Topic 3 - Clinker Production: VDZ Online Courses

Topic 3 – Clinker Production
Course LB 3.10 – Refractories
VDZ Online Courses // Cement

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Phone: +49 211 45 78–1
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info@vdz-online.de
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info@elearning-vdz.de
www.elearning-vdz.de/en
Issued: 7th June 2018

Contents
1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 1
2 Construction and operation ............................................................................. 2
2.1 Refractory bricks ................................................................................................ 3
2.2 Monolithic materials........................................................................................... 6
2.3 Refractory installation in rotary klin................................................................... 6
3 Occupational health and safety ....................................................................... 9
4 Maintenance and Inspection............................................................................ 14

4.1 Methods of assessing condition of refractory material ...................................... 14
4.2 Damage ............................................................................................................... 17
4.2.1 Damage due to mechanical load ......................................................................... 18
4.2.2 Damage due to thermal stress ............................................................................. 26
4.2.3 Damage due to chemical stress........................................................................... 29
5 Operation and Quality ..................................................................................... 39 i

6 Environmental Protection ................................................................................ 41
7 Questions for LB 3.10 – Refractory ............................................................... 42
Solutions............................................................................................................................... 43
Glossary ............................................................................................................................... 45
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 46
Index..................................................................................................................................... 47
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Research Institute of the Cement Industry
1 Introduction
The term »refractory« describes materials that can be used with temperatures from ap-
proximately 300 ◦ C.
Refractory materials are used in cement industry plants in applications where correspond- Application
ing temperatures arise which would otherwise damage the plant. Refractory materials
are primarily found in: the clinker cooler, rotary kiln, tertiary air duct, preheater and the
calciner (see Fig. 1.0-1). Refractory manufacturers offer special products for almost all
applications in the cement industry that distinguish themselves through different proper-
ties, specifically for the characteristics of the plant components (e.g. particularly alkali-
resistant bricks).
350 - 400 °C
Approximate temperature (°C)
Raw meal
2000 1450
1
Solid material
Preheater
1000 900
Gas
950 °C
500 400
Calciner
°C 150 100
0
00 Fuel Cooler exhaust air
1.
850 °C Tertiary air duct

Fuel
Rotary kiln
Cooling air
Cooler
Clinker
Figure 1.0-1: Temperature zones in a clinker burning plant with calciner.
Since the early nineties, the requirements of refractory materials in the cement industry Alternative fuels
and therefore the requirements of these materials have changed enormously. The main
reason for this is the modified kiln operation with increased usage of alternative fuels.
This has an effect on the temperature profile in the kiln when using the waste materials,
which results in an overall uneven build-up as well as a different composition of gases
in the kiln system. The chlorine-containing compounds in the alternative fuels and the
resulting chlorine alkali compounds can condense as salts in the area of the lower pre-
heater. This can make meal more sticky and can cause undesired build-up and can cause
operational malfunctions of the kiln system.
VDZ working group
»refractories«
Additional information:
Further information on this topic can be found in VDZ Merkblatt Vt 16, Refractory Ma-
terials (http://www.wissensnetzwerk-steine-erden.de/nachschlagen/vdz-merkblaetter)
(in German; translation on request).
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2 Construction and operation
This course provides an overview of the purpose and use of refractory materials in a ce-
ment rotary kiln system. You will learn about the different procedures for supplying plant
components. Furthermore, you will learn how the condition of the refractory materials
Contents of this course
can be determined and how damage can be remedied or avoided. You will also receive
information about refractory consumption and occupational health and safety.

Tasks
Main tasks The refractory material has two main tasks in clinker burning plants:
1 Thermal insulation: First, it protects the shell plates of the rotary kiln and cyclones
from the high temperatures produced during clinker production. Furthermore, the
refractory material isolates the process from the environment, thus reducing heat loss
through the kiln and cyclone walls.
2 2 Abrasion protection: In addition, the refractory material protects the shell plates from
abrasion due to the kiln meal. The refractory material also promotes the exchange of
heat in the rotary kiln by alternatingly coming into contact with hot kiln gases and the
cooler kiln feed.
Refractory is used in two different ways, for one as refractory bricks and also in the form
of refractory mixes. Both methods have different advantages and disadvantages, which
are described in the following sections.
Materials
Requirements The materials that comprise refractory bricks and materials must meet two conditions:
Under high temperatures, they must
1 not melt,
2 not react with oxygen.
This is why metal oxides are used primarily. They are characterised either as acidic or
basic substances, depending on the chemical composition.
Acidic, alkaline and Acidic substances include silicon oxide (silica, SiO2), zirconia (Zr2O3) and chromium
neutral substances (III) oxide (Chromite, Cr2O3), which is used less and less frequently, however.
Magnesium oxide (MgO) and calcium oxide (CaO) are considered alkaline sub-
stances.
Individual substances such as aluminium oxide (»alumina«, Al2O3) are neutral. This
characterization is important, because at high temperatures substances of opposite charac-
ter react with each other and form compounds with a low melting point.
Cement clinker consists largely of calcium oxide (alkaline) and to a lesser extent of
silica and alumina (acidic or neutral). This is why clinker has an alkaline character. Be-
cause of this property, neutral to alkaline materials are used in particular in the sintering
zone, consisting mostly of magnesium oxide. In all other areas where no melting phase
occurs and temperatures are lower, silica and alumina-containing materials are used.
The refractory material in rotary kiln plants is subjected to very different stresses depend-
ing on the location in which it is installed. Besides high temperatures, the material is worn
due to temperature changes and chemical reactions. For this reason, furnishing with refrac-
tory material must be carefully planned to ensure that the kiln lining lasts for a long time
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2.1 Refractory bricks
and that it is as cost-efficient as possible. Fig. 2.0-1 shows an example of how different
refractory grades are used in a rotary kiln.
3
Figure 2.0-1: Refractory material in the rotary kiln. (Source: RHI; editing by VDZ)
In the hottest part of the rotary kiln (transitional, sintering and precooling zones), a de- Build-up
posit from kiln dust and melt is formed on the refractory material. This build-up is very
important for the refractory material because it provides additional protection for the lin-
ing. Build-up parts can fall off in places during operation, which reform, however. But the
build-up may be largely lost under unfavourable operating conditions (e.g. temperature too
high or temperature change due to varying fuel or raw material qualities). The refractory
material is then exposed to increased stress and wears out faster.
Damage to the refractories

Refractory material is wearing down during a kiln campaign and must be renewed when a
certain minimum thickness is reached. But refractory material can also fail spontaneously;
bricks can fall out of the kiln lining one at a time or in series. The temperature of the
kiln shell then increases suddenly and may cause severe damage to the kiln shell if the
fuel supply is not stopped immediately and the kiln is shut down (see Fig. 2.0-2 and Fig.
2.0-3).

