16

MTL101
Lecture 13 (Matrix representation of a linear transformation)
(43) We continue to assume that the vector spaces we consider are all finite dimensional (unless
otherwise stated). Suppose T : V → W is a linear transformation of vector spaces over F
and suppose, B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vm }, B 0 = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn } are ordered bases of V and W
respectively. We know that the image of each vector in B is a linear combination of vectors in
B 0 . Let
X n
T (vj ) = ti,j wi for (1 ≤ j ≤ m)
i=1

where ti,j ∈ F. Thus we have got an n × m matrix A (warning: not m × n) whose (i, j)-th
coefficient is ti,j . Thus the coefficients of T (vj ) in the above expression constitutes the j-th
column of A. This matrix is called the matrix representation of T with respect to the bases
0
B, B 0 and is denoted by [T ]BB . When V = W and B = B , we denote the martix representation
0

of T simply by [T ]B .

Example: Let the linear transformation T : R3 → R2 be defined by T (x, y, z) = (2x+z, y+3z),

B = {(1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 1)}, B 0 = {(2, 3), (3, 2)}. Then
1 4
T (1, 1, 0) = (2, 1) = − (2, 3) + (3, 2),
5 5
3 3
T (1, 0, 1) = (3, 3) = (2, 3) + (2, 3),
5 5
6 1
T (1, 1, 1) = (3, 4) = (2, 3) + (3, 2).
5 5
Thus  
− 15 3
5
6
5
B0
[T ]B =  
4 3 1
5 5 5

0
(44) Given any vector v ∈ V , we have [T (v)]B 0 = [T ]BB [v]B . This formula relates the coordinate
vectors of v and T (v) by means of the matrix representation of T with respect to the same pair
of bases.
Proof of the formula: Suppose [v]B = (a1 a2 · · · am )T (which is a column having m rows)
Pm
so that v = aj vj . Then
j=1
m
X
T (v) = aj T (vj )
j=1
Xm n
X
= aj ti,j wi
j=1 i=1
n X
X m


= ti,j aj wi
i=1 j=1
m m m
0
tn,j aj = [T ]B T
P P P
so that [T (v)]B 0 = t1,j aj , t2,j aj , . . . , B · (a1 a2 · · · am ) which is to be
j=1 j=1 j=1
shown.

(45) Lemma: Suppose A, B ∈ Mm×n (F). If AX = BX for every X ∈ Mn×1 (F), then A = B.
Proof of the lemma: To prove the statement pick X = eTi the column matrix whose i-th
entry is 1 and other entries are all zero. Then (a1,i a2,i · · · am,i ) = (b1,i b2,i · · · bm,i ) for each i.
Thus, ai,j = bi,j for each i and each j so that A = B. 
Lemma: The map v 7→ [v]B from V to Fn (where n = dimV ) is an isomorphism.
 17

Proof of the lemma: We know that given an ordered basis B, for any vector, the coefficients
are uniquely determined. This assures that the map is well-defined. Further, if [v]B = [w]B ,
then v = w so that the map is one to one. That this map is onto is clear because given any
n
P
n-tuple X = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ), we have v = ai vi ∈ V (where B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }) which is
i=1
mapped to X. We leave to the students to show that [v + w]B = [v]B + [w]B and [av]B = a[v]B
for a ∈ F and v, w ∈ V . 

(46) Let T : V → W be a linear transformation of finite dimensional vector spaces and let B1 , B10
are bases of V and let B2 , B20 be bases of W . Recall change of bases rule:
[v]B10 = P [v]B1 in V and (3)
[T v]B20 = Q[T v]B2 in W (4)
where P ∈ Mm×m (F) and Q ∈ Mn×n (F) are invertible matrices (recall how to write down these
change of basis matrices). Now we apply the formula for coordinate vectors related by matrix
representation of T in either sides of the second equality (4).
B0
[T ]B20 [v]B10 = Q[T ]B
B1 [v]B1 .
2
1

Now we use (3) and get

B0
[T ]B20 P [v]B1 = Q[T ]B
B1 [v]B1 .
2
1
B0
Then for A = [T ]B20 P and B = Q[T ]B
B1 , we have AX = BX for every X ∈ Mm×1 (F) ( since
2
1
B0
every X is attained by [v]B1 (See the second lemma above). We conclude, [T ]B20 P = Q[T ]B 2
B1
1
(using the first leema above). We know that the change of bases matrices P, Q are invertible.
B20
So [T ]B
B1 = Q [T ]B10 P .
2 −1

In particular, when V = W and B1 = B2 = B and B10 = B20 = B 0 , we have P = Q and

0
[T ]B
B = P
−1
[T ]B
B 0 P . In this case we normally denote the matrix of T with respect to B, B by
simply [T ]B . Thus the above relation becomes
[T ]B = P −1 [T ]B 0 P.

