Assam History

APSC
Assam History
CAREER ENHANCER
The History of Assam
Chapter 1 The Pre History of India
Chapter 2 History of Ancient India
Chapter 3 Assam In Ahom age
Chapter 4 The modern period of Assam
Chapter 5 The Freedom Movement
Chapter 6 Miscellaneous
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HISTORY
Pre-History of Assam :
Pre-history period is the period which is anterior to recorded history .Sources for study of this
period,etc. Pre-history of Assam, is almost and uninvestigated field of study. Caves, tools and geological
stratas of Paleolithic, Neolithic and chaleolithic ages discovered in the North-East region so far, in
combination give an idea of human habitation in this part of the country in the hoary past. During the
past few years, however, several sites and a large number of tools belonging to the Paleolithic age have
been discovered in the Garo hills. Relics ofthis culture are also found in the Lohit district of Arunachal
Pradesh and in the excavations of a cave at Khangkhuti in the Ukhrul Sub-division of Manipur. 1Besides,
some caves in the Khasia-Jaintia hills of Meghalaya,2 in the Mikir hills3 (present Karbi Anglong district)
and North Cachar hills4 with traces of rudimentary paintings and carvings5 were discovered and some
caves in the undivided district of Kamrup and at Jogighopa and Surya Pahar in the district of Goalpara
are noticed. But these have not been properly studied and explored yet. The stone tool so far, collected,
in and around Assam,give an idea regarding the Neolithic culture of this part of India. John Lubbock was
the first person to refer to finds of jade neolithic implements in Upper Assam. In 1872, S.E. Peal reported
the find of a celt below the foundation of a tea factory in Upper Assam. In 1875, Medlicot mentioned
the find of a stone hatchet in a tea-estate near Dibrugarh. 6Of the earlier neoliths, there is very meagre
evidence. But some specimen of the later Neolithic period have been discovered and these are
supposed to be made by the speakers of the Mon-khmer Speech which began some time in 2500 B.C. or
a little earlier. The first large find was made by Mr W. Penny, a tea-planter of Biswanath in the present
Sonitpur District,while digging a ditch in his estate. J.H. Hutton in his article ''Pre-history of
Assam'',classified the ground and polished stone tools into three types :(1) long,narrow and
triangular,(2) more or less rectangular and (3)the shouldered type. Of the shouldered types,one is found
at Kanarpara (Cachar)and one at Biswanath (Sonitpur). Two more stone celts of that very type were
discovered at Singbhum in present Bangladesh. According to La Toche, Beatric, Blackwood and
Smith,these neolithic tools were used by stone-age men in killing their species in combat. E.A. Gait,
explain for non-availability of neolithic and other stone-age evidences in Assam as follows-''The
Brahmaputra Valley is an alluvial country and the impetuous, snow-fed rivers which debouch from the
Himalayas, find so little resistance in its fertile soil that they are constantly carving out new channels and
cutting away their banks,consequently no building erected in their neighbourhood can be expected to
remain for more than a limited time''.8 A.H. Dani divided the erstwhile state of Assam into six district
zones for the study of neolithic culture. They are- 1.Cachar Hills zone 2.Sadiya Frontier zone 3.Naga Hills
zone 4.Khasi Hills zone 5.Garo Hills zone 6.Brahmaputra Valley zone. The grooved hammer stone is
peculiar to the Brahmaputra Valley, as no such other neoliths have been discovered in other parts of
Assam. This suggest that the people using this tools,at first,lived in the Brahmaputra Valley but were
forced later to take shelter in the hills. It is certain that they are the pre-Dravidian Neolithic
aborigins,who are now represented by the Austro-Asiatic Mon-Khmer speaking Khasis and Syntengs of
Meghalaya. But linguistically and culturally,this people are akin to Mundas of Chota-Nagpur.9 In recent
years, several neolithic sites have been discovered in this region and excavations were also undertaken
in these cities, viz. (1) Daojali Hading in the North Cachar hills, (2)Sarutaru in the Kamrup district and
(3)Sebalgiri in the Garo hills. Besides, different type of the stone tools, etc.,have been found in all these
excavated sites. Thus the antiquity of human civilization in Assam has been established beyond doubt by
the discovery of stone celts used by the neolithic people in various part of it. These neoliths as well as
linguistic and morphological evidence prove that the ancient inhabitants of Assam were of the Austric
stock and note of the Dravidian as it was once supposed to be. The next wave of migration to this
country brought the Dravidians, whose history is at least as old as the Austro-Asiantics. They were
cultured people belonging to the Chacolithic age, who, in the remote past, inhabited Northern India
supplanting the Austric races. The Aryans adopted many elements of Dravidian culture and
religion,including the cult of Linga and yoni, The antiquity of this cult in Assam is proved by the temple of
goddess Kamakhya. The Dravidians got so mixes up with the Mongoloids, who came to the Brahmaputra
Valley a little later after them that as a result of their inter-fusion,a new typed called Mongoloi-
Dravidian originated. The Mongoloids belonging to the Tibeto-Burman family of the Indo-Chinese
group,who now predominate the indigenous population of Assam,migrated to this country from their
original home in Western China. To quote S.K. Chatterjee,'' Different branches of the great Sino-Tibetan
speaking people which had their nidus near the head-waters of the Young-tsze-Kiang and the Hoang-Ho
rivers, to the west of China, pushed south and west, probably from 2000 B.C onwards and their tribes of
these infiltrated into India mostly along the western course of the Brahmaputra''.They entered Assam
through various routes at different times. The Ahoms of the Tai or Shan group Mongoloids entered
Assam in the early part of the 13th Century. The Khamtis, Phakials, Aitongs, Khamjangs and Turungs who
are of the same origin came to Assam in the 16th Century or a little later. Linguistically, the Tibeto-
Burmans are divided into two main groups-North Assam and Assam-Burmese. To the first group
belonging the Arunachali tribes like the Adis, Nishis, Akash, Mishings and Mishimis. The second group
includes the Bodos, The Nagas and the Kuki-Chins. The large Bodo group, in its turn, includes most of the
tribes and communities of the North-East region like the Garos, Rabhas, Kacharis, Dimasas, Chutiyas,
Morans, Koches, Hajongs, Lalungs, etc. In classical Indian literature they are called Kiratus The Aryans
were possibly the last to enter Assam. According to S.K. Chaterjee. they arrived in North Bengal by 700
B.C., if not earlier,12from where they moved eastward in small groups at different times. Assam's early
contact with the Aryans is borne out by the two great epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharat. According
to the Kalika Purana, Aryan settlements were made by Naraka and Bhagadutta, the early rules of ancient
Assam. The inscriptions of Bhaskaravarman make definite reference to the presence of Aryan settlement
of ancient Assam in the 5th Century A.D. 11. Among the population of Assam,Alpine or Armenoid and
Irano-Scythian are also found to be present. At what time and by which route,They came to Assam, it is
difficult to ascertain. Thus the process of influx of various races across the borders went on through
successive waves and in course of time, different cultures mingled so thoroughly in the composite
Assamese culture that it now becomes very difficult to distinguish one from the other.
History of Ancient Assam :
Ancient Assam was known as Pragjyotisha in early times and as Kamarupa in later times. The name
Pragjyotisha stood for both the kingdom and capital city. The earliest mention of the city of Pragjyotisha
is found in the Ramayana and Mahabharata. According to the Ramayana,this city was founded by
Amurtaraja son of Kusa and grandfather of the famous stage Viswamitra. There are different options
regarding the origin of the name''Pragjyotisha''. According to the Kalika Purana,''here Brahma first
created the stars and hence the city is called Pragjyoitishpur,a city equal to the city of Indra.''13Gait says
that the name,Pragjyotishpur ''is interesting in connection with the reputation in which,the country has
always been held as a land of magic and incantation,and with the view that it was in Assam that the
Tantrik from of Hinduisim orginated.The name Pragjyotisha,however,is most probably derived from the
term Prag-jyotish,meaning the eastern light. Hence it appears to mean ''the city or land of eastern light.
The kingdom came to be known as Kamrupa during the Purantic times,based on the legend that
Kamadeva, the god of love, the Indian Cupid,who was destroyed by the fiery glance of Siva returned to
life in this country,According to B.K. Kakati, the name ''Kamrupa'' is derived from an Austric formation
like Kamru or Kamrut, the name of a lesser divinity in Santali, which justifies the association of the land
with magic and necromancy.All this can be explained in the light of the cult of magic and sorcery
prevalent in the land. The first historic reference to the kingdom of Kamarupa is made in the Allahabad
Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta, assigned to the middle of the fourth century A.D. Geographical
Extent : The geographical extent of the kingdom of Pragjyotish-Kamarupa varied from time But one
thing is certain that its northern and south-western limits extended much beyond the present state of
Assam. The references in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata that the country stretched as far as the
sea and that it was a partly hilly country. The Ramayana locates the city of Pragjyotisha on a gold-
crested mountain called Varaha,which was 64 yojans in extent and''which stood or abutted on the
fathomless varunalaya (sea).''In the Mahabharata,Bhagadutta,the king of Pragjyotisha is called
Sailyalaya, (dwelling among the mountains)and refers to his troops as consisting of the Kiratas, Chinas
and dwellers of the sea-coast. The Varaha mountain referred to the Ramayana was possibly the Assam
range,while the sea mentioned there was the very low-lying and water logged country immediately to
the south of these hills which in old days was perhaps connected with the Bay of Bengal by the estuary
of the Brahmaputra .This was no doubt '' the eastern sea known to the ancients''. Kiratas were the
Mongoloid people of this region and the Chinas probably meant the Tibetans and the Bhutanese. The
dwellers of the sea coast were evidently the people living in the marshy of Sylhet, Mymensingh and
Tripura.On the other hand, it is stated in the Ramayana the Amurtaraja, the founder of Pragjyotisha
performed his austerities on the bank of the Kausika,which indicates that its western limit extended as
far as the river Kosi. On the basis of these references, Pargiter concluded that at the time of the great
Mahabharata war,the kingdom of Pragjyotisha included the greater part of modern Assam,and together
with Jalpaiguri,Koch Bihar, Rangpur, Bogra, Mymensing,Dacca, Tippera, part of Pabna and probably a
part of eastern Nepal. It appears from the Buddhist records and the Greek accounts of the 14th century
B.C.,that the southern boundary of Pragjyotisha was the Lohita Sagara, the western boundary was the
river Kousika,and the northern boundary was the Bhutan hills and part of Nepal. From the accounts of
Yuan Chang,it has been surmised that the kingdom of Kamarupa of his description included a portion of
Bihar,a portion of Northern and Eastern Bengal,and nearly the whole of Assam Valley. Some portion of
Bengal were under Kamrupa from the time of Bhaskara Varman who ruled in the first half of the
6thcentury A.D.to the time of Harshadeva.(c.725-750A.D.) According to the most of the Puranas,the
Kingdom of Kamarupa extended upto the river Karatoya in the west. The eastern limit of the
kingdom,however,cannot be definitely ascertained. According to the Kalika Purana,when Naraka was
ruling in Pragjyotisha,his friend Bana was ruling in Sonitpur, identified with the modern town of Tezpur.
It is generally believed that Bana's Kingdom included the modern districts,of Darrang, Sonitpur and
Lakhimpur. About the same time,there existed in the extreme eastern part,another independent
Kingdom called Vidarbha. It is also doubtful if the Kapili valley was initially a part of the Kingdom of
Pragjyotishpur-Kamarupa, because Davaka identified with the Kapili valley is mentioned as an
independent kingdom in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samuragupta. It was Kalyanavarman (c.420-
440A.D),a predecessor of Bhaskaravarmana,who incorporated Davaka with the kingdom of Kamrupa in
the first part of fifth century A.D. From this it can be concluded that eastern Assam valley was outside
the perimeter of Pragjyotisha but subsequently the kingdom extended towards the east even beyond
the Dikhou river. Foundation of the city of Harupeswara by the Salastambha kings, the Tezpur grant and
the Parvatiya plates of Vanamala, and the Nowgong grant of Balavarman during the 9th -10th century
A.D. also point to the extension to the Kingdom to its eastern limits.In the Jogini Tantra,which is
probably a later work, Kamarupa was said to have extended from the Karatoya river on the west to the
Dikshu (Dikhou)on the east,and from the mountain of Kanjagiri on the north to the confluence of the
Brahmaputra and the Laksha on the south. The kingdom thus included not only the whole of the
Brahmaputra valley but also parts of northern and eastern Bengal, parts of Bhutan,the Khasi and the
Garo hills and the northern part of the district of Sylhet. In any case,it is clear that Pragjyotisha or
ancient Kamrupa was a much larger kingdom that most of the other kingdoms mentioned in the
Mahabharata and most of the sixteen Mahajanapadas existing during the time of Gautama Buddha. The
Tantras and the Pauranas divided Kamarupa into four parts of divisions,but the names and boundaries
of this divisions are conflicting. The generally accepted names and the boundaries of the divisions are
found in the Hara-Gauri-Sambada. This work divided Kamarupa into four Pithas or divisions marked by
river boundaries as follows: (1).Ratnapitha from the Karatoya to the Sonkosh. (2).Kampitha from the
Sonkoch to the Kapili. (3).Suvarnapitha from the Puspika to the bhairabi. (4).Saumarpitha from the
Bhairabi to the Dikrong. Capital Cities : According to the traditions,all the king of ancient Assam starting
from Mahiranga Danava,had their capital in and around Guwahati, which was known as Pragjyotishpur
meaning of the capital of the Pragjyotisha kingdom. The Mairang hill, named after Mahiranga
Danava,which is situated at a distance of about 12 km.south of Guwahation the Shillong-Guwahati
Road,indicates his historicity. In the like way Naraka's historicity is indicated by the existing village of
Narakasurgaon,which includes the Narakasur hill, at a distance of about 5 km. to the south west of
modern city of Guwahati. According to K.L. Barua, the modern site of Dispur, situated about 3 km. to the
east of Narakasurgaon, is believed to be the abbreviation of Pragjyotishpur.23 In later period, during the
rule of the Salastambha dynasty, king Hajara Varman (c.815-835 A.D.) is said to have shifted his capital
to Haruppeswara, identifies with the modern town of Tezpur. Subsequently during the rule of the Pala
dynasty the capital was again shifted to Pragjyotishpur and named as Sri Durjaya . About the end of the
eleventh century, the capital of Dharmapala (c.1095-1120 A.D.) was at Kamarupnagar, which is
identified with North Guwahati. According to P.C. Choudhury, Kamarupanagar was ''but an extension of
the old capital of Pragjyotishpur. Kamarupanagar remained the capital until the later part of the
thirteenth century A.D., after which it was shifted to Kamatapur. It is very probable that the king of
ancient Assam, who ruled over territories extending from northern hills to the southern sea, had more
than one camp capitals, which were also capital of some other dynasties ruling at those sites at different
times. One such site is Sonitpur (modern Tezpur), where once the traditional king Bana or Banasur ruled
till he was vanquished by Sri Krishna after the secret marriage of Aniruddha, the grand-son of Sri Krishna
with Banas daughter Usha. Another such site is at Kundila Nagar (modern Sadiya)in the easternmost
corner of the Brahmaputra valley, where the legendary king Bismaka, the Father of Rukmini who was
the consort of Sri Krishna ruled. Mention may also be made of Bitargarh fort of Jalpaiguri and Kamatapur
of Koch Bihar. But there is no doubt that throughout the ancient period, when the kingdom of
Pragjyotisha or Kamarupa included, besides the Brahmaputra valley, part of east Bengal, its capital was
situated at Pragjyotishpur, which is known as Guwahati in the modern times, as there is no other place
which all exactly fit in with the description of the ancient inscriptions,wherein the capital is stated to be
''situated on the bank of the Lauhitya'' being surrounded by hills on all sides and crowded with dense
forests.
The Traditional Kings : The earliest known king of ancient Assam was Mahiranga Danava. He had his
capital at Mairanka, identified with a hill called Mairang Parvat near Guwahati. He was succeeded in
turn,by Hataksur, Sambarasur and Ratnasur .The epithels ''Danava'' and ''Asura'' show that they were of
non-Aryans origin. After them came Ghatakasura who is called the ruler of the Kiratas. Ghatakasura was
overthrown by Narakasura, who is the hero of various stories narrated in the Purana and the Tantras.
Narakasura founded a new dynasty known as Bhouma or Varaha dynasty. The legends goes that Naraka
was born of Prithivi (the earth)by Bishnu, in his Varaha (boar) in carnation and was brought up the
Janaka, the king of Videha or North Bihar. It is for this region that Naraka is and on account of his
supposed divine origin, all dynasties ruling in Pragjyotishpur-Kamarupa claimed their descent from
Naraka and called themselves Bhauma. Naraka away the Kiratas to the country near the sea coast and
settled the Aryans in this country. This was perhaps the earliest settlement of the Aryans in Assam.
Naraka built a fort in a few place surrounded on all sides by hills and it is said that this stronghold was
inaccessible even to the gods. Naraka was worshipper of goddess Kamakhya and favoured by Vishnu. In
his early career, Naraka was pious and prosperous, but later, he came under the influence of Banasura,
the king of Sonitpur, and grew so irreligious and presumptuous that finally he proposed to marry mother
goddess Kamakhya. The goddess assented to the proposal on condition of construction by Naraka during
the course of one night,a temple,a tank and a road from the foothills to the temple at the top. All these
were nearly completed,when the goddess made a cock crowd before the usual hour to indicate dawn.
Thus Naraka's proposal came to a naught. The arrogant Naraka even refused admission to the famous
sage Vasistha to worship in the temple of Kamakhya. When the news of his atrocities reached Sri
Krishna, the incarnation of Vishnu, the latter came to Pragjyotisha with his army, defeated and killed
Naraka in a battle and placed Naraka's son Bhagadatta on the throne of Pragjyotisha. Bhagadutta was a
powerful king. It is said that he married his daughter Bhanumati to Durjyodhana, the eldest of the
Kauravas, and for this relation participated in the Kurukshetra was an ally of the Kauravas. Bhagadutta is
a well-known figure in the Mahabharata, which calls him the mighty king of the Mlechchas. He is
celebrated in this epic as a powerful warrior king ''not inferior to Chakra in battle'' and described as ''the
best wielder of the elephant squad'' among the Kauravas allies. He is dignified with the title ''Siva's
friend'' and always talked of with respect and friendliness by Sri Krishna. After he was killed in the
Mahabharata war,he was succeeded by his son Vajradatta. The geneology of the rulers after Vajradutta
is uncertain. The Nidhanpur copper place inscription of Bhaskaravarman who ruled over Kamarupa in
the early seventh century A.D., states that a period of three thousand years elapsed between the death
of Vajradutta and the accession of Pushyavarman, the ancestor of Bhaskaravarman, who was the
twelveth in the line. The Bhagavata and the Vishnu Purana narrate the story of another traditional ruler,
Bhismak, who ruled in Vidarbha popularity identified with the Sadiya region. His capital was at Kundil.