Range of application
Due to the manufacturing method, refractory bricks have high density and low porosity.
This property is advantageous for thermal stability and at the same time provides resistance
against infiltration of alkali salts and other substances. The joints of a kiln lining are weak
points, but they are absolutely necessary in order to absorb the thermal expansion during
the heating phase.
Refractory bricks are preferably used where
simple geometries are present (cylinder shapes and smooth surfaces of the kiln hood
and cooler, etc.)
very high thermal, chemical or mechanical conditions are present (e.g. as rotary kiln))
it is necessary to produce a positive lock with the steel shell (rotary kiln)
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Figure 2.0-2: Kiln with massive damage on the shell.
Figure 2.0-3: Deformed kiln shell due to overheating.
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Geometry, formats
Rotary kilns in the cement industry are usually lined with arch bricks in a ring arrangement.
The brick shapes and dimensions depend on the kiln diameter. Refractory bricks for the
lining of rotary kilns are available in various formats. An important property is the »arch
dimension«.
The arch dimension indicates the diameter of the complete brick ring. Depending on the »arch dimension«
arch dimension, a complete ring of a type of brick has an approximate diameter of 2 m, 4
m or 6 m. While the ISO standard assumes a constant arch dimension of 103 mm, VDZ
has standardised the bricks with a constant mean arch dimension of 71.5 mm (see Fig.
2.1-1).
VDZ-FORMATS ISO-FORMATS
a and b are variable b is variable
Figure 2.1-1: Rotary kiln bricks VDZ and ISO format. (Source: RHI; editing by VDZ)
In the rotary kiln, a differentiation is made between

bed joints in axial direction,
butt joints in transversal direction and the
joint between brick and kiln shell.
The joint thickness is assumed to be 2.5 mm. Bricks with lower thermal expansion
(chamotte, high alumina bricks) should be laid with as small a joint as possible, in or-
der to ensure that they don’t become lose when the rotary kiln heats up. The refractory
manufacturer specifies the joint thickness.
Alkaline bricks need axial expansion joints due to their high thermal expansion. The
lining provisions of the suppliers must be observed. As a rule, 2 mm thick boards are
single-bonded to the bricks that burn during heating to account for the expansion in the
axial direction.
The length of the rotary kiln bricks is 198 mm; it is the same for fireclay bricks and high Length and height
alumina bricks. Magnesite and dolomite bricks are also produced with a length of 198
mm. This ensures that the bricks can be replaced in case of repair work.
The brick height or the thickness of the lining can be selected with 160, 180, 200, 220,
250 or 300 mm.
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Bezeichnung From the arch dimension (2, 4, 6) and the height (16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 30), a three-digit
designation for a refractory brick is derived:
[ Arch dimension ] [ Height in centimetres ]
Example: A brick designated 420 has an arch dimension of 4 (= kiln diameter 4 m) and a
height of 20 cm.
Mixed walling
To provide arbitrary kiln diameters between 2 m and 6 m, bricks of different formats
(usually 2 different ones) must be mixed accordingly. Mix ratios can be determined using
tables of refractory manufacturers or so-called »nomograms«.
Receiving inspections
While the shapes and dimensions were often insufficient up until the 1980s, today the
6 quality of the bricks is so good that receiving controls are no longer mandatory. But an
inspection is recommended in particular when new refractory qualities are used or if the
refractory supplier was changed. The procedures for are listed under DIN 51061.
There are three important aspects when inspecting the refractory material. These are the
dimensional accuracy (length, width, height), the surface condition (roughness, corner
and edge damage) and the inner characteristics that can be checked by means of a so-
called »sound test«.
For alkaline bricks, it is important to ensure that there is no hydration due to humidity.
A comprehensive reference for receiving inspections can also be found in [Scheuer 1989].
2.2 Monolithic materials

Monolithic materials Refractory materials, so-called »monolithic materials« are installed on-site. In essence,
they consist of the same raw materials as refractory bricks. Unlike refractory bricks, re-
fractory materials can be adapted to the respective geometry of the plant. This allows
for flexible installation. For this reason, monolithic materials are especially preferred in
transitions, junctions or in sections with a high degree of geometric complexity.
Similar to concrete, monolithic materials can be poured into formwork or can be intro-
duced via the injection method. The bonding agents used are cement and ceramic or
organic adhesives. Fig. 2.2-1 and Fig. 2.2-2 show examples of how a cyclone ceiling of a
combination of refractory bricks and monolithic materials can be provided.
2.3 Refractory installation in rotary klin

Refractory bricks The lining with refractory material in the rotary kiln is almost exclusively made up of
refractory bricks. Refractory materials are used in part only in the kiln inlet and outlet.
The brickwork creates an arch in the kiln that is self-supporting and which is
positively fitting with the kiln shell.
Due to a lack of anchoring, the lining must be supported during installation.

Methods In principle, there are two methods for supplying refractory:
WITH rotation of the kiln and
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2.3 Refractory installation in rotary klin
g
Suspended ceiling bricks
Ceiling carrier
Sec on A-A
Sec on X
Comb.
concrete
anchor
Expansion joint
Mass
7
Suspended
ceiling bricks
Anchors
Support bracket
Insula on
Combus on concrete
Wooden wedges Suspended ceiling bricks
Figure 2.2-1: Refractory cyclone ceiling – radial.
WITHOUT rotation of the kiln

Selected methods from both areas are briefly described below.
Installation with rotation of the kiln

Spindle Method
The spindle method or jacking method is the classic procedure for lining rotary kilns.
The bricks are placed in the lower half of the kiln, then the walled segment is supported
with spindles so that the kiln can be rotated. After a quarter turn the next segment is lined
and so on. The spindle method is a cost-effective method that can achieve excellent results.
However, the kiln must be rotated again and again because the individual sections cannot
be more than five meters in length. In addition, the spindle method is suitable only up to a
kiln diameter of 4.4 meters.
Bonding Method
With this method, supporting the brickwork is not necessary because the refractory bricks
are bonded with the kiln shell in sections. The area between the bonding locations is lined;
closing the kiln is rotated in order to line the next kiln segment. Fig. 2.3-2 shows a bonding
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Section A-A Anchor

e.g. TWM
Suspended ceiling bricks Combus on conrete
Expansion joint
Anchor
Suspended ceiling bricks
Section B-B Section X
Support Suspended ceiling

Anchor bricks
bracket
Ceiling carrier
Combustion
Suspended ceiling bricks Ceiling insulation concrete
Figure 2.2-2: Refractory cyclone ceiling – cartesian.
1 2 3
4 5
Striking plates
Figure 2.3-1: Spindle method for the installation of refractory in the rotary kiln. (Source: Refratechnik
Cement GmbH; editing by VDZ)
plan for the provision of a kiln. It is clear to see that a 60 cm wide bonded piece is used first
and that the subsequent pieces are 50 cm wide each. The distances between the bonded
pieces varies between 1 m up to 2 m.
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The bonding connections are only of significance for the lining; as soon as the kiln is
heated the adhesive bonds loosen off the kiln shell. The bonding method enables faster
provisioning with refractory compared to the spindle method. But the bonding locations
must first be cleaned sufficiently (sandblaster, angle grinder, etc.). Furthermore, uneven-
ness of the kiln shell in the area of the bonding locations (e.g. welded seam) present an
additional problem. The use of a special »winter adhesive« is of special significance for
low ambient temperatures, in order to make sure that the bond holds.
Figure 2.3-2: Bonding method. (Source: Refratechnik Cement GmbH)
Installation without rotation of the kiln

All methods in which the rotary kiln must not be rotated while lining (and cannot be
rotated) work based on the same principle: First, the lower half of the kiln is provided with
refractory bricks, because no support is required in this area. Then, the remaining area is
provisioned while each ring is supported by a bend until its completion. With the oldest
method a wooden bow is used, in which the individual refractory bricks are pushed against
the exterior wall by interposed wedges. Modern systems use spring bars (»pogo sticks«,
see Fig. 2.3-3) or pneumatically and hydraulically operated punches that keep the bricks
in place until a loop is completed (see Fig. 2.3-4).
3 Occupational health and safety

