Department of ELECTRICAL SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

Examination PV System (ET4378-T)

Wednesday 26th June 2019, 13:30-16:30; LR-CZ H, LR-CZ J and LR-CZ K

Write your name on each piece of paper.

This examination consists 7 tasks and a total of 100 points.
Give short and concise answers to the tasks and take care of the correct physical units.

You can use the formula sheet that has been handed out.
You CANNOT use your own formula sheet / book / notes / smartphone / tablet / laptop.
You CANNOT use your smartphone or your camera to take pictures of this document
or any other paper during this exam.

Any misbehaviour will result in immediate expulsion from the exam.

When finished, even if you quit the exam or you are expelled,
you MUST give back this document, your scrap papers and your official papers.

Task 1 (5 points): Which of the following choices describes the irradiation components that are measured
by the instruments in the figures below?

A. B.
Figure (i): DNI Figure (i): GHI
Figure (ii): albedo Figure (ii): DHI
Figure (iii): GHI Figure (iii): DNI
Figure (iv): DHI Figure (iv): albedo

C. D.
Figure (i): DHI Figure (i): albedo
Figure (ii): DNI Figure (ii): DHI
Figure (iii): albedo Figure (iii): DNI
Figure (iv): GHI Figure (iv): GHI

E. F.
Figure (i): DNI Figure (i): DHI
Figure (ii): DHI Figure (ii): albedo
Figure (iii): GHI Figure (iii): GHI
Figure (iv): albedo Figure (iv): DNI

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Task 1 (solution): A (5 points)

Task 2 (15 points): Characteristics of a PV array can be modeled by the following equation:

𝐼𝑃𝑉 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶 − 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑘⋅𝑉PV

1) For this array, maximum power point happens at 𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 168.5 [V]. Assume 𝐼SC = 3.87 [A] and
𝑘 = 6.82 ⋅ 10−2 [V −1 ]. Obtain the values of 𝐼0 and the maximum power.
2) This array is connected to a converter which uses the P&Oc algorithm (three points weight
comparison) to obtain the maximum power. Assuming stable environmental conditions, a starting
voltage of 120 [V] and voltage step of 15 [V], calculate the efficiency of the MPPT algorithm.

Task 2 (solution):

(a)
𝐼𝑆𝐶 − 𝐼𝑃𝑉
𝑘 ⋅ 𝑉𝑃𝑉 = ln ( )
𝐼0
𝐼 −𝐼𝑃𝑉
𝑘 ⋅ 𝑃𝑃𝑉 = 𝐼𝑃𝑉 ⋅ ln ( 𝑆𝐶𝐼 ) (1 point)
0

Calculating the derivative with respect to 𝐼𝑃𝑉 and evaluating it at the MPP:
𝜕(𝑘⋅𝑃𝑃𝑉 ) 𝐼 −𝐼𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝑃𝑉
| = ln ( 𝑆𝐶𝐼 )−𝐼 | = 0 (3 points)
𝜕𝐼𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝑃𝑉 =𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃 0 𝑆𝐶 −𝐼𝑃𝑉 𝐼𝑃𝑉 =𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃

𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃
𝑘 ⋅ 𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼 (3 points)
𝑆𝐶 −𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃

Using this equation, 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 3.56 [𝐴] (1 point)

and therefore, 𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 3.56 [𝐴] ⋅ 168.5[𝑉 ] = 599.89[𝑊] W (1 point)

𝐼𝑆𝐶 −𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃 𝐼
𝐼0 = 𝑆𝐶
= 1+𝑘⋅𝑉 ⋅ 𝑒 −𝑘⋅𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 3.16 [𝜇𝐴] (1 point)
𝑒 𝑘⋅𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 𝑀𝑃𝑃

(B)

After three steps the P&O algorithm reaches to the 165 V and starts to swing around it (1 point)