He had a beautiful and accomplished daughter named Rukmini.Lord Krishna having heard of her came to
Vidarbha and married her by defeating the other kings at Kundil Nagar. The Kalika Purana, Bhagavata
Purana and the Vishnu Purana contain account of king named Bana or Banasura, whose daughter Usha
was believed to have been married to Aniruddha, the grandson of Sri Krishna. From his title it appears
that he was of Asura or Danava clan, hence a non-Aryan. It appears from a number of sources that Bana
was a contemporary of Naraka. According to P.C. Choudhury, the historicity of Bana is established by the
remains of Agniparvat, Mahabhairab temple, Bhairavi temple and other remains in Tezpur associated
with his name. From the extant of architectural remains in different places in the undivided Darrang and
the Lakhimpur districts,it is believed by some that the kingdom of Bana included the whole of these
areas.
Ruling Dynasties of Ancient Assam :
The Varmana Dynasty : The real political history of ancient Assam begins with the foundation of the
Varmana line of kings. The inscriptions of Bhaskaravarman, the greatest king of this dynasty as well as of
ancient Assam, Banabhatta's Harshacharita and the accounts of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang furnish
considerable materials relating to the history of the Varmanas. It is learnt from epigraphical sources that
Pushyavarman, born in the lineage of Naraka-Bhagaduta was the founder of the Varmana of Bhauma
line of kings. When and how Pushyavarman came to power is not known. He probably taking advantage
of the political instability of the time,made himself king and to justify his claim,traced his descent from
Naraka-Bhagadutta. According to B.M.Barua.'' Pushyavarman was the first Indo-Aryan ruler set up by
Samudragupta over the two territories of Kamarupa and Davaka unified into a single kingdom.But this
view is not tenable because Pushyavarman assumed the important title of Maharajadhiraja which
indicates his independent status. Pushyavarman was probably a contemporary of Samudragupta. In the
Allahabad pillar inscription of this Gupta emperor, the name of Kamrupa occurs as a frontier kingdom
Samalata, Davaka, Nepal and Kartipur,whose kings owed allegiance to Samudragupta on their own
accord. The unnamed king of Kamarupa of this inscription is usually identified with Pushyavarman. If we
count the date of Pushyavarman on the basis of the Badaganga epigraph of Bhutivarman, (dated 234
Gupta era which corresponds to 553-54 A.D.) who was the eighth king of the dynasty and allow its king
an average reigning period of 25 years, Pushyavarman's reign would fall between 355-380 A.D..he would
thus be a contemporary of Samudragupta (c.320-80 A.D.).It was perhaps in honour of his overlord that
he named his son as Samudravarman and his daughter-in-law as Dattadevi in imitation of the names of
the Gupta emperor Samudragupta and his queen Dattadevi. Rajatarangini, a book of fifth century A.D.,
by Kalhan, mentions a Kamarupa princess named Amritaprabha, who was given in marriage to
Meghavahana, a Kashmir prince in an open Sayambara. This Amritaprabha is believed to be the
daughter of Balavarman, the grandson of Pushyavarman. Rajatarangini relates that Amritaprabha
erected in Kashmir,a lofty Vihara for the benefit of the foreign bhikshus and that this Vihara was known
as Amritabhaban. It is farther stated that Amritaprabha took with her a Tibetan Buddhist monk named
Stunpa, who was a preceptor of her father. This Stunpa erected a Stupa in Kashmir known as Lo-
Stunpa.31 Ou-Kung and M.A. Stein also support the historicity of this event. During the reign of
Kalyanavarman, the son of Balavarman,the Davaka or the Kapili valley (comprising possibly the present
district of Nagoan, Karbi Anglong and North Cachar area) was absorbed into the empire of Kamarupa. To
signalise this victory, he sent a diplomatic mission to China in 428 A.D. Mahendravarman, grandson of
Kalyanavarman expanded his empire to south-east Bengal upto the sea by shaking off the last vestiges
of the Gupta influence in Kamarupa.He was the first king of Assam to perform Aswamedha and he did it
on two occasions. Mahendravarman's grandson Bhutiavarman was a powerful king. He conquered
Pundravardhana (North Bengal) sometime between 545-50 A.D. and donated lands to more than 200
Brahmanas in the Chandrapuri visaya located within the Pundravardhana bhukti. He might have also
extended his sway in the south and the west and brought the outlying regions of Samatata, Sylhet,
Tripura and other regions under his control. He has also performed one Aswamedha sacrifice. The glory
of Kamarupa suffered a temporary set back during the reign of Bhaskaravarman's father
Susthitavarman,who suffered a defeat at the hands of the Later Gupta monarch Mahasenagupta and as
a result of this defeat lost the possession of Pundravardhana. Bhaskaravarman (600-650 A.D.), ascending
the throne at a time, when the reputation of his family was at a low ebb, not only restored it but made
Kamarupa, a power to be reckoned with whose alliance was welcomed by a monarch of Harsha's (606-
648 A.D.)fame, the last great monarch of ancient Northern India. By this alliance, Bhaskara not only
recovered Pundravardhana but also brought Gauda with its capital Karnasuvarna under his control. In
fact,it was from his victorious camp at Karnasuvarna that Bhaskara issued his Nidhanpur grant by which
he renewed the grants of land made earlier by Bhutivarman in Pundravardhana. It was during the reign
of Bhaskaravarman that the great Chinese pilgrim Houen Tsang visited Kamarupa in 643 A.D. and stayed
in his capital for nearly two months. The pilgrim speaks highly about the noble qualities of Bhaskara and
his prowess. In the religious assemblies held at Prayag and Kanauj by Harsha, Bhaskara was shown
special honour in the presence of all the kings assembled there. After the death of Harsha in 648 A.D.,
Bhaskara became the supreme lord of Eastern India extending his sway as far as Nalanda. He had also
brought under his control Sylhet and Tripura including south-east Bengal. This is testified by Hiuen Tsang
who refers to Bhaskara as ''King of eastern India''and stated that the rules of Kamarupa had the sea-
route to China under their protection. Inscriptions bear testimony to the many-sided qualities and
achievements of Bhaskara. Because of his depth of knowledge,he is called in the ''second Brihaspati''.He
made Kamarupa a noted centre of learning attracting students from outside. As pointed out by P.C.
Choudhury, with the expansion of the political sway of the Varmana line of kings large portion of Eastern
India came under the cultural ideas of Kamarupa. 35 This influence even spread to the islands in the
pacific and some of the architectural remains in Combodia, Annam and other places are possibly to be
attributed to the influence of the rulers of Kamarupa.
The Salastambha Dynasty : Bhaskaravarman remained a celibate throughout his life. It is for this reason
that he is called Kumara Raja in the Harshacharia and in the account of Hiuen Tsang. Naturally,
therefore, at his death an anarchical situation arose, taking advantage of which a non-Aryan chief
named Salastambha usurped the throne. Who was the immediate successor of is not known for
certainly. According to K.L. Barua, Bhaskara was succeeded by one of his near relations,whom he
identifies with Avantivarman of Visakhadatta's Sanskrit Drama Mudrarakshasa. He holds the view that
Salastambha,the leader of governor of the Mlechchas usurped the throne by deposing
Avantivarman,who did not reign for more than five years. That Salastambha was a usurper is indicated
in the text of the Bargaon grant of Ratnapala which runs as follows :''After thus,for several
generations,kings of Naraka's dynasty had ruled the whole country,a great chief of the Mlechchas,
owing to a turn of adverse fate, took possession of the kingdom. This was Salastambha. In succession to
him,their were chiefs altogether twice ten in number...''. According to the Hara-Gauri-Sambada, after
the end of the period of the family of Naraka-Bhagadutta, came a prince from the west,named
Madhaba, who established himself in Kamarupa a new line of kings having twentyone kings. As the
number of kings given in this source exactly tallies with that given in the inscriptions as belonging to
Salastambha, P.C. Choudhury rightly identifies Salastambha with Madhava of the Hara-Gauri-Sambada
and holds that Salastambha and Avantivarman were the same person, who was referred to as
DevavarmanThe Salastambha kings called their descent from the ancient Bhaumas of Bhauma-Narakas
like the Varman kings,whom they supplanted. Salastambha's reign can tentatively be placed between
655 to 675 A.D. Though there were twentyone kings in his family,names of only fifteen have so far been
found. During the rule of this dynasty,the capital city was located at Haruppeswara, identified with the
modern town of Tezpur. The sixth king of the dynasty, Sri Harsha or Harshadeva (c.725-50 A.D) was the
most famous, being credited with the overlordship of Gauda, Odra, Kalinga, Kosala and other lands. It is
recorded in the Pasupati epigraph of the Nepal king, Jayadeva II, that Sri Harshadeva who was the lord
of these lands gave his daughter Rajyamatiin marriage to this king. It appears that after conquering
Kalinga and Kosala, Harshadeva led an expedition to the south and was defeated by the Cahlukya king of
Karnataka, Kirtivarman II. Soon after, he was overthrown and killed by Yasovarman of Kanauj.39Thus
though for a short period, Kamarupa, during the rule of Harshadeva reached the highest point of its
military glory ''when its suzerain power extended from Sadiya in the east to Ajodhya in the west, and
from the Himalayas in the north as far as the Bay of Bengal and Ganjam in the south''. It is presumed by
Gait that the family of Salastambha came to an end with the death of Harshadeva.41 But according to
the Hayunthal epigraph, Harshadeva was succeeded by his son Balavarman II (c.750-765A.D.),who was
also a powerful monarch. Pralambha the great-grandson of Harshadeva was contemporary of Gopala,
the first king of the Pala Dynasty of Gauda. Pralambha's son Harjaravarman was perhaps the first of this
line of kings to perform his coronation ceremony according to Vedic rites. He assumed the High-
sounding title Maharajadhiraja Parameswara Paramabhattaraka. He was left us two inscriptions, the
Hayunthal copper plates found at Nagaon and the Tezpur rock epigraph. The second one is dated Gupta
era 510=829-30 A.D. Harajaras reign is tentatively placed between c.815-35 A.D. The Tezpur inscription
was sasana or royal charter regulating the plying of boats in the Brahmaputra within certain boundaries
specified therein. This sasana indicates that Harjara had a big navy at his command. Hajaravarman built
a lofty Siva temple and rows of stately buildings in the capital city at Haruppeswara. Extensive ruins of
temples and buildings in and around the modern town of Tezpur along with the existence of a big tank
called Hajarapukhuri bear. Choudhury also opines that Salastambha was probably established,as a ruler
of the Nalanda region by Bhaskara and immediately after the latter's death without leaving an heir,he
came to Pragjyotisha and declared himself as king testimony of Harjara's patronage of art and
architecture and his attention to public works. Hajaravarman's son Vanamalavarman (c.835-65A.D.)was
perhaps the last powerful king of Salastambha dynasty .He recovered Kamarupa's lost possession of
Pundravardhana and to signalise this victory donated lands to a Brahmana near about the area where
Bhutivarman of the Varman dynasty made land-grants in the middle of the 6thcentury A.D. This is
recorded in the Tezpur grant issued in his 19th regal year. He made several other land-grants. He rebuilt
the Siva temple erected by his father and made grants of lands,elephants and temple girls to it. From his
Nagaon grant it is learnt that his capital city was inhabited by virtuous men, merchants and learned
scholars and people of all classes lived there happily. Vanamala, a devout worshipper of Siva abdicated
the throne in favour of his son Jayamala (c.865-85A.D.) and himself fasted unto death.43 Vanamala's
grandson Balavarman III (c.885-910A.D.)also made several land grants in different parts of his kingdom.
In his grants he too assumed the high-sounding epithet Maharajadhiraja Parameswara
Paramabhattaraka. Nothing is known about the successors of Balavarman III. There is a gap in the
historical account of the period between the reign of Balavarman III and Tyagasingha, the last king of the
family. They possibly ruled during the period c.910-970 A.D., after which Brahmapala started the rule of
Pala line of kings.
The Pala Dynasty : Tyagasingha possibly died childless, but the danger of rebellion centering round his
heirless death was tactfully avoided by the officers by choosing Brahmapala to the throne. 44This is
evident from the Bargaon grant of Ratnapala which states:''Seeing that the twenty-first of them (the line
of Salastambha ), the illustrious Tyagasingha by name had departed to heaven without leaving any of his
heir to succeed him, his officials, thinking it well that a Bhauma (of Naraka's race) should be appointed
as their lord chose Brahmapala from along his kindred to be their king on account of his fitness to
undertake the government of the country,''According to the Hara-Gauri-Sambada, the family of
Madhava, who is identified with Salastambha, was followed by that of Jitari, who ruled for eight
generations. The epigraphs of the Palas also give the names of eight kings beginning with Brahmapala
and Jitari were the same person. Brahmapala possibly hailed from the western part of the kingdom of
Kamarupa for which he is said to have come from the Dravida country in the Hara-Gauri Sambada. The
title 'Pala' is an abbreviation of the Sanskriti term Palaka, which means protector, i.e., a ruler or
administrator. It seems that this title was a popular one among the rulers . Nagaon Grant, of north
eastern India of the time and in imitation of the contemporary Pala kings of Bengal, Brahmapala also
assumed that title. Brahmapala's reign may be placed between 990-1010 A.D. Towards the close of rule
of the Salastambhas, Pundravardhana passed on to the hands of Bengal's ruler. The western boundary
of the Kamrupa kingdom at the time of Brahmapala's accession to the throne was, therefore, again
regressed to the river Karatoya. Brahmaputra abdicated the throne in favour of his son Ratnapala.
Ratnapala (c.1010-40A.D) was a powerful king. He made several land-grants. He shifted the capital city
of his kingdom of Pragjyotishpur, strongly fortified it and named it as Durjaya or Sri Durjaya
(impregnable).He defeated a king of Gouda named Rajyapala, which is evident from an inscription
belonging to one of his successors, Gopala. Ratnapala appears to have encouraged trade and commerce
as well as learning and education. Ratnapala's son Indrapala (c.1040-65A.D.) defeated Kalyana Chandra,
son of Sri Chandra of Bengal and to mark this victory made land-grants in Pundravardhana to a
Brahmana hailing from Sravasthi. Indrapala married Rajyadevi, a Rashtrakuta princess. He was
succeeded by his son Gopala (c.1065-85), who was a man of merit and intelligence. His Grachtal
inscription contains important information about his predecessors. During the reign of the next king
Harshapala (c.1085-95), Jatavarman, king of East Bengal snatched away a part of Pundravardhana, then
under the sovereign rule of Kamarupa. However, this was soon recovered by Dharmapala (c.1095-1120),
son and successor of Harshapala. Three inscription belonging to Dharmapala's reign are found, which
speak about his prowess and manifold qualities. He was a great patron of religion and learning and
himself a poet. The first eight verses of the Pushpabhadra grant were composed by him. Towards the
end of his reign,Dharmapala was conducting his administration from his capital at Kamarupanagar,which
can be considered only as an extension of the old city of Pragjyotishpur to North Guwahati. Jaypala, the
son of Dharmapala, who is identified by P.C. Choudhury with Ramchandra mentioned in Ram Charita of
Sandhyakaranandi, ruled sometime between 1120-30A.D. During his reign, Kamarupa was attacked by
Mayana, the general of Ramapala, the Pala king of Bengal,and as a result of the war,the
Kamarupadhipati lost his possession in North Bengal. The Bengal king placed Tingyadeva as his vassal
king in the part. Later when Tingyadeva rebelled, Ramapala's son Kumarapala, who then ruled Gauda,
sent Vaidyadeva to suppress him. Vaidyadeva not only suppressed Tingyadeva,but also conquered
Kamarupa and declared his independence in 1138 A.D..He assumed the title Maharajadhiraja
Parameswara Paramabhattaraka.
Later Kings of Kamarupa :. Though there is no definite account of Kamrupa and its king for the few
decades following Vaidyadeva, from the Tezpur grant of Valabhadeva dated 1107 Saka, which
corresponds to 1185 A.D., it is learnt that his grandfather Rayarideva had an encounter with king
Vijaysena of Bengal to P.C. Choudhury, Rayarideva was probably a feudatory of Vadyadeva in the
Darrang area.48 After Gopala III,owing to the weakness of Pala kings of Gauda, the Sena king of
Bengal,Vijayasena, conquered the whole of Gauda and thus became the immediate neighbour of
Kamarupa. In the Deopara inscription of Vijaysena (1125-57 A.D.), reference is made to an event,
wherein Vijayasena had an encounter with the Kamarupadhipati, who can be identified with
Vaidyadeva. In the opinion of P.C. Choudhury, Rayarideva helped Vaidyadeva, who was then occupying
the throne of Kamarupa to resist Vijayasena. In the war, Vaidyadeva was killed, but in the hands of
Rayarideva, Vijayasena experienced reverse, as indicated in the Tezpur grant of Vallabhadeva, after
which, Rayarideva established himself as an independent king of Kamarupa.49 Rayarideva was
succeeded by Udayakarna and thereafter Vallabhadeva became the king of Kamarupa in the 9th decade
of the 12th century, as his Tezpur grant was issued in 1185 A.D..Lakshmanasena (c.1175-1205 A.D.) the
son of Vallabhasena, who ascended the throne at very late years, invaded Kamarupa during the time of
Vallabhadeva and defeated him, but his successor Viswasundardeva immediately recovered his kingdom
and established his independent status. Viswasundardeva was also popularly known as Prithu of Barthu.