Excavation work in particular poses a high hazard potential. Thus it is important that: High hazard potential
proper scaffolding
use of demolishing device
covered access
The following information applies to all refractory work in a cement plant: Safety instructions
Instructions: Before starting work, employees should be specially trained for this
work and the specific hazards associated with refractory work must be pointed out.
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10
Figure 2.3-3: Schematic diagram of pogo stick method. (Source: Refratechnik Cement GmbH)
Figure 2.3-4: Installation system for refractory bricks. (Source: Refratechnik Cement GmbH)
Operation instructions: Every cement plant must have available corresponding op-
erating instructions for refractory work.
Safety data sheets: The safety data sheets of the refractory manufacturers must be
known to all those involved, especially for monolithic materials.
Refractory work in the preheater tower

After cleaning from the outside, the condition of the cyclone ceiling must be checked
first through special inspection openings, in order to determine if the anchoring system of
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the lining is still intact and that the cyclone ceilings are not sagging. In addition, before
installing the scaffolds or working platforms, the condition of the refractory material must
be inspected from outside through doors. When dismantling the cyclone ceilings, it must
be ensured that chiselling is carried out from above through the control openings. After
inspecting the cyclone ceiling through the inspection holes, the refractory material of the
cyclone can be inspected from inside using drivable scaffolds. The scaffold and work
platforms can only be installed in the cyclone after inspecting the cyclone.
To prevent hazards during simultaneous work at different locations, the cyclones should
be individually isolated.
The calciner and the tertiary air duct as well as all other vertical shafts should be scaf-
folded starting from the top (Fig. 3.0-1). The lining must be checked for its condition
and incrustation build-up after each scaffold section has been installed.
11
Grid bracket
Bracket
Scaffold after
wooden platform
Wooden platform
Figure 3.0-1: Scaffolding of a cyclone for refractory work in the heat exchanger.
The calciner and the tertiary air duct should be divided into different areas, which are
separated by protective covers or protective platforms.
The work should always be coordinated between the foreman of the kiln area and the fore-
man of the scaffolding. The maximum load-bearing capacity must be observed when
working with platforms and scaffolding. All employees and foreign workers must be
trained before starting work. You must observe the prescribed safety measures (personal
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protective equipment (PPE), P3 respirators, run blower) when performing out chiselling
work and removing the damaged refractory materials.
Refractory work in the rotary kiln
12
Figure 3.0-2: Bridging the clinker chute for vehicle access.
After switching off the kiln, you must consider the necessary cooling time before starting
work. Before starting work, pull out the rotary kiln burner, open the kiln head doors and
bridge the clinker chute (Fig. 3.0-2). The bridging of the clinker chute must be designed
for the required load of the demolition device or brick transport.
Loose build-up parts must be removed before inspecting the refractory material using long
metal rods. During inspections it is determined which areas are to be removed.
The excavation takes place using either a remote-controlled demolishing device or a small
excavator with hydraulic chisel, whose cab is protected against rockfall.
After completing the excavation work, the last row of bricks must be secured (e.g. with
a welded bracket). Always provide sufficient ventilation during excavation work. The
ventilation fan should be operated at low speed. The natural chimney draft of the kiln
plant may be sufficient. Ensure adequate lighting as well. It has proven to be useful to
hang a light chain throughout the kiln.
Only use electrical equipment (e.g. lighting, drills, flex machines) with low voltage or
with protective separation in the flue. The power sources for low voltage or protective
separation can only be set up outside of work areas (Fig. 3.0-3).
In addition, the required personal protective equipment (PPE, respirators), and in particular
hearing protection must be used. The transport of the excavated refractory material from
the rotary kiln is usually done with a skid steer loader (e.g. Bobcat). Because generally
not all areas of the rotary kiln can be freed of build-up, it is necessary to protect the
skid steer loader from possible falling fragments (e.g. reinforced roof, doors and secured
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13
Figure 3.0-3: Electrical equipment is supplied with a line that is pulled through the kiln.
windscreen). When the sintering zone is not excavated, a protective cage of wire mesh has
proven itself useful against falling fragments (»Lion’s cage«, see Fig. 3.0-4).
Figure 3.0-4: »Lion’s cage« to protect against falling bricks in the sintering zone.
The driving path must be secured before starting the lining work. Care must be taken that
the wooden planks or aluminium walkways do not tilt after installation. If the build-up
is not removed in certain areas of the rotary kiln (e.g. sintering zone), then the material
can only be transported with a wheelbarrow. If the bricks are transported to the location
using a forklift, the load capacity of the cradling scaffold must be observed. To prevent
employees from falling, the cradling scaffold must have railings. After transporting brick
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4 Maintenance and Inspection
pallets to the cradling scaffold, it must be ensured that the railings of the cradling scaffold
are closed again.

For a high production efficiency of a modern cement plant, it is essential to be well in-
formed about the state of the refractory lining of the kiln plant. Both for the kiln operation
and audit planning it is appropriate to record the state of the refractory material during
ongoing operations using suitable methods. Monitoring the rotary kiln is particularly im-
portant here.
VDZ Merkblatt Vt 16
More information:
Further information on this topic can be found in VDZ Merkblatt Vt 16, Refractory Ma-
terials (http://www.wissensnetzwerk-steine-erden.de/nachschlagen/vdz-merkblaetter)
(in German; translation on request).
14
4.1 Methods of assessing condition of refractory ma-

terial
Questions In the condition diagnosis of refractory material, the following is asked:
In what wall thicknesses is the refractory material present, and in what locations of the
plant?
What is the condition of the installed material, and in what location of the plant?
What maintenance is required to ensure the safe operation of the plant? When does it
become necessary to turn off the plant for maintenance or lining work?
Methods There is only a limited number of methods available for a condition diagnosis of the
refractory material. In practice, the following are used:
Measurement of shell temperatures
Visual inspection from inside and out (e.g. inspection of expansion joint, friction
comp. Fig. 4.1-1)
Non-destructive measurement of residual brick thickness
Drill holes and chiselling out of windows
Quality measurement and surveying the kiln axis
The results of the condition diagnosis must always be subject to past empirical values,
taking into account the plant specifics. An overall assessment has only limited use.
Measurement of shell temperatures

The chronological development of the maximum, average and minimum temperatures
on the shell of the rotary kiln allows for conclusions to be drawn for the ratio between
lining and build-up. Based on the velocity of the temperature changes, the further devel-
opment can be estimated as well. For example, if the maximum temperature rises sharply
while the average temperature remains the same or changes only slightly, then this pertains
to a limited, localised eruption and not general overheating of the relevant kiln zone. One
preferable option would be to continually check the kiln shell temperature by measuring
the infrared radiation (Fig. 4.1-2).
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4.1 Methods of assessing condition of refractory material
Possibility to
measure the
brick layer from
15
Friction compensator
Movable brick
Friction compensator
Clay stone "front"
Figure 4.1-1: Friction compensator for inspection of expansion joint. (Source: Refratechnik Cement
GmbH; editing by VDZ)
Figure 4.1-2: Thermoscan of a kiln with planetary cooler. Hot spot at 49 m (lining damage). The kiln
must be turned off shortly after.
Changes in the wall thickness of the refractory material are of primary interest to assess
the ratio between lining and build-up. In principle, the wall thickness of refractory
material can be calculated. The refractory wall thicknesses can also be estimated more
easily by comparing the surface temperatures if, before starting a new production period
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or after installation of the refractory lining, the wall thicknesses are measured and the wall
surface temperatures are recorded after reaching the stationary kiln operation.
high surface temperature = low wall thickness
To monitor and regularly check the refractory condition, infrared thermography via ther-
mal camera offers an easy and meaningful method to prevent damage. Powerful devices
to easily manage and assess thermal images are offered by many different suppliers.
Visual inspection from the outside

