1.

Recap: Force and Laws of Motion - II

2. Imagine you threw and caught a ball while you were on a train moving at a constant
velocity past a station. To you, the ball appears to simply travel vertically up and then
down under the influence of gravity. However, to an observer stood on the station
platform the ball would appear to travel in a parabola, with a constant horizontal
component of velocity equal to the velocity of the train.The different observations occur
because the two observers are in different frames of reference.
A frame of reference is a set of coordinates that can be used to determine positions and
velocities of objects in that frame; different frames of reference move relative to one
another.

There are two frames of reference, inertial and non-inertial.

• An inertial frame of reference is the one which is not accelerating or rotating. It
is an area in which everybody remains in the state of rest unless acted on by
external unbalanced force. Newton's laws are valid in this reference frame. WE
consider earth and other stationary objects (or those moving with constant
speed) on it as inertial frames of reference.
• The frame with some acceleration is called ''non inertial frame''. Newton's laws
are not followed in this frame. In order to use newton's laws in non-inertial
frames, we have to apply pseudo force (studied in next slide).

if your frame of reference has a non-uniform, or accelerated motion, then the Law of
Inertia will appear to be wrong, and you must be in a non-inertial frame of reference.
3. Pseudo force:
It is an imaginary force which acts on all bodies of an accelerating frame. The direction
of force is opposite to the direction of acceleration of the frame.

This pseudo force is real enough to throw you forward when a bus suddenly stops. It is
fictitious in the sense that it has no physical origin i.e. it is not caused by one of the
basic interactions in the nature.

When pseudo force is applied in the equation of motion, then acceleration obtained is
with respect to the non-inertial frame of reference.

So, with this example we can see that pseudo force is used only when we are observing
from a non-inertial frame. In case, the non-inertial frame is rotating as well as
accelerating, two pseudo forces must be applied in laws of motion.
4. Solution:
(Draw the FBD for the given case.)

If there is no force on the wedge the acceleration of the block will be a = gsinθ
If the block is to be at rest with respect to the wedge.

Let the force be F.

F = (M+m)a

When we observe from the wedge

there is a pseudo force on the block in the direction opposite to the motion of the block
and wedge system.
Resolveing the force along the direction of the wedge and the direction perpendicilar
we get:
 ma cosθ = mgsinθ
a = gtanθ

Thus,
F = (M+m) gtanθ

5. Friction − Friction is the property due to which a force is set up at the surface of
contact of two bodies and which prevents any relative motion between them.
Factors affecting friction:
1. Nature of medium of contact
2. Normal reaction: A heavier object has more normal reaction on the surface it is
kept than lighter object.
2. Area of contact: Force of friction is independent of area of contact

It is of three types:
1. Static friction: The opposing force which comes into play when a body tends to
slide over the surface of another body but the actual motion has not started yet is
called Static friction. Static friction opposes impending motion.
2. Limiting friction: As we increased the applied force, a stage comes when the
body is just the verge of moving over the other. The static friction at this stage is
obviously maximum. This maximum value of static friction is called Limiting
friction.
3. Kinetic friction: When we increase the applied force slightly beyond limiting
friction, the actual motion starts. This does not mean that friction has
disappeared. It only means that the applied force is now greater than the force of
limiting friction. The force of friction at this stage is called Kinetic friction or
Dynamic friction.

Kinetic firction may be of two types:

1. Sliding friction: Whenever a body slides or tends to slide over the surface of
another body, the friction that comes into play is called sliding friction.
2. Rolling friction: Friction that arises when one body is rolling over another is
called rolling friction.

6. At the equilibrium the frictional force f will be equal to μN. For horizontal equlibrium
we have
 For vertical equilibrium, we
have
F cosθ + mg
= N ...(2)

From (1) and (2) we can

eliminate the N, we get

F = 2.60×2×10 = 52 N

7. Revision: Centripetal force:

Centripetal force: The force required to move a body uniformly in a circle. This force
acts along the radius and towards the centre of the circle.

