THE EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.

A pronoun is usually
substituted for a specific noun, which is called its antecedent. In the
There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun,
sentence above, the antecedent for the pronoun she is the
pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and
girl. Pronouns are further defined by type: personal pronouns refer to
interjection. The part of speech indicates how the word functions in
specific persons or things; possessive pronouns indicate ownership;
meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence. An individual
reflexive pronouns are used to emphasize another noun or pronoun;
word can function as more than one part of speech when used in
relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative
different circumstances. Understanding parts of speech is essential for
pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.
determining the correct definition of a word when using the
dictionary. The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and
then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
1. NOUN
See the TIP Sheet on "Pronouns" for further information.
 A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.
man... Butte College... house... happiness 3. VERB

A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often  A verb expresses action or being.
used with an article (the, a, an), but not always. Proper nouns always jump... is... write... become
start with a capital letter; common nouns do not. Nouns can be
The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. There is a main
singular or plural, concrete or abstract. Nouns show possession by
verb and sometimes one or more helping verbs. ("She can
adding 's. Nouns can function in different roles within a sentence; for
sing." Sing is the main verb; can is the helping verb.) A verb must
example, a noun can be a subject, direct object, indirect object,
agree with its subject in number (both are singular or both are
subject complement, or object of a preposition.
plural). Verbs also take different forms to express tense.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and
then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Nouns" for further information.
See the TIP Sheet on "Verbs" for more information.
2. PRONOUN
4. ADJECTIVE
 A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.
 An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.
She... we... they... it
pretty... old... blue... smart
An adjective is a word used to modify or describe a noun or a
pronoun. It usually answers the question of which one, what kind, or
how many. (Articles [a, an, the] are usually classified as adjectives.)
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and
then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Adjectives" for more information.
5. ADVERB
 An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective,
or another adverb.
gently... extremely... carefully... well
An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another
adverb, but never a noun. It usually answers the questions of when,
where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what degree. Adverbs
often end in -ly.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher,
and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Adverbs" for more information.
6. PREPOSITION
 A preposition is a word placed before a noun or
pronoun to form a phrase modifying another word in the
sentence.
by... with.... about... until
(by the tree, with our friends, about the book, until tomorrow)
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a
phrase modifying another word in the sentence. Therefore a
preposition is always part of a prepositional phrase. The prepositional
phrase almost always functions as an adjective or as an adverb. The
following list includes the most common prepositions:
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and
then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Prepositions" for more information.
7. CONJUNCTION
 A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.
and... but... or... while... because
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the
relationship between the elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions
connect grammatically equal elements: and, but, or, nor, for, so,
yet. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that are not equal:
because, although, while, since, etc. There are other types of
conjunctions as well.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the
teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
See the TIP Sheet on "Conjunctions" for more information.
8. INTERJECTION
 An interjection is a word used to express emotion.
Oh!... Wow!... Oops!
An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed
by an exclamation point.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and
then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
Elements of Sentence
Construction
Subjects and Predicates
Parts of speech have specific tasks to perform when they are
put together in a sentence.
Sometimes we use sentences in which a subject is not
A noun or pronoun functions as the sentence subject when it is actually stated, but is, nevertheless, understood in the
paired with a verb functioning as the sentence predicate. meaning.
Every sentence has a subject and predicate. Example:
A subject can be a noun or pronoun that is partnered with
an action verb.

Example:
A sentence like this gives an order or a request to
someone.

Sometimes a verb will express being or existence instead of

action. Because we use such statements when we are talking directly
to someone, we omit the word you. It is understood in the
sentence. Therefore, in statements like this one, we say the
Example:
subject is
 you (understood). -ing verb WITHOUT a helping verb cannot be a predicate in a
sentence.
This kind of sentence is an imperative sentence.

A subject and predicate may not always appear together or in

A predicate is a verb that expresses the the normal order, as the following examples show:
subject's action or state of being.

Example:

Sometimes the predicate will be composed of two or three

verbs that fit together - the main verb preceded by one or
more auxiliary(helping) verbs.

IMPORTANT NOTE: To be a predicate, a verb that ends in

-ing must ALWAYS have a helping verb with it. An
Phrases
A phrase is a group of related words that
1. does not express a complete thought
A clause is a group of related words that contain a subject
and predicate.
Note the difference between phrases and clauses in the
following examples:

2. does not have a subject and predicate pair

One type of phrase is a prepositional phrase.

Examples:

Another kind of phrase is a verbal phrase.

Only one of the clauses is a sentence.
Examples:
Clause #1 gives a thought or an idea that is COMPLETE,
that can stand by itself, independent of other words.