Inspections or detecting peculiarities on the entire kiln plant are part of the routine tasks of
the kiln personnel. Sudden changes in surface colours due to increased shell temperatures
are clear signs of damage in the lining. But most of the time even more serious damage
is already present. This visual diagnostic procedure therefore ranks last among potential
tools, and it is primarily used to prevent further damage to the machine.
16 In principle, all necessary measures for industrial safety (see VDZ Merkblatt »Working
safely in the preheater«) must be heeded during visual inspections!
The condition of the cyclone and vaulted ceilings should be checked regularly through
the inspection openings in the ceilings to see if the transition between the brick ma-
sonry and the skin is flush. In addition, the skin temperature should be compared to
earlier measurements in order to gain information about the current refractory status.
Easily accessible parts of the cooler (grate cooler), the burner pipe or the kiln/cooler
inlet can also be inspected visually via inspection openings or kiln/cooler bed cameras.
Such an inspection is especially suitable during short downtimes as an easy inspection
measure.
Hard to reach areas of meal lines and ducts can be examined by means of optical
methods, e.g. push camera, pan and tilt camera or mobile trolley systems. The exami-
nation is logged using film or photo documentation and a maintenance plan.

Residual thickness The brick thickness can be measured relatively quickly using a residual thickness meter.
meter But experience shows that, generally, no reliable measurement signals are provided. Com-
mercial meters make it possible to measure the thickness of all bricks installed in rotary
kilns.
Measurement principle Residual thickness meters work with sensitive probe systems that can send and record
high-frequency electrical impulses. The metallic rotary kiln shell serves as a reflector to
determine the residual wall thickness. These devices also allow for the different electro-
magnetic properties of different refractory bricks (basic bricks, high alumina bricks) and
infiltration to be recorded. In terms of measuring, a residual thickness measurement for
sheet-laid stones, in the final sheet area and with monolithic linings with metal anchors is
not possible.

Destructive The residual brick height of the FF material is determined along the rotary kiln by drilling
measurement with a brick drill (8-10 mm). The procedure and results are recorded in a drilling protocol.
Brick damage is not always detected with the drilling samples. Using core drilling or
chiselling of windows in critical spots, it is possible to detect crack formation or alkali
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4.2 Damage
filtration in addition to the residual brick height. However, the subsequent closure of the
masonry is unsatisfactory with this method if the residual brick height is low.
4.2 Damage
Refractory material is exposed to combined chemical, mechanical and thermal stresses in
operation.
Mechanical Thermal Chemical
Kiln shell Overheating / flame Redox reactions

deformation/ovality position Clinker melt
Change of build-up Heavy temperature Alkali salts
Removal of build-up fluctuations Acid condensation
Number of kiln shutdowns Production errors (chlorine, sulphur dioxide)
Fuel inhomogeneity
17
Faulty lining
Table 4.2-1: Stress on refractory material.
The interactions between kiln operation, fuel mix and kiln shell cause overlapping thermal,
mechanical and chemical stresses on the refractory material and the refractory design and
this results in the refractory material no longer being able to do its job properly, having to
replace it at a high cost (see Tab. 4.2-1 and Fig. 4.2-1).
Figure 4.2-1: Damage to the refractories on a cyclone ceiling.
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4.2.1 Damage due to mechanical load
Besides thermal and chemical effects, mechanical effects play a critical role in the for-
mation of damage on refractory linings. The mechanical stresses on installed refractory
material are due to ovality and deformation of the flue, operational shutdowns and changes
in build-up.
Prevented elongation
»cat heads«
18
Figure 4.2-2: Suppressed thermal expansion ("cat heads") in the rotary kiln.
Causes: Fig. 4.2-2 and Fig. 4.2-3 show overuse of the refractory lining due to prevented
elongation caused by complex stresses of structural growth and crystallization of alkali
chloride in the expansion joints.
Countermeasures: Avoiding temperature fluctuation in the rotary kiln or in other areas,
installing small lining fields with sufficient expansion joint play (20 mm is recommended),
regular joint maintenance and selecting the corresponding material (material with low ten-
dency for joint growth) can help reduce damage.
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4.2 Damage
19
Figure 4.2-3: Prevented elongation – swelling of the brickwork.
Concentric cracking
Fig. 4.2-4 shows the phenomenon of concentric cracking with a typical course of 3 to 5
cm deep cracks across the entire circumference.
Figure 4.2-4: Concentric cracking (volume increase of the sheet).

Causes: A possible reason for this is oxidation of the joint sheet and a reaction with the
brick to magnesioferrite under increase in volume.
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Countermeasures: Concentric cracking can be prevented by installing with mortar or

butt-jointed. A maximum of 2 to 3 striking plates should be used in the closure area per
ring.
Relative movement
Characteristic features of relative movements are displacements of the lining and wear on
the cold side of the bricks caused by friction on the kiln shell. Fig. 4.2-5 shows typical
spiral torsion with canting of individual bricks, diagonal shear cracks and damaged bridge
corners and edges.
20
Figure 4.2-5: Damage caused by relative motion.

Causes: This is due to loose mounting in the kiln lining, variable expansion of the brick
rings (changing tension) due to kiln downtimes, or due to temperature jumps caused by
changing deposits.
Countermeasures: Professional installation with offset joints between the rings and tight-
fitting masonry on the side of the shell as well as even kiln operation are considered mea-
sures against relative movements.
Ovality
Fig. 4.2-6 shows strong breakouts in the wear ring area in part, while the remaining lining
is in good condition.
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4.2 Damage
21
Figure 4.2-6: Breakouts due to ovality in the area of the wear ring.
Causes: Increased ovality in the kiln tire area causes alternating tensions in the brick ring
with every kiln rotation, resulting in the material resistance to be exceeded causing local
breakouts in the area. Outside of the kiln tire area this can also be caused by deformations
in the kiln shell.
Countermeasures: To prevent this damage, it must be ensured that the kiln tire’s play is
set low, without resulting in constriction in the kiln tire area. Worn kiln tire shoes with
loose kiln tires cause increased ovality and should be replaced in case of a maximum
ovality larger than 0.1 x kiln diameter. Furthermore, deformed kiln shell sections must be
repaired or replaced.
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Axial joints
The phenomenon of early wear by ridging in the otherwise intact masonry can be seen in
Fig. 4.2-7. A clear sign of ridging are pop-outs that run parallel to the kiln axis with a
width of four to six bricks.
22
Figure 4.2-7: Ridging.