The algorithm efficiency is

1 1
⋅(𝑃𝑉−𝑣 +𝑃𝑉 +𝑃𝑉+𝑣 ) ⋅(𝑃𝑉=150𝑉 +𝑃𝑉=165𝑉 +𝑃𝑉=180𝑉 )
𝜂𝑃&𝑂 = 3 𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃
=3 𝑃𝑉=168.5𝑉
(3 points)
1
(567.33+598.25+574.33)𝑊
3
𝜂𝑃&𝑂 = = 0.967 (1 point)
599.85𝑊
Task 3 (10 points): Consider a stand-alone PV system installed in North Europe. The power generated by
the PV modules (before the charge controller, PPV ) and the load profile (Pload ) during a summer day are
shown in the figures below.

The system has the following characteristics:

• The battery voltage is always constant and equal to 12 [V].

• The rated capacity of the battery bank is 200 [Ah].
• The DC/DC converter efficiency is 90%.
• The charging efficiency of the battery is constant and equal to 95%.
• The discharging efficiency of the battery is constant and equal to 90%.
• The losses in the cables are negligible.
• The system uses PV power to supply the load first, and the excess to charge the battery bank.

Considering that the state of charge of the battery bank at hour 0 [h] is 60%, calculate the state of charge of
the battery at the end of the day.

Task 3 (Solution):

The battery capacity is 𝐶𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 12 ⋅ 200 = 2400𝑊ℎ (1pt)

The initial energy in the battery is 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡 = 0.6 ∗ 2400𝑊ℎ = 1440𝑊ℎ (1pt)

For every time interval, calculate the excess of power that is used to power the battery (or the
power deficit that the battery has to provide) as 𝜂𝐶𝐶 ⋅ 𝑃𝑃𝑉 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 :

1. 𝜂𝐶𝐶 ⋅ 𝑃𝑃𝑉 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = −𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = −80𝑊 (0.75pts)

2. 𝜂𝐶𝐶 ⋅ 𝑃𝑃𝑉 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = −𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = −40𝑊 (0.75pts)
3. 𝜂𝐶𝐶 ⋅ 𝑃𝑃𝑉 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 40𝑊 ⋅ 0.9 − 100𝑊 = −64𝑊 (0.75pts)
4. 𝜂𝐶𝐶 ⋅ 𝑃𝑃𝑉 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 80𝑊 ⋅ 0.9 − 80𝑊 = −8𝑊 (0.75pts)
5. 𝜂𝐶𝐶 ⋅ 𝑃𝑃𝑉 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 180𝑊 ⋅ 0.9 − 80𝑊 = +82𝑊 (0.75pts)
6. 𝜂𝐶𝐶 ⋅ 𝑃𝑃𝑉 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 100𝑊 ⋅ 0.9 − 80𝑊 = +10𝑊 (0.75pts)
7. 𝜂𝐶𝐶 ⋅ 𝑃𝑃𝑉 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 20𝑊 ⋅ 0.9 − 120𝑊 = −102𝑊 (0.75pts)
8. 𝜂𝐶𝐶 ⋅ 𝑃𝑃𝑉 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = −𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = −80𝑊 (0.75pts)
 (this plot is not needed)

Calculate the state of charge taking into account the length of the charging/discharging intervals:

• Between hours 0 and 10 the battery discharges. The energy demanded is 𝐸𝐷1 = −80𝑊 ⋅
1ℎ − 40𝑊 ⋅ 5ℎ − 64𝑊 ⋅ 2ℎ − 8𝑊 ⋅ 2ℎ = −424𝑊ℎ (1pt).
• Between hours 10 and 18 the battery is charging. The energy excess is 𝐸𝐶 = 82𝑊 ⋅ 5ℎ +
10𝑊 ⋅ 3ℎ = 440𝑊ℎ (1pt).
• Between hours 18 and 24 the battery discharges. The energy demanded is 𝐸𝐷2 = −102𝑊 ⋅
3ℎ − 80𝑊 ⋅ 3ℎ = −546𝑊ℎ (1pt).

