Activated-Sludge is used for biological treatment of municipal and industrial wastewaters.

It is named
as such by Arden and Lockett (1914) because it involved the production of an activated mass of
microorganisms capable of aerobic stabilization of organic material in wastewater. An important feature
of the activated-sludge process is the formation of flocculent settleable solids that can be removed by
gravity settling in sedimentation tanks.

Three Basic Processes of an Activated-Sludge:

a. A reactor in which the microorganisms responsible for treatment are kept in suspension and aerated
b. Liquid-solids separation, usually in a sedimentation tank
c. A recycle system for returning solids removed from the liquid-solids separation unit back to the reactor

Criteria for Activated-Sludge Process Design:

a. Selection of the reactor type

 Reaction kinetics governing the treatment process
 Oxygen-transfer requirements
 Nature of the wastewater to be treated
 Local environmental conditions
 Construction, operation, and maintenance costs
b. Applicable kinetic relationships
c. Solids retention time
d. Loading criteria
 Food-to-microorganism ratio (F/M)
 Mean cell-residence time Ɵc
e. Sludge production
f. Oxygen requirements and transfer
g. Nutrient requirements
h. Other chemical requirements
i. Settling characteristics of biosolids
j. Use of selectors
k. Control of filamentous microorganisms
l. Effluent characteristics

Evolution of Activated Sludge:

Primary treatment (e.g. primary sedimentation) is omitted frequently in areas of the world that have hot
climates where odor problems from primary tanks and primary sludge can be significant. For these
applications, various modifications of conventional activated-sludge process are used such as sequencing
batch reactors, oxidation ditch systems, aerated lagoons, or stabilization ponds.

With greater frequency, activated-sludge processes used today may incorporate nitrification, biological
nitrogen removal, and/or biological phosphorus removal. These designs employ reactors in series,
operated under aerobic, anoxic, and anaerobic conditions, and may use internal recycle pumps and piping.

The general types of activated-sludge processes used are as follows:

a. Plug-Flow
b. Complete Mix
c. Sequencing Batch Reactor
Since the process came into common use in the early 1920s and up until the late 1970s, the type of
activated-sludge process used most commonly was the one in which a plug-flow reactor with large length
to width ratios (typically > 10:1) was used. In considering the evolution of the activated-sludge process, it
is important to note that the discharge of industrial wastes to domestic wastewater collection systems
increased in the late 1960s. The use of a plug-flow process became problematic when industrial wastes
were introduced because of the toxic effects of some of the discharges. The complete-mix reactor was
developed, in part, because the larger volume allowed for greater dilution and thus mitigated the effects of
toxic discharges. The more common type of activated-sludge process in the 1970s and early 1980s tended
to be single-stage, complete mix activated sludge (CMAS) process, as advanced by McKinney (1962).
In Europe, the CMAS process has not been adopted generally as ammonia standards have become
increasingly stringent. For some nitrification applications, two-stage systems (each stage consisting of an
aeration tank and clarifier) were used with the first stage designed for BOD removal, followed by a
second stage for nitrification. Other activated-sludge processes that have found application include the
oxidation ditch (1950s), contact stabilization (1950s), Krause process (1960s), pure oxygen activated
sludge (1970s), Orbal process (1970s), deep shaft aeration (1970s), and sequencing batch reactor
process (1980).

With the development of simple inexpensive program logic controllers (PLCs) and the availability of
level sensors and automatically operated valves, the sequencing batch reactor (SBR) process became
more widely used by the late 1970s, especially for smaller communities and industrial installations with
intermittent flows. In recent years, however, SBRs are being used for large cities in some parts of the
world. The SBR is a fill-and-draw type of reactor system involving a single complete-mix reactor in
which all steps of the activated-sludge process occur. Mixed liquor remains in the reactor during all the
cycles, thereby eliminating the need for separate sedimentation tanks.

In comparing the plug-flow and complete-mix activated sludge (CMAS) processes, the mixing regimes
and tank geometry are quite different. In the CMAS process, the mixing of the tank contents is sufficient
so that ideally the concentrations of the mixed-liquor constituents, soluble substances (i.e. COD, BOD,
NH4-N), and colloidal and suspended solids do not vary with location in the aeration basin. The plug-flow
process involves relatively long, narrow aeration basins, so that the concentration of soluble substances
and colloidal and suspended solids varies along the reactor length. Although process configuration
employing long, narrow tanks are commonly referred to as plug-flow processes, in reality, true plug-flow
does not exist. Depending on the type of aeration system, back mixing of the mixed-liquor can occur and,
depending on the layout of the reactor, and the system reaction kinetics, nominal plug-flow may be
described more appropriately by the series of complete-mix reactors.