He was a very powerful king. He not only defeated and destroyed the entire army of Muhammad-bin-
Bakhtiyar in 1205-06 A.D. but also overthrew Sultan Ghiyasuddin-Iwas Khilji in 1227 A.D., and finally
faced defeated in the hands of Nasiruddin, the son of Iltutmish in 1228 A.D. Viswasundardeva was
followed by Sandhya,who was established by Nasiruddin as a tributary king and,thereafter at the death
of Nasiruddin, Sandhya threw off his allegiance to the Turkish ruler of Bengal. At this juncture,the
Bhuyan chiefs of Kamarupa joined with Sandhya,who brought the whole region upto Karatoya and also a
part of the area beyond,under his control and assumed the title Gaudeswar. He was followed by his son
Sindhu(c.1260-85A.D) and there after his grandson, Rupanarayan (c.1285-1300A.D).50 From a narrative
in the Gurucharia, written by Ramacharan Thakur,it is found that Sandya was a very powerful king, who
thwarted the invasion of Kamrupa by Malik Yuzbeg alias Sultan Mughisuddin 51in 1257 A.D..Thereafter,
he shifted his capital to Kamalpur in Koch Bihar and assumed the title Kamateswara and used it as a
synonym for Kameswara meaning''the lord of Kamarupa.''Thenceforth, the kingdom came to be known
as Kamata or Kamrup-Kamata. Sandhya is said to have given his daughter in marriage to
Ratnadhvaja,the powerful Chutia king of Sadiya.52 The last king of this line was Singhadhvaja (1300-
05A.D.).who lost his kingdom to his minister, Pratapdhvaja(1305-25A.D). Pratapdhvaja has been referred
to as Manik Chandra in the traditions prevalent in Koch Bihar. His daughters, Rajani and Bhajani were
given in marriage to the Ahom king Sukhangpha (1293-1332A.D).53 At the death of Pratapdhvaja, the
throne of the Kamata kingdom was seized by his nephew Dharampala alias Dharmanarayan. This
usurpation was challenged by the Bhuyans but Dharmanarayan subjugated them all. Dharmanarayan
shifted his headquarter's to Dimla in the district of Rangpore. He possibly conquered certain portions of
Gauda for which he took the title Gaudeswara. Meanwhile, Durlabhnarayan, the son of Pratapdhvaja
and hence the legal claimant to the throne with the help of some Bhuyans, challenged the authority of
Dharmanarayan,and occupied the eastern part of the Kamata kingdom. He established his headquarters
at Garia near the modern town of Koch Bihar. This was followed by a long and protracted warfare. At
last a peace was concluded,possibly in 1330A.D., by which the kingdom was divided between them,
Durlabhnarayan taking the northern and eastern part along with the city of Kamatapur and
Dharmanarayan retaining the rest,which included Rangpore and Mymensingh,After the conclusion of
the treaty, Gaudeswar Dharmanarayan sent,at the request of Kamateswar Durlabhnarayan,fourteen
families of Brahmanas and Kayasthas to the latter's kingdom. Thus Dharmanarayan was ruling over the
undivided kingdom of Kamata possibly from 1325-30 A.D. After the partition of the kingdom,he
continued to rule over its western part for some years.Dharmanarayan was succeeded by his son
Tamradhvaja,who established himself at Ghoraghat in the Rangpore district. Durlabhnarayan was a
great patron of learning,. His court was adorned by the famous Assamese poets Harihar Bipra,Ram
Saraswati and Hem Saraswati. Durlabhnarayan was succeeded by his son Indranarayan(1350-65
A.D.),who assumed the title''Pancha Gaudeswara''.This indicates that he wrested the western part of the
Kamata kingdom,which fell into the hands of Dharmanarayan. The history of the Kamata kingdom after
Indranarayan in uncertain. Possibly towards the end of Indranarayan's reign, some unruly elements
raised their heads in the kingdom and Indranarayan himself may have been killed by an adventurous
upstart,who is usually identified with Sasanka alias Arimatta. Arimatta was possibly a related nephew of
Indranarayan and as because he became king by killing his paternal uncle,he has been condemned in
popular traditions of Assam as a patricide. Arimatta established his capital near Betna, covering the fort
constructed by Vaidyadeva in the early part of the 12th century probably a relative of Indranarayan
challenged him but he was killed by Arimatta. Arimatta ruled probably during the period 1365-85
A.D..He was succeeded by Gajanka, Sutaranka and Mriganka successively. Their rule can be placed
between 1385-1440A.D.The Ahom king Sudangpha (1397-1407A.D.)invaded the Kamata kingdom
towards the close of his reign, when Gajanka was ruling over it and the latter sued for peace by offering
his daughter to the Ahom king.
The Khan or Khen Dynasty :During the rule of the successors of Arimatta, the Bhuyans rose their hands
in different parts of the kingdom .when Mriganka, the last king of Arimatta's line died childless, the
throne was occupied by one Niladhvaj Khan (c.1440-60A.D.),who assumed the title Kamateswar and
rebuilt the city of Kamatapur. The dynasty founded by Niladhvaj came to be known as Khan or Khen
dynasty. According to the Kamrupar Buranji, Niladhvaj and his successors were the rulers over the
Singimari region, upto the bank of the Brahmaputra opposite Hajo. Niladhvaj was succeeded by his son
Chakrodhvaj (c.1460-80A.D.), who in his turn, was followed by his son Nilambar (c.1480-98A.D.). Taking
advantage of the anarchical situation in Bengal under the Abysinians or Habshis, Nilambar occupied the
north-eastern part of Bengal and consolidated his conquest by building a road from his capital to the
frontier fortress of Ghoraghat on the Karatoya. He was overthrown by the Bengal Sultan Alauddin
Hussain Shah (1493-1517A.D.) in 1498A.D..With this event, the rule of the Khan or Khen kings of Kamata
came to the end. The Bhuyans then became powerful and were ruling in different parts of the kingdom
till the rise of the Koches in about 1515 A.D..
Confliciting Accounts relating to Arimatta :The accounts relating to the kings after Indranarayan,
specially Arimatta, are very conflicting. However,it can be said that whatever his identity had been,
Arimata was a powerful warrior, who made his influence felt in different parts of the Brahmaputra
valley. There are many legends centering round Arimatta in Assam. There is a tradition even amongst
the Daflas (Nishis)that once he took refuge at Hita Rokp, present Itanagar. According to one account
given in the Kamrupar Buranji, Arimatta was descendant of king Dharmapala,who came from Gauda.
Dharmapala was succeeded by Ratnapala, Somapala and Pratap Singha, one after another. Arimata was
the son of Pratap Singha, who had his capital at Kanayka (which came to be known as Pratapapura)near
Viswanath in Sonitpur district. Arimatta's mother Chandraprabha being offered to the river god
Brahmaputra by Pratap Singha when she was pregnant, he was brought up by a Brahmin, who rescued
his mother. Arimatta had an adventurous career and in course of his military exploits, he killed his own
father, not knowing his identity. According to this account, Arimatta was defeated by Phengua, after
which, he drowned himself to the river. The genealogy of the Dimarua Rajas,on the other hand, states
that Somapala of Pratapapura was the father of Arimatta. The Rajas of Rani and Dimarua claimed their
descent from Arimatta. It is said that Pratap Singha was also known as Ramchandra and Bhalukpung.
According to another account given in the Kamrupar Buranji was a descendant of Jitari,who came from
the Dravida country and established himself at Kamarupa. Arimatta killed the Kamateswara
Durlabhendra, who was probably a descendant of Indranarayan and occupied the throne of Kamata.
Arimatta was followed by Sukaranga,Sukaranga and Mriganka respectively. These four kings ruled from
1160 to 1400 Saka,i.e.,1238-1478 A.D.In the Saharai mauja in Nagaon, there are remains of an old fort
with high embankments known as Jongalgarh.This is believed ti have been the capital of Jongal
Balahu,another son of Arimatta, who was defeated by the Kacharis and drowned himself in the Kalong
river.To conclude, no authentic and comprehensive account of Assam following the Palas, is found
available till now. However,it is certain that since about the close of the 12th century, the empire of
Kamarupa shrank to the small kingdom of Kamata, which also, after the death of Indranarayan got
disintegrated into several principalities ruled by a class of petty land-lords called Bhuyans. In the eastern
and central Brahmaputra valley,a number of Mongoloid tribes like the Chutiyas, Marans, Borahis and the
Kacharis founded their independent kingdoms,who were finally subjugated by the Ahoms.
The Muslim Invasions :The first Muslim army to enter Kamarupa was led by Mahammad-bin-Bakhtiyar
in 1205-06A.D..The even is recorded in the Kanai Barasi Stone Inscription at North Guwahati in a few
words in Sanskrit which means that on the thirteenth of Chaitra, in the Saka era 1127, the Turks coming
into Kamarupa were destroyed.''The destination of the invaders was perhaps beyond Kamarupa. But the
army advanced through this land against the advice of the king and while it retreated, the Kamarupa
king Prithu (Bartu) alias Viswasundardeva inflicted severe defeated upon the invaders. The second
invasion in 1226 A.D. was led by Sultan Ghiasuddin Iwaz, who is said to have advanced as far as Sadiya.
But in the end,he was defeated by Prithu and driven back to Gauda. Ghiasuddin was ultimately
overthrown by Nasiruddin, son of Iltutmish in 1228 A.D.,and it was Nasiruddin,who overthrew Prithu in
that year. Nasiruddin retired from Kamarupa on promise of an annual tribute which,however,was
stopped after some time by Sandhya,the son of Prithu. The third invasion was led by Ikhtiyaruddin
Yuzbeg Tughril Khan in 1256-57 A.D..For a time Tughril was successful and he erected a mosque in
commemoration of his victories. But when the rains set in and disease overtook the invaders,the Sultan
and his soldiers were defeated and killed by Sandhya's men. Only few could return to Bengal to tell of
the catastrophe of the army. According to the Alamgirnamah, Mahammad-bin-Tughlug despatched a
huge army of 1000,000 to conquer. Assam in 1332-33 A.D..But when the imperial army entered the
frontier of Kamata, they were all relegated to oblivion. It is further mentioned in the same source that to
avenge this defeated Mahammad-bin-Tughluq sent another expedition to invade Kamata, but''when it
arrived in Bengal,it was panic-striken and shrank from the enterprise.''The next invasion was led by
Sikandar Shah in 1362 A.D.,during the reign of Indranarayan. The army possibly advanced as far has
Gachtal in Nagaon district,but having heard of the invasion of Bengal by his overlord Firoz Shah Tughluq,
he hurried back to his domain. After this,for a period of more than one hundred years, barring certain
marauding campaigns, Assam was free from any serious Muslim invasion till the end of the fifteenth
century. According to a Persian Manuscript said to have been written in 1633 A.D.,one Shah Ismail Ghaji
was sent in an expedition by the Bengal Sultan Rukunuddin Barbak against the king of Kamata, who was
probably Chakradhvaj, father of Nilambar. Ismail by performing feats of supernatural power succeeded
in obtaining the submission of the Kamata king. But the Hindu Governor Ghoraghat represented to the
Sultan that the alleged submission of the Kamateswara was a fraud and Ismail was only forming an
alliance with the Kamateswara to set up an independent kingdom for himself. The Sultan believing the
information to be true sent an army against Ismail,who repulsed the Sultan's forces several times but at
last submitted. Ismail was finally beheaded. From the story it appears that Ismail concluded a true with
the Kamateswara,to whom he had to cede some territory probably in Golaghat. It has already been
stated that Chakradhvaj's son Nilambar built a road from Kamatapur to Ghoraghat and erected a fort at
Goraghat.68 This took place possibly during the period 1470-74A.D.The next Muslim expedition to
Kamata took place in 1498 A.D,wherein Alauddin Hussain Shah of Gauda defeated the Kamata Raja
Nilambar through treachery and left for his territory leaving his son Danial with a garrison at Hajo. After
Danial's death, Musunder Ghazi ruled in Kamrup and Sultan Ghiyasuddin Aulia founded a Muslim Colony
in Kamrup and built a large Mosque on a hill at Hajo called Poa Mecca. Reputed as a darwesh in
Jahangir's time, he is venerated as a saint in Assam. His tomb in the Mosque is sacred to both Muslims
and Hindus. In 1501 A.D.,the Bhuyan chiefs of Kamrup joined together,attacked the Muslim garrison at
Hajo and destroyed it,making Kamrup again free from Muslim yoke. It is learnt from the buranjis, that a
certain Bar Ujir invaded Assam in 1527 A.D.,during the reign of Suhungmung Dihingiya Raja (1497-
1539A.D.). The invaders advanced as far as Temani in the Kalang valley,where a serious battle took
place. The Ahom army led by Kancheng Barpatra Gohain defeated the invaders. This is the first Muslim
invasion to the Ahom kingdom. In 1532 A.D.,another Muslim general named Turbak marched upto
Kaliabar and defeated the Ahom troops stationed there. But subsequently, he was defeated and killed in
a bloody battle on the bank of the Bharali river in the very same year. Twenty-one years later, Kala
Pahar, a Hindu apostate is said to have made marauding expedition into Assam, and in his fanatical zeal
for the propagation of his new religion, made attempts to demolish the temples at Kamakhya and Hajo.
Medieval Period :
The history of medieval Kamrup after the rule of the Pala dynasty is disconnected. No inscription or
coin,nor any contemporary comprehensive historical account of his period has yet been discovered. But
the history of Medieval Kamrupa has come to light on the basis of certain legitimate historical
study/investigation. It seems that during this period the Kacharis became powerful and advanced
towards the west up to the boundary of the present district of Kamrup. Owing to the expansion of
Kachari power, the Kamarupa kings were, it seems,compelled to remove their capital from Guwahati
further west to Kamatapur as already mentioned earlier. There after,the kingdom of Kamata came into
existence. Kachari dynasty:The late Pandit Hem Chandra Goswami stated that Maha Manikya was a king
of the Barahi Kacharis and that he ruled about the middle of the fourteenth century at Dimapur. It is
evident that Kachari or Bodo sovereignty was exercised in Assam in different places. As Sir Edward Gait
says,''the Kacharis are believed to be very closely allied to the Koches, and also so far,at least as
language is concerned, to the Chutiyas, Lalungs and Morans of the Brahmaputra valley,and to the Garos
and Tipperas of the Southern Hills. Having regard to their wide distribution,and to the extent of country
over which Bodo languages of a very uniform type are still current, it seems probable that at one
time,the major part of Assam and that some at least,of the Mlechcha kings mentioned in the old copper-
plate inscriptions belong to the Kachari or some closely allied tribes. Captain Fisher, the first
Superintendent of Cachar, who took great pins in ascertaining the early history of the Kacharis, was of
opinion that in the remote past, this rude tribe gradually acquired and empire over Assam, Sylhet,
Mymensing and the Valleys to the east of the Brahmaputra,their original seat being at Kamarupa, and
that their rule ultimately embraced everything from Kamrup down to the sea. But there is no authentic
epigraphic or historical account discovered on the mater uptil now. The founder of the Kachari kingdom
is said to be one Manik. Tradition states that there was a powerful Kachari kingdom at Sadiya founded
by one Manik and his son-in-law Mukuta ruled after him. Kacharis belong to the broadly constituted
Bodo group of Tribeto-Burman races.Diversity of option exists regarding their pre-Assam habitats. About
their first home in Assam it is believed that they lived originally in a land called Kumkuli (Kamrup)by
which flowed a river in a great Valley. From there they were driven out and got to place called Kundilo
(Kundil or Sadiya).The Kachari Kingdom of Sadiya as per chronicle, bounded by Sadiya on the east, the
River Dikhou on the west, the south bank of the river Dihing on the north and Kenduguri on the
south,was probably the first attempt of the Kacharis to build up an independent State after their
expulsion from Kamrup. But the history of origin of Chutiya and Kachari is still controversial,though the
old legends traced their origin as the Chutiya rulers traced their descent from Raja Bhismak, father of
Rukmini; at least the southern Branch,from Bhima and Herambha Rakshasi. The legend says that the
first king of Herambha branch of Kachari was Susampha. According to another legend the earliest
Kachari king was one Birahas, who abdicated in favour of Bicharpatipha, prior to the establishment of
the Kachari capital at Dimapur; the venue of Government had shifted between Sonapur, Banpur, and
Lakshindrapur. The kingdom of Cachar, of which Tamradhwai Narayana was the ruler during the reign
Rudra Singha, and Govinda Chandra at the time of British occupation, is only one of the numerous states
brought to existence by the political genius of the Kachari people. It seems that the rulers of Barahi
Kachari, at one time ruled over the Kapili Valley also .It was during the reign of Maha-Manikya-a Barahi
king who ruled in their earlier part of the fourteenth century that Sri Madhab Kandali composed the
Assamese version of the Ramayan in verses. The Kacharis,who have been described as ''the original
autochthones of Assam had built up political and administrative units,vestiges of which have lingered till
this day. The first note-worthy conflict between the Ahom and Kachari occurred in the reign of
Suhungmung Dihingia Raja (1497-1539A.D.). In the battle the Kacharis were defeated. The legend says
that among the spoils of war was the Assamese Cleopetra Garama Kunwari,who extended her hand
from king of Gauda to Kachari Raja and finally to Ahom king Dihingia Raja. Her son Madan Konwar was
also taken to the Ahom capital. After the death of Dersong-pha, the Kacharis lived from sometime
without an overlord. And as desired by them,the Ahom king appointed Madan Konwar as their Raja at
Cachar, with the name Nirbhayanarayan and the Kachari Rajya became an annual tributary state to the
Ahom king. During the reign of Swargadeo Rajeswar Singha the refractory Kachari Raja Sandhikari and
the fugitive Manipuri Raja were produced before the Ahom Monarch by Kirtichandra Barbarua. It was
through the intervention of the Ahom Victors that the Kacharis obtained a ruler of their own together
with the necessary paraphernalia of sovereignty. The Ahom kings regarded the Kachari Raja as their
vassal, and always resented any move on the part of the Kachari Rajas which tended to repudiate their
time-honoured obligations to the Ahom king. The Ancient Tripura kingdom in the Kapili valley : Like the
Ahom kings of Assam the rulers of the kingdom known as Tripura also maintained regular historical
account of their dynasty. Legends say that, Madhava Kandali alias Kaviraj Kandali composed the
Assamese Ramayana by order of Shri Mahamanikya, the Barahi Raja. Whether this Barahi Raja was a
king of the Barahi Kacharis as supposed by Late Pandit Hem Chandra Goswami or some other person
who ruled Tripura is a controversial matter. The Tripura kings trace their descent from Drukyo, the son
of Yajati. It is said that Pratardana, who was twentyfifth in descent from Drukyo, conquered the Kiratas
and founded a kingdom the capital of which was on the bank of the river Kapili. The Sanskrit Rajamala
describes that the ancient kingdom of Tripura, called Trivega comprised the Kapili Valley, the North-
Cachar Hills and also the modern district of Cachar to the west of Manipur. Vincent Smith writes that a
king of the Ka-pi-li kingdom named ''Yue-Ai'' sent an embassy to China in the year 428 A.D. And he
identifies Ka-pi-li with the Kapili of Assam. It seems, therefore,very likely that he was the king of the
ancient Tripura dynasty and that this kingdom in Kapili Valley lasted till, at least, the fifth century A.D. It
further appears that the Kapili Valley is still knows as Davaka. Hence, this tract has been identified with
the kingdom mentioned as Davaka in Samudra Gupta's inscription of the fourth century A.D. It seems,
therefore, that through the Tripura kings may have themselves called this kingdom Trivega, it was well
known to outsiders as 'Kapili' or 'Davaka' and both these names still persist; one attached to the river
and the other applied to the valley of this river. Tripura, the son of Daitya; and Trilochan the son of
Tripura, were both powerful kings. Dakshin was the second son of Trilochan. The eldest son Drikpati
having married the daughter of the sonless king of Herembha (Hedamba) succeeded to the throne of his
father-in-law. When Trilochan died, the younger brother of Dakshin, together with the help of nobles
raised Dakshin to the Tripura throne. Thereupon Drikpati, the king of Hedamba, claimed both the
kingdoms by right of succession and fought a great battle where Dakshin and his brothers surrendered
to the king of Hedamba. The ancient Trivega, Kapili or the Davaka kingdom became absorbed in the
Hedamba kingdom in about the fifth century A.D. The copper plate inscription of Harjaravarman has
been found at Hayungthal within the Kapili Valley indicating that in the ninth century A.D. the area of
Kapili Valley was absorbed within the Kamrupa kingdom. Ratnapha, who was twenty second in descent
from Adi Dharmapha, first assumed the surname Manikya. Mahamanikya was the great grandson of
Ratnamanikya and can be placed in the middle of the fourteenth century. On the other hand, Pandit
Hem Chandra Goswami has placed Madhava Kandali and his patron,the Barahi Raja Maha Manikya, also
in the middle of the fourteenth century. As the royal families of Tripura and Cachar claimed relation with
each other and also because ethonologically they belong to the same group,it is very likely that during
the fourteenth century Barahi Kingdom extended over Kapili Valley, Cachar, North Cachar and also
Tripura and that Mahamanikya ruled over this vast kingdom, in the middle of that century. His Highness
the Maharaja Manikya Bahadur of Tripura is therefore, the lineal representative of one of the oldest
ruling houses in the whole of India. Bhuyan Chiefs : It was the thirteenth century when a line of Chutiya
kings ruled the country east of the Subansiri and the Disang, and the Kachari kingdom was flourishing in
central Assam on the south bank of the Brahmaputra, and prohably extended at least half way across
the Nagaon district. Towards the west of the Kacharis on the south bank of the Brahmaputra and of the
Chutias on the north, a number of petty chiefs called Bhuyans held sway over a vast territory. The
boundary between the tract ruled by these chiefs and the kingdom of Kamarupa altered from time to
time. A powerful prince might bring many of them under his control, but they regained there
independence under weak prince. Gait mentioned that these chiefs were remembered in Assamese
legends as the Bara-Bhuyans. As correctly stated by Gait, each chief was independent of the others
within his own domain, but they seem to have been in the habit of joining their forces whenever they
were threatened by a common enemy. ' But why the Bara (twelve) number is always mentioned both in
Bengal and Assam is still controversial it explained the term ''Bhuyan'' as nothing to do with caste. It
meant the ''lord of the Land''. Sri Sankardeva himself used the word ''Bhowmik''as a synonym of the
term 'Bhuyan'. It was the practice in Eastern India for kings to appoint twelve advisers of Governors.
