Introduction to MC

Mobile Computing (MC):

Introduction to MC
Types of transmission
Novel applications
Limitations of mobile computing
Mobile computing architecture
Mobile system networks

Mobile communication:
 Introduction to MC

Mobile communication is the process of computation on a mobile device. It does not restrict to
just one application such as voice communication. Mobile computing facilitates a large number
of applications on a single device.

Communication mobility:

 Two aspects of mobility

o user mobility: users communicate (wireless) “anytime, anywhere, with anyone”
o device portability: devices can be connected anytime, anywhere to the network
 Wireless vs. mobile examples
û û stationary computer
û ü notebook in a hotel
ü û wireless LANs in historic buildings
ü ü Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
 The demand for mobile communication creates the need for integration of wireless
networks into existing fixed networks:
o local area networks: standardization of IEEE 802.11
o Internet: Mobile IP extension of the internet protocol IP
o wide area networks: e.g., internetworking of GSM and ISDN

Types of Transmissions:

1. Guided Transmission:

In guided (or wired) transmission metal wires and optical fibers are used for the transmission of
data.

Signals are transmitted via a physical and tangible guide between the communicating points.
These include twisted pair telephone cable, optical fiber, waveguide, and coaxial cable.

Guided transmission of electrical signals takes place using four types of cables:

1. Optical fiber for pulses of wavelength 1.35-1.5 μm,

 Introduction to MC

2. Coaxial cable for electrical signals of frequencies up to 500 MHz and up to a range of about
40 m,

3. Twisted wire pairs for conventional (without coding) electrical signals of up to 100 kHz and
up to a range of 2 km, or for coded signals of frequencies up to 200 MHz and a range of about
100 m.
4. Power lines, a relatively recent advent in communication technology, are used for long-
range transmission of frequencies between 10 kHz and 525 kHz.

Advantages:
 Transmission is along a directed path from one point to another,
 There is practically no interference in transmission from any external source or path,
 Using multiplexing and coding, a large number of signal sources can be simultaneously
transmitted along an optical fiber, a coaxial cable, or a twisted-pair cable.

Disadvantages:
 Signal transmitter and receiver are fixed (immobile). Hence there is no mobility of
transmission and reception points.
 The number of transmitter and receiver systems limits the total number of
interconnections possible.

2. Unguided Transmission (Wireless Transmission):

Wireless or unguided transmission is carried out through radiated electromagnetic energy.

Electromagnetic energy flows in free space (air or vacuum). The radiated energy is of frequency
in MHz or GHz spectrum (a set of frequencies) range.

Physically, there is no direct physical connection between two points such as microwave and
satellite links. Your mobile phone also uses unguided transmission medium.
Types of Unguided Transmission Media:

1. Satellite Microwave Transmission: Transmitting data using electro radio waves through
free space is called satellite communication. In satellite communications there are many
transponders ( a device for receiving a radio signal and automatically transmitting a different
signal) called frequency band. this type of transmission uses two types of frequencies .uplink
frequency and downlink frequency.

Usages of satellite microwave:

• Distributing signal over television channel.
• Telephone transmission over long distance.
• Networks that are used for private business.

2. Radio wave transmission: Its broadcast signals only in single direction which is in contrast
with the microwave transmission that broadcast in both directions. One of the advantage of
radio wave transmissions is that it does not require any antennas. Radio waves are propagated
using ground wave and sky wave. Radio waves performs modulation of electromagnetic waves
using the frequency that is below the range of visible light.
 Introduction to MC

Usages of radio microwave:

• Radio waves are generally used for transmitting sound, images that include both voice
signal and television signals. These signals are converted into electrical signals by
performing modulation, the modulated signals are amplified and transmitted to antennas
that converts the electrical signals to electromagnetic signals that are used for radiation
into ionosphere.
• Radio waves are used for directing the movement of ships and aircraft with the help of
radio compass or radio time signals.

3. Terrestrial microwave transmission: Microwave transmission make use of microwave link

for transmitting information. Terrestrial microwave use large height antennas to cover long sight
distances. It is more suitable for line-of-sight transmission link.

Usages of Terrestrial microwave transmission:-

• Microwave relay links are used for television and telephone transmission.
• Microwave act as a backbone carrier in cellular network.
• They are used both for larger wave telecommunication services as well as short wave
by-pass applications.