Activated-sludge process designs before and until 1970s generally involved plug-flow process and
complete-mix activated-sludge configurations. However, with the interest in biological nutrient removal,
stage reactor designs consisting of complete-mix reactors in series have been developed. Some of the
stages are not aerated (anaerobic or anoxic stages) and internal recycle flows may be used. For
nitrification, a staged aerobic reactor design may also be used to provide more efficient use of the total

reactor volume than a single-stage CMAS process. Pilot plant studies are sometimes used to evaluate and
optimize biological nutrient-removal processes.

CONVENTIONAL ACTIVATED SLUDGE

Process Description: In the treatment of sewage by the conventional activated-sludge process, part of the
activated sludge concentrated by the secondary sedimentation is returned to the aeration tanks as the
biological purification medium. This part is called “return activated sludge” (RAS). The remainder is
disposed of as “excess sludge” or waste activated sludge (WAS). Normally, excess-sludge is delivered to
digestion tanks together with the primary sludge. The digested sludge is generally dried.

Figure 5.1 – Activated Sludge Treatment Plant

TWO-STAGE ACTIVATED SLUDGE

Process Description: In a two-stage activated sludge process, each stage is comprised of an aeration tank
and a secondary settling tank. The return sludge circulates only within its own stage. However, the excess
sludge is withdrawn from the second stage not for disposal but for return to the first stage. Therefore, this
sludge is put to work. It revitalizes the overloaded sludge of the first stage and is removed from the
process only after its cleansing power has been exhausted. Only fully worked out first-stage sludge is
removed for disposal. Advantages of the two-stage operation over the single-stage are as follows:

- The excess sludge contains less water. Accordingly, its volume is less and digestion
space needs are less. Also, the first-stage sludge settles well.
- The cleansing power of all of the activated sludge is fully utilized. This makes for
smaller aeration units.
- If a by-pass around the second stage is provided, any degree of partial biological
purification can be reached. Only as much first-stage effluent is admitted to the second
stage as the healthy activated sludge of this stage can care for. The plant effluent is a
mixture of the fully treated effluent of the second stage and the partially treated
effluent of the first stage.
- Plant operation is easily adjusted to shock overloads by disposal of partially treated
sewage from the first stage.
 Figure 5.2 – Two-Stage Activated Sludge

PLUG-FLOW

Process Description: Settled wastewater and recycled activated sludge enter the head end of the aeration
tank and are mixed by diffused-air or mechanical aeration. Air application is generally uniform
throughout tank length. During the aeration period, adsorption, flocculation, and oxidation of organic
matter occur. Activated-sludge solids are separated in a secondary settling tank.

Figure 5.3 – Plug-Flow Reactor

COMPLETE-MIX

Process Description: Process is an application of the flow regime of a continuous-flow stirred-tank

reactor. Settled wastewater and recycled activated sludge are introduced typically at several points in the
aeration tank. The organic load on the aeration tank and the oxygen demand are uniform throughout the
tank length.

Figure 5.4 – Complete-Mix Reactor

SEQUENTIAL BATCH REACTOR (SBR)

Process Description: The SBR is a fill-and-draw type reactor system involving a single complete-mix
reactor in which all steps of the activated-sludge process occur. Mixed liquor remains in the reactor
during all cycles, thereby eliminating the need for separate secondary sedimentation tanks.

Figure 5.5 – Sequential Batch Reactor

PURE OXYGEN

Process Description: Pure oxygen or high-purity oxygen is used instead of air in the activated-sludge
process. Oxygen is diffused into covered aeration tanks and is recirculated. A portion of the gas is wasted
to reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide. pH adjustment may also be required. The amount of
oxygen added is about four times greater than the amount that can be added by the conventional aeration
systems.

Figure 5.6 – High-Purity Oxygen Generation Unit

OXIDATION DITCH

Process Description: The oxidation ditch consists of a ring- or oval-shaped channel and is equipped with
mechanical aeration devices. Screened wastewater enters the ditch, is aerated, and circulates at about 0.8
to 1.2 ft/s (0.25 to 0.35 m/s). Oxidation ditches typically operate in an extended aeration mode with long
detention and solids retention times. Secondary sedimentation tanks are used for most applications. In
oxidation ditches, the RAS recycle ratio is from 75 to 150 percent, and the mixed liquor suspended
solids (MLSS) concentration ranges from 1,500 to 5,000 mg/L (0.01 to 0.04 lbs/gal). The oxygen
transfer efficiency of oxidation ditches ranges from 2.5 to 3.5 lb/hp-hr.

Figure 5.7 – Typical Oxidation Ditch Sludge System