Naranarayan had twelve ministers of state, twelve Dolois were placed in charge of the hilly portion on
the Jaintia Raja and there were twelve state councillors in Nepal. The number thus became connected in
the minds of the people with all dignitaries ranking next to Raja and so came to be used in a purely
conventional sense. There were various stories about the Bara-Bhuyan, which often refer to entirely
different groups of chiefs and they are to a great extent mere legends. According to H.N. Dutta Barua
the petty Chieftains were known as 'Bhowmik' during the time of Pala kings. Their domain was called
'Bhuma'. Perhaps, the word Bhuyan thus originated from the term ''Bhuma''.This view is supported by
the fact that Chandibar who came from Kanauj became a Bhowmik under king Durlavanarayan of Gaud.
Subsequently. he came to be known as Siromoni Bhuayn. The Guru Charita and the Sankar Charita
version of the origin Bara-Bhuyan of Nagaon is that, after the war between Durlavnarayan and
Dharmanarayan, Kamateswara and Gaudeswara respectively, a treaty was executed between the two
kings and Dharmanarayan sent seven families of Brahmins and seven families of Kayasthas to Durlav
Narayan, who settled them on the frontier as wardens of the marches. The ablest of these seven
Kayastha families was Chandibar who subsequently became their leader. Their head quarters were at
Paimaguri. Once the Bhutiyas raided their territory and carried off many people including the son of
Chandibar. Chandibor and other Bhuyas pushed the raiders and compelled them to release the captives.
Chandibar subsequently settled at Bardowa in Nagaon where his great grandson Sankardeva was born.
According to Sarbananda Rajkumar a branch of the Bara-Bhuyans set up numerous petty kingdoms on
the north bank of the Brahmaputra, extending from the Subansiri in the east, down to the Barnadi in the
west. Another branch of Bara-Bhuyan ruled over certain areas which now form part of Nagaon district
south of the Brahmaputra. Nakul Chandra Bhuyan supports the tradition which links Bara-Bhuyans with
Samudra and Samanta connected with Dharmapala and Arimatta. Probably, there were two branches of
Bara Bhuyans one of which is connected with Chandibar and his group; and other with Samudra whose
sons were Santanu and Samanta Prior to the fifteenth century, these Bara- Bhuyans maintained their
independence against the Kachari and Chutiya kings. But with the entrance of the Ahoms into the
power-race, the glory of the Bhuyans started declining. From the middle of the fifteenth century the
Ahom kingdom expanded towards the west at the expense of the Bara-Bhuyans, Kachari and Chutias. In
1535 A.D.the Ahom king, the Dihingia Raja defeated the Bara-Bhuyans and ransacked their territory and
made them feudatory chiefs. In the field of religion and culture the period had a unique position. The
period witnessed an efflorescence of the Assamese mind, symbolised by Sri Sankardeva a member of
Bara- Bhuyan's family by whose message of love and forgiveness the whole of eastern India was carried
off its feet. During the time, when Assam was divided among the Bhuyans, Ahoms, Koches, Kacharis,
Jayantias,Chutias and Nagas, Shri Sankardev, the great saint poet of Assam,stepped up the epoch
making Neo-Vaishnavite movement in Assam. The great Shri Sankardeva was born at Bordowa in
Nagaon district in 1449 A.D. Taking advantage of Koch invasions of the Ahom territory about the middle
of the sixteenth century, the Bhuyans discontinued to pay tribute to the Ahoms. It was Pratab Singha
(1603-1641 A.D.) who finally subdued the Bhuyans whose domain extended between the Bharali and
the Subansiri. In 1623 A.D.the Bara-Bhuyans again came to declare their independence and one of the
Bhuyan chiefs Uday declared independence during the reign of Pratap Singha. A great number of
followers arrested and executed and the followers getting frustrated submitted themselves to the
power. Thenceforth the Bhuyans between the Subansiri and the Bharali, were bereft of all their powers.
Koch king :The Bhuyan chiefs, who were undoubtedly the feudal barons of the later Kamrupa rather
Kamatapur combined against the common foe, attacked Danial's Garrison at Hajo and destroyed it.
Thereafter, for about a decade or more, there was not a common king for Kamatapur in ancient
Kamarupa empire, and the petty Bhuyans again became independent and ruled the country.. Bisu, The
son of Haria Mandal, through his courage took advantage of small Bhuyan principalities and strifes
amongst them forced his way to the front,and subsequently became king under the name Viswa Singha.
Bisu, the founder of Koch kingdom of Kamrup had a humble origin and defeated the Bhuyans of Ouguri
and Luki but was repulsed by the Bhuyan of Phulguri. But later on, Bisu took advantage of the Bhuyan's
soldiers being engaged in a festival and caught the Bhuyan unprepared and killed them. Thereafter,he
subdued the Bhuyan chiefs of Bijni and other places as also defeated a confederacy of Bhuyan chiefs
headed by the Bhuyan of Karnapur. Then he took Gauhati by defeating the Bhuyan of Pandu and later
on turned his attention to the Bhuyan's of Northern Kamrupa. Thus,the entire country from Karatoya to
Barnadi was brought under his sway by defeating Narayan Gomatha or Head-Bhuyan,Gandhabar Bhuyan
of Baushi and their confederacies in Bajali and Kshetri areas. According to DarrangRaj Vansavali,written
by Suryakhari,the Bar Bhuyans and Saru Bhuyans subdued by Bisu were Brahmans. The Bhuyans of
Ouguri was also a Brahmin and Chuti Bhuyan was a Doivogya. 79It is found from Guru Charita that,
Narayan Gomatha and other Bhuyans of North Kamrup,who were subdued by the first Koch king were
Kayasthas.80 The account of Koch kings was brought to light by the Vansabali of the Darrang Rajas,
which ends abruptly with the death of Parikshit. According to M. Neog, Biswa Singha, the first Koch king
conquered Darrang together with other principalities viz., Dimarupa, Beltola, Rani, Luki, Boko, Chaygaon,
Barnagar, Karaibari, Athiabari etc. Gait, however, holds that the river Barnadi formed the eastern
boundaries of Biswa Singha's territory. S.K. Bhuyan also confirms this view and holds that the Karatoya
in the west to the Barnadi in the east was the Koch territory under Biswa Singha.82 Viswa Singha
subdued the petty princes who surrounded him,founded a magnificent city in Koch Nihar and set his
state in order. Viswa Singha died after a region of 25 years and was succeeded in 1540 A.D. by his Malla
Deva, who assumed the name of Nara Narayan. The reign of this prince reached the zenith of the Koch
power and his armies, which . were led by his brother Sukledwaja met with almost unvarying success. In
this capacity, he displayed such skill and promptness of action that he was nick-named ''Chilarai'' or the
''Kite-king'', during his expeditions against the people of Assam. Nara Narayan's conquering tour against
the Ahoms was successful under Chilarai, his commander-in-Chief and he ascended to the north bank of
the Brahmaputra as far as Dikrai river. Then followed two other engagements at Kaliabar and Sala in
which,also the Ahoms were defeated. But in the last engagement on the bank of the Pichala river,
Suklengmung, the Ahom king ousted the Koch army inflicting a disastrous defeat. In course of these
operations the Koches constructed an embankment road from their capital at Koch Bihar to Narayanpur
in the south west of present Lakhimpur district,a distance of some three hundred and fifty
miles(560km.).The worked was carried out under the supervision of Gohain Kamal,the kings brother,and
is known to this day as ''Gohain Kamal Road''. Nara Narayan entered the Ahom capital Gargaon, (the
modern Nazira) but the outcome of the war was an absolute defeat for the Koches many of them were
slain and their arms were captured. The decisive defeat of the Koches at the hands of Ahoms had not
discouraged them at all and the two brothers proceeded with conquest and compelled the rulers of
Manipur, Jayantia, Tipparah, Sylhet, Khyarim and Dimarua to accept the Koch suzerainty. But the tide of
fortune turned when at attack was made on the kingdom of Gaud. It was Kala Pahar,who fought
successfully and repulsed the first attack on Gaud by Nara Narayan in 1565., when the ever victorious
Koch prince Chilarai was captive in the hands of the Sultan of Gaud. Naranarayan would not,
however,accept this defeat as final and a few years later joined with the Emperor Akbor in second attack
upon the Badshah of Gaud, and Gaud was divided between the Emperor of Delhi and the Koch king.
Shortly before this expedition Nara Narayan had restored the famous temple at Kamakhya,which had
been injured by the Muhammadan invader Kalapahar in 1565 A.D. Decline of Koch kingdom, Raghu Raj,
1581-1603 A.D. :As for a long time Naranarayan had no male offspring, Chilarai's son Raghu Rai was
regarded as his heir. But in his late age, Naranarayan begot a son called Lakshmi Narayan. Raghu Rai,
losing hope of succeeding to the throne withdrew from the capital to Barnagar in the Barpeta Sub-
division of the Kamarupa district endeavoured to compel him to return,but his soldiers were defeated
and the king weekly resolved to divide his kingdom. Raghu Rai thus, came into possession of the country
now included the the Mangaldai Sub-division and the district of Kamrup and Goalpara. He rebuilt the
Manikut of Haygrib temple at Hajo, which had been destroyed by Kalapahar. On Naranarayan's death
Lakshmi Narayan ascended the throne. Raghu Rai was succeeded by his son Parikshit in 1603 A.D. The
prince mounted cannon at Pandunath,to the west of the Kamakhya hill, and built a town at North
Guwahati,whose fortification can still be traced for many kilometres even at the present day. A struggle
for independence was continued by Parikshit involving him in incessant hostilities with Lakshmi Narayan.
Lakshmi Narayan made his submission to Mughal and Parikshit to Ahom. Ultimately in 1614 A.D.
Parikshit surrendered to the Mughal emperor after a long and desperate war and his dominion upto the
Barnadi was annexed to the Delhi empire with headquarters at Hajo. Parikshit's son,Chandra Narayan
alias Bijit Narayan was confirmed by the Mughals as the Zamindar of the territory between the Sonkosh
and the Manah with establishment at Bijni. In 1615 A.D., Parikshit's brother Bali Narayan fled away and
sought shelter under the Ahom king Pratap Singha. He was cordially received by the latter. In 1616 A.D.
the Ahom king Pratap Singha inflicted a crushing defeat on the invading Muslims on the bank of the
Bharali in Darrang district and appointed Bali Narayan as the tributary Raja of Darrang and renamed him
Dharma Narayan. His brother Gaj Narayan was set up as a tributary chief of Ahoms at Beltola. Dharma
Narayan helped the Ahoms to fight the Mughals and at first succeeded in wresting out a part of
Goalpara and Kamrup for the Mughals but subsequently had suffered a retreat and defeat. In 1639, a
treaty between the Mughal Commander Allah Tar Khan and the Ahom General Momai Tamuli Barbarua
was signed to fixed the boundary between the two powers at the Barnadi on Darrang-Kamrup boundary
on the north bank and Asurar Ali near Gauhati on the south bank of the Brahmaputra. 86 84. According
to Buchanam Hamilton,the kingdom was founded by Hajo, father of Hira and grand father of Viswa
Singha, and divided by Biswa Singha who allotted the portion on the east of the Sankosh to Sukladwaj or
Silarai, and that on the west of the river to Nara Narayan.
Assam in the Ahom Age (1228-1826):
The Advent of the Ahoms :
It has now been well-established that the Ahoms were a section of the Tai race. Historically, these
people are known for their valley-dwelling and wet-rice-growing character. The particular branch to
which the Ahoms belong is known as the Tai-mao, or the Mao section of the Tai but widely known
through the Burmans as the Shan. Ahom chronicles, or buranji, make specific mention that the Ahoms
were led by Prince (Chao-lung) Sukapha who left Mong Mao-lung in 1215 A.D. Sukapha's followers
included several nobles (thao-mong),a number of officers of various ranks, nine thousand men, woman
and children. After a westward march for thirteen years and staying at several places for periods ranging
from one to three years, they arrived at the Patkai in 1228 A.D. Posting a governor at the Khamjang
valley, their first territorial unit, situated on the shore of the Nongjang lake, Sukapha and the rest of his
party at first followed the Namrup, then the Buri Dihing (Nam-jin), thereafter the Brahmaputra, and the
Dikhow before finally arriving at Charaideo, which became his permanent capital. On the way,he also
organized several other territorial units along the bank of these rivers. In this way a small kingdom
bounded by Patkai, the Buri Dihing, the Brahmaputra, the Dikhow and the Naga hills was founded in
Upper Assam over which Sukapha ruled till his death in 1268 A.D. This territory was peopled chiefly by
the Morans and the Borahis, and a few villages of the Chutiyas and the Kacharis evidently of Bodo origin;
Nagas were also included in the hilly region of the Patkai. Sukapha won over the chiefs of Morans and
the Borahis, and even encouraged intermarriage with them,and appointed some of them in various
capacities in the royal household.
The Early Ahom State :
From the thirteenth to the fifteenth century A.D.,Ahoms were busy mainly in consolidating their newly
acquired territory and also protecting it from neighbouring powers. However,the reign of
Sukhangpha(1293-1332),the fourth Ahom king, saw the first war with the ruler of Kamata kingdom. The
reason for the war is not given in the buranji. It was brought to a close when the Kamata ruler sued for
peace by offering a princes, Rajani by name. This event indicates the growing strength of the Ahom
power. Tao-Kham-thi (1380-89),the seventh king, led a successful expedition against the Chutiya king for
murdering his brother Sutupha (1369-76) at a regatta. The reign of Sudanghpha(1398-1407), better
known as ''Bamuni Konwar'' for his birth in the house of a Brahmin at Habung, is important in several
respects. It was for the first time that Brahmanical influence had its entry into the Ahom royal
palace,The capital was transferred to Charagua near the bank of river Dihing. On the report of some
nobles who were dissatisfied with Sudangpha for his subordination to Hindu influence, the Tai rulers of
Mong Kwang (Mogaung) sent an expedition to annex the Ahom kingdom. In the battle fought at
Kuhiarbari, the invaders were forced to retreat and came to terms in a treaty concluded on the shore of
the Nongjang Lake in 1401 A.D. By this treaty the Patkai was fixed as the boundary between Assam and
Mong Sudangpha suppressed a revolt of the Tipamiyas, and he also asserted his sovereignty over the
three eastern dependencies viz.,Tipam, Aiton and Khamjang. The reigns of four successive Kings
Sujangpha (1407-22), Suphokpha (1439-88), and Supempha (1493-97), covering a period of ninety years
were comparatively peaceful barring a brief war with the Dimasa Kacharis in 1490 A.D. The bordering
Nagas, who made some raids were kept in check.
Expansion of the Ahom Kingdom :
The real expansion of the Ahom kingdom began with Suhummong (1497-1539) better known as
Dihingiya Raja,as he belong to the Dihingiya phoid (clan)of the royal family. By this time the Brahmanical
influence grew considerably in the Ahom court so much so that the king is said to have received the
Hindu title Swarganarayan,an equivalent of chao-pha In Tai and the Saka era was also adopted. He
transferred his capital to Dihing. A census of population was done during his reign. After a serious of
armed conflict caused by boundary dispute, the Chutiya king was defeated and killed and his kingdom
centering Sadiya was annexed to the Ahom dominion as a province over which was placed a governor
titled Sadiya Khowa Gohain. He also defeated the Kacharis of the Doyang-Dhansiri Valley and brought
their territory under the Ahoms as a province called Marangi,and placed a provincial governor titled
Marangi Khowa Gohain. This was in 1526.The Kachari royal family moved to Maibong leaving Dimapur.