The energy in the battery at the end of the day is:

𝐸𝐷1 +𝐸𝐷2
𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡 − + 𝐸𝐶1 ⋅ 𝜂𝑐ℎ (2pt)
𝜂𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ

424𝑊ℎ+546𝑊ℎ
𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 1440𝑊ℎ − + 440𝑊ℎ ⋅ 0.95 = 780.22𝑊ℎ(1pt)
0.9

Finally, the SoC is:

𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 780.22𝑊ℎ
𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑛𝑜𝑚
= 2400𝑊ℎ
= 0.325 = 32.5% (1pt)
Task 4 (30 points): A PV system has been installed on the rooftop of a house. The PV system consists of 20
PV modules facing South mounted with the longest edge touching the roof as shown in the pictures below.

There are no objects around the building that cause shading on the PV modules. However, depending on
the position of the Sun there can be row-to-row shading.

Each PV module, which consists of 60 solar cells and 3 bypass diodes, is connected to an ideal power
optimizer. The length of the solar cells (16 [cm]) and the distance between the lowest row of cells and the
edge of the module (2 [cm]) are indicated in the figure below. It is assumed that there is no spacing
between cells.

At a certain moment, the Sun is exactly on the South and 34.54º above the horizon. At that moment, the
measured DNI is 724.5 [W·m-2] and the measured diffuse component of the irradiance on the plane of array
dif
(GM ) is 100 [W·m-2]. Using this information answer the questions below:

1) What is the length of the shadow (measured from the edge of the module that is touching the roof)
that the first row of modules casts on the second one?
2) What is the irradiance impinging on the shaded part of a PV module?
3) What is the irradiance impinging on the unshaded part of a PV module?
4) Calculate the power generated by one module in the second row at the specified time instant
assuming the following:
• The 3 bypass diodes are ideal, i.e., when a diode is active, the voltage drop across it is zero.
• Under Standard Test Conditions, the maximum power point current of one PV module is
STC STC
IMPP = 10 [A] and the maximum power is PMPP = 300 [W]
• IMPP of each solar cell is proportional to the irradiance level.
• VMPP of each solar cell is independent of the irradiance level.
• Only if you couldn’t solve parts 1 to 3, assume that the shade covers the two bottom rows of
cells in the PV module (i.e., 20 cells) and that the irradiance on the shaded and unshaded parts
of the module are 50 [W·m-2] and 500 [W·m-2] respectively.
Task 4 (Solution):

1) (16 pt) What is the length of the shadow (measured from the edge of the module that is
touching the roof) that the first row of modules casts on the second one?

The tilt of the roof can be calculated as:

5m−3.5m
sin θR = → θR = 16.7∘ (2 pts)
5.22m

The shadow can be easily calculated by noticing that the problem can be simplified by assuming
that the modules are mounted on a horizontal surface and the solar elevation is:

a∗s = aS + θR = 34.54∘ + 16.7∘ = 51.24∘ (2 pt)

(Note: adding 𝜃𝑅 to 𝜃𝑀 (instead of to 𝑎𝑆 ) changes the geometry of the problem!)

(2 pt)

The shadow of the length is obtained by applying the law of sines to triangle 𝐶𝐷𝐸:
sin 𝐷𝐶 𝐸 ̂ sin 𝐷𝐶 𝐸 ̂
̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 = ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐶 ⋅ sin 𝐸𝐷̂𝐶 = ̅̅̅̅
𝐸𝐶 ⋅ sin(𝐷𝐸̂𝐶+𝐷𝐶̂ 𝐸)(2 pt)

̅̅̅̅ is a segment along the rooftop:

𝐸𝐶
̅̅̅̅ = 𝐴𝐶
𝐸𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ − ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐸 (2 pt)
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 can be obtained by applying the law of sines to triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶:
sin 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ̂ sin(𝐵𝐶 𝐴+𝐵𝐴𝐶) ̂ ̂
̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐶 = ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ⋅ sin 𝐵𝐶̂ 𝐴 = ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ⋅ sin 𝐵𝐶̂ 𝐴 (2 pt)