4. Infrared wave transmission: Infrared waves are electromagnetic waves that have the wave
length longer than visible light but shorter than radio wave. One of the advantage of infrared
waves over other unguided media is that it cannot pass through walls due to which the security
is more and the impairment such as interference is not present.

Antennae:
Antennae are devices that transmit and receive electromagnetic radiations. The types of
antennae are determined by the frequency ranges they operate in and can vary from a single
piece of wire to a parabolic dish.

Below figure shows a λ/2-long antenna for wireless transmission of waves of wavelength λ. It is
also called a dipole antenna because it’s both ends A and B signals are 180° out of phase (means
currents in opposite direction).
 Introduction to MC

(a) λ/2 dipole antenna (b) λ/4 dipole antenna (c) Radiation pattern in z-y and x-z planes for M2
dipole (d) Radiation pattern in y-z and x-z planes for λ/4 dipole

Figure (b) shows an antenna equivalent to the λ/2 antenna, an antenna of length λ/4 mounted on
a long conducting surface, for example, the roof of a car or a moist ground surface.

At any given instant, the signals at the end C and surface D are 180° out of phase. The original
and reflected waves thus superimpose and create the same electrical effects as in the λ/2
antenna.

Radiation pattern of a given antenna defines a path on which each point will have identical
signal strength at any given instant t.

Figure (c) shows the radiation pattern in x-z and y-z planes for a λ/2 dipole, assuming the z-axis
to be the dipole longitudinal axis.

The radiation pattern in the x-y plane (perpendicular to both x-z and y-z planes) will be a single
circle with the z-axis passing through its centre and perpendicular to the plane it lies in.

Figure (d) shows that a λ/4 dipole mounted on a conducting surface will also have an identical
radiation pattern. The radiation patterns in the x-y, y-z, and x-z planes are identical to the one
shown in Fig.(c).

Modulation:
Modulation is the process of varying one signal (the carrier), according to the pattern of another
signal (modulating signal). The carrier is usually an analog signal selected to match the
characteristics of a particular transmission system.
 Introduction to MC

Why modulation:

The size of antennae required for wireless transmission is inversely proportional to the
frequencies of transmitted signals. This means that low frequency signals need very large
antennae for their transmission.

For example, voice signals have frequencies between 0.1 kHz and 8 kHz. Music- signal
frequencies lie between 0.1 kHz and 16 kHz. These ranges are unsuitable for any kind of
wireless transmission. This is due to the requirement of abnormally large- sized antennae as
well as much less radiated energy.

Moreover, due to the properties of the signal-propagating medium (air or vacuum), ultra low
frequency signals cannot be transmitted across long distances.

Video-signal frequencies lie in the range between 10 kHz and 2 MHz. But this range of
frequencies is reserved for MW (medium wave) and SW (short wave) radio broadcasts.

Therefore, independent (without modulation) wireless transmission of voice, music, video or

data signals is not very practical. Modulation with high frequency carriers is required to make
wireless transmission practical.

Analog signal modulation:

The amplitude, frequency, or phase angle of a carrier wave is varied in proportion to the
variation in the amplitude of modulating signal, which is the voice or data signal to be
communicated (message signal).
 Introduction to MC

Digital modulation method:

The amplitude, frequency, or phase angle of a carrier wave is varied (shifted) in proportion to
the variation of logic state 1 or 0 or variation of pair or set of logic states in the modulating
signal (message signal). The goal of keying is to transmit a digital signal over an analogue
channel.

Example: Digital Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

For digital signals, frequency shift keying (FSK) uses two frequencies for 0 and 1 as shown in
the below figure.

There are three major classes of digital modulation techniques used for transmission of digitally
represented data:

1. Amplitude-shift keying (ASK): It is a form of amplitude modulation that represents digital

data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave.
 Introduction to MC

It is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents the binary data in the form of variations
in the amplitude of a signal.

Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier. The binary signal when ASK modulated,
gives a zero value for Low input while it gives the carrier output for High input.

The following figure represents ASK modulated waveform along with its input.

2. Frequency-shift keying (FSK): It is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital

information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave.

It is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency of the carrier signal varies
according to the digital signal changes. FSK is a scheme of frequency modulation.

The output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary High input and is low in
frequency for a binary Low input. The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Space frequencies.

The following image is the diagrammatic representation of FSK modulated waveform along
with its input.