After sometime, on an appeal, the Kachari king at Maibong was given recognition as Thapita-sanchita
(established and preserved) by Suhummong. The same king also brought the Bhuyans on the north bank
under Ahom control. It was during the reign of Suhummong that the first major invasion of Assam by the
Pathan rulers of Bengal occurred. After an initial expedition by Bir Malik and Bar Ujir, the two Bengal
generals, Turbuk was commissioned by the Sultan of Bengal. In a major encounter,the Ahom side lost
several of their generals and many soldiers. However,in a renewed naval war after sometime,the Ahom
side gained superiority leading to the defect and the death of Turbak. A large number of
arms,cannons,horses and soldiers were captured by the Ahoms. The defeated army was pushed through
Kamrup and Kamata where the people co-operated with the victors. The ruler of Kamata, Durlabhendra
accepted Ahom protection by offering his daughter. The Ahom army marched westward as far as the
Karatoya, the eastern frontier of Bengal, and built a small brick temple on its bank. Thus by 1534, the
Ahom army liberated Kamrup and Kamata king. Suhummong established relation with Manipur and
Orissa; and Viswa Singha, the rising Koch chief visited his court and acknowledged his allegiance. By his
great zeal and enterprise, Suhummong extended the Ahom dominion from the eastern confine of Sadiya
to the Karatoya,and successfully failed the invasions of Assam by the Muslim rulers of Bengal. Due to the
expansion of the Ahom dominion during his reign, non-Ahom population in the Ahom kingdom greatly
increased. The reign of Suklenmong (1539-52) and Sukhampha (1553-1603) were mainly important for
Koch expeditions to the Ahom kingdom.The first was conducted by Viswa Singha which,however,did not
materialise as the Koch army. The second major invasion led by king Naranarayan, with his younger
brother Sukladhwaj popularly known as Chilarai occupied the Ahom capital Garhgaon. However, the
Koch army soon returned after a peace treaty. This was the last Koch invasion of the Ahom kingdom.
The Period of Ahom-Mughal Conflict
The history of the Ahoms during the seventeenth century was mainly the history of the Ahom-Mughal
conflict which arose of the imperial ambition of the Mughal emperors to extend their dominions to
further east beyond Bengal,and if possible to seek routes to China and Tibet;at the same time to collect
certain articles such as gold dusts, long pepper, elephant teeth, musk, lack, etc., obtained in Assam
which were valued greatly by the royalty and nobility in the Mughal courts. The absorption of the Koch
kingdom into the Mughal dominions made the Ahom kingdom coterminous. The long reign of
Susengpha (1603-41)better known as Pratap Singha was important in the history of Assam in several
respects. The Mughal claim on the Koch territory to the east of Barnadi and the trading adventures of
certain Mughal merchants caused conflict and tension along the border leading to the first serious battle
with the Mughal army and navy at Bharali near Tezpur in which the enemy side was completely routed.
This was in 1616 A.D.A vivid description of the plight of the Mughal soldiers is given in the Baharistan-i-
Ghayli by Mirza Nathan,a Mughal general. About 1700 men of the enemy side were killed,double this
number were wounded and 9000 men were taken as prisoners. This was followed by a series of
campaigns against the Mughals. In 1618,there was another serious battle at Hajo in which the Ahoms
lost nearby 4000 boats, and an equal number of men were killed. The war, however, did not stop,but
continued with occasional outburst, and the pendulum of victory moved from one side to another in
Kamrup. Ultimately, peace was restored by a treaty concluded by Momai Tamuli Barbarua and Allah Yar
Khan in 1639 where by the Barnadi on the North and the Asurar Ali on the south were fixed as the
boundary between the Ahom and Mughal territories. It did not, however, last for a very long time.
During the early years of Pratap Singha's reign, the Kachari king, who was always considered thapita-
sanchita status by the Ahom kings, was bold enough to show his defiance by declining to comply a
request for passage of a Jaintia princess through his country. An Ahom army led by Sunder Gohain was
badly defeated and the general himself was killed by the Kacharis led by Prince Bhimbal in 1606 A.D.
Soon, however, relation with the Kachari king was restored. Pratap Singha also cultivated good relations
with the Jaintia king. Pratap Singha introduced certain reforms in the administration and reorganized
the paik. Two very important posts that of the Barbarua and the Barphukan were created;the former
was placed as the head of the secretariat and judiciary immediately under the king; the later was placed
in charge of lower Assam west of Kaliabor, and also head of diplomatic relations with the west. Several
other new posts of lesser important were also created. A census of population was undertaken, and the
paik system was extended to newly acquired territories. All free adult population were registered as paik
for state services. A squad for four paiks constituted the lowest unit called got,and twenty such units
were commanded by a Bora, one hundred by a Saikia ,and one thousand by a Hazarika. Departments
were usually headed by Phukan, Baruah, Rajkhowa according to their importance. Among other notable
works of Pratap Singha included construction of several important roads,bridges,excavation of tanks and
ramparts. He also built several towns. The king was liberal and catholic in his religious policy. The short
reigns of his two immediate successors Surampha (1641-44) and Suchingpha (1644-48)were not of much
importance. The reign of Sutamla, better known by his Sanskrit title Jayadhwaj Singha(1648-63)was
marked by a major invasion of Assam by the Mughal army headed by Mir Jumla, the newly appointed
Nawab of Bengal. It was apparently a retaliatory action taken against the occupation of Sarkar Kamrup
by the Ahom army by taking advantage of the confusion that ensued following the disposal of Shah
Jahan by his son's. The large army of infantry and cavalry supported by a strong navy mostly manned by
Europeans chiefly the Portuguese and the Dutch proceeded towards the capital of Assam by
overrunning the defenses put up at Hatichala-Baritala, Pancharatan-Jogighopa and Pandu-Saraighat.
After the occupation of the fort at Samdhara following a stiff battle and a keenly contested naval victory
near Kaliabor on the Brahmaputra, the Mughal army advanced towards the Ahom capital, Garhgaon,
Jayadhwaj Singha with his family and close associates evacuated the capital,and retreated to Namrup
hills close to the Patkai. The Mughal army occupied Garhgaon, and established outposts at several
places in Upper Assam ;Mir Jumla himself made his headquarters at Mathurapur . However,when the
rainy season started,these outposts had been cut off by flood and became isolated while the Mughal
navy with big war boat which remained at Lakhnow could not help them. The Ahom army then started
to harass by adopting guerilla method of warfare. Due to disruption of communication,the Mughal army
was placed under great hardship;the physical as well as moral condition began to deteriorate. The
health of Mir Jumla became worse as he had been suffering from consumption. Under the
circumstances,a peace proposal initialed by the Ahom side was ultimately agreed upon. The treaty of
Ghiladharighat at Tipam on the Buri Dihing was drawn up on Jan.9, 1663 by which Jayadhwaj became a
tributary of the Mughal Emperor. He agreed to pay a huge war indemnity, the cessation of all territory
west of the Bharali on the north bank on the state of 'Dimarua', Beltola west of the Kallong on the south
bank of the Brahmaputra. Jaydhwaj Singha's daughter accompanied by the daughter of Tipam Raja was
sent to Delhi and the sons of the ministers were sent as hostage with the Mughal till full payment was
made. Mir Jumla and his army left Assam. Soon after his return to Bakotha,as Garhgaon, as Garhgaon
was despoiled by the Mughals, Jayadhwaj Singha passed away in 1663. He was the first Ahom king to
embrace Hinduisim by receiving initiation from a Vashnava priest. He made large revenue free land
grants with paiks to several Hindu satras (monasteries). One of the notable achievements of Jayadhwaj
Singha's reign was the planned settlement of villages in certain tracts of the country. However, Mir
Jumla's invasion caused devastation of the economic and social condition of the kingdom. Mir Jumla was
accompanied by a news reporter ( waqia navis) named Mirza Mahammad Wali, Poetically known as
Shihabuddin Talish, who left a very valuable account of Assam, its climate, population, manners and
customs, products, and of its capital Garhgaon. A few excerpts may be of interest. ''Although most of the
inhabitants of the neighbouring hills pay no tax to the Rajah of Assam,yet they accept his sovereignty
and obey some of his commands.'' ''From Lakhaugarh to Garhgaon,also, there are roads,houses and
farms in the same style;and a lofty and wide embanked road has been constructed upto Garhgaon for
traffic.'' The people of the country are free from certain fatal and loathsome diseases such as leprosy,
white leprosy, elephantiasis, cutaneous eruptions, goitre and hydrocele, which prevail in Bengal.'' ''It is
not the custom here to take any land tax from the cultivators; but in every house one man out of the
three has to render service to the Raja.'' ''In all the past ages no(foreign) king could lay the hand of
conquest on the skirt of this country, and no foreigner could treat it with the foot of invasion.'' ''And all
the people of his country, not placing their necks in the yoke of any faith,eat whatever they get from the
hand of any man,regardless of his caste,and undertake any kind of labour.'' ''Their language differs
entirely from that of all the people of Eastern India.'' ''They cast excellent matchlocks and bachadar
artillery, and show a great skill in this craft. They make first rate gunpowder..'' ''The common people
bury their dead with some of the property of the deceased,placing the head towards the east and the
feat towards the west.'' Talish also left a vivid and valuable description of Garhgaon, and the royal
palace. Chakradhwaj Singha (1663-70)himself to be a person of indomitable courage and firm
determination who refused to put on the gown (siropa) sent by the Mughal court to him as a tributary
king.'' Death is preferable to a state of subordination to Bangal'' he uttered. Preparations for war were
soon complete, and Kamrup was again recovered by a strong Ahom navy ,and infantry under the
Command of Lachit Barphukan in 1667. The Mughal occupational army was badly mauled. Following this
several fortifications had been raised on both banks surrounding Guwahati to protect it against any
further attack. Having received the news of Mughal reverse, the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb
despatched a Rajput general Raja Ram Singh, son of Raja Jay Singh of Amber with a large force with
order to chastise the ''wicked tribe''(the Ahoms).Ram Singh advanced towards Guwahati by occupying
several posts which the Ahoms evacuated for strategic reasons to concentrate at Guwahati. Ram Singh
made his camp at Hajo. The Ahom army under Lachit Barphukan and other generals including Atan
Buragohain foiled every attempt of Ram Singh to occupy Guwahati by war and diplomacy,and the war
dragged on for several years with loss on both sides. In the meantime,Udayaditya ascended the throne
in 1669. The Battle of Saraighat fought in 1671 was the last determined attempt of Ram Singh which met
ignominious defeat at the hands of the Ahom. The defeated army was pushed back beyond the Manaha
river. It may be mentioned that in the war against the Mughals, many of the neighbouring hill people
sent their contingents and successfully fought against the invaders. From the death of Ramdhwaj Singha,
the successor of Udayaditya Singha, in 1675 to the accession of Gadadhar Singha in 1681, there ensured
a period of weak and unstable government during which several weak and young kings were placed on
the Ahom throne the quickly removed by ministers and high officials for their own selfish gains than for
the welfare of the kingdom . By taking advantage of the situation, Laluk Barphukan, the Viceroy of Lower
Assam at Guwahati treacherously handed Guwahati over to the Mughals. The first major achievement of
Gadadhar Singha (1681-96), who was installed king at Kaliabor by the nobles and officers, was the
expulsion of the Mughals from Guwahati and Kamrup by defeating them at the Battle of Itakhuli. They
were pursued down to the Manaha, which henceforth became the Ahom-Mughal boundary till 1826.
The king then suppressed all conspiracies to weaken the power of the Monarch, and reduced the tribes
who created troubles in the border. He also controlled the growing power of the Hindu religious
heads,but he was no bigot in his religious policy. Possessing a towering personality, Gadadhar Singha
restored the authority of the king, and brought peace and order to the country. Rudra Singh's reign
(1696-1714) marks new turning point in the history of Assam. Inherited from his father a strong
monarchy and a peaceful kingdom, Rudra Singha now found time and resources to build a new capital at
Rangpurnear the present town of Sibsagar on the Dikhow by importing artisans and masons, and know-
how from Bengal. When the Rajas of Cachar, who was treated by the Ahoms as thapita-sanchita, and
Jaintia showed signs of insubordination, they were captured and brought before Rudra Singha and were
compelled to acknowledge the sovereignty of the Ahoms. The king had planned to invade Bengal with
the support of the rulers and chiefs of the neighbouring states like Tripura, Koch Bihar, Burdwan and
Nadia. When all preparations were complete and the vast army assembled at Guwahati for the march,
Rudra Singha suddenly fell ill and passed away in that city. The king is known for his liberal policy; he
allowed to grow trade with Bengal, and also imported several cultural items like dress, festival, songs,
etc.,from that country. This resulted in a slow cultural synthesis.
Later Ahom Kings :
The first half of the eighteenth century was peaceful,and the reigns of two kings Siva Singha (1714-
44)and Pramatta Singha (1744-51),saw the unprecedented growth of Hindu religious proclivities, and
the building of Hindu temples. A great number of endowments of land and man were made for
sustaining these. Siva Singha's queen Phuleswari,who acquired great influence over him, even dared to
insult Vaishnava mahantas by forcing them to bow down to the Goddess Durga . From this time
onwards, the Ahom kings became more attached to Sakta faith which introduced a new element in the
social and political life. The traditional Ahom religious institutions fell into negligence ,and the Ahoms
who remained stuck to their own religion and customs,became a degraded class. At the same time
,cultural penetration from Berigal continued unabated. The reign of Rajeswar Singha (1751-69),a
younger brother of Siva Singha saw the rise of Kirti Chandra Barbarua to power and status. One of the
important events of his reign was the despatch of the Ahom army against the Burmese in Manipur
whose legal ruler Jai Singh (known as Bhagya Chandra in Manipur) was driven away by them and who
came to Assam through Kachari country. Jai Singh strengthened his relation with Rajeswar Singha by
giving his daughter Kuranganayani in marriage to the latter. This followed the policy of his predecessors
by making endowment of land and men to religious persons and institutions. Lakshmi Singha's reign
(1769-1780)was disrupted by the revolt of the Moamarias, the followers of the Mayamara Mahanta of
orthodox Vaishnava persuasion. Several causes are attributed to the revolt of which one is the physical
punishment meted by Kirti Chandra Barbarua to Nahar, the chief of the Morans who came to make
annual offer of elephant which was found lean and haggard. Nahar was mortified at this and was looking
for support to taker revenge on the Barbarua. Already Phuleswari's action had inflamed the situation.
The climax was reached when the Moamaria Gossain was abused by the Barbarua for being indifferent
to him. The Morans were then ready to fight. They were joined by three exiled Ahom princes. The rebels
advanced towards the capital Rangpur and after defeating the royal troops at several engagements they
arrived at Rangpur. The king who attempted to flee was pursued and captured, and was put in
confinement at the temple of Jaysagar. Ramakanta was declared king and Nahar became the Barbarua.
The Morans preserved the entire structure of the Ahom govt. However, after a few months, the Moran
rule was overthrown and the insurgents were punished. King Lakshmi Singha was released from
captivity and was restored. Like his predecessors, the king made a number of grants of rent free land
with men, and built several temples.
Decline and fall of the Ahom Kingdom :
The Kingdom began to decline from the time of Gaurinath Singha (1780-95). In 1782, the Moamarias
insurrection rose again with renewed vigour and increased violence. They advanced to Garhgaon and
created panic among the population. The advance was halted and the rebels were treated with severity
and many were executed. Such a step aggravated the situation. After a brief pause, the disturbances
caused by the Moamarias swept down across the north bank. After defeating the royalists, the
Moamarias advanced towards the capital. Assistance was sought from Manipur, Kachari, Jaintia and the
chiefs of Rani, Beltola, Luki. Before the help arrived, the rebels occupied Rangpur; Gaurinath Singha with
the members of his family sailed downstream, and reaches Nagaon, and then to Guwahati. At Rangpur,
the Moamarias set up Bharath Singha as king; but the Hatisungi Morans set up Sarbananda as their king
of the territory to the east of Dihing and both minted coins in their names. Krishnanarayan of Darrang
had also organized a large force and occupied North Guwahati. Purnananda Buragohain shifted the
centre of administration of Dichoi,later known as Jorhat,which became the new Ahom capital. Under the
circumstances, Gaurinath Singha appealed for help of men and materials to the East India company's
authorities through Raush, a salt merchant and Mr. Dauglas,Commissioner of Koch Bihar. In response to
this, Lord Cornwallis, the Governor General despatched Captain Thomas Welsh with sepoys who arrived
at Goalpara in early November, 1792; and from there, on receiving urgent message from the king moved
upstream the Brahmaputra. The meeting between the king and Capt. Welsh took place at Nagarberra on
the Brahmaputra. Advancing further,Captain Welsh suppressed the rebellious elements at Guwahati and
on the north bank. He also pacified Krishnanarayan, the rebellious prince at Darrang and expelled many
of the Burkendazes who assisted him. Sometime later he advanced to Jorhat, and then to Rangpur
where he defeated the Moamarias, and restored the authority of Gaurinath Singha at Rangpur in 1794.
In the midst of this success, Capt. Welsh was recalled by Sir John Shore, the new Governor General,and
he left Assam. During his stay in the kingdom, he concluded a commercial treaty in 1793 by which
commerce between Assam and Bengal was sought to be put on ''reciprocal basis''. The Report of Capt.
Welsh which he submitted to his government in response to certain queries gives certain important
information in regard to the system of Ahom govt., trade and commerce, products,etc. Although
Gaurinath Singha is depicted by some as cruel and vindictive,he had certain pieces of good work like the
abolition of human sacrifice at the Kechaikhati temple at Sadiya. Kamaleswar Singha's reign (1795-1810)
witnessed localised revolts at several places in Kamrup which was successfully suppressed,at Sadiya by
the Khamtis, Pani Noras, Miris and others, fresh Moamaria insurrection in league with the Daflas. In
spite of these,he connected the new capital Jorhat by constructing several new roads like the Na-ali, the
Rajabahar Ali,the Mohabandha Ali, the Kamarbandha Ali,etc. and also built a copper-house at
Kamakhya. The reign of Chandra Kanta Singha (1810-18) saw the Burmese invasion. Friction between
Purnananda Buragohain and Badan Chandra Barphukan and a conspiracy by Satram to overthrow the
former led the latter to go to the Burmese capital Amarapura where he pleaded for assistance against
the Buragohain . Bodoupaya, who had already had his eyes on Assam,seized the opportunity to send an
army of about sixteen thousand men with Badan Chandra to Assam. The Burmese army after defeating
the Assamese army at several engagements arrived at Jorhat. Chandra Kanta Singha was retained as
king, and Badan Chandra assumed power as minister. The Burmese then retired to their country with
large presents. But soon the assassination of Badan Chandra,and installation of Purandar Singha by
ousting Chandra Kanta Singha,once again brought the Burmese under the command of Ata Mingi to
Assam in 1819. On their advance, Purandar and his prime minister Rudinath fled to Guwahati, and
Chandra Kanta Singha was once again restored to the throne despite his mutilation of person caused in
the meanwhile. After the departure of the Burmese, Chandra Kanta Singha sought to raise a fort at
Jaipur against further Burmese invasion. However,a Burmese force sent by their Monarch with presents
of ornaments and dress to Chandra Kanta Singha seeing such preparations killed Patalong under whose
supervision the fort was raised. Thinking this hostile move on the part of the Burmese army, Chandra
Kanta fled to Guwahati and did not come back in spite of Burmese assurance. This was in 1821. The
Burmese then set up an Ahom prince, Jogeswar Singha. Chandra Kanta Singha crossed the border and
entered Bengal where he tried to collect arms and men to fight the Burmese. At the battle of Mahgarh,
Chandra Kanta's army was badly defeated, and he once again entered the British territory. The period
from 1821 to 1824 is called period of Burmese rule. During this period,the Burmese devastated the
country and committed atrocities by plunder and killing. The Burmese also threatened the Goalpara
frontier of Bengal by demanding the surrender of Assamese refugees including Chandra Kanta Singha,
and their supporters who often gave trouble of them across the border. In that time, the border conflict
in the East India Company's Chittagong frontier with the Burmese empire took serious turn. Anticipating
a threatened invasion of Bengal,the prized possession of the Company in India,lord Amherst,the
Governor General decided to declare war on Myanmar (Burma). War was declared on the 5th of March
1824. This is the First Anglo Burmese War which lasted for nearly two years. Immediately after the
declaration of war,the British army entered Goalpara frontier of Assam and after defeating the small
Burmese garrisons in Lower Assam,it advanced to Upper Assam. By taking advantage of a dissension
among the Burmese commanders,the British occupied Rangpur in 1825 and drove the Burmese and
their allies, the Singphos out of Assam. A section of the Burmese army surrendered to the British
remained in Assam. Immediately on the occupation of Assam by the British, martial law was declared;
David Scott was appointed as civil officer in charge of civil matters, and Col. Richards in charge of the
army,and the British started their administration. By Article II of the Treaty of piece and friendship which
was concluded between the British and the Burmese at Yandabo on 24 February 1826, the Burmese
monarch renounced all claims upon and promised to refrain from all interference with, the principality
of Assam and its dependencies. As Assam was already occupied by the British during the Anglo-Burmese
war, it was kept under British occupation and started introducing British administration.
