MOTIONS IN THE SKY

Celestial Sphere

 is a model, which does not necessarily match physical reality. Models provide a means to enhance
our understanding of nature.

Ecliptic

 The path of the sun appears to take around the celestial sphere is called the ecliptic. It is inclined
23.5° with respect to the celestial equator.

Solstices

 The two points on the ecliptic with the greatest distance from the celestial equator are referred to as
solstices. The solstices (about June 21 and December 21) are when the Sun rises at the most
extreme north and south points.

Equinoxes

 The two points where the ecliptic intersects the celestial equator are known as equinoxes. The
equinoxes (equal day and night and about March 21 and September 23) are when the Sun rises
directly east.

Constellations

 The ecliptic traces trough a series of star clusters called constellations. This sequence of
constellations is called the zodiac. Different sets of constellations are visible in Earth’s night sky at
different times of the year.

Precession of the Equinoxes

 Earth is not a perfect sphere, it bulges a bit in the equator because of the pull of the moon and the
sun (lunisolar precession) . As a result, Earth’s axis changes direction over a period of time.

Diurnal Motion

 “Daily Motion”. Sun, moon, planets, and stars rise in the east and set in the west. Due to the Earth’s
rotation. Ancient astronomers took all celestial motion to be diurnal

Annual Motion

 “Yearly Motion”. Due to the Earth’s revolution. It accounts for the visibility of zodiac constellation at a
specific time of the year

MODELS OF THE UNIVERSE

 The early humans relied on the skies as their principal means of telling the time, of navigation, and
of knowing when to start planting crops.

 The Egyptians established a 365-day calendar based on the track of the star Sirius.

 The Babylonians and the Assyrians also invented similar calendars to aid them in determining when
to sow and reap crops.

 The 3 Pyramids represent the belt stars of the Constellation Orion

 Constructed in 3000 BCE, Stonehenge in England was thought to have been an observatory
used to predict solar and lunar eclipse.

 The windows at the top and sides of the pyramid at the Mayan site in Palenque, Mexico were so
arranged that the rooms they lead to are illuminated by the rising sun.

THE EARLY UNIVERSE

 Thales of Miletus (Around 600 BCE)

 proposed that Earth is a Cylinder and that Earth is a Disk floating in water.

 Anaximender (In 520 BCE)

 also from Miletus, suggested that Earth is a cylinder and it’s surface is curved.

The models are group by 2 categories the geocentric and heliocentric:

Geocentric Model Heliocentric Model

- considers Earth as the center of the universe. - assumes the sun to be the center of
the universe.

 The Pythagorean Model

 Pythagoras was acknowledged to be the first to assert that Earth is round, and that the heavenly
bodies move in circles. These ideas are called “The Music of the Spheres”

 The Eudoxus Model

 Eudoxus was the first to “save the appearances” that Plato referred to, using a series of 27
concentric spheres on which the sun, the moon, and the planets moved in perfect circular
motion.The breakdown of the 27 spheres is as follows: 1 sphere for fixed stars, 3 spheres for the
 sun, 3 spheres for the moon, and 4 spheres for each of the 5 known planets at the time--Mercury,
Venus, Mars, Saturn and Jupiter.

 Aristotle’s Model

 Used 27 “buffering” spheres between the celestial spheres of Eudoxus and an outermost spheres
that was the domain of what he called the Prime mover.

Prime Mover

 Rotated this outermost sphere with constant angular speed, causing the other spheres to rotate as
well. According to Aristotle the order of heavenly bodies in the universe was (from Earth out): Earth,
moon, Mercury, Venus, sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn.

Aristotle divided the Universe in Two Realms:

A. Terrestrial Realms

 This realms was composed of four primordial elements in this sequence: earth, water, air, and fire
moved naturally according to their material composition.

B. Celestial Realms

 Consists of the fifth element called aether or ether.

Three types of Terrestrial Motion:

1. Natural Motion

 Related to the tendency of an object to seek its natural place in the universe. Heavy elements move
toward Earth while lighter ones move up vertical motion

2. Violent Motion

 Terrestrial object can be compelled to move in unnatural ways by the application of a force
horizontal motion

3. Alteration Motion

 Is the ability of an object to change. This change can be generation, corruption or alteration in
quality. Generation Is coming to be. Corruption Is passing away.

Epicycle

 Is a circle on which a planet moves

Deferent

 Center of this small circle in turn moves around Earth along a bigger circular path
Equant

 A point on the other side of the deferent’s center

 Heliocentric Model

 The Heliocentric model came about Greek astronomer philolaus initially proposed a Pyrocentric
model of the universe. Planets and heavenly bodies were supposed to move around a “fire”
located at the center of

This Model Had Two Major Scientific Flaws:

1. The absence of stellar parallax

2. The lack of perceived motion of earth

THE BIRTH OF MODERN ASTRONOMY

 Tychonic Model

The sun orbited the Earth, while the other planets orbited the sun.

Galileo’s Astronomical Observations

 Galileo made his own telescope and aimed it at the skies, and findings were gathered. Galileo’s
telescope paved the way for astronomical discoveries that favored the Copernican model.

Galileo’s Findings in 1610

1. Something in the celestial realm is barely distinguishable from objects belonging to the terrestrial
realm.

2. The sun has blemishes called sunspots. Therefore, the sun is not perfect, contradicting the Greek
concept.

3. There are other centers of revolution that are themselves revolving.

4. Venus is merely illuminated by the light from the sun.

5. Stars were extremely far away and observing stellar parallax is extremely difficult.
Kepler’s Law Of Planetary Motion

Kepler formulated three laws of planetary motion:

a) Law of Ellipses

 States that the planets move in ellipses having a common focus situated at the sun

b) Law of Equal Areas

 States that the planets move around the sun with the line drawn from the sun to the planets sweeps
out equal areas in equal intervals of time

c) Law of Harmonies

 States that the squares of the periods of the planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean
distances from the sun

Analemma

 The plot of the position of the sun as viewed from the fixed position on Earth at the same time every
year.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM TODAY

Innermost Zones

 Are occupied by Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. They are rocky, metallic and comparatively
small.

Asteroid Belt

 Leftover rocks from the formation of the solar system can be found in the asteroid belt.

Giant Planets

 Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, which are mostly gases, occupy this zone beyond the
asteroid belt.

Kuiper Belt

 Five dwarf planets can be found around this realm; Pluto, Ceres, Haumea, Makemake and Eris.