Example: Let the linear transformation T : R3 → R2 be defined by T (x, y, z) = (2x+z, y+3z),

B10 = {e1 , e2 , e3 }, B1 = {(1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 1)}, B20 = {e1 , e2 }, B2 = {(2, 3), (3, 2)}. Then
(see the example above),
 1 3 6    
−5 5 5 2 0 1 1 1 1  
B2 B20 2 3
[T ]B1 =   , [T ]B 0 =   , P = 1 0 1 , Q=
  .
4 3 1 1 3 2
5 5 5
0 1 3 0 1 1
You may verify that  
B0 2 3 3
[T ]B20 P = = Q[T ]B
B1 .
2
1 1 3 4

(47) If S, T : V → W are linear transformations then for any bases B, B 0 (respectively of V, W ), we

have the following properties (verifications are left to the students):
0 B0 B0
(a) [S + T ]B B = [S]B + [T ]B .
0 B0
(b) [λT ]B B = λ[T ]B .
(c) If T 0 : W → U is another linear transformation and B 00 is an ordered basis of U . then
00 0 B 00 B0
[T 0 ◦ T ]B
B = [T ]B 0 · [T ]B .
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MTL101
Lecture 14 (Eigenvalue, Eigenvector, characteristic polynomial of an operator)
(48) Suppose T : V → V is a linear operator on a vector space V . A scalar λ is said to be an
eigenvalue of T if there is a nonzero vector v ∈ V such that T (v) = λv. Such a nonzero vector
v is called an eigenvector of T associated to the eigenvalue λ. e.g., Zero is the only eigenvalue
of the zero operator; one is the only eigenvalue of the identity operator. However, if zero is
the only eigenvalue of an operator T then T need not be the zero operator. For instance, zero
is the only eigenvalue of T : R2 → R2 defined by T (x, y) = (0, x). Further, if one is the only
eigenvalue of an operator, then it need not be the identity operator. For instance, one is the
only eigenvalue of T (x, y) = (x + y, y).
Example: Let T (x, y) = (2x + 3y, 3x + 2y) is a linear operator on R2 . We have to find λ ∈ R
and (x, y) ∈ R2 such that (2x + 3y, 3x + 2y) = λ(x, y) or (2 − λ)x + 3y = 0, 3x + (2 − λ)y = 0
which is a system of homogenous linear equations in two unknowns. We know that this system
has a non-zero solution if andonly if the determinant of the coefficient matrix is zero. Thus we
2−λ 3
must have det = 0 or λ = −1, 5. When λ = −1, 3x + 3y = 0 so that (1, −1)
3 2−λ
is an eigenvector ((−a, a) are eigenvectors of corresponding to eigenvalue 1 for every a 6= 0.).
When λ = 5, 3x − 3y = 0 so that (1, 1) is an eigenvector (in fact, (a, a) is an eigenvector
corresponding to eigenvalue 5 for a 6= 0).
(49) Suppose B, B 0 are bases of V . Recall: for an operator T : V → V , the matrices [T ]B and [T ]B 0
are similar matrices (see the previous lecture). We define trace and determinant of T by
tr(T ) := tr([T ]B ), det T := det[T ]B .
We have already seen that the trace and the determinant of similar matrices are same; therefore,
the trace and the determinant of a linear operator is independent of choice of basis.
The polynomial det(XI − T ) is called the characteristic polynomial of T . This is a monic
polynomial (the coefficient of highest degree term is one) of degree n = dimV . The equation
det(XI − T ) = 0 is called the characteristic equation.
Theorem: A scalar λ ∈ F is an eigenvalue of T if and only if λ is a root of the characteristic
polynomial of T .
Remark: As a result of above theorem, finding eigenvalues of a linear tranformation boils down
to finding roots of a polynomial. You may see in the example above that while finding eigen
values we solved a quadratic equation. We cannot escape solving the characteristic equation
to find eigenvalues. We will not discuss the proof of this theorem.
Example: To find the eigenvalues of T : R3 → R3 defined by T (x, y, z) = (x + y, y + z, z + x),
we first down thecharacteristic
 polynomial.
 Choose the standard  basis B = {e1 , e2 , e3 } of
1 1 0 X −1 −1 0
R3 , then [T ]B = 0 1 1 so that det  0 X −1 −1  = x3 − 3X 2 + 3X − 2 =
1 0 1 −1 0 X −1
(X − 2)(X 2 − X + 1) is the characteristic polynomial. X = 2 is an eigenvalue and the other
two roots of the characteristic equation are non-real (since the discriminant of the quadratic
factor is -3). We leave it as an exercise to find the eigen vectors corresponding to eigenvalue 2.
Example: T : C2 → C2 , where T (z1 , z2 ) = (z1 − z2 , z1 + z2 ). The characteristic polynomial is
X 2 −2X +2 and the eigenvalues are 1+i, 1−i. (1, −i) and (1, i) are eigenvectors corresponding
to 1 + iand 1 − i respectively.
 Observe that B = {(1, −i), (1, i)} is a basis of C2 over C and
1+i 0
[T ]B = . Note that T 0 : R2 → R2 defined by (x, y) 7→ (x − y, x + y) over R has
0 1−i
no eigenvalue.
(50) If A ∈ Mn×n (F), the polynomial det(XI − A) is called the characteristic polynomial of the
matrix A. The roots of the characteristic polymial (which are in F) are called the eigenvalues
A. We often take F = C, the field of complex numbers, so that every root of the characteristic
polynomial is included in our discussion.