The Ahom system of Administration :
The system of Government was partly monarchical and partly aristocratic. The king or Swarga Maharaja
as he was called,was the supreme head of the State. All honours, titles, offices, decisions and war-
measures emanated from him, but he had to act according to the advice of the five hereditary
councilors of State, the Buragohain, the Bargohain, the Barpatra-gohain, the Barbaruah and the
Barphukan. The state of Jaintia, Cachar, Khrim and Manipur were in friendly alliance with the Ahom
Government. The province of Darrang enjoyed complete autonomy in its internal administration,as well
as the other vassal states. There were six establishments of princes introduced by Suhummong Dihingia
Raja at Charing, Tipam, Tungkhung, Dihing, Samaguri and Namrup. Each of these princes had their own
estates and dependents. All of them were entitled Raja and belonged to the royal family which started
with Sukapha, the first Ahom king. Subsequently,the title of Charing Raja was reversed for the heir
apparent while the title of Tipam Raja and Namrupia Raja were meant for other nearest blood relations
of the reigning monarch. Ambition for the throne nurtured by some of these families without any
political and military training became the cause of the downfall of Ahom rule in Assam. The Patra-
mantries occupied important position in the political administration and enjoyed enormous powers. The
Barphukan governed as viceroy or deputy to the king,in the tract between the Brahmaputra and the
Kalang in Nagaon, but after extension of the Ahom kingdom in the westward direction he was put in
charge of the country from Kaliabor to Goalpara with his headquarters at Guwahati. He had conduct
diplomatic relations with Bengal, Bhutan and chieftains of Assam frontiers. Other local governors such
as Sadiya Khowa Gohain, Marangi Khowa Gohain, the Solal Gohain and the Kajali Mukhia Gohain,etc.,
were appointed for the administration of the outlying areas of the country. Besides,there were other
position recruited from respectable Ahom families for high posts. Among them,the highest rank was of
the Phukan,next in rank were the Baruas. There were twelve Rajkhowas, a number of Khatakis and
Dolois. Adult population of Assam was divided into Khels, Khels into Paiks and areas were constituted
into Chamuas for revenue administration. It was not the usual practice in Assam to pay the revenue in
cash. It was paid through services or paiks etc. The currency of Assam consisted of gold and silver coins.
The liberal and practical outlook shaped the religious of the Ahom monarchs. The image of ''Chom-
Cheng''which Sukapha had brought with his from his ancestral home was the tutelary deity of the Ahom
rulers till the end of their rule. The general success of the Ahoms in their dealings with the hill tribes was
admitted by the Mughal chronicler Shihabuddin Talish who accompanied Mir-Jumla's expedition in
1662-63 A.D. He wrote-''Although most of the inhabitants of the neighbouring hills pay no tax to the
Rajah of Assam yet they accept his sovereignty and obey some of his commands.'' 87 Regarding the
military system of the Ahoms, Ram Singh, the Mughal general had to admit that every Assamese soldiers
was an expert in rowing boats,in shooting arrows,in digging trenches and cannons and that he did not
such specimen of versatility in any other part of India. This proves that the orginasation of army under
the Ahom rulers was efficient and effective. Law and justice was in action during the Ahom reign. The
criminal law was characterised by sterness and comparative harshness. The penalty for rebellion was
various forms of capital punishment.
The Modern Period : Annexation of Assam :
The condition of Brahmaputra valley at the time of the expulsion of the Burmese was most deplorable.
During the transition period the civil administration of Assam was entrusted to David Scott with the title
'Agent of the Governor General for the whole eastern frontier' from Cachar and Sylhet in the south to
Sikkim in the north. He was at the same time Special Civil Commissioner of North-East Rongpur,
ie.,Goalpara and the Garo Hills. Mr.Robinson says,''Hithero the affairs of the province had been
conducted on much the same system that previously prevailed before the conquest. The officer-
incharge exercised a general superintendence and specially devoted their attention to fiscal business
whilst the criminal and civil duties were performed by councils of the Assamese gentry under the name
of Panchayat .There were two or three such Panchayats in each division of the province. Appeals lay
from the court of one Panchayat to that of the next superior court and finally to the court of the
Commissioners.'' In judicial cases, the executive officers were both magistrates and judges trying the
accused with the assistance of the Panchayat but referring all heinous offences accompanied with their
options to Mr. Scott for his final judgement. The revenue administration was carried on just in the same
manner as it had existed the conquest. David Scott had introduced the improved method of assessing
land revenue but it could be completed he breathed his last in August,1831. Thus the history of the
State under the British rule began after the appointment of David Scott. The promise made by the
British on the eve of the Anglo-Burmese war,that they had no intention of annexing any portion of the
Brahmaputra valley and preferred to stay as conquerors only,had became doubtful. And,as a
result,rebellion broke out. The first rebellion broke out. The first rebellion started by Assamese nobles
against the newly founded authority with demand to withdraw the new administrative system of
revenue,which reduced many of them to abject poverty. British occupation of lower Assam could not
but be viewed with serious concern by the Khasi Chiefs who held the low hands,commonly known as
nine-duars north of their hills. The initiative was taken by Barmanik, the ruler of Khyrem, who in August
1828 descending down upon the plains of Dimarua a few kilometres from Guwahati seized collection
made by the revenue officers and publicly demanded his independence on the duars. Next year the
second rebellion had broken out the Eastern Assam under the leadership of the ex-nobility of Assam.
But the British Government somehow managed to put off their joint rebellion. Nearly all the
principalities of Brahmaputra Valley and the hilly regions of Cachar and Jaintia were annexed to the
company's dominion in Assam one by one in the courses of two decades. Accordingly David Scott,agent
to the Governor General,North-East Frontier,extended British suzerainty over Cachar under an
agreement with Raja Govinda Chandra in early March,1834. Raja Ram Singha of Jaintia later in his
agreement with Scott, acknowledged the authority of the British Government. Thus the process began,
though slowly, for the extension of British dominion into Assam or the North-East Frontier. The people
submitted to the inevitable;in fact,they ''hailed with unbounded joy''their deliverers who saved them
from the tyranny of the Burmese and offered them the most loyal co-operation. Even Maniram
Dewan,later an arch-enemy of the British, Heavily welcomed the advent of the English. Scott's policy of
conciliating the former official aristocracy proved a dismal failure. And towards the close of 1828 the
Ahom, the Khasis, the Singphos and also the Bhutias in the north were committing on the British
subjects. The repeated uprising and the administrative confusion of the period demanded above all a
change from an imperfect British administration. T.C. Robertson succeeded Scott as the agent of the
Governor in 1832. However, in 1832, Upper Assam except Sadiya and Mattak territories was made over
to the Ahom prince Purandar Singha, who set up as a vassal king. In October, 1838,Purandar Singha's
territory was taken over by the British on recommendation of Mr.Jenkin, East India Company's Agent,
and Assam as a whole became a ''non-regulated'' province of the Indian Empire. This was done contrary
to their earlier assurances with purely commercial motive. Purandar Singha was unnecessarily
humiliated and it could have been done only with tacit consent of the rival group of Purandar Singha.
The same tactics were followed by the British in finally annexing Cachar in 1830 and Sadiya were
annexed to British India in 1842.88 Likewise Jaintia, which was kept under the rule of a vassal king for
some years,was annexed in 1835 and Manipur was restored to its ruling dynasty. Along the southern
frontier of Bhutan there were eighteen mountain passes, called 88. B.C. Chakravarty : British Relation
with Hill Tribes of Assam, P.16 Bhutan duars .By means of these passes the Bhutan highlanders held
their sway over this border and established their de facto right over this whole belt of border territory.
As a result of incessant outrages committed by the Bhutias on the British subjects, the British
Government attached all the Assam duars in 1841 A.D. as the only means of security and peace in this
part of frontier. These duars were the main channels of trade between Tibet and Assam. Hostilities with
the Mishimis started from a simple incident, when in 1854A.D., French Missionary M. Kich and his friend
N. Bourri crossed the Mishimi country into Tibet. On their return they were murdered by the Mishims.
The Mishimis were defeated in a series of attacks and in 1843 A.D., the rebels made their submission to
the British. The Lushais committed their first raid in 1849 A.D. and the punitive expedition that followed
was so successful that they gave no further trouble till 1858 A.D. Meanwhile, T.C. Robertson had felt
that multifarious activities of a far flung frontier to the frontier provinces was not justified. He realised
the necessity of European officers in Assam for good supervision and on his recommendation in March,
1833, the supreme Government accorded its approval for the division of the province into four districts-
Goalpara, Kamrup, Darrang and Nagaon; over each was placed a Principal Assistant vested with the
powers of a Collector,Judge and Magistrate. For many years after British occupation of Assam, Guwahati
remained the headquarters of the province, but on the erection of Assam into a separate province
under a Chief Commissioner, the headquarters of the new administration was shifted to Shillong. The
district boundaries underwent changes since its formation into separate districts in 1833 A.D .The
Dhansiri river originally formed the boundary in the east and the district of Sibsagar included some areas
of the present Karbi Anglong district, North Cachar Hills and Naga Hills. In 1853 A.D.,North Cachar was
separated from a sub-division and in the next year the territory of Tularam was added to North Cachar
sub-division. During 1867 A.D.,the Naga Hills and a large part of Karbi Anglong were combined together
into a separate district,and the sub-division of North Cachar was abolished, and considerable area of
North Cachar sub-division was placed in charge of the Deputy Commissioner of Cachar. The province of
Assam was created in 1874 A.D. with a view to relieving the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal of a part of
his huge administrative responsibility. The head of the newly created province was given the title of
''Chief Commissioner''. In 1905 A.D., Lord Curzon combined the eastern district of Bengal with Assam
but this was reversed in 1912 and Assam was restored to its former territorial position. In 1921,in
accordance with the provisions of the government of India Act, 1919, Assam was given the status of a
Governor's province.
Condition of the Province on the eve of British occupation and its effects:
The peace and tranquility of the province in the event of British occupation was disturbed by the
disputed succession. Anarchy prevailed in the later Ahom period resulting in maladministration in the
State. The situation was further aggravated by the successive rebellions, the province of Assam had
been depopulated to the extent of half of her population,and under the stress of protracted wars and
oppression, the peasants had to give up cultivation and depend mostly on wild roots and plants. Famine
and pestilence stalked the land. ''Mills's report on Assam''stated that, it was not to set the clock back,as
desired by Maniram or the people of his thinking, but to consolidate the possession of the British and to
tighten their grip over the administration. David Scott organised the administration to his best capacity
and introduced British system in general outline and spirit with accommodation for indigenous system
prevalent at that time. The general administration of Assam including justice was vested in the
Commissioner of Assam with his headquarters at Guwahati. A Deputy Commissioner was posted there in
1939 to relieve the commissioner as Civil and Sessions Judge. Each district was placed in charge of a
Principal (Senior)Assistant assisted by a Junior Assistant and a Sub-Assistant. In 1861,deputy
Commissioner was redesignated as Judicial Commissioner; Principal Assistant as Deputy Commissioner;
Junior Assistant as Assistant Commissioner and Sub-Assistant as Extra Assistant Commissioner. There
was a separate civil judicial establishment consisting of one Principal Sadar Amin six Sadar Amins and
seventeenth Munsiffs. The separate establishment of Sadar Amin and Munsiffs was abolished in 1872.
David Scott was mainly responsible for working out the principles of administration in both upper and
lower Assam. The British administration in Lower Assam actually began in 1824-25. The revenue
collections increased in each succeeding year and this must have reduced the people to dire straits. The
British introduced new method of revenue administration. The new system placed paraganas under
Choudhuries who were entrusted with the collection of revenue and administration of justice in petty
criminal cases in their respective paraganas. The Choudhury was in the nature of a revenue collecting
contractor,for he had to pay six months' revenue to the Government before any collection could be
made. Revenue was assessed as per the category of the cultivated area. Besides revenue, the people
was subjected to pay a per capita poll tax of Rs.2/-. On failure to pay taxes,property of the defaulting
tenants was confiscated with the result that peasants at times could not save their hearth and home. So
mounting resentment grew amongst the Assamese peasants who,in fact,were in great need of
undisturbed rehabilitation for some considerable length of time. The introduction of a new judiciary
system by the foreigners also contributed to the suffering of the people. To protect lives and properties
in the interiors, there existed a police establishment, the thana with a thanadar or daroga in charge. He
was empowered to arrest suspected persons, to detained them and even to hold preliminary trial before
sending them to sadar station. Under the Chartered Act of 1833 Special lease grants and Fee simple
lease grants were introduced in respect of revenue administration to encourage tea plantation and a
company called Assam company was established by the British. By 1858,almost the entire erstwhile
Lakhimpur and Sibsagar were covered by this company for tea plantation and subsequently expanded its
operation to Cachar. Expansion of tea industry necessitated import of labour from outside the State. Mill
gives the figure of such immigrants in Assam in 1881 to be 3 lakhs which reached over six lakhs by 1901.
The commercial treaty of Gaurinath Singha with Captain Welsh in 1793 had opened the gates to the
merchants of Bengal to enter into the interior of the province. Avenues of employment both in office
and trade caused a steady inflow of population from the districts of Sylhet, Dacca, Mymensingh and
Rangpur to Assam. After it came under British administration,the policy adopted by the British in the
other parts of India was pursued in Assam. So, the British, in order to supplement the Chartered Act of
1833, encouraged the establishment of English schools in Assam as they needed English knowing people
to help running of administration. The Assamese people who were then enjoying a respite after a long
and bitter struggle with the Burmese invaders,were totally unaware of these developments.
Besides,there were very few English educated people in Assam .In April ,1831,Government of Bengal
made Bengali in place of Persian the language of the court. The influx from Bengal not only made the
revenue and judicial departments their sole preserve, but their services became equally indispensable to
the newly started Government schools for death of local teachers specially to impart instructions in
Bengali which had since been made the medium of instruction in Assam. Finally,Assamese was abolished
from the schools and courts of Assam in 1839. Anandaram Dhekial Phukan who was one of the few
English educated Assamese was appointed as Assistant Commissioner. His enlightened mind saw that
the lot of the peasantry could not be improved without knowledge of modern scientific applications and
a better mode of living which cannot be acquired without Western education. He laid stress on the
necessity of raising the standard of education and, his was the first voice of protest against the
imposition of Bengali as the medium of instruction, and pleaded for its replacement by Assamese.
Concrete steps were, however, taken by the Christian missionaries who not only carried on a
propaganda through their mouth piece the Arunodoi but also set up a few schools for girls. The first
missionary school was started at Sibsagar by Rev. Nathan Brown and O.T. Cutter in 1840 and this was
followed by the schools set up by Bronson at Nagaon (1843) and Mrs. Barkes at Guwahati in 1850. With
the spread of western ideas the need was gradually felt for the formation of political association and
organisation to ventilate the grievances of the people. The Chartered Act of 1833 was a handy
instrument of the British colonialists who already began spreading out their financial tentacles to serve
the interest of the empire and colonialism. Assam began to suffer from the basic evils of foreign
domination as other parts of India did.
The Freedom Movement :
Anti British movement-Later phase :
The question of revenue collections dominated the relationship between the Government and the
people throughout the 19th century. The rule of the East India Company ended in 1858 and the whole of
India came under the direct control of the British Crown. The assessment of land revenue was increased,
and income tax, stamp duties, etc., were also imposed by the new administration. The Government
carried on trade in opium and salt in the State and earned considerable profit thereby. The people of
Assam who were not accustomed to payment of revenue in cash began to resent. The British
Government undoubtedly introduced beneficial measures like abolition of cruel practices as chopping
off ears, noses, abductions of young women, forced labour, etc., but the evils far out-weighed these few
good measures, Thus in 1853, Moniram Dewan petitioned Mills.''Illustrious Sir, we are just now, as it
were,in the belly of a tiger''. Moniram Dewan was responsible for associating Assam with the rebellion
of 1857. Being disillusioned with the British he turned a rebel in 1857 when the class interest of a
section of the Indian feudal class coincided with the broad national interests against foreign rule. The
sepoys of Assam like infantry battalions both at Dibrugarh and Guwahati remained absolutely passive
and strictly loyal to the British. The Commissioner of Assam in the middle of August 11857 got
information from Holroyd, the intelligence Officer, that several officers of the Assam Light Infantry with
the detachment at Golaghat had entered into a conspiracy with the young prince, Kandarpeswar. Major
Jenkins lost non time and drew the attention of Government of India to the seriousness of the situation
and urged it to despatch, as hurriedly as possible, European force to save the province from the
revolutions. The simultaneous outbreak of the sepoys in scattered areas rendered it difficult to send
reinforcements into Assam. To tide over the immediate crisis a small European force of 104 sea-
men,half of them raw recruits, was despatched under Lieutenant Davis on board the Haroonghatta on
Sept', 1857. Moran Dewan from Calcutta sent secret letters through rebel conveyers to individuals in
Assam to win over these sepoys whose brethern in different parts of India fought the British. In Nagaon,
Mr. Morton, the Principal Assistant, destroyed the bridges over the rivers Missa and Diju and cut off the
communication with Jorhat lest the mutineers get into the district from that direction. Enthusiastic
stories of the fall of British power in different parts caused a great deal of excitement among the hillmen
as well. The people at large were in a discontented state,Though not organised. At such a time the
Government tightened up security measures and enforced operation of Act XIV. A large number of
arrests took place. The potential rebels were tired,many were executed while others were deported.