However, clause #2 gives an INCOMPLETE thought or

Even though these phrases contain nouns (pronouns) idea, one that cannot stand by itself, one that needs some
and/or verb forms, none of the nouns/pronouns/verbs more words to make it whole. The word after changes the
are subjects or predicates. None of them work as meaning, making the thought incomplete. After reading
a partnership. this clause, we are left hanging.

Also, these phrases do NOT express complete thoughts.

Clauses
Words and phrases can be put together to make clauses.
These two clauses illustrate the two kinds of clauses:

independent clauses and dependent clauses

An independent clause is a group of words that contains

a subject, a predicate, and a complete thought.

A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a

subject and a predicate, but does NOT express a complete
thought.
PHRASES

Compounding Sentence Elements

Words, phrases, and clauses may be joined to one another
inside a sentence with a conjunction.

The coordinating conjunctions and, but, or, and nor may

join subjects, predicates, adjectives, adverbs, prepositional
phrases or dependent clauses within a sentence. This
process is called "compounding."
DEPENDENT CLAUSES
The following examples show the process of compounding

WORDS

When entire independent clauses (simple sentences) are

joined this way, they become compound sentences.
Avoiding Fragments
A complete sentence needs only two elements: Avoiding Comma Splices and Fused
Sentences
a subject - predicate unit AND a complete
thought Sometimes two independent clauses (simple sentences)
can be joined to form another kind of sentence:
In other words, a simple sentence is actually the SAME
the compoundsentence.
thing as an independent clause.
Two major errors can occur when constructing compound
Dependent clauses or phrases are
sentences.
called fragments because they are missing one or more
parts needed to make a sentence. Error #1: The Comma Splice
Therefore, they are only pieces or fragments of complete Writers make this error when they try to separate the two
sentences. independent clauses in a compound sentence with
a comma alone.
Look at these examples:
A comma is not a strong enough punctuation mark to
separate the two independent clauses by itself; thus, using
it causes the clauses to be spliced together.

Example of a comma splice:

This sentence can be repaired in three ways:

1. by adding an appropriate coordinating

conjunction
 Example of a fused sentence:

2. by changing the comma to a semicolon

This sentence is also repaired in three ways:

1. by adding a comma and an appropriate coordinating

conjunction

3. by changing the punctuation and adding an

appropriate conjunctive adverb

2. by placing a semicolon between the two clauses

Error #2: The Fused Sentence

Writers make this error by joining two independent clauses

3. by adding the needed punctuation and an
into a compound
appropriate conjunctive adverb
sentence without using any punctuation between them.