Centripertal acceleration,

Centrifugal force:
The natural tendency of a body is to move uniformly along a straight line. When we
apply centripetal force on the body, it is forced to move along a circle. While moving
actually along a circle, the body has a constant tendency to regain its natural straight
line path. This tendency gives rises to a force called centrifugal force.
Hence centrifugal force is a force that arises when a body is moving actually along a
circular path, by virtue of tendency of the body to regain its natural straight line path.
magnitude of centrifugal force = , which is same as that of centripetal force.

However the direction of centrifugal force is

opposite to the direction of centripetal force
i.e. Centrifugal force acts along the radius and
away from the centre of the circle.
 (Indicate these directions in the slide.)

It is important to note that the centrifugal

force does not actually exist. We feel it, because we are in a non-inertial coordinate
system.

8. Non-uniform circular motion:

When a particle is moving in non-uniform cicular motion both direction as well as
magnitude of velocity change. In such case, particle has a non-zero value for both radial
and tangential component of acceleration.
Here,

we can write

where the radial acceleration is:

and the tangential accleration is given as:

This is in the tangential direction.

Thus in this case acceleration has two componants one along velocity i.e. tangential
acceleration and another normal to velocity i.e. radial acceleration.

If net acceleration ( ) makes angle φ with tangential direction, we may write

(a2 = ar; a1 = at)

Also,

a is the resultant acceleration of the tangential and radial acceleration.

Here ⃗

9. Motion of a car on level circular road:

 If R1 and R2 are the normal reactions of the ground on the two tyres of a car of weight
Mg, going around on a circular turn of radius r, with velocity v, on a level road, then
f1 = µR1 and f2 = µR2
Where, µ is the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road
The total force of friction provides the necessary centripetal force, i.e.,

The total normal reaction balances the weight of the car, i.e.,

From equations (1) and (2), we have

The above equation gives the maximum velocity with which the car can take a turn of
radius r, when the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road is equal to .

10. Banking of roads: When a sharp turn comes on a straight road, the surface of the road
does not remain horizontal. This is called banking of roads.
Purpose of banking:
1. Banking is done to reduce frictional wear and tear of tyres.
2. Banking is done to avoid skidding.
3. Banking is done to avoid overturning of vehicles.
Motion of a car on a banked road:
For the vehicle to go round the curved track at a reasonable speed without skidding, the
greater centripetal force is managed for it by raising the outer edge of the track a little
above the inner edge. It is called banking of circular tracks.
Force acting on the vehicle in this case is shown in the slide.
Maximum velocity of car on banked
R cosθ = Mg …..(i)

R sinθ = …..(ii)

On dividing (ii) by (i), we get

 As the vehicle moves along the circular banked road OA, the force of friction between
the road and the tyres of the vehicle, F = μR, acts in the direction AO.
The frictional force can be resolved into two components:
• μ R sin θ in the downward direction
• μ R cos θ in the inward direction
Since there is no motion along the vertical,
R cos θ = Mg + μ R sin θ …..(iii)
Let vmax be the maximum permissible speed of the vehicle. The centripetal force is now
provided by the components R sinθ and μ Mg cosθ, i.e.,

R sin θ + μ R cos θ = …..(iv)

From equation (iii),we have

Mg = R cos θ (1−μ tan θ)….. (v)
Again from equation (iv), we have

= R cos θ (μ + tan θ) …..(vi)

On dividing equation (iv) by (v), we have

Special case

11. Coefficient of Friction:

Let there be no banking in the road, i.e. θ = 0.

Then there will be a normal force (N) acting vertically upwards. The only horizontal
force acting towards the centre is the friction fs. This is static friction and is self
adjustable. The tyres get a tendency to skid outward and the frictional force opposes this
skidding acts towards the centre. Thus, for a safe turn we must have

However, there is a limit to the magnitude of the frictional force. If μs is the coefficient
 of static friction between the tyres and the road, the magnitude of friction fs cannot
exceed μsN. For vertical equilibrium N = Mg, so that

Or

This is the minimum value of friction required between a vehicle and a road for the
vehicle to pass without skidding.

NOTE: Friction is not always reliable at circular turns if high speeds and sharp turns are
involved. That is why roads are banked at the turns.

12. Solution: In a unbanked road, the centripetal force is provided by the frictional force.
So, friction = mv2/r
or, μmg = friction or μmg = mv2/r
v = 108 km/h = 30 m/s
So, μmin = v2/gr = (30×30)/(10×150) = 0.6

13. Constraint Relations:

In mechanical systems, due to the nature of the connections, the motion of some parts of
a system automatically governs the motion of the other parts. An equation representing
such dependence is called the constraint relation.

For a pulley system:

1. Fixed pulley with two ends of the rope left free to move:
To solve problems involving various pulleys, we should know the constraint relation,
i.e. the relation among various velocities and accelerations of various components of the
system.
If mass m2 goes down by a distance of x then mass m1 goes up by a distance x. This is
called a constraint relationship.

Hence, velocity v = dx/dt is the same in magnitude for both blocks but their directions
are opposite and acceleration a = dv/dt is same in magnitude for both blocks, but
opposite in directions.

2. One end of the string being fixed and passing over the pulley while the other end
is free to move

To get the relation between two velocities or accelerations, let us assume that initially
both ends are free and parallel.
If we move the pulley up by a distance x upwards then both ends of the string also
move by a distance x. If we fix one end to the original position and fix it on ground. The
 other end will move further by a distance x upwards.

Conclusion: if pulley moves by a distance x, then the free end of the string moves a
distance 2x. Or if the string moves by a distance x then the pulley will move a distance
x/2.

(Explain using the figure in the slide.)

14. Constraint relation using differential method:

The equations that relate the motion of two or more bodies are the kinematic
constraints. By differentiating the kinematic constraints for the particle in a system, the
corresponding kinematic constraints among the velocities and accelerations of the
particles may be obtained.

Cinsider the figure in th slide. Let x1 and x2 be the

position of the masses m1 and m2 at any instant.
The masses are assumed to be attached by an
inextensible string.

Length of the string l = x1 + x2 + πR

differentiating wrt time,
dl/dt = dx1/dt + dx2/dt + d(πR)/dt
i.e. 0 = v1 + v2 = 0
or v1 = -v2
i.e. a1 = -a2

15. Describe the system in the figure.

 Here v1 = -dx1/dt, a1 = -d2x1/dt2

v2 = -dx2/dt, a2 = -d2x2/dt2

v3 = +dx3/dt, a3 = -d2x3/dt2

Now, x1 + x2 + 2x3 = l (length of the string (constant))

differentiating wrt to t
-v1 – v2 + 2v3 = 0
i.e. v3 = (v1 + v2)/2

Differentiating again
a3 = (a1 + a2)/2

16. Let the acceleration of the block of mass 1 kg be a1 and acceleration of the block of
mass 2 kg be a2.Then we will have the below given situation.

From constraint relation

a2 = (a' – a2)/2
a' = 3a2

Also,

a' = (a'' – a2)/2

a'' = 2a' + a2 = 6a2 + a2 = 7a2
So,

a1 = 7a2 ….(a)
Marking tension on all strings, we have (reverse the
direction of arrows on strings)

2g – 7T = 2 a2 ...(i)
 T – 1g = a1

Using (a)

a1 = 7 a2

T – 1g = 7 a2 ...(ii)

solving (i) and (ii)

5 g = 51 a1

a1 = −35g/51

a2 = −5g/51

(-ve sign means that the direction of accelerations assumed are opposite actually)
17.

vB sin θ = vA cos θ

Velocity of the block is vA and that of the wedge is vB

vA cos θ = vB cos Φ

18.
Let the accelerations of the rod and the wedge be ar and aw.
Velocities along the common normal are equal.
ar cosθ = aw sinθ

ar = aw tanθ

Drawing FBD

mg – Ncosθ = mar
N sinθ =Maw

mg – Ncosθ = maw tanθ

solving we get

mg
aw =
m tan θ + M cotθ
mg
ar =
m + Mcot 2 θ