Kandarpeswar Singha was arrested and despatched to Calcutta and kept confined as a state prisoner in
Alipur. This was followed by the arrest of Moniram in Calcutta and his collaborators, both officials and
non-officials, Dutiram Baruah, Mayaram Nazir, Marangikhowa Gohain, Bahadur Gaoburah, Shaikh
Formud and several others. This ended the endeavours made by Moniram to overthrow the British
Government in Assam. The great rebellion of 1857 left Assam without much convulsions. Queen
Victoria's proclamation in 1858,ending the Company rule and establishing direct Government under the
Crown promised to respect the rights of the native princes, but exception was made in the case of
Assam and the wrong of 1838 was not undone. Struggle against expatriation's and for land reforms
entered the countryside. The land revenue assessment which had remained unchanged for the last
twenty to thirty years was enhanced in 1894 and as such the ryots of different places viz.,Rangia and
Lashima in the Kamrup district and the ryots of Patharughat in the Mangaldoi district were the first to
react against the enhancement of revenue of land. The aggrieved,both Hindus and Muslims,met in their
Raijmel and protested against the new measure. Movement of a serious nature occurred for nearly two
decades. The renaissance movement of the post 1857 period and the series of aggrarian outbreaks
during the last four decades of the 19th century contributed to the growth of a conscious national
movement for freedom from foreign rule.
Freedom Movement in the post – 1857 period :
The great rebellion of 1857 was directly responsible for the birth of the national movement in the
country. The uprising of 1857 had imposed severe financial strain on the British Indian Government. The
deficit in budget in 1858-59 compelled them to introduce new taxes as a result,on the advice of Jam es
Wilson,in 1860,income-tax was introduced and this was extended in the following year to the province
of Assam. New economic forces were brought into play and the new social forces though expressing
themselves in their different ways,contributed to the growth of the conscious national forces. After
1857,the character of the struggle against the foreigner changed but the struggle was continued with
renewed intensity depending upon the growth of consciousness from area to area,and Sabhas and Raijar
mels became the most popular institution for solving all sorts of problem faced by the indigenous
people of this State. The uprising at Phulguri was the earliest popular movement in Assam organized
with the object to compelling the Government to yield to the will of the people by the withdrawal of
unpopular measures of taxation. Though the movement failed,the precedent was not lost upon the
people and was followed up in other parts soon after. In 1861, Hopkinson sought to double the tax on
land on the plea of utilising the excess revenue on works of public utility. The proposal did not receive
the approval of the Board of Revenue,and in 1865, Hopkinson renewed his proposal in a different from
proposing to raise the revenue on land with the object of equalising the rates in all the districts. He also
wanted to raise the rates of ''house-hold and garden lands.'' Hopkinson's proposal, on this occasion,
received the approval of the Government of Bengal and consequently rates of rupti and non-rupti lands
increased from 25 to 50 per cent in almost all the districts. From early 1869, mels were frequently held
at Gobindapur, Hadira, and Bajali in Kamrup. A no tax campaign on a vigorous scale was launched by the
ryots of Rangia and Lachima in the district of Kamrup and Patharughat in Darrang. During the month of
December,1892,people belonging to Tahsils of Pati Darrang ,Nalbari,Barama,Bajali and also of the five
mouzas of upper Borbhag and Sarukhetri in their mels resolved not to yield to any sort of Government
pressure and excommunicate those who would pay revenue to the Government. The movement started
with the looting of the Rangia bazar. The firm resistance of the ryots and the apprehension of further
troubles compelled McCabe to strengthen security measures. Without prior permission of the Deputy
Commissioner,meetings of the mels were banned. But this could not suppress the people. Troubles of
serious nature broke out again at Patharughat,where the police chased the ryots ,firing continuously
along the Mongaldoi road and scores of them lay dead and wounded. There was also firing at Rangia to
disperse a huge and rebellious gathering which demonstrated their resentment against imposition of
enhanced revenue. The popular uprising,was termed by the British as the ''Assam riots'',and it
considered as a very serious affair and the suppressive measures of the Government were viewed very
seriously. The editorial in the Indian Nation declared that ''the burden which now press upon the land in
Assam are considerably heavier than on land owned by Zamindars in Bengal.'' The Amrita Bazar Patrika
observed on its editorial that ''in the Deccan the furry of the ryots was directed against money lenders,in
Bengal against indigo-planters in 1860, in Pabna against Zaminders in Assam,at this movement,it is open
rebellion against the Government. Direct British rule after the Queen's proclamation changed the form
of Government but internal administration changed only for the worse. The multiplication of taxes, like
stamp duties, income-tax, etc., could not but be a matter of serious concern to the agricultural ryots,and
consequently the Phulaguri riot of 1861 took place where the tribal peasants of the area demonstrated
a popular discontenment protesting against the gradual enhancement and introduction of new taxes by
the British and finally engulfed the entire rural population of Assam by 1893-94.
Impact of the rising :
The peasant movement of Assam had its echo in the Imperial Legislative where Dr.Rash Bihari Ghosh
questioned the propriety of realising land revenue by the agency of special constables. The authorities
could give only vague replies to the pointed questions. Though the risings failed at last,the lessons were
not lost. The national movement was baptised in this economic struggles and it found political outlet
with the birth of national consciousness.With the spread of western education during the last part of the
nineteenth century a new awakening surcharged the patriots of the land. The public grievances were
forwarded to the Government for consideration through Raijmels of the different parts of the province.
The year of 1885 was recognized as the birth year of Indian national Congress. Before the birth of this
organization,The Ryot sabha was formed by a group of enlightened people primarily to protest against
the enhancement of land revenue and to ventilate other public grievances in the province. Though the
Indian National Congress was not started in Assam in 1885,the delegates from different Raijmels or
sabhas of different districts of the province were sent to attend the congress Session wherever it held.
Devicharan Baruah was the first Assamese to joined in the second Indian National Congress held in
1886. British authority had a mortal fear of the authority of the Mels which they compared with the
Nihilist organization. The Raij-mels increased popular consciousness and confidence in strength. The
Ryot-sabha or Raij-mels were active in districts like Sibsagar, Nagaon, Darrang, Kamrup and Lakhimpur.
The Mels in Assam played an important role in making the people conscious of the utter helplessness in
which they lived under the alien rulers. The Tezpur Ryot Sabha was established in and around 1884 at
the initiative of the new elites,the Ryot Sabha had a wide base in the villages. It collected small
subscriptions from hundreds of peasants and in 1887 built the Tezpur Town Hall, the first of its kind in
Assam. The Assam Desh Hitaishini Sabha in 1885, at Sibsagar and Gyan Pradayini Sabha in 1857, at
Nagaon with object of spreading advanced knowledge among people were formed under supervision of
Anandaram Barua and Gunabhiram Barua. The foundation of the Sarbajanik Sabha held at Jorhat in 1884
by Jagannath Barua is a landmark in the history of political association in Assam. The Sarbajanik Sabha
desired abolition of the cultivation of the poppy by gradual doses and also urged upon educational
policy of the Government. The Sabha not only demanded large employment of the natives of the
soil,but also emphasised on the improvement of their service condition and emoluments. All these
Sabhas desired reintroduction of Assamese as the medium of instruction by which the scope of
education would be widened and thus the ''Jonaki Age'' in Assamese literature began. The impact of the
west replaced the blind faith of age-long beliefs,customs and conventions by a spirit of rationalism.
Orthodoxy continued to be the order of the day,but its gradually relaxed. The outlook of the orthodox
sections gradually changed and before the close of the century students from the high caste Hindus
were seen proceeding to the Presidency College at Calcutta for higher courses in English education
though the aim of English education was primarily for the purpose of creating a set of clerks to run
Governments offices. The establishment of the Cotton College at Guwahati in 1901 contributed to the
spread of higher education. The educational policy of the Government was also viewed with serious
concern by the Jorhat Sarbajanik Sabha. During the years 1874-1905,Assam has no legislature of its own
and the people then had no chance of participating in legislative activities of any kind. In
March,1990,Lord Curzon paid a visit to Assam. It afforded the European planting community the golden
opportunity to represent their interests for expansion of industrial and commercial undertaking in
Assam. In an address of welcome, J.Alstone, the Superintendent,Assam Frontier Tea Company Limited,
Dibrugarh, appealed to the Viceroy to improve the lines of communication and means of transport in
the province and also to conduct a survey of the mineral resources in the neighbouring hill tracts. As
Assam has no legislative council of its own,a permanent seat for Assam in India Legislative Council was
pleaded for. The demographic changes also took place during the years 1874-1905, in the Assam Valley.
The epidemic appearing in the Brahmaputra and the Surma Valleys caused retardation of agricultural
growth in the province,and the influx of immigrants more than neutralized the decline in the indigenous
population. Non-indigenous elements came to constitute at least one quarter of the population of
Assam proper in 1901. The composition and distribution of population affected the peasant's economy
adversely.90
The period of preparation and growth of political consciousness :(1901-1918):
The year of 1903 was recognized in the Assam history with redmark, as the educated gentry of Assam
led by Manik Chandra Baruah, Ghanashyam Barua, Jagannath Barua, Faizner Ali and others of an All-
Assam Political Organization gave birth to the Assam Association. Raja Probhat Chandra Barua of
Gauripur, Assam,was one of the chief promoters who presided over the inaugural session at Dibrugarh,
Karmabir Nabin Chandra Bardoloi presiding over the 1917 session of the Association at Dibrugarh,
elaborately described the necessity of the Association and remarked,''organise, knock at the door and
you find the door opened.'' Further,the Association strongly expressed the feelings of popular
resentment against the Rowlatt Acts and the Jalianwalla Bagh massacre in Punjab,in April,1919.
Presiding over its Goalpara session in December, 1918, T.R. Phookan said,''The Government is bad and
bureaucratic. It should be democratic. The English officers and English traders and also section of Indians
do not advocate popular Government and Lord Sydenhem and others say that Indians are not fit for self
Government. But one cannot learn swimming without plunging in water. If India is not fit for self
Government even after a century and half of British rule, who is responsible for this?'' The members of
Assam Association later distinguished themselves as leaders of the freedom struggle and introduced an
element of extremism into the politics of the Association and replaced it in 1921,by the provincial
Congress Organisation. The Assam Association focused its active attention on all questions of public
importance in the province. It served as the mouth-piece of the people of Assam in presenting to
their''needs and grievances,hopes and aspirations.'' It launched a strong agitation against the unpopular
grazing-tax imposed by the Government of grazing of cattle in the forest reserves of Assam. The
Association also kept a vigilant eye over the opium policy of the Government. The growth of nationalism
in the 19th century Assam was a two track process;people were increasing by turning as much to the
great nationalism at the all-India level as to the little nationalism at the Linguistic regional level. Towards
the close of the nineteenth century,a partition of Bengal was imminent and Assam's status as a separate
province also came to came to an end on 16th October,1905,and Fuller was promoted as the first
lieutenant Governor of the new-born composite province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The anti-
partition agitation was meanwhile in full swing in Bengal and the Surma valley. The province of ''Eastern
Bengal and Assam came into being consisting of an area of 275937.5346 square kilometres and a
population of 31 million souls'' as Mr. Fuller mentioned in his speech addressed at Guwahati
Municipality on Nov. 1,1905. He assured the people of Assam that the proposed change will not affect
their privileges. The Assam Association and the Jorhat Sarbajanik Sabha organised protest meeting
against this undesirable tagging. Meetings were held at Dhubri, Gauripur, Goalpara, Guwahati and
Dibrugarh against the formation of the new province in the following years. This anti-partition
movement strengthened people's belief in Swadeshi and Swaraj. British goods were boycotted totally
and the shops were started in different places of Assam for the sale of Swadeshi goods. Evidently the
anti-partition agitation turned into a popular movement based on Swadeshi boycott and national
education. The Muhammedan population of both Valleys also joined the movement. Though the tussle
between Bengal and Assam continued on language, employment, and land issue; the people of Assam
and Bengal joined hands on the thresh hold on nationalistic movement in the struggle for freedom from
British toke. At Guwahati in 1905 an attempt was made by Ambika Giri Roy Choudhury and Gobinda
Lahiri to organise the local students in Swadeshi spirit. A group of Assamese students volunteered to
work as labourers in Railway stations and steamer ghats and to donate their earnings to the common
found organised for Swadeshi cause. Even the Pandas of Kamakhya ceased to use beet-sugar and liver
pool salt. Ambika Giri Roy Choudhury, Tringuna Barua and few others attracted towards the cult of
terrorism under the influence of Barin Ghose and Khudiram, but this movement ended with Ambika Giri
Roy Choudhury being interned at Barpeta for a long stretch of 8(eight)years from 1907 to 1915. In Nov.
1912 the first Assam Lagislative Council was created with 13 nominated and 12 elected and 12 elected
members with the Chief Commissioner as the Chairman. The provincial council had no power to control
the budget of the province though the representatives were allowed to criticise it. The budget,in
fact,was an estimate from which the Government could at any time depart. No nation-building
programme could be undertaken by the Council due to this prevalent rigidity of financial system. Tarun
Ram Phukan and Radha Govinda Das (Sylhet) resigned on the ground of the futility of the Council. Phani
Dhar Chaliha, a planter's representative also resigned in protest against a deregatory remark from the
Chairman. Of the leading members,mention may be made of Kamini Kumar Chanda, Manik Chandra
Baruah, Padmanath Gohain Baruah, Radha Binode Das, Muhammad Saadullah and Raja Prabhat Chandra
Baruah. Padmanath Gohain Baruah criticised the policy of the Government in giving undue
representation to the planters in the Local Boards, and he argued that their interest in Local Boards was
not so ''universal''as those of native population. When the Morley-Minto reforms opened the problem
of the minorities in India,It was but natural that members belonging these communities would plead for
their special needs and requirements in the Council. Deprecating the predominance of the official
elements in the Local Boards,Muhammad Saadullah demanded communal representation of the
Muslims in these bodies. As a result,power and responsibilities of legislators were greatly circumscribed.
An event of considerable importance to be recorded was the formation of the Assam Student
Conference in 1916,the first session of which was held amidst great enthusiasm at Guwahati under the
presidentship of the great Assamese literature and patriot Lakshminath Bezbaruah.91 The Assam
Students Conference helped to create a cadre of student leaders who played important part in the Non-
co-operation and subsequent movements. Leaders like Chandranath Sarma. Omeo Kumar Das,Hem
Chandra Barua, Padmadhar Chaliha came into prominence first as student leaders. A demand for full
provincial status for Assam was being voiced by Assam Association for very long time and expected the
aspiration to be materialised through proposed constitutional reforms of 1918. A deputation from
Assam. 91. K.N. Dutta : Landmark of the freedom in Assam. Association,headed by N.C. Bordoloi was
sent to London to represent Assam's case before the Selbourne committee of house of Lords. As the
result of the meeting,Assam acquired the status of a full fledged Governor's province under the
Government of India Act,1919. Gradually,affected by the Jaliwanwalla massacre,political pivots of Assam
were being drawn by the non-co-operation movement and call for Hindu-Muslim unity made by
Mahatma Gandhi under Congress banner. Assam was prepared to march with the rest of India towards
the common goal of freedom and the struggle for freedom in Assam formed an inseparable part of the
India struggle. Assam was thus slowly drawn into the orbit of the new action-oriented all-India political
agitation.
Non-co-operation and Dyarchy on Trial (1918-1947):
Assam had played a significant role in the struggle for freedom though in the earlier stages,her political
development was too slow due to want of intellectual contact with the rest of India as a result of
backwardness in English education and lack of communication. As a response to the call of non-co-
operation, Kaliram Barman of Guwahati withdrew nomination paper after scrutiny and Kumudram Bora,
an already elected member to the council resigned. 1919 was an eventful year in the political history of
India. Gandhiji launched the Non-co-operation movement on 1st August 1920, which was the direct
outcome of Khilafat movement. In Assam, both the Hindus and Muslims equally responded to the cause
of Khilafatist. In response to the Khilafat movement, Guwahati, Goalpara, Jorhat, Sibsagar and North
Lakhimpur observed hartals and held public meetings respectively. Although, Nabin Chandra Bordoloi
and others did not support Gandhiji at Calcutta(Sept.1920);had apparently realised the direction in
which the wind was blowing. And after returning the Guwahati Bordoloi started a propaganda
campaign, seeking the support of the Assamese intelligentsia to the non-co-operation movement. The
Assam Association held district-level meetings at Nagaon, Sibsagar, Jorhat, Dibrugarh throughout
October,1920 and discussed the non-co-operation issue. While the issue of non-co-operation was being
hotly debated,N.C. Bordoloi, the general secretary of the Association,C.N. Sarma and Tarunram Phukan
moved from one corner of the province to the other to mobilize public opinion. The Guwahati Bar
Association at the initiative of young lawyers,even decided to boycott the Viceroy's visit. Almost all the
district level Associations took decision to boycott Council elections also raised objection to take titles,
honour and honorary posts from British Government. The boycott agitation of the students had almost
automatically led to the demand for setting up national schools and national colleges in the province.
Finally,a national school was established in Feb.1921, in the premises of the residence of Rohinikumar
Choudhury, at Bharalumukh, Guwahati. Such establishment was followed in other parts of the
province. The outbreak of the World War I had disturbed the equilibrium of the commercial world. The
Secretary of food stuff and other necessaries gave rise to economic crimes like theft and burglary in
many places of both the valleys. Phanidhar Chaliha in his speech in the council held on 13th March 1918,
urged upon the Government to take necessary step. In March1918,the retail price of salt in the Assam
Valley was fixed by a notification and similar measures followed soon in the other valley and the hills
districts. The deep rooted economic malady had hit the labour population of the plains districts. The
Chargola exodus,a well-known historical episode in which the tea labourers of the tea gardens of the
Cachar district were brutally treated by European planters,enraged the nationalist leaders who took up
their cause. And finally,an economic struggle at the beginning,the sporadic strikes later on culminated
into a mass political action in the form of a collective escape from the bonded labour system. It was the
product of an interaction between the Gandhian impact on primitive minds and the incipient class
militancy. There were strikes in Dibrugarh, Sibsagar and Darrang. Labour of entire Assam raised general
complaints about low wages,excessive work-load,inadequate facilities of leave,high prices of food and
cloth in the State. Prolonged labour troubles caused some anxiety in the official circles. As proposed by
all-India Congress Committee,the Congress leaders of Assam kept fully alive the tempo of Civil
Disobedience. Based on the Civil-Disobedience movement,the Congress Working Committee urged upon
the people to be prepared to face all sorts of hardships and indignities with calm fortitude and
unflinching devotion to the cause of Swaraj . To meet the Purna Swaraj, large number of people began
to enrol themselves as volunteers,strengthen the National Volunteer Corps. Soon, Phukan and Bordoloi,
the top leaders of the Assam Congress were arrested on 30th Nov., 1921, followed by arrest of quite a
number of leaders. In terms of arrests and convictions,the sub-division of Tezpur, Golaghat, Guwahati,
Sibsagar and Sylhet suffered badly. The economic depression of the thirtees was so wide spread that the
phased Civil Disobedience Movement tended to grow into an anti-imperialist mass revolt. Not only
British rule, but land-lordism and capitalism also came under fire from the emergent leftist youths. The
peasants refused to pay land-revenue to British agents. A number of police and Government official
resigned from Government services. ''Saptahik Assamiya''a weekly published from Guwahati was
prosecuted for defamation of British officer,for publishing a report on defilement of Sundaridiya Satra at
Barpeta by Captain Calvert,in course of his repressive operation. Jails were filled with non-co-operators.