3. Phase-shift keying (PSK): It is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by changing,
or modulating, the phase of a reference signal (the carrier wave).

It is the digital modulation technique in which the phase of the carrier signal is changed by
varying the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time. PSK technique is widely used for
wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless operations, along with RFID and Bluetooth
communications.
 Introduction to MC

Novel applications:

1. Smart phones: A Smartphone is a mobile phone with additional computing functions so as to

enable multiple applications.

2 Enterprise solutions: This may include specialized hardware or software programming to

help an enterprise in finding solutions for various needs such as management of storage,
security, revision, control,

3. Mobile cheque: A mCheque is a mobile-based payment system employed during a purchase.

The service is activated through text-message exchanges between the customer, a designated
retail outlet, and the mobile service provider.

The service provider authenticates the customer and activates the customer account to transfer
money to the retailer account. Customers do not need to carry credit cards in their wallets for
shopping anymore.

4. Mobile commerce: An example of m-commerce is as follows. Mobile devices are used to

obtain stock quotes in real time or on demand. The stock purchaser or seller first sends an SMS
for the trading request, then the stock trading service responds in the same manner, requesting
authentication.

The client sends the user ID and password through SMS. The client sends an SMS for a specific
stock trade request. The service provider executes the trade at the stock exchange terminal. The
process is completed online within a minute or two.

Mobile devices are also being increasingly used for e-ticketing, i.e., for booking cinema, train,
flight, and bus tickets.

5. Mobile-based supply chain management: Unless chocolates are manufactured, the

distributors cannot sell them. The manufacturer cannot make the chocolates unless the
distributor orders for the chocolates. This producer consumer problem is called the supply chain
management problem.

Leading IT companies have developed mobile device software for supply chain management
systems. The sales force and the manufacturing units use such mobile devices to maintain the
supply chain.
 Introduction to MC

Limitations of Mobile Computing: There are some limitations to mobile computing:

1. Resource constraints: Battery needs and recharging requirements are the biggest constraint
of mobile computing.

2. Interference: There may be interference in wireless signals, affecting the quality of service
(QoS).

3. Bandwidth: There may be bandwidth constraints due to limited spectrum availability at a

given instant, thereby causing connection latency.

4. Dynamic changes in communication environment: There may be variations in signal

power within a region. There may be link delays and connection losses.

5. Network issues: Due to ad hoc networks there may be issues relating to the discovery of the
connection service to destination and also those relating to connection stability.

6. Interoperability issues: The varying protocol standards prescribed and available between
different regions may lead to interoperability glitches.

7. Security constraints Protocols: conserving privacy of communication may be violated. Also

physical damage to or loss of a mobile device is more probable than a static computing system.

Mobile Computing Reference Model:

Physical Layer: This layer is responsible for frequency selection, generation of carrier
frequency, signal detection, encryption etc.

Data-link Layer: This layer includes accessing the medium, multiplexing different data
streams, data correction, correction of transmission errors and synchronization (detecting of
data frames).

Network Layer: This layer is responsible for grouping packets, establishing a connection,
logical addressing, routing and handover between different networks.

Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for establishing a end-to-end connection, detecting
quality of service, flow and congestion control etc.
 Introduction to MC

Application Layer: This layer is responsible for service location, support for multimedia
applications using portable devices in wireless communication.

Mobile Computing Architecture:

Architectural requirements for programming a mobile device are as follows.

1.ProgrammingLanguages:

Avarietyofprogramminglanguagesisusedinthemobilecomputingarchitecture. Most popular

languages Java. Java is plat form independence; the program codes written in Java are
independent of the CPU and OS used in a system.

Apartfromstandardedition,Java2hastwolimitedmemorysizededitionsJ2ME(Java2Microedition)a
ndJavaCard(Javaforsmartcard).Thesetwoarethemostcommonlyusedlanguagesfordevelopingappli
cationsforamobiledeviceplatform.

The Java2 enterprise edition (J2EE) is used for web and enterprise server-based applications of
mobile services. DotNet(.NET) is also widely used framework for mobile application
development. Python2.7 is a popular platform form mobile applications.

2. Functions of Operating Systems:

An operating system(OS) enables the user to run an application without considering the
hardware specifications and functionalities.

Provides functions required for scheduling, synchronization of multiple tasks in a system and
also priority allocation of threads.
Provides management functions (i.e. creation, activation, deletion, suspension, delay) for tasks
and memory.