No punctuation between the two independent clauses

causes them to "fuse" into an INCORRECT compound
sentence.
Another way to repair a comma splice or fused sentence is
to make each independent clause into a simple
sentence.
What Are the 14
Punctuation Marks in
English Grammar?
There are 14 punctuation marks that are commonly used
in English grammar. They are the period, question mark,
exclamation point, comma, semicolon, colon, dash,
hyphen, parentheses, brackets, braces, apostrophe,
quotation marks, and ellipsis. Following their correct usage
will make your writing easier to read and more appealing.
Sentence Endings
Three of the fourteen punctuation marks are appropriate
for use as sentence endings. They are the period, question
mark, and exclamation point.
The period (.) is placed at the end of declarative
sentences, statements thought to be complete and after
many abbreviations.
 As a sentence ender: Jane and Jack went to the
market.
 After an abbreviation: Her son, John Jones Jr., was
born on Dec. 6, 2008.
Use a question mark (?) to indicate a direct question
when placed at the end of a sentence.
 When did Jane leave for the market?
The exclamation point (!) is used when a person wants
to express a sudden outcry or add emphasis.
 Within dialogue: "Holy cow!" screamed Jane.
 To emphasize a point: My mother-in-law's rants
make me furious!
Comma, Semicolon, and Colon
The comma, semicolon, and colon are often misused
because they all can indicate a pause in a series.
The comma is used to show a separation of ideas or
elements within the structure of a sentence. Additionally,
it is used in numbers, dates, and letter writing after the
salutation and closing.
 Direct address: Thanks for all your help, John.
 Separation of two complete sentences: We went to
the movies, and then we went out to lunch.
 Separating lists or elements within sentences: Suzi
wanted the black, green, and blue dress.
Whether to add a final comma before the conjunction in a
list is a matter of debate. This final comma, known as an
Oxford or serial comma, is useful in a complex series of
elements or phrases but is often considered unnecessary
in a simple series such as in the example above. It usually
comes down to a style choice by the writer.
The semicolon (;) is used to connect independent
clauses. It shows a closer relationship between the clauses
than a period would show.
 John was hurt; he knew she only said it to upset
him.
A colon (:) has three main uses. The first is after a word
introducing a quotation, an explanation, an example, or a
series.
 He was planning to study four subjects: politics,
philosophy, sociology, and economics.
The second is between independent clauses when the
second explains the first, similar to a semicolon:
 I didn't have time to get changed: I was already
late.
The third use of a colon is for emphasis:
 There was one thing she loved more than any other:
her dog.
A colon also has non-grammatical uses in time, ratio,
business correspondence and references.
Dash and the Hyphen
Two other common punctuation marks are the dash and
hyphen. These marks are often confused with each other
due to their appearance but they are very different.
A dash is used to separate words into statements. There
are two common types of dashes: en dash and em dash.
 En dash: Twice as long as a hyphen, the en dash is a
symbol (--) that is used in writing or printing to indicate
a range, connections or differentiations, such as 1880-
1945 or Princeton-New York trains.
 Em dash: Longer than the en dash, the em dash can
be used in place of a comma, parenthesis, or colon to
enhance readability or emphasize the conclusion of a
sentence. For example, She gave him her answer ---
No!
Whether you put spaces around the em dash or not is
a style choice. Just be consistent.
A hyphen is used to join two or more words together into
a compound term and is not separated by spaces. For
example, part-time, back-to-back, well-known.
Brackets, Braces, and
Parentheses
Brackets, braces, and parentheses are symbols used to
contain words that are a further explanation or are
considered a group.
Brackets are the squared off notations ([]) used for
technical explanations or to clarify meaning. If you remove
the information in the brackets, the sentence will still
make sense.
 He [Mr. Jones] was the last person seen at the
house.
Braces ({}) are used to contain two or more lines of text
or listed items to show that they are considered as a unit.
They are not commonplace in most writing but can be
seen in computer programming to show what should be
contained within the same lines. They can also be used in
mathematical expressions. For example, 2{1+[23-3]}=x.
Parentheses ( () ) are curved notations used to contain
further thoughts or qualifying remarks. However,
parentheses can be replaced by commas without changing
the meaning in most cases.
 John and Jane (who were actually half brother and
sister) both have red hair.
Apostrophe, Quotation Marks
and Ellipsis
The final three punctuation forms in English grammar are
the apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipsis. Unlike
previously mentioned grammatical marks, they are not
related to one another in any form.
An apostrophe (') is used to indicate the omission of a
letter or letters from a word, the possessive case, or the
plurals of lowercase letters. Examples of the apostrophe in  Within a quotation: When Newton stated, "An object
use include: at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in
motion..." he developed the law of motion.
 Omission of letters from a word: I've seen that
movie several times. She wasn't the only one who
knew the answer.
 Possessive case: Sara's dog bit the neighbor.
 Plural for lowercase letters: Six people were told to WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE
mind their p's and q's.
It should be noted that, according to Purdue University, BETWEEN COPYEDITING AND
some teachers and editors enlarge the scope of the use of
apostrophes, and prefer their use on symbols (&'s), PROOFREADING?
numbers (7's) and capitalized letters (Q&A's), even though
they are not necessary. One of the most confusing parts of the editing process is simply
Quotations marks (" ") are a pair of punctuation marks understanding the different types of edits. There are line edits and
used primarily to mark the beginning and end of a copyedits, proofreading and manuscript critiques, and that’s just the
passage attributed to another and repeated word for word. beginning. For the new author, the whole editing process can feel
They are also used to indicate meanings and to indicate overwhelming, especially if you’re not sure which one to choose for
the unusual or dubious status of a word. your manuscript.
 "Don't go outside," she said.
Single quotation marks (' ') are used most frequently for Fortunately, you’ve come to the right place.
quotes within quotes.
In this post, we’re going to break down the differences between
 Marie told the teacher, "I saw Marc at the copyediting and proofreading in order to help you understand the
playground, and he said to me 'Bill started the fight,'
editing process better. You can also use this post to decide which one
and I believed him."
you’ll need for your manuscript. Let’s get started.
The ellipsis is most commonly represented by three
periods (. . . ) although it is occasionally demonstrated
with three asterisks (***). The ellipsis is used in writing or Are you ready for copyediting? Subscribe to receive a free “ready for
printing to indicate an omission, especially of letters or copyediting” checklist.
words. Ellipses are frequently used within quotations to
jump from one phrase to another, omitting unnecessary
words that do not interfere with the meaning. Students
writing research papers or newspapers quoting parts of
speeches will often employ ellipsis to avoid copying
lengthy text that is not needed. WHAT IS
 Omission of words: She began to count, "One, two,
three, four…" until she got to 10, then went to find
him.
COPYEDITING?