The British Government exerted its full strength to repress the participants and to suppress the
movement by use of arms,and finally succeeded in qualling the agitation. In 1922,after the Choiri Choura
riots in Uttar Pradesh, Mahatma Gandhi called a halt to the movement and the Congress Working
Committee endorsed the decision. Since then,the leaders of Assam began to stress on the constructive
programmes such as temperance work,spinning of yarns and weaving of khaddar, being prosecuted
withdrawal. In 1922, Omeo Kumar Das attendent the All-India Congress committee meeting and related
to it the story of severe repression which was then going on in Assam. Two-member committee of Dr.
Rajendra Prasad and Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya came to Assam to study the political situation in
Assam. The two leaders visited several places in Assam and were deeply impressed with the progress of
the movement in Assam and the contribution made by the people,in the shape of suffering and sacrifice
for the attainment of freedom. Orthodox non-co-operators of Assam stood firm in their commitment to
the implementation of constructive programmes, as a result of which the Swaraja party in Assam was
formed within Congress in 1923. As the result of the movement,the British Government in Assam agreed
to introduce measures for gradual decline of opium consumption in Assam. This was the most important
achievement so far Assam was concerned. The next achievement of importance was introduction of
Local self government Act and passing of Assam Municipal Act,1923, with provision for more elected
members and elected chairman. Election to the Legislative Council was held in 1923,which was more
than one surprise for the Congress and the country. The Swarajya party contested almost all the seats
and their candidates everywhere received support from the local Congress and Khilafat organisation.
Tarun Ram Phukan was elected to the Indian Legislative Assembly unopposed. Out of the 39 elective
seats of the Assam Council only 13 members of the previous council could retain their seats. The
Swarajya party failed to secure absolute majority in the council and therefore,carried on negotiation
with the Independents. With a view to wrecking the constitution and attacking the Government inside
the council,the first meeting of newly elected council decided to form Assam Nationalist Party in 1924,as
happened elsewhere in India. This policy of infiltration proved fruitful as in April,1924,the Assam
Legislative Council succeeded in cutting the salary of ministers from Rs.3,500/- P.M. to Rs.1500/- P.M.
And the opium Prohibition Act was also passed on 3rd March,1925. But split occurred in the Coalition
party in March 1925 last,and the Swarajists realized that they could no longer command a majority. The
Assam Court Fees(Amendment)Bill in the Assam Stamp(Amendment)Bill of 1925 were passed,despite
the opposition of the Swarajists. Finally, they lost the majority and the All India Congress Committee in
1926 too directed the Swarajists to stage walk-out in all the legislative bodies. The forty-first Congress
Session was held from 26thto 28th Dec.1926,under the presidentship of S.Srinivas Iyenger, at Guwahati.
The Swarajist no changers and the responsive co-operators, all came to the Guwahati Session.92 In
December, 1929, in response to the call for Civil Disobedience movement launched by the National
Congress,Assam spontaneously celebrated 'Independence Day' on 26thJan,1930. In Feb,1930, the old
leaders resigned their offices in the Provincial Congress. At this critical hour Bishnuram Medhi came
forward to save the situation,who volunteered to shoulder the responsibility of the Congress
presidentship in Assam. In April,1930,after the historic Dandi March of Mahatma Gandhi,the Assam
Congress to joined in the Civil Disobedience Movement. The national week of ''war against salt tax''was
observed and the law breaking movement spread by way of violating the Forest Laws.93 The struggle in
Assam took the form of a boycott of foreign cloths, excisable drugs and the shops selling such goods.
Picketing was resorted to. Sri Bishnuram Medhi helped by Tyagbir Hemchandra Barua, Dr. Bhubaneswar
Barua, Omeo Kr. Das, Sidhinath Sarma, Pitambar Goswami, Gormur Satradhikar, Lakhidhar Sharma and
others conducted the movement very successfully. Srimati Chandra Prabha Saikiani and Srimati
Durgaprava Barua took up picketing in front of Cotton College Guwahati. The arrest of the national
leaders included a spirit of fearlessness amongst the general mass. The authority clamped section 144Cr.
P.C. in Nagaon, Tezpur and Dhubri to suppress this popular consciousness. But people from different
places participated in the protest demonstration. As a result,police attacked the crowd with lathis and
batons in such places. The movement got spontaneous support from the rural mass. Stream of
innumerable Satyagrhis faced lathi charge, arrest and other tortures and went to jail. Meanwhile the
student unrest begun in protest of Government circular demanding from the students and guardians an
undertaking to abstain from joining politics. Some public high schools like Kamrup Academy, Barpeta
Bidyapith, etc.,were established by the Nationalists. The movement dragged on till May,1934,and most
of the leaders like Nobin Chandra Bordoloi were sent to jail for the 2nd time. To cripple movement,the
Government also adopted a policy of penal action after arrests. Most of the active members of the Civil
Disobedience movement were convicted. The persons that were convicted in proportion to arrest made
in Assam up to 31st March,1932,were males 885,females 54 and convicted males 672 and females 42.
Between 1930 and 1938,in spite of occasional difference amongst the leaders,Congress organisation got
very strong. But,as in a bid to open up fallow waste lands in Assam for cultivation,influxes of landless
peasants from East Bengal were being invited to Assam by the then Assam Ministry headed by Sir Md.
Saadullah, and because flow of innumerable jobseekers continued to Assam unabated,a section of
Assamese nationalists got alarmed and Ambika Giri Roy Choudhury, a staunch nationalist to the
core,founded''Assam Sangrakshini Sobha'' and without seceding from the Congress, began to voice
through this organisation, demands ''for vindication of right of the Assamese people,the children of the
soil as against aggression of outsiders.95 As most of these people from East Bengal were Muslims there
was a general sympathy of a section of Assam Muslims to them. As a result a section of Assam Muslims
barring the Assamese Muslims,the old east Bengal Muslims and Hindus did not take part in the Civil
Disobedience Movement of 1930-32. Assam Sangrakshini Sabha was later on converted into Assam
Jatiya Mahasabha. All those ryot sabhas organised by Assam Sangrakshini Sabha became the strong
holds of Assam during the later movements sponsored by the National Congress under the guidance of
Mahatma Gandhiji. Rani Gaidinliu played major role in the Civil Disobedience in Assam. Gaidinliu
organised a revolt against the constituted authorities. The meetings of the Assam Provincial Ryot
Sanmilan,Assam Association and Ryot Association were held in different places of Assam and devoted
mainly to non political matters in 1933. The political movement of the Civil Disobedience Movement was
restarted after the declaration of the communal award. Instead of ideal of purna swaraj heading the list
of priorities,the Harijan suddenly gained prominence at this point time. In fact, after the Poona pact, the
upliftment of the Harijan and the removal of untouchability was taken up by the Congress leaders in
Assam with immense fervour. The persuance of Congress decision to let the reforms introduced by the
Government of India Act,1936,Assam Congress also participated in 1937 election and won 33 seats in a
House of 108 and formed the largest single upon in the Assembly. But non-acceptance of ministry being
the Congress policy then , a Coalition Ministry was formed by the other groups with Sir Saadullah as the
Chief Minister. Sir Saadullah being associated with the legislature and the British administrative
machinery for more than 15 long years, he was naturally the most likely selected one for the position by
the Governor of Assam. But on 13th Sept.1938, this ministry had to face acute discomfort due to its
communal policies and total neglect of the preservation need of the ''the children of the soil''and in
order to avoid defeat in no-confidence vote in the Assembly, , Sir Saadullah had to resign. Thereafter,
the Congress Coalition Ministry was formed with Gopinath Bordoloi as its head. This Ministry took up
the causes of labour in the Assam Oil Company labour Dispute, and this won over the industrial labour
also to the side of Congress organisation. But in the meantime,in Sept., 1039, the Second World War
broke up and a consequence of the Congress refusal to be a party in the Imperialistic War,during Oct.-
Nov.1039, the ministry in Assam resigned,and on 17.11.39,Md. Syed Saadullah again formed a Coalition
Ministry . This, however, created acute problem as Sir Saadullah was always a very ardent supporter of
the British. In December, 1941, in protest against a Government circular for participation of students in
the War Fund Exhibition held at Guwahati Judge Field, a student's demonstration was held by the
students of Cotton College. Police attacked students with lathi. Such lathi charges took place in other
places of the country also. Rohini Choudhury, a number of the Coalition Ministry of Syed Saadullah
resigned from ministry in protest of police atrocity on students. On 24.12.41 the Saadullah ministry also
had to resign The British Government organised Village Defence party to courterpoise Santi Sena
organization of Congress. But, in fact, the Village Defence parties organised by the Government were
swallowed up by the Santi-Senas in rural areas. In Oct.1940, on refusal of the Viceroy to concede to the
National Government as demanded by Congress a campaign of individual Satyagraha was launched
under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi in Assam, Gopinath Bordoloi, Bishnuram Medhi, Omeo Kumar
Das and many others also took part in the satyagraha and got arrested. In the meantime, the allies of
the British advanced towards India,and Sir Stafford Cripps had to come to India in March,1942 and put
forward an offer of Dominion. Congress refused and took up the famous ''Quit India'' resolution on 8th
August, 1942. Assam jumped into the movement with a quick stride and on 9th August,1942,
Md.Tayabullah, Fakaruddin Ali Ahmed, Bishnuram Medhi, Debeswar Sarma, Dr. Harekrishna Das, Lila
Barua with many others were arrested by the British as preventive measure. Gopinath Bordoloi and
Sidhinath Sarma who were away at Bombay in connection with the All India Congress meeting got
arrested at Dhubri immediately on their return. All organisations including Ryot-sabhas which
subscribed to the Congress fund were declared unlawful. But the tremendous pace of the growing
movement could not be halted. The abrupt official action intensified the Quit India Movement. Acting
under their local leaders,the people stood up in a massive protest against the Government's action.
Santi Sena organisations were set up throughout the State under the leadership of local Congress
Socialists. Mahendra Nath Hazarika, Lakshmi Prasad Goswami, Sankar Barua built up an underground
resistant movement. A Mritya Bahini or death squad was formed in the State under the leadership of
Mahendra Nath Hazarika. The party carried out some serious acts of sabotage throughout the State. In
Darrang district, Jyoti Prasad Agarwala, Gohon Chandra Goswami went underground and carried out
sabotage at various places by organizing Mrityu Bahini. To suppress the movement,the police restored
to severe from of violence. Firing was restored to on many occasions. Firings caused death to many
people including Kanaklata, Taleswari, Numali, and Khahulis who were all teen aged girls. The judgement
in the Dhekiajuli firing case contained severe structures on the police which even the High Court saw no
grounds to relax. Victim of police atrocities in North Lakhimpur and Dibrugarh were Madhuban Chutia,
Bhogeswar Chetia and Pohor Gogoi, In Sibsagar, the individual Satyagraha movement was started by
MoulanaTayebulla, the President of the Asom Pradesh Congress Committee. Entire Sibsagar district
responded to the call of ''Quit India Movement''. The police made lathi charge on processions in every
place. Many were arrested and imprisoned or detained. Kushal Konwar, who was believed to be
innocent,was however,declared to be guilty of sabotage and awarded capital punishment by the court
that tried him. He was hanged in Jorhat Jail in 1943. The Government also levied collective fines on the
people of different district in the Province to undermine the movement. In Kamrup district at Bahjani in
Nalbari sub-division and Bajali in Barpeta sub-division, the village Panchayats were formed and schemes
of Panchayat administration was drawn up. Madan Barman and Rawta Kachari lost their lives in the
police firing in Bajali. People's hatred against repressive bureaucracy mounted up. Rising high prices and
food shortage added fuel to the fire and they put all efforts to paralyse the Government. The district of
Nagaon played the most important role in the ''Quit India Movement''. At Barhampur,a village situated
about 11 Kms east of Nagaon town, there was a huge gathering, upon which Police opened firing. As a
consequence, Phuleswari Konwari, Lakhimi Hazarika, Thagi Sut and others embraced death for the cause
of the country. Supply to military was stopped for a mouth and hats and bazars were closed down. Huge
agglomeration of troops took place throughout the state. But in Spite of all,sabotaging by the guerilla
Santi Senas remained unabated. In 1943, the Azad Hind Fauz organised by Subhas Chandra Bose who,
attempted to win freedom of India with the help of the Germans and the Japanese, advanced to India
through Burma and entered Assam. This alarmed the British Government in India,and in May,1944,
prompted release of Mahatma Gandhi who was in sick-bed in jail. In January,1945,Mahatma Gandhi
visited Guwahati along with four other leaders of Assam and performed mass-prayers. This was his last
visit to Assam. The stormy days of the Quit India Movement passed over. The message of the movement
failed to convince the British Government about the necessity of leaving the shores of India soon. In the
meantime,the cry for a separate country for Muslims who are the religious in India,grew very strong and
as a result of the communal policy undertaken by the pro-Muslim league Saadullah ministry in Assam
and the increasing number of mutually apathetic East Bengal Hindu and Muslim immigrants entry into
Assam ,rose a strong communal feeling amongst the people of Assam and the Assam Muslims also felt
leaning towards the Partition of India Movement. In December,1945, Pandit Nehru made a swift tour to
Assam making an impact in the public mind in favour of the Congress. So the congress won over 50 seats
out of 108 in the election,two Independents joined later making the number 52 and the congress
ministry with Gopinath Bordoloi as the Prime Minister was formed on 10th Feb.,1946. The Muslim
League went for secret organizational activities to constitute ''Banglo-i-Islam'' comprising Bengal Bengal
with its hinterland or Assam as envisaged by the Pakistan National Movement since 1940 for the Millat
of Islam. Then came the Cabinet Mission to India,with a view to settle the Indian Problem. The mission
introduced the grouping system in May,1946,as a result of which the Assam Provincial Congress rose
enblock to resist against Assam's inclusion in the Grouping system which would have made Assam in
future a majority state. Assam Jatiya Mahasabha also did the same and organised mass agitation
throughout the state. One secret document was acquired from Khidirpur Dock(Bengal)by Assam Jatiya
Mahasabha which,showed underground conspiracy of Maulana Bhasani group from eastern Bengal to
invade Assam through population migration. So Syed Saadullah and Gopinath Bordoloi participated in
the constituted Assembly on behalf of Assam and became instrumental in incorporating the sixth
schedule I the constitution thereby,to set disintegration of population and geographical Assam afoot for
future. This India was divided into India and Pakistan. Pakistan won freedom on the midnight of 14th
August,1947,and India on the midnight of 15th August,1947. Marked events of national importance
have taken place in the province of Assam after independence. Lying in the north eastern frontier of
India,Assam has witnessed in course of ages great migrations and assimilations of people of different
races into her hills and valleys. The Ahoms came from beyond the Patkai. The Daflas, Miris and Nagas,
among others, also settled in the plains. Later immigrants from Bengal and other parts of India also
came and settled in Assam, till the advent of the British. The present set-up of Assam is not a matter of
mere accident. Undivided Assam at the time of independence, covered a large region comprising the
entire Brahmaputra Valley, Khasi and Jaintia Hills,united North Cachar and Mikir Hills, Mizo and Naga Hill
districts along with North East Frontier Border and Manipur, making the State a great assembly of hill
tribes and plain tribes. But in the twentieth century, ethnic consciousness grew among the different
ethnic groups, who started agitation and they raised the demand for their independent status and their
own states and gradually,the Central Government conceded to their demands one after another.
Nagaland with the area covered by the Naga Hills district and the division of the North-East Frontier
Area was created in 1960, and by virtue of the North-Eastern Assam Reorganisation Act, 1971 (Act no.81
of 1971) enacted by Parliament, a new state known as Meghalaya was formed comprising autonomous
districts of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, the Garo Hills ans the Shillong Municipal and Cantonment area,
and a new union territory if Mizoram comprising the territories of the Mizo district in the state of Assam
was constituted. The new state of Meghalaya and the union territory of Mizoram came into being on
21st January 1972 and ceased to form part of the existing state of Assam. The hill tracts following the
North-Eastern Frontier Agency (NEFA) of Assam was constituted into a new union territory known as
Arunachal Pradesh with the territories as specified in Section 6 of the North-Eastern Areas
(Reorganisation) Act, 1971.96 Finally, the Act created five states and two union territories in the north-
eastern region of the country. The five states are Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura and Nagaland,
and the two union territories are Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram. The new units were to have their
own government except the union territories and a common High Court for all. Furthermore,as a result
of the 1971 war, East Pakistan seceded from Pakistan and emerged as Bangladesh,an independent
country.
Inscription and epigraphs :
Innumerable archaeological ruins belonging to the pre-Ahom period are to be found lying scattered
throughout the State. Climate conditions,natural ravages as well as time,however,have taken their
tolls,as a result of which not a single standing monument of this period is to be found. But the very fact
that such ruins existed in great abundance all over this region and that many of the later-day temples
were built over the foundations of earlier temples,speak volumes of the vigorous architectural activities
which,however,would not have been possible without the liberal patron-age of the ruling dynasties of
this period. This gives one a fairly good idea about the religious and cultural activities and attainments
during the period in question. It is,however,the local epigraphic records supplemented by literary
sources,which help us in a large measure in reconstructing the political history and to a lesser extent the
religio-cultural history,of the period. These epigraphs are to be found on rock-faces,copper-plates and
their seals,clay sealings,or on the body of stone and metallic images. The copper-plates were issued in
connexion with the donation of land of Brahmanas. A brief description of these is given below.
1)The Umachal Rock Inscription of Surendravarman :
The rock cut inscription of Surendravarman alias Mahendravarman, the sixth ruler of the Bhauma-
Varman dynasty,is the earliest inscription hitherto found in Assam. In contains four short lines and
supplies the only instance of the prevalence of the cult of Balabhadrasvamin and the construction of a
cave temple in this region. The inscription is in the eastern variety of the Gupta script and belongs to the
5th century A.D.
2)The Nagajari-Khanikar Gaon Stone Inscription:
It is a fragmentary inscription containing five lines,and belongs to the fifth century A.D. It records the
donation of land. However,no mention of the name of the donor is to be found in view of its
fragmentary nature. Some scholars are of the opