BASIC CONCEPTS

Course: B.TECH II Year I SEM Academic Year: 2019-20

Name of the Subject: DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
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UNIT-I

Mathematical Logic

Mathematical Logic :
Concept :Another name of Mathematical logic is Propositional Logic. A proposition is
the basic building block of logic.
Definition: Proposition is defined as a declarative sentence that is either True or
False, but not both. The Truth Value of a proposition is True(denoted as T) if it is a
true statement, and False(denoted as F) if it is a false statement..
Connectives :
Definition: Connectives are used to combine more than one statement to form a new
statement.
Normal Forms :
Definition :Convert the given Statement into Standard Form .
Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF):
Definition: A formula which is equivalent to a given formula and which consists of sum
of elementary products is called a disjunctive normal form of the given formula.
Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF):
Definition: A formula which is equivalent to a given formula and which consists of
product of elementary sums is called conjunctive normal form of the given formula.
Principal Disjunctive Normal Form (PDNF):
Definition: A formula which is equivalent to a given formula which is consists of sum
its minterms is called PDNF.
Principal Conjunctive Normal Form(PCNF):
Definition:A formula which is equivalent to a given formula which consists of product
of maxterms is called PCNF.
The theory of Inference for the Statement Calculus : Concept : The arguments are
chained together using Rules of Inferences to deduce new statements and ultimately
prove that the theorem is valid.
Deductive proofs
Concept :A deductive proof consists of a sequence of statements, which starts from a
hypothesis, or a given statement to a conclusion. Each step is satisfying some logical
principle.
Contrapositive

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Concept:Switching the hypothesis and conclusion of a conditional statement and
negating both.
Contrapositive
Formula :
(A =⇒ B) ≡ (¬B =⇒ ¬A) This is called “proof by contra-positive”.
Proof by contradiction
Concept: Starts by assuming that the opposite proposition is true, and then shows that
such an assumption leads to a contradiction.
Proof by contradiction
Formula
(A =⇒ B) ≡ (¬B ∧ A = False) This is called “proof by contradiction”
Counter examples
Concept:To disprove a statement one can do so by giving an instance where the
statements fails then it is called as proof by counter example.
Inductive proofs
Concept:Mathematical induction, is a technique for proving results or establishing
statements for natural numbers.
Inductive proofs
Definition :The technique involves two steps to prove a statement, as stated below −
Step 1(Base step) − It proves that a statement is true for the initial value.

Step 2(Inductive step) − It proves that if the statement is true for the nthiteration
(or number n), then it is also true for (n+1)th iteration ( or number n+1).
The Predicate Calculus

Definition:Predicate calculus (predicate logic, first-order logic) A fundamental

notation for representing and reasoning with logical statements. It extends
propositional calculus by introducing the quantifiers, and by allowing predicates and
functions of any number of variables.

Inference Theory of Predicate Calculus:

Definition:The method of derivation involving predicate formulas uses the rules

of inference given for the statement calculus and also certain additional rules which
are required to deal with the formulas involving quantifiers.

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 UNIT-III

Algebraic Structures

Algebraic Structure
Definition: A non empty set S is called an algebraic structure w.r.t binary operation
(*) if it follows following axioms:
Closure:(a*b) belongs to S for all a,b ∈ S.
Semi Groups
Definition:
A non-empty set S, (S,*) is called a semigroup if it follows the following axiom:
 Closure:(a*b) belongs to S for all a,b ∈ S.
 Associativity: a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c ∀ a,b,c belongs to S.
Monoid
Definition:
A non-empty set S, (S,*) is called a monoid if it follows the following axiom:
 Closure:(a*b) belongs to S for all a,b ∈ S.
 Associativity: a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c ∀ a,b,c belongs to S.
 Identity Element:There exists e ∈ S such that a*e = e*a = a ∀ a ∈ S

Group
Definition:
A non-empty set G, (G,*) is called a group if it follows the following axiom:
 Closure:(a*b) belongs to G for all a,b ∈ G.
 Associativity: a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c ∀ a,b,c belongs to G.
 Identity Element:There exists e ∈ G such that a*e = e*a = a ∀ a ∈ G
 Inverses:∀ a ∈ G there exists a-1 ∈ G such that a*a-1 = a-1*a = e

Abelian Group or Commutative group

Definition:
A non-empty set S, (S,*) is called a Abelian group if it follows the following axiom:
 Closure:(a*b) belongs to S for all a,b ∈ S.
 Associativity: a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c ∀ a,b,c belongs to S.
 Identity Element: There exists e ∈ S such that a*e = e*a = a ∀ a ∈ S
 Inverses:∀ a ∈ S there exists a-1 ∈ S such that a*a-1 = a-1*a = e
 Commutative: a*b = b*a for all a,b ∈ S
Isomorphism
Definition:
In abstract algebra, a group isomorphism is a function between two groups that sets
up a one-to-one correspondence between the elements of the groups in a way that
respects the given group operations. If there exists an isomorphism between two
groups, then the groups are called isomorphic.

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Homomorphism
Definition:
In algebra, a homomorphism is a structure-preserving map between two algebraic
structures of the same type.

Group Codes
Definition:
In computer science, group codes are a type of code. Group codes consist of linear
block codes which are subgroups of, where is a finite abelian group.

Partially Ordered sets

Definition:
A relation R, over a set A, is a partial order relation if it is reflexive, anti-
symmetric and transitive.

Maximal Element
Definition:
The element which is not related to any other element in a Hasse diagram is called
maximal element.

Minimal Element
Definition:
The element to which no other element relates to is called the minimal element in a
Hasse diagram.

Lattices
Definition:
A Poset in which every pair of elements has both, a least upper bound and a greatest
lower bound is called a lattice.
There are two binary operations defined for lattices –
1. Join – The join of two elements is their least upper bound. It is denoted by ,
not to be confused with disjunction.
2. Meet – The meet of two elements is their greatest lower bound. It is denoted
by , not to be confused with conjunction.

Boolean algebra
Definition:
Boolean Algebra is used to analyze and simplify the digital (logic) circuits. It uses only
the binary numbers i.e. 0 and 1. It is also called as Binary Algebra or logical Algebra.