Causes:: Brick rings that are too tight, damage to the end bricks due to strong impact of
the sheets and the use of too many striking plates in the capstone area are all causes of
wear due to axial ridging.
Countermeasures: To prevent this kind of damage, the professional closing of brick rings
is required. Ridges can also occur because of long heating periods without turning (tilting)
the kiln if material is already present in the kiln. This can be counteracted by frequently
turning or tilting the kiln (approx. every hour).
Shearing cracks
Fig. 4.2-8 shows shearing of the bricks on the upper edge of the retaining ring as well as
breakdown of the contact area between the brick ring and the retaining ring.
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4.2 Damage
23
Figure 4.2-8: Cracks on the retaining ring.

Causes: The masonry is putting pressure on the retaining ring resulting in shear forces in
the adjoining masonry through to the outlet segments.
Countermeasures: Damage of this kind can be prevented through the firm installation of
brick rings, selecting a suitable shape of the dam ring, using stable outlet segments and
installing them professionally (e.g. securing the mounting screws with a weld spot) as
well as by using stable and undeformed kiln outlet sections. A conical design of the outlet
section or the use of refractory materials can improve the situation.
Build-up change / mechanical cleaning

Fig. 4.2-9 shows typical damage on refractory linings due to tearing off the upper layers
caused by falling coating and high temperature changes due to build-up removal. Local
damage in areas with build-up change and in zones with regular cleaning cycles can be
seen, abetted by high and unstable build-up formation.
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24
Figure 4.2-9: Overuse of the front wall portion of a feed chamber due to build-up.
Countermeasures: The formation of build-up can be affected through the way the plant is
operated on the one hand, and by using the corresponding refractory material on the other
hand. Materials that contribute to the formation of build-up are to be used in the sintering
zone of the rotary kiln to create a stable deposit, for example; material with a tendency
for little deposit formation can be used in the pre-calciner and in the infeed chamber. The
formation of unfavourable coating formation in the infeed chamber can be counteracted
by a so-called »meal curtain« (hot meal feeding from the second lowest cyclone stage) or
by injection of raw meal.
The choice of cleaning systems and cycles used depends on the operating behaviour and
thus on the build-up formation of the plant (see VDZ-Merkblatt VT 12 "Health and safety
in hot areas of cement plants" (https://www.vdz-online.de/en/publications/)). This
is where poking lances and an air lances are used to remove deposits through poking holes
with little effect on the refractory lining, the pressure gas method (Cardox) via Cardox
nozzles as well as stationary methods such as air blast devices (air guns). The latter meth-
ods can cause significant damage to the refractory lining if used improperly. If the pressure
shock is directed directly at the refractory lining, this can result in drastic local tempera-
ture fluctuation causing strong thermal stresses in the affected area. This will result in the
formation of cracks and erosion of the damaged area. The water pressure method (Atü-
mat) is primarily used in the inlet chamber and may also lead to the above described lining
damage through the high water pressures up to 800 bar. Just as important as properly car-
rying out the mechanical cleaning is the professional installation of the required openings,
nozzles and jets in the refractory lining.
Explosive spalling on refractory concrete
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4.2 Damage
25
Figure 4.2-10: Removing build-up with a high pressure lance.
Figure 4.2-11: Blasting cast refractory concrete in a rotary cooler through water vapour explosion.
Causes: If heating to quickly or if heating aids are not available (steam holes or addi-
tional burner) after installation of low cement refractory concrete LCC masses, specifi-
cally chemically bound water in the form of water vapour cannot escape sufficiently. This
results in an increased steam pressure that exceeds the material strength, leading to an
explosive spalling of the mass (Fig. 4.2-11).
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Countermeasures: This can be counteracted by using steam extraction aids (mixing in

fibres, poking holes) and booster burners. Furthermore, in critical areas such as the »Bull-
Nose« in the cooler or the cooler inlet, prefabricated, tempered blocks of refractory mate-
rial can be installed.
4.2.2 Damage due to thermal stress
Damage due to overheating of individual wall parts

Overheating of the bricks weakens the brick structure on the hot side. Fig. 4.2-12 shows
concave melting, so-called »duck nests«.
26
Figure 4.2-12: Overheating (»duck nests«).

Causes: This is the result of overheating or the wrong choice of bricks with low fire
resistance. Damage of this kind can also occur during kiln downtimes or non-compliance
with the kiln rotation plan during ongoing firing.
Countermeasures: Direct contact between the flame and lining should be avoided by
adjusting the burner. Reducing the silica ratio to below 2.6 benefits the formation of
build-up, so that direct melting on the surface of the brick are avoided.
Damage caused by melt phase infiltration

Fig. 4.2-13 shows overheating of the clinker with formation of an increased clinker melt
phase.
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4.2 Damage
27
Figure 4.2-13: Melt phase infiltration in the rotary kiln.

Causes: The increased clinker melt phase infiltrating the bricks on the hot side leads both
to a change and to a reduction of the mechanical properties of the stones. Fig. 4.2-13
shows a lava-like build-up that is firmly bonded with the bricks. The falling build-up will
then tear the compacted brick heads down with it.
Countermeasures: The use of bricks with high flexibility and high thermochemical sta-
bility is recommended. Burning conditions increasing melt phases must be avoided and an
even driving operation of the kiln must be the goal.
Damage caused by thermal overload

Typical signs of thermal overload are surface changes and fatigue of high-quality bricks
due to excessive temperatures with build-up free kiln operation over an extended period of
time.
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28
Figure 4.2-14: Thermal overload changes in the joint matrix.

Causes: The reason for this is the overheating of the brick to over 1,700 ◦ C without
melting phase formation. Fig. 4.2-14 shows the change of an even brick matrix with round
grains in the lower area to periclase needles with a brittle structure in the upper area.
Countermeasures: This can be counteracted by selecting the appropriate material (use of
bricks with a balanced elasticisation) and through even kiln operation with stable build-
ups.
Damage due to thermal shock

Sudden temperature changes cause thermal stresses that lead to platy spalling (20 – 30mm)
at the head of the bricks (Fig. 4.2-15).
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4.2 Damage
29
Figure 4.2-15: Platy spalling due to temperature shock.

Causes: The causes of a temperature shock are heating too fast and cooling down too
suddenly, as well as the loss of build-ups.
Countermeasures: Spalling as shown can be counteracted by complying with the heating
regulations, slow cooling during operational interruptions and uniform operating condi-
tions with a build-up of stable deposits. In order to achieve stable deposit ratios with
varying deposits, it is recommended to use cooling fans.
4.2.3 Damage due to chemical stress
Damage due to changing operating conditions