Provides interfaces for communication between software components at the application layer,
middleware layers, and hardware devices.

Provides configurable libraries for the GUI (graphic user interface), VUI (voice user interface)
components, and phone API (application programming interface) area must in many user-
operated devices.

3. Functions of Middleware for Mobile Systems:

Middleware are the software components that link the application components with the
network-distributed components.

Mobile OS provides middle ware components. Few examples of middle ware applications are:

• To discover the nearby Bluetooth device

• To discover the nearby hotspot
• To achieve device synchronization with the server or an enterprise server
• To retrieve data (which may be in OracleorDB2) from an work database
• For service discovery
 Introduction to MC

• For adaptation of the application to the platform and service availability

4. Mobile Computing Architectural Layers:

Mobile computing architecture refers to defining various layers between the user applications,
interfaces, devices, and network hardware. Two adjacent layers interact with each other through
input-output interfacing.

An application deploys the software components and APIs at application layer; for example, the
communication components in a mobile Smartphone, such as Internet, SMS, MMS, Bluetooth
stack, security, and communication protocol stacks are all APIs.

Middleware components discover the service, link the client and network service, update
database, manage the device using remote-server software, perform client server
synchronization.

An OS is a layer in between the application and hardware. It facilitates the running of the
program and provides other OS functions (e.g., device drivers). An application can use an OS
functions directly.

5. Protocols:
Interchanges between two diversified and distributed components need protocols and standards.

Mobile computing services use a number o mobile communication protocols such as GSM900,
GSM900/1800/1900, CDMA, WCDMA, HSPA, UMTS, i-Mode, LTE and WiMax.

6. Layers:
There are different layers in network transmission and reception or in interchange of
information, such as the WAP protocol layers.

The OSI (open standard for interchange) seven-layer format is as follows:

 Introduction to MC

1. Physical for sending and receiving signals (e.g., TDMAorCDMAcoding)

2. Data-link(e.g., multiplexing)
3. Networking(for linking to the destination)
4. Wirelesstransportlayersecurity(forestablishingend-to-endconnectivity)
5. Wireless transaction protocol
6. Wireless session protocol
7. Wireless application environment(for running a web application, e.g., mobile-
business).

Mobile system networks:

Mobile networks are networks of mobile devices, servers, and distributed computing systems.
There are three types of mobile networks.

1. Cellular Network:

Below figure shows the cellular network architecture. A cell is the coverage area of a base
station, connected to other stations via wire or fiber or wirelessly through switching centers.

The coverage area defines a cell and its boundaries. Each cell has a base station. A base station
functions as an access point for the mobile service.

Each mobile device connects to the base station of the cell which covers the current location of
the device. All the mobile devices within the range of a given base station communicate with
each other through that base station only.

Cellular broadband
3G enabled cell towers provide support to Internet broadband access using mobile phone. A
USB cellular modem or cellular broadband-router is used for this purpose.

2. WLAN Network and Mobile IP:

 Introduction to MC

Below figure shows the WLAN network architecture. A mobile device, such as a pocket
computer or a laptop, connects to an access point called a hotspot.

The access point, in turn, connects to a host LAN which links up to the Internet through a
router. Thus, connectivity is established between the Internet, two LANs, mobile devices, and
computers.

Mobile IP is an open standard. It is based on the IP (Internet protocol); therefore, all media
supporting IP also support mobile IP. A mobile IP network provides the mobile IP service using
home agents and foreign agents.

3. Ad-hoc Networks

Below figure shows ad hoc network architecture. Where the nodes, mobile nodes, and sensor
nodes communicate among themselves using a base station.

The base stations function as gateways. The ad hoc networks are deployed for routing, target
detection, service discovery, and other needs in a mobile environment.
 Introduction to MC

A network without any base stations “infrastructure-less” or multi-hop. A collection of two or

more devices equipped with wireless communications and networking Capability. Supports
anytime and anywhere computing.

Two topologies:

• Heterogeneous (left): Differences in capabilities.

• Homogeneous or fully symmetric (Right): all nodes have identical capabilities
and responsibilities.

Self-organizing and adaptive – allows spontaneous formation and deformation of mobile

networks.

• Each mobile host acts as a router

• Supports peer-to-peer communications
• Supports peer-to-remote communications
• Reduced administrative cost
• Ease of deployment