Copyediting is the process of checking for mistakes, inconsistencies,
and repetition. During this process, your manuscript is polished for
publication.
Contrary to popular belief, the copyeditor is not a glorified spell
checker.
The copyeditor is your partner in publication. He or she makes sure
that your manuscript tells the best story possible. The copyeditor
focuses on both the small details and the big picture. He or she must be
meticulous and highly technical, while still aware of the overarching
themes at work within your manuscript.
Let’s take a closer look at what a copyeditor does. A copyeditor:
 Checks for and corrects errors in grammar, spelling, syntax,
and punctuation.
 Checks for technical consistency in spelling, capitalization,
font usage, numerals, hyphenation. For example, is it e-mail on
page 26 and email on page 143? Or do you use both British and
American English spelling variations interchangeably, such as
favourite vs. favorite?
 Checks for continuity errors and makes sure that all loose ends
are tied.
 Checks for factually incorrect statements. This is a necessary
part of the copyediting process for non-fiction manuscripts, such as
historical pieces and memoirs. The copyeditor must check if the
facts in your manuscript are accurate and if the names and dates are
correct.
 Checks for potential legal liability. The copyeditor verifies that
your manuscript does not libel others.
 Checks for inconsistency within the story. This includes
character description, plot points, and setting. Does each character
stay true to his own description throughout the story? Are there
conflicting descriptions of the house? For example, have you
described the setting as “a yellow brick home” on one page but “a
weathered wooden home” on another page?
As you see, the copyeditor’s job is not just to check grammar and
spelling. He or she must make sure that every element of your story is
consistent, cohesive, and complete.
Your copyeditor will be different than your general editor. The
copyeditor comes with a unique skillset. He or she must be precise,
detail-oriented, and adroit in grammar and word usage. The copyeditor
is also up to date with the standard practices in book publishing.
AM I READY FOR
COPYEDITING?
Copyediting is the final step before production. It should be done after
all other edits take place. In a standard timeline, here’s how the
copyedit fits in:
Manuscript Critique – An editor reads your manuscript and prepares
a broad, comprehensive assessment. You receive specific advice on
how to develop a stronger narrative, better pacing, and more engaging
characters.
Because the manuscript critique is a big picture analysis of your
manuscript, it should be done first before getting into the nuts and
bolts of a comprehensive edit.
Comprehensive Edit – In-depth, intense, thorough, a comprehensive not only is it embarrassing for the writer, it can also be confusing to
edit tackles a manuscript line by line. The editor cuts down on the reader.
wordiness and tightens the language to create a more enjoyable read.
This type of edit hunts down clumsy or awkward sentences that take As a necessary last step before printing your manuscript, always hire a
away from the rhythm of your prose. For more information on a professional copyeditor to inspect your work with a fine tooth comb.
comprehensive edit, especially a line edit, click here. You’ll feel much better knowing that your typo blindness hasn’t
negatively impacted your final work.
If you plan to go with a traditional publisher, these are the only two
types of edits you’ll need. After your comprehensive edit, you can start Remember, copyediting is only available to authors who’ve completed
querying agents (we can help with that, too). Once your manuscript is a comprehensive edit. This ensures that the copyeditor isn’t spending
accepted, the publisher will perform copyedit prior to production. time editing content that may be deleted or rearranged after a line edit.
The copyedit should always be the last step.
However, if you plan to self-publish, we highly recommend that you
hire a professional copyeditor to prepare your manuscript for
publication.
HOW LONG DOES A
Why?
COPYEDIT TAKE?
As a writer, you’re probably very familiar with the concept of typo
blindness. Nick Stockton over at Wired explained it best in his
post: What’s Up With That: Why It’s So Hard to Catch Your Own
Typos. Brilliant read. A copyedit of your manuscript takes anywhere from three to five
weeks.
The basic idea is that you’re unable to see your own mistakes because
you already know what you’re trying to convey. You need a second
pair of eyes—preferably from someone who knows the rules of WHAT IS
grammar—to look over your manuscript and correct glaring errors that
you’ve gone blind to. PROOFREADING?
In traditional publishing, copyediting is a required step. Who wants to
print off a thousand books only to find that there’s a typo on page two,
or a discrepancy in character description from one chapter to the next?
Not you, and definitely not your reader. In publishing, proofreading happens after the manuscript has been
printed. A final copy of the manuscript, or proof, is then examined by a
Unfortunately, many self-published writers skip this crucial step and professional proofreader.
end up with those exact results. When the flow of the story is
interrupted by inconsistencies in the narrative or errors in grammar,
The proofreader’s job is to check for quality before the book goes into
mass production. He or she takes the original edited copy and
compares it to the proof, making sure that there are no omissions or
missing pages. The proofreader corrects awkward word or page
breaks.

While he or she may do light editing (such as correcting inconsistent

spelling or hyphenations), the professional proofreader is not a
copyeditor. If too many errors are cited, he or she may return the proof
for further copyediting.

Professional proofreading is required by traditional publishers as a

quality assurance measure before printing off a mass quantity of
books. Many self-publishing authors who have had their manuscript
professionally copyedited skip the proofread. If you’re on a budget,
you might try to proofread your own work, since there won’t be as
many errors to contend with at that stage.