kmph

60
 Fig5.15: Grid Temperature of AlMMC disc at 60 kmph

At velocity 100kmph

Fig5.16: Grid Temperature of Steel disc at 100 kmph

61
 Fig5.17: Grid Temperature of Al disc at 100 kmph

Fig5.18: Grid Temperature of AlMMC disc at 100 kmph

The above analysis refers to a treatment of allowable stress at acceptable

performances. At high temperatures, there is a modification of the strength of
materials. If this high temperature is maintained for a long time, structural changes
takes place which further affect the strength of and other properties of material. Also
at high temperatures there will be continuous increase in strain or deformation of the
material under the action of the applied load.

5.9 Comparative study

The following graphs shows the comparative study of radial distance Vs

stress , deformation Vs thickness and Radial distance Vs Temperature for the three
selected materials at 60 and 100kmph

At 60 kmph:

62
 Fig 5.19 Stress distribution along radial distance at 60kmph

Fig 5.20 Deformation along Thickness at 60kmph

At 100 kmph:

63
 Fig 5.21 Stress distribution along radial distance for 100 kmph

Fig 5.22 Deformation along Thickness for 100kmph

At 60 Kmph

64
 Fig 5.23 Grid Temperature along Radial Thickness at 60kmph

At 100 kmph:

Fig 5.24 Grid Temperature along Radial Thickness at 100 kmph

65
 CHAPTER-6

CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORK

6.1 Conclusion

The present study can provide a useful design and improve the brake
performance of disc brake using three different materials Steel, Aluminum,
Aluminum based metal matrix composite. The design was analyzed considering the
effects of thermal expansion and pressure load separately. This is done to study the
amount of deformation due to pressure loading individually. These results are used to
study the increase in deformation. The following conclusions are drawn from the
present study.

1. Comparatively the yield strength of Aluminum and Aluminum based metal

66
 matrix composite are high and hence maximum stress obtained is low for the
materials.

2. Even though stress and displacement for Aluminum and Aluminum based metal
matrix composite are almost equal to steel but the nodal temperatures for the
applied heat flux are very high in the disc made of steel.

3. From the study it is concluded that all values obtained from the analysis are less
than their allowable values.

4. The calculated results are satisfactory commonly found in the literature

investigations.

Thus conclusion is made from the above analysis stating that the brake disc
made of Aluminum and Aluminum based metal matrix composite can be used as
alternative materials.

6.2 Future Work

In today’s fast paced world, CAD/CAM systems have become an essential

element in manufacturing companies throughout the world. Technology and
communication are changing rapidly, driving business methods for organizations and
requiring capitalization in order to maintain competitiveness. Knowledge prior to
investing into a system is crucial in order to maximize the benefits received from
changing CAD/CAM systems.

Along with the modern manufacturing industry with high speed

development, many materials are used to design the Disc brake system, such as
plastic and polymer material and thickness also is one of the important factors for the
Disc brake dynamic analysis. So comparison should be done for material property of
Disc brake system under low and high speed and time variation.

67
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