By substituting we arrive to:

̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
𝐷𝐸 ̅̅̅̅ ⋅ sin 𝐷𝐶 𝐸
̅̅̅̅ = 𝐸𝐶 = ̅̅̅̅ − ̅̅̅̅
(𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐸 )⋅
sin 𝐷𝐶 𝐸
= ̅̅̅̅ ⋅ sin(𝐵𝐶 𝐴+𝐵𝐴𝐶) − ̅̅̅̅
(𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐸 ) ⋅
sin 𝐷𝐶 𝐸
̂ ̂
sin(𝐷𝐸 𝐶+𝐷𝐶 𝐸) ̂ ̂
sin(𝐷𝐸 𝐶+𝐷𝐶 𝐸) ̂
sin 𝐵𝐶 𝐴 sin(𝐷𝐸̂ 𝐶+𝐷𝐶̂ 𝐸)

̅̅̅̅ ⋅ sin(𝜃𝑀 +𝑎𝑠+𝜃𝑅 ) − 𝐴𝐸

̅̅̅̅ = (𝐴𝐵
𝐷𝐸 ̅̅̅̅ ) ⋅ sin(𝑎𝑠+𝜃𝑅 ) (2 pt)
sin(𝑎 +𝜃 )
𝑠 𝑅 sin(𝜃 +𝑎 +𝜃 ) 𝑀 𝑠 𝑅

Finally:
∘ ∘
sin(20.75 +16.7 +34.54 ) ∘ sin(16.7 +34.54 ) ∘ ∘
̅̅̅̅
𝐷𝐸 = (1𝑚 ⋅ − 1𝑚) ⋅ sin(20.75∘+16.7∘+34.54∘ ) = 0.18m (2 pt) Exactly one cell!
sin(16.7∘ +34.54∘ )

2) (2pt) What is the irradiance impinging on the shaded part of the PV module?
 tot dif
GM = GM = 100[W ⋅ m−2 ] (2 pts)

3) (3pt) What is the irradiance impinging on the unshaded part of the PV module?
dir
GM = DNI ⋅ sin(aS + θM + 𝜃𝑅 ) = 724.5 ⋅ sin(34.54∘ + 16.7∘ + 20.75∘ ) = 689[W ⋅ m−2 ]
(1 pt)
Then:
tot dif dir
GM = GM + GM = 100[W ⋅ m−2 ] +689[W ⋅ m−2 ] = 789[W ⋅ m−2 ] (2 pt)

4) (9pt) Calculate the power generated by one module in the second row at the specified time instant
assuming the following:
• The 3 bypass diodes are ideal, i.e., when a diode is active, the voltage drop across it is zero.
• Under Standard Test Conditions, the maximum power point current of one PV module is
STC STC
IMPP = 10 [A] and the maximum power is PMPP = 300 [W]
• IMPP of each solar cell is proportional to the irradiance level.
• VMPP of each solar cell is independent of the irradiance level.
• Only if you couldn’t solve parts 1 to 3, assume that the shade covers the two bottom rows of
cells in the PV module (i.e., 20 cells) and that the irradiance on the shaded and unshaded parts
of the module are 50 [W·m-2] and 500 [W·m-2] respectively.

𝑃𝑆𝑇𝐶
The voltage of each cell at the maximum power point under STC is 𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 𝑁 𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 0.5[𝑉]. (2 pt)
𝐼 𝑆𝑇𝐶 𝑠 𝑀𝑃𝑃

𝑆𝑇𝐶 𝐺 100
The current of the shaded solar cells is: 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃1 = 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃 ⋅ 𝐺 𝑀 = 10 ⋅ 1000 = 1[𝐴] (2 pt)
𝑆𝑇𝐶

𝑆𝑇𝐶 𝐺 789
The current of the unshaded solar cells is: 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃2 = 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃 ⋅ 𝐺 𝑀 = 10 ⋅ 1000 = 7.89[𝐴] (2 pt)
𝑆𝑇𝐶

Since one string is shaded in the module there are two cases to consider:

• If the bypass diode is not activated the current is limited by the shaded cells and all the
cells generate some power: 𝑃1 = 𝑁𝑠1 ⋅ 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃1 ⋅ 𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 60 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 0.5 = 30[𝑊] (1 pt).
• If the bypass diode is active, the lowest string is bypassed and only 40 cells produce power
at the maximum current (1 pts). Hence, the generated power is 𝑃2 = 𝑁𝑠2 ⋅ 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃2 ⋅ 𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 =
40 ⋅ 7.89 ⋅ 0.5 = 157.8[𝑊] (1 pts)
The MPPT algorithm will then identify that the absolute MPP occurs when the bypass diode is
conducting, hence, 𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 157.8[𝑊] .

(If students use the last assumption: 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃1 = 0.5[𝐴], 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃2 = 5[𝐴], 𝑃1 = 15[𝑊], 𝑃2 = 100[𝑊].
Then 𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 100[𝑊])
Task 5 (20 points): Consider the non-ideal micro-inverter shown in the figure below. This micro-inverter
consists of a DC-DC converter whose output is connected to a single-phase inverter.

The components of the non-ideal DC-DC converter have the following characteristics:

• 𝐿 = 150 [μH]
• 𝑅𝐿 = 5 [mΩ]
• 𝑅𝑜𝑛 = 10 [mΩ]
• 𝑉𝐷 = 400 [mV]
• Assume that the inductance 𝐿 is large enough, hence the RMS value of the current 𝐼1 is equal to its
average value.

The operating point of the DC-DC converter is defined by 𝐷 = 0.85, 𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘 = 398.5 [V], 𝐼1 = 7.19 [A]
and 𝐼2 = 1.077 [A].

1) What type of DC-DC converter is implemented in this micro-inverter?

2) What is the efficiency of the DC-DC converter?
3) What is the average input voltage 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ?
4) What are the current and voltage measurement inside the red solid line box used for? Explain in no
more than 3 lines.
5) In which controller is implemented the MPPT algorithm, controller 1 or controller 2? Why? Explain
in no more than 3 lines.
6) What is the function of the inductors and capacitors inside the red dashed line box? Explain in no
more than 3 lines.

Task 5 (Solution):

1) (1 pt) What type of DC-DC converter is implemented in this micro-inverter?

It is a boost converter.
2) (9 pt) What is the efficiency of the DC-DC converter?
The output power is: 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼2 ⋅ 𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘 = 1.077[𝐴] ⋅ 398.5[𝑉 ] = 429.18 [𝑊] (1 points)
The power dissipated in the coil is 𝑃𝐿 = 𝐼12 ⋅ 𝑅𝐿 = (7.19[A])2 ⋅ 5[mΩ] = 0.258[𝑊] (1 points)
The power dissipated in the switch is 𝑃𝑆𝑊 = 𝐼12 ⋅ 𝑅𝑆𝑊 ⋅ 𝐷 = (7.19[A])2 ⋅ 10[mΩ] ⋅ 0.85 =
0.439 [𝑊] (2points)
The power dissipated in the diode is 𝑃𝐷 = 𝐼1 ⋅ 𝑉𝐷 ⋅ (1 − 𝐷) = 7.19[𝐴] ⋅ 0.4[V] ⋅ 0.15 = 0.431𝑊
(2 points)
The total dissipated power is: 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝐿 + 𝑃𝑆𝑊 + 𝑃𝐷 = 1.128[𝑊] (1 point)
𝑃 429.18
The efficiency is: 𝜂 = 𝑃 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = = 0.997 (2points)
+𝑃
𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 429.18+1.128
3) (4 pts) What is the average input voltage 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ?
𝑃𝑖𝑛 ⋅ 𝜂 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 → 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ⋅ 𝐼𝑖𝑛 ⋅ 𝜂 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ⋅ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 (2 points)

1.077[𝐴]⋅398.5[𝑉]
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = = 59.87[𝑉] (2 points)
7.19[𝐴]⋅0.997

Note: It is conceptually wrong to use the formula for the ideal case 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = (1 − 𝐷 ) ⋅ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 !!
4) (2 pts) What are the current and voltage measurement inside the red box (solid line) used
for? Explain in no more than 3 lines.
To determine the operating point of the PV module and find the MPP using an MPPT algorithm.
5) (2 pts) In which controller is implemented the MPPT algorithm, controller 1 or controller 2?
Explain in no more than 3 lines.
In controller 1 because the DC-DC converter is the one controlling the operating point of the PV
module.
6) (2 pts) What the function of the inductors and capacitors in the red box (dashed line)?
Explain in no more than 3 lines.
These components conform a passive low pass filter that attenuates the harmonics from the
squared signal that is obtained at the output of the inverter.
Task 6 (10 points): A grid-connected PV system is being designed, and 52 solar panels, with the technical
specifications summarized in Table 1, have been selected. The panels will be installed with the layout
described in Table 2. This layout is fixed and cannot be changed.

The system is required to deliver 480 [VAC ] nominal. You are presented with 5 possible inverters, listed in
Table 3. All of them include MPPT tracking capabilities.

1) Select the appropriate inverter for this system. Explain the criteria used for your selection and why
each of the other options are not suitable.

2) Considering Standard Test Conditions and no shading on the PV array, calculate the efficiency of
the selected inverter.

Maximum Power (𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃 ) 380 [W]

Maximum Power Voltage (𝑉𝑀𝑃𝑃 ) 40 [V]
Maximum Power Current (𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃 ) 9.5 [A]
Open Circuit Voltage (𝑉𝑂𝐶 ) 48.5 [V]
Short Circuit Current (𝐼𝑆𝐶 ) 9.9 [A]
Dimensions 1956 x 996 x 40 [mm3]
Table 1: PV module specifications

Modules per string 13

Strings in Parallel 4
Table 2: PV array layout

Inverter A B C D E
𝑽𝑨𝑪 [𝐕] 480 480 277 480 480
𝑷𝑨𝑪𝟎 [𝐖] 20000 20000 20420 19650 20000
𝑷𝑫𝑪𝟎 [𝐖] 20460 20657 21117 20118 20468
𝑷𝑺𝟎 [𝐖] 63 65 98 97 84
𝑽𝑫𝑪𝟎 [𝐕] 712 480 420 720 480
𝑽𝑫𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒙 [𝐕] 1000 1000 800 900 600
𝑰𝑫𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒙 [𝐀] 30 43 30 50 45
𝑴𝑷𝑷𝑻𝒎𝒊𝒏 [𝐕] 450 300 250 550 350
𝑴𝑷𝑷𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 [𝐕] 800 500 450 900 550
𝜼𝑴𝑷𝑷𝑻 [%] 97 96 96 98 97
𝑪𝟎 [𝐖 −𝟏 ] -2.30E-07 -6.40E-07 -4.50E-07 -3.90E-07 -4.45E-07
𝑪𝟏 [𝐕 −𝟏 ] -3.40E-05 6.30E-05 -6.10E-05 -2.90E-08 -2.70E-06
𝑪𝟐 [𝐕 −𝟏 ] 1.50E-03 7.00E-04 1.00E-03 6.00E-04 4.00E-04
𝑪𝟑 [𝐕 −𝟏 ] 1.30E-03 4.00E-03 2.00E-03 -1.00E-03 -1.00E-03
Table 3: List of available inverters
Task 6 (Solution):
1.
From tables 1 and 2, we calculate the maximum voltage and maximum current that the system will have
during MPPT tracking.

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 × #𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 [𝑉]

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 48.5 [𝑉] × 13 = 𝟔𝟑𝟎. 𝟓 𝑽

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 × # 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 [𝐴]

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 9.9 [𝐴] × 8 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟔 𝑨

Additionally, the following criteria must be met:

𝑉𝐴𝐶 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝐴𝐶 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑

𝑃𝐷𝐶 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 ≈ 𝑃𝐷𝐶 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦

𝑉𝑚𝑝𝑝𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑉𝑚𝑝𝑝𝑃𝑉 ≤ 𝑉𝑚𝑝𝑝𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥

Based on these criteria, the following analysis must be performed.

Inverter A: NOT Suitable – Maximum current below PV array. (1 point)

Inverter B: NOT Suitable – MPPTmax is below Vmp of the array at STC (1 point)

Inverter C: NOT Suitable - Nominal voltage not suitable for the application. (1 point)

Inverter E: NOT Suitable – Maximum rated voltage below specifications. (1 point)

Inverter D: Suitable – Inverter meets all the criteria. (1 point)

2.

Using the Sandia National Laboratory Equations, and considering:

𝑉𝐷𝐶 = 𝑉𝑚𝑝 × 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 38.9 [𝑉] × 10 = 𝟑𝟖𝟗 𝑽

The following calculations are performed.

𝐴 = 𝑃𝐷𝐶0 [1 + 𝐶1 (𝑉𝐷𝐶 − 𝑉𝐷𝐶0 )] = 20118.12 W (1 point)

𝐵 = 𝑃𝑆0 [1 + 𝐶2 (𝑉𝐷𝐶 − 𝑉𝐷𝐶0 )] = 85.36 W (1 point)

𝐶 = 𝐶0 [1 + 𝐶3 (𝑉𝐷𝐶 − 𝑉𝐷𝐶0 )] = -4.68E-07 (1 point)

𝑃𝐷𝐶 = 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑆𝑇𝐶 × 𝜂𝑀𝑃𝑃𝑇 = 19364.8 (1 point)

𝑃𝐴𝐶0
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = [ − 𝐶(𝐴 − 𝐵)] (𝑃𝐷𝐶 − 𝐵) + 𝐶(𝑃𝐷𝐶 − 𝐵)2 = 18917.9 W (0.5 point)
𝐴−𝐵

𝑃𝐴𝐶
𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑣 = = 97.6% (0.5 point)
𝑃𝐷𝐶
Task 7 (10 points): Consider a PV project with a lifetime of 20 years. The capital expenditure of the project
€ €
is 1000 [ ] and the annual operation and maintenance costs are 18 [ ]. Assume that all necessary
kWp kWp⋅yr
investments are made in year 0, and that the PV farm starts generating electricity in year 1 with a constant
kWh
annual yield equal to 1500 [ ]. If the discount rate is 7%, what percentage of the LCOE do the
kWp⋅yr
financing costs (i.e., the cost of capital) represent?

Task 7 (Solution):
𝐼𝑡 +𝑀𝑡 𝑒𝑢𝑟𝑜 𝑒𝑢𝑟𝑜
∑𝑛
𝑡=0 𝑡 1000[ 𝑘𝑊𝑝 ]+20[𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟]⋅18 [𝑘𝑊𝑝⋅𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟] 𝑒𝑢𝑟𝑜
(1+𝑟)
LCOE at 𝑟 = 0: 𝐿𝐶𝑂𝐸𝑟=0% = 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 0.045 [ ] (4 points)
∑𝑡=0 𝑡 𝑡
𝑛 20[𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟]⋅1500 [𝑘𝑊𝑝⋅𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟] 𝑘𝑊ℎ
(1+𝑟)

𝐼𝑡 +𝑀𝑡 𝑒𝑢𝑟𝑜 [1−(0.07+1)−20] 𝑒𝑢𝑟𝑜

∑𝑛
𝑡=0 𝑡 1000[ 𝑘𝑊𝑝]+ ⋅18 [𝑘𝑊𝑝⋅𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟] 𝑒𝑢𝑟𝑜
(1+𝑟) 0.07
LCOE at 𝑟 = 0.07: 𝐿𝐶𝑂𝐸𝑟=7% = 𝐸𝑡 = [1−(0.07+1)−20 ]
= 0.075 [ ] (4 points)
∑𝑛
𝑡=0(1+𝑟)𝑡
𝑘𝑊ℎ
⋅1500 [𝑘𝑊𝑝⋅𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟] 𝑘𝑊ℎ
0.07

𝑒𝑢𝑟𝑜
Financing costs: 𝐹𝐶 = 𝐿𝐶𝑂𝐸𝑟=7% − 𝐿𝐶𝑂𝐸𝑟=0% = 0.03 [ ]. The financing costs represent 40% of the
𝑘𝑊ℎ
LCOE. (2 points)
 Formula sheet

• 𝐺𝐻𝐼 = 𝐷𝐻𝐼 + 𝐷𝑁𝐼 ⋅ sin(𝑎𝑆 )

𝑑𝑖𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
• 𝐺𝑀
𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑟
= 𝐺𝑀 + 𝐺𝑀 + 𝐺𝑀

• 𝐺𝑀
𝑑𝑖𝑟
= 𝐷𝑁𝐼 ⋅ cos(𝐴𝑂𝐼 )

• 𝐴𝑂𝐼 = cos−1 [sin(𝜃𝑀 ) ⋅ cos(𝑎𝑆 ) ⋅ cos(𝐴𝑀 − 𝐴𝑆 ) + cos(𝜃𝑀 ) ⋅ sin(𝑎𝑆 )]

𝑑𝑖𝑓
• 𝐺𝑀 = 𝐷𝐻𝐼 ⋅ 𝑆𝑉𝐹

𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
• 𝐺𝑀 = 𝐺𝐻𝐼 ⋅ 𝛼 ⋅ (1 − 𝑆𝑉𝐹 )

𝐺
• 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃 (𝐺𝑀 ) ≈ 𝐼𝑀𝑃𝑃
𝑆𝑇𝐶 𝑀
⋅ 𝐺 𝑆𝑇𝐶
𝑀

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
• Law of sines: sin(𝑎̂) = sin(𝑏̂) = sin(𝑐̂)

• 𝑃 = 𝑉 ⋅ 𝐼 = 𝑅 ⋅ 𝐼2

𝑑𝑃𝑃𝑉
• | =0
𝑑𝑉𝑃𝑉 𝑉 =𝑉
𝑃𝑉 𝑀𝑃𝑃

𝑃𝑃𝑉
• 𝜂𝑃&𝑂 = , where 𝑃𝑃𝑉 is the average power extracted from the PV
𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑃

modules.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Continues
• SNL inverter efficiency model:
o 𝐴 = 𝑃𝐷𝐶0 [1 + 𝐶1 (𝑉𝐷𝐶 − 𝑉𝐷𝐶0 )]
o 𝐵 = 𝑃𝑆0 [1 + 𝐶2 (𝑉𝐷𝐶 − 𝑉𝐷𝐶0 )]
o 𝐶 = 𝐶0 [1 + 𝐶3 (𝑉𝐷𝐶 − 𝑉𝐷𝐶0 )]
𝑃
𝐴𝐶0
o 𝑃𝐴𝐶 = [ 𝐴−𝐵 − 𝐶 (𝐴 − 𝐵 )] (𝑃𝐷𝐶 − 𝐵) + 𝐶 (𝑃𝐷𝐶 − 𝐵 )2

𝐼𝑡 +𝑀𝑡 +𝐹𝑡
∑𝑛
𝑡=0 (1+𝑟)𝑡
• 𝐿𝐶𝑂𝐸 = 𝐸𝑡
∑𝑛
𝑡=0 (1+𝑟)𝑡

1 1−(𝑥+1)−𝑛
• ∑𝑛𝑘=1 (1+𝑥)𝑘 = 𝑥