The use of alternative fuels, which has heavily increased since the late 90s, has a significant
effect on the combustion system in the flue:
Today, the sintering zone length is significantly larger due to the burn-out behaviour
of secondary fuels, having a size of 8 to 9 times the kiln diameter, while it was only 5
to 6 times at the end of the 90s (Fig. 4.2-16).
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The temperatures at the kiln inlet have increased and, in the area of the build-up-
free, unprotected calcining zone, today are clearly above 1,000 ◦ C and thus signifi-
cantly higher than at the end of the 90s.
The build-up in the kiln changes frequently these days due to the use of secondary
fuels.
The transition zone of the flue is shortened compared to the kilns of the late 90s, and
changing neck rings interferes with the operation of the kiln. Overall it has a higher
temperature level compared to the conventionally fired kilns of the 90s.
30
Figure 4.2-16: Changed kiln zones due to the use of alternative fuels (AF).
Influence of chlorine Secondary fuels contain chlorine in most cases, because PVC-containing fractions in the
fuel mix introduce chlorine.
The chlorine content of alternative fuels can be higher by 10 to 100 times compared to
coal.
Due to this increased chlorine level, the chlorine-alkali circuits or alkali sulphate circuits
are induced in the kiln inlet area. The alkalis of the raw material react spontaneously
with the halogens of the fuel under kiln conditions. In the counter-current between meal
flow and gas flow, these compounds can circulate and accumulate in the corresponding
brickwork areas according to their condensation temperatures.
Because of the high volatilities of the chlorine-alkali compounds, these are entrained by
the gas flow in the flue and condense as salts in the lower cyclone stages. They condense
on the counter-flowing meal, make meal lines and cyclones sticky with build-up and thus
cause undesired operational malfunctions of the kiln plant. This often results in cyclone
blockages and shut-downs of the plant with inherent temperature changes and damage to
the refractory lining.
Gaseous alkali chlorides also condense in the flue. The gaseous compounds infiltrate
bricks and materials and penetrate through to the kiln shell, where they cause massive
corrosion beneath the metal casing.
Respective levels build up in the bricks in accordance with the condensation tempera-
ture, which, with ongoing load with chloride-containing salts under volume increase, build
crystals in the brick. This leads to the formation of cracks in the bricks and ultimately to
spalling in the middle of the brick (so-called »alkalibursting« or »alkalispalling«). At first
the bricks appear undamaged, but once the kiln plant is restarted there can be significant
spalling with a thickness of more than 10 cm. Even inspected brick surfaces are at risk
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4.2 Damage
after a kiln standstill and, if exhibiting the above described pre-damage with salt horizon,
can be damaged during restarting.
Damage caused by alkali salt infiltration

This damage, caused by alkali salt infiltration, can be recognised through infiltration hori-
zons and increases in volume in the lining and the occurrence of corrosion on the kiln shell
and the bracing.
31
Figure 4.2-17: Alkali salt infiltration, condensation horizon spalling in the rotary kiln.
Gaseous alkali sulphate or chlorine compounds (e.g., KCl, NaCl, K2SO4, Na2SO4, and
CaSO4) are enriched by the operational formation of cycles, diffuse through the refractory
material and condense or react at a certain temperature within the working lining. In
doing so they fill the pore space of the refractory material, compress the brick structure
and, if applicable, apply crystallization pressure onto the surrounding brick. This thermo-
mechanical and/or mechanical stress then leads to spalling at the level of the condensation
horizon (Fig. 4.2-17 and Fig. 4.2-18). It is especially problematic that the temperature
profile in the working lining shifts because of this and that this effect can repeat itself
several times, which can lead to the complete destruction of the working lining in some
cases.
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32
Figure 4.2-18: Alkali salt infiltration, salt deposition between lining and kiln shell.
This process is primarily abated by high measurements in the cycles of alkalis, chlorine and
sulphur. For high alumina materials or bricks, additionally feldspars or feldspar exponents
can build in ternary systems K2O-Al2O3 – SiO2. The increase in volume associated with
the formation of these new minerals causes heavy spalling or the separation of entire lining
fields of the bracing, see Fig. 4.2-19 and Fig. 4.2-20 (with the exception of bricks with less
than 30% Al2O3 or specially produced alkali-resistant high alumina bricks). This damage
can be counteracted by using alkaline-resistant materials, a wall division with small lining
fields and larger expansion joints. Another suitable measure is reducing the alkali salts via
the outlet in the bypass.
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4.2 Damage
33
Figure 4.2-19: Alkali salt infiltration, increase in volume of a high alumina product.
Figure 4.2-20: Alkali salt infiltration, increase in volume of HT product and separation of the lining
fields.
Damage due to anchor corrosion and embrittlement

The starting point for bracing corrosion is often given by cold bridges, over which heat
is increasingly derived. Volatile components of the kiln atmosphere (e.g. Cl – , Na2O,
K2O, SO3, and H2O) diffuse as eutectic melt or vaporous through the open pore voids of
the refractory material or via joints to the outer wall. In this case, the presence of water
vapour increases the flow behaviour of the melt particularly. If the acid dew point (about
135 ◦ C) in the wall structure is fallen short of, the condensation of acidifying compounds
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occurs. Salty or sulphurous acids can then have a strongly corrosive effect on the metallic
components such as the metallic anchors or kiln shell. The anchors in the condensation
zone are torn off due to the additional mechanical stresses (see Fig. 4.2-21 and Fig. 4.2-22),
or the kiln shell is damaged due to sectional weakening of the steel shell. This damage
mechanism primarily benefits from high amounts of alkalis, chlorine and sulphur. The
damage can be reduced by decreasing the aforementioned substances and by using better
materials for the anchors (e.g. 2.4879). Another measure is to reduce the insulation so
that higher temperatures on the metallic walls are prevented and the acid dew point is not
fallen short of, which leads to higher heat losses, however.
34
Figure 4.2-21: Carrier corrosion.
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4.2 Damage
35
Figure 4.2-22: Anchor corrosion.

The embrittlement of metallic anchors is generally due to high-temperature oxidation
or corrosion. With temperatures on the metallic anchor of more than 1,100 ◦ C, the an-
chor is carbonised under reduced firing conditions. By converting iron to iron oxides or
iron carbide, this can cause embrittlement of the anchor. Furthermore, the formation of
iron oxides is associated with an increase in volume, which in turn puts pressure on the
surrounding material (explosion effect). In this case, it is possible to work with ceramic
anchoring in problematic areas. For steels with more than 16% of chromium, sigma phase
embrittlement can occur at temperatures of 750-850 ◦ C. In this case, the selection of a
suitable anchor material is recommended, whereby it must be noted that alloying ingredi-
ents such as molybdenum, titanium, and silicon promote the formation of sigma phase and
that the temperature resistance is lower with suitable material.
Damage caused by chrome ore corrosion

The chrome ore in magnesia chromite bricks can be attacked and corroded by increased
alkali content. Fig. 4.2-23 and Fig. 4.2-24 show typical yellow-green efflorescence and
crumbly surfaces with cracks. Disintegrating chrome ore causes the brick structure to
loosen. This form of corrosion can be reduced by reducing the alkali content or by balanc-
ing the alkali/sulphate ratio. The use of material that is free of chrome ore is common, at
least in Germany.
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36
Figure 4.2-23: Chrome ore corrosion.
Figure 4.2-24: Chrome ore corrosion.
Damage due to redox reactions

With repeat switching between oxidizing and reducing atmosphere due to poor burning,
a change from 3- to 2-valent iron is caused in iron oxide and chromium oxide-containing
refractory material. The structural transformations associated with the altered iron com-
pounds cause volume fluctuation in the brick. This type of damage can be recognised by
a bleaching for brightening effect of the brick heads and increased spalling or erosion (see
Fig. 4.2-25 and Fig. 4.2-26) caused by a diminished structural strength by up to 50% in
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4.2 Damage
the brick head area. This can be caused by unfavourable flame management, fuel inho-
mogeneities and the use of an undesirable burner nozzle for the used fuels. But this type
of damage can also be caused by local, reducing burn-outs, e.g. when heating with heavy
oils by infiltrating the brick structure or through auxiliary firing with lumpy kiln feed (e.g.
used tyres). This kind of damage can be prevented or minimised through optimised flame
management, the use of homogeneous and finely ground fuels, selection of a burner pipe
that is appropriate for the fuel used as well as avoiding frequent fuel switching and pro-
tecting the refractory material during heating, e.g. by using clinker dust as a protective
layer.
37
Figure 4.2-25: Redox reaction.
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38
Figure 4.2-26: Redox reaction.
Damage caused by hydration

Calcium and magnesium are moisture sensitive. As seen in Fig. 4.2-27, hydration damage
shows itself as cracks from the surface to the inside of the brick. The brick pulverises with
increasing hydration. The cause for this is the reaction of the oxides with water to their
hydroxides Ca(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2 under increase in volume. The ingress of moisture
can be prevented by storing the bricks in a dry place as well as by laying and processing
the bricks swiftly. For longer kiln shutdowns, the rotary kiln can be sealed off against the
ingress of moisture. Additionally, quick lime can be introduced into the combustion unit
in order to bind to the moisture.
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39
Figure 4.2-27: Web cracks due to hydration.
5 Operation and Quality

Heating and drying after lining
For drying and heating procedures, it must be differentiated between heating a completely
relined kiln plant or if refractory bricks in parts of the rotary kiln were replaced.
Heating a completely relined kiln plant

Drying and heating of the refractory material of a completely relined kiln plant is carried
out in the following steps:
Heating up the preheater, tertiary air duct and clinker cooler heat: Special gas or
light oil burners are used for this, which are supplied and operated by special compa-
nies.
When heating, the heating curves of the used refractory materials provided by the re-
spective manufacturer must be absolutely observed (Fig. 5.0-1). To do so, the gas
temperatures after the plant component to be heated are measured. A temperature
measurement for each cyclone stage is required.
A booster burner is installed in the clinker cooler. The burner is set up on the thrust
plates at the cooler outlet. The temperature is measured in the clinker chute. Accord-
ing to the heating regulation provided by the refractory suppliers, the cooler must be
heated to 900 ◦ C, which is not achieved in practice.
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5 Operation and Quality
Gas temperature in kiln inlet
Temperature in °C
min 24 h
curing time
Time after installation (in hours)

40
Figure 5.0-1: Example of a heating diagram of refractory materials. (Source: Refratechnik Cement
GmbH; editing by VDZ)
Starting up the main burner: The main burner can be started after about 60 hours of
drying and heating the preheater and clinker cooler. For basic bricks, heating curves
for kilns up to 2000 t/d and kilns over 2000 t/d (Fig. 5.0-2) are available. Basic bricks
in rotary kilns up to 2,000 t/d can be heated with a maximum heating rate of 30 K/h, so
that no more than 48 hours are required to reach the sintering zone of 1450 ◦ C. Rotary
kilns with a clinker capacity of more than 2,000 t/d may be heated with a heating rate
of 25 K/h. The heating rate is determined by measuring the gas temperature in the
kiln inlet. Between 300 and 600 ◦ C the kiln must be rotated by about 1/3 turn every
30 minutes, between 600 and 900 ◦ C it must be rotated by about 1/3 turn every 15
minutes and from 900 ◦ C the kiln can be rotated continuously.
Kiln output up to 2,000 t/d
Kiln output > 2,000 t/d

Surface temperature
of lining in oC
Figure 5.0-2: Heating curves for newly lined rotary kilns.

Remove booster burner: From a temperature of approx. 500 ◦ C, the booster burners
in the heat exchanger and clinker cooler can be removed. The temperature in the heat
exchanger can also be controlled by opening manholes.
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The overall heating time of the kiln until the sintering temperature of 1450 ◦ C is
reached is about 110 hours.
For plant parts where monolithic materials were relined, it is recommended to drill
holes with a size of approx. 4 mm into the metal housing at a distance of approx. 500
mm for the water vapour to escape. This method has been used very successfully in Tip
several plants.
Heating after repair work

If the refractory material was replaced in parts of the rotary kiln only (e.g. 30 linear
meters), then the kiln can be heated with a heating rate of 50 K/h, so that the kiln can
be started up after about 24 hours. But if monolithic refractory materials were relined in
further parts, then the same drying and heating procedures must be carried out in these
sections, just like for a new lining. If appropriate, heating can also take place with the
main burner in accordance with the heating curves. 41
Consumption of refractories
The average consumption of refractories in kilns is about 650 g/t clinker in Germany
(VDZ survey in 2006). This value refers to the average consumption of refractory materials
and bricks, averaged over 3 or 5 years for the entire kiln line. The consumption differs
greatly with some plants exceeding 1,100 g/t clinker and with the best kiln plants falling
below 200 g/t.
With 410 g/t clinker, precalcining plants use almost half as much refractory material as Influence of the calciner
conventional cyclone preheaters with 814 g/t clinker. The most thermally stressed flue of a
precalcining plant is specifically constructed smaller compared to a conventional cyclone
plant. This means the refractory lining of the rotary flue of precalcining plants is smaller,
which is having an obvious effect on wear.
The number of tyre stations has a significant effect on the consumption of refractories: Influence of the number
Kilns with four tire stations have an average of 845 g/to clinker consumption of refractories of tyre stations
(data from a VDZ working group). In comparison, the tree tire station kilns with 633 g/to
clinker and the kilns with two tire stations and an average consumption of 265 g/to clinker
fare much better. This is due to the static over-determinacy of a three or four support
kiln, which causes stress in the tube and thus in the lining in the shifter of the kiln. The
theoretically calculated load distribution can vary in practice, depending on the operating
conditions. Furthermore, the use of toothed kiln tires instead of loose tires also has a
positive effect on the refractory wear of the rotary kiln due to the lower kiln ovality.
6 Environmental Protection
Refractory bricks do not have a direct influence on the emissions of the rotary kiln plant.
The materials are often very long-lived substances, which can optionally be recycled after
their use. It must be decided individually if the material can be recycled or if it must
be discarded. In many cases the kiln bricks are stored temporarily after excavation, then
crushed and added to the raw material in low amounts.
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7 Questions for LB 3.10 – Refractory

You can test your knowledge by answering the following questions.
Question 7.0 A:
1.: What is the purpose of the refractory material in a rotary kiln plant?
2.: Where in a rotary kiln plant can refractory material be found?
3.: What substances comprise refractory?
4.: What substances are the bricks primarily made of that are used in the sintering
zone?
5.: What are the dimensions of a refractory brick with the number 420?
6.: Name a couple of methods for lining a kiln!
7.: When is a »Lion’s cage« used?
8.: There is only a limited number of methods available to diagnose the condition of
refractory material. Name those mentioned in the course!
42 9.: Explain how refractory material is stressed in rotary kiln plants!
10.: Name damage that is due to mechanical stress!
11.: Describe some of the potential damage on refractory due to the use of alternative
fuels!
12.: Describe in broad terms how a newly relined kiln plant is to be started up!
Solution see p.43
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Solutions
Solutions to 7.0 A:
1.: a Thermal insulation: First, it protects the shell plates of the rotary kiln, cy-
clones and calciner from the high temperatures produced during clinker pro-
duction. Furthermore, the refractory material isolates the process from the
environment, thus reducing heat loss through the kiln, cyclone and calciner
walls.
b Abrasion protection: In addition, the refractory material protects the shell
plates from abrasion due to the kiln meal. The refractory material also pro-
motes the exchange of heat in the rotary kiln by alternatingly coming into
contact with hot kiln gases and the cooler kiln feed.
1.: In the clinker cooler, the rotary kiln, the tertiary air duct, the preheater and the
calciner
2.: Metal oxides are used primarily. They are characterised either as acidic or basic
substances, depending on the chemical composition. 43
Acidic substances include silicon oxide (silica, SiO2), zirconium oxide (Zr2O3)
and chromium (III oxide (chromite, Cr2O3).
Magnesium oxide (MgO) and calcium oxide (CaO) are considered basic sub-
stances.
3.: Cement clinker consists largely of calcium oxide (alkaline) and to a lesser extent of
silica and alumina (acidic or neutral). This is why clinker has an alkaline character.
Because of this property, neutral to alkaline materials are used in particular in the
sintering zone, which consist mostly of magnesium. In all other areas where no
melting phase occurs and the temperatures are lower, silica and alumina-containing
materials are used.
4.: A brick designated 420 has an arch dimension of 4 (= kiln diameter 4 m) and a
height of 20 cm. The length of the refractory bricks is set to 198 mm.
5.: Spindle method
Bonding method
Installation without rotation of the kiln
6.: When the sintering zone is not excavated, a protective cage of wire mesh has
proven itself useful against falling fragments (»Lion’s cage«).
7.: Measurement of shell temperatures
Visual inspection from the outside
8.: Mechanical:
Deformations/ovality
Change of build-up
Downtime
Faulty thermal installation
Thermal:
Overheating
temperature fluctuations
Operational interruptions
fuel inhomogeneity
Chemical:
Redox reactions
Clinker melt
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Alkali salts
9.: Prevented elongation, »cat heads«
Concentric cracking
Relative movement
Ovality
Axial joints
Shearing cracks
10.: The increased chlorine content introduced by secondary fuels often results in cy-
clone blockages and shut-downs of the plant with inherent temperature changes
and damage to the refractory lining. The alkalis of the raw material then react
spontaneously with the halogens of the secondary fuel under kiln conditions. In
the counter-current between meal flow and gas flow, these compounds can circulate
and accumulate in the corresponding brickwork areas according to their condensa-
tion temperatures.
The gaseous alkali chlorides that are condensing in the flue infiltrate bricks and
materials and penetrate through to the kiln shell, where they cause massive corro-
44
sion beneath the metal casing.
Respective levels build up in the bricks in accordance with the condensation tem-
perature, which, with ongoing load with chloride-containing salts under volume
increase, build crystals in the brick. This leads to the formation of cracks in the
bricks and ultimately to spalling in the infiltrated brick layer (so-called »Alka-
libursting« or »Alkalispalling«).
11.: The total heating time of the kiln after relining until a sintering temperature of
1450 ◦ C is reached is about 110 hours. This is the approach, in rough terms:
Heating up the preheater, tertiary air duct and clinker cooler with booster
burner
Start-up main burner after about 60 hours
Remove booster burner from about 500 ◦ C
Question see p. 42
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Glossary
Alkali salts
Salts of alkali metals lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb) and caesium (Cs)
Butt-jointed installation
Installation (of refractory material) without sheet metal
Corrosion
Reaction of a material with its environment, which leads to a measurable change
DIN 51061-3
German standard on "Testing of ceramic materials; sampling, refractory bricks"
Infiltration EN
Ingress of substances into another medium
Kiln campaign
Time between starting a newly lined rotary kiln until shut-down to replace the refractory lining
monolithic
Consisting of one piece
Ovality 45
Deviation from circular shape
Porosity
Porosity is the ratio of the void volume to the total volume of a substance or mixture of substances
PVC
Short for polyvinyl chloride; plastic
Redox reactions
Chemical reaction in which a reactant transfers electrons to the other partner
silica ratio
Ratio of quartz to iron and aluminium oxides
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Bibliography
[Scheuer 1989]
Scheuer, A.; Sylla, H.-M.; Kühle, W.; Rosemann, H.; Annahmeprüfungen und Anforderungen an die Gle-
ichmäßigkeit von Drehofensteinen, in: Zement-Kalk-Gips, 42, 1989, S. 57-62.
46
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Index
A
Alkali salts 17
B
Butt-jointed installation 20
C
Corrosion 33
D
DIN 51061-3 6
I
Infiltration EN 16
K 47
Kiln campaign 3
M
monolithic 6
O
Ovality 21
P
Porosity 3
PVC 30
R
Redox reactions 17
S
silica ratio 26
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Topic 3 – Clinker Production

Course LB 3.10 – Refractories

VDZ Online Courses // Cement

Issued: 7th June 2018

3 Occupational health and safety ....................................................................... 9

4 Maintenance and Inspection............................................................................ 14

5 Operation and Quality ..................................................................................... 39 i

850 °C Tertiary air duct

Figure 1.0-1: Temperature zones in a clinker burning plant with calciner.

2 Construction and operation

Damage to the refractories

2.1 Refractory bricks

Figure 2.0-2: Kiln with massive damage on the shell.

Figure 2.0-3: Deformed kiln shell due to overheating.

a and b are variable b is variable

In the rotary kiln, a differentiation is made between

2.2 Monolithic materials

2.3 Refractory installation in rotary klin

Due to a lack of anchoring, the lining must be supported during installation.

Wooden wedges Suspended ceiling bricks

Figure 2.2-1: Refractory cyclone ceiling – radial.

WITHOUT rotation of the kiln

Installation with rotation of the kiln

Section A-A Anchor

Suspended ceiling bricks Combus on conrete

Section B-B Section X

Support Suspended ceiling

Figure 2.2-2: Refractory cyclone ceiling – cartesian.

Figure 2.3-2: Bonding method. (Source: Refratechnik Cement GmbH)

Installation without rotation of the kiln

3 Occupational health and safety

Refractory work in the preheater tower

Refractory work in the rotary kiln

Figure 3.0-2: Bridging the clinker chute for vehicle access.

4 Maintenance and Inspection

4.1 Methods of assessing condition of refractory ma-

Measurement of shell temperatures

high surface temperature = low wall thickness

Visual inspection from the outside

Non-destructive measurement of residual brick thickness

Drill holes and chiselling out of windows

Mechanical Thermal Chemical

Kiln shell Overheating / flame Redox reactions

Table 4.2-1: Stress on refractory material.

Figure 4.2-1: Damage to the refractories on a cyclone ceiling.

4.2.1 Damage due to mechanical load

Figure 4.2-3: Prevented elongation – swelling of the brickwork.

Figure 4.2-4: Concentric cracking (volume increase of the sheet).

Countermeasures: Concentric cracking can be prevented by installing with mortar or

Figure 4.2-5: Damage caused by relative motion.

Figure 4.2-7: Ridging.

Figure 4.2-8: Cracks on the retaining ring.

Build-up change / mechanical cleaning

Explosive spalling on refractory concrete

Figure 4.2-10: Removing build-up with a high pressure lance.

Countermeasures: This can be counteracted by using steam extraction aids (mixing in

4.2.2 Damage due to thermal stress

Damage due to overheating of individual wall parts

Figure 4.2-12: Overheating (»duck nests«).

Damage caused by melt phase infiltration

Figure 4.2-13: Melt phase infiltration in the rotary kiln.

Damage caused by thermal overload

Figure 4.2-14: Thermal overload changes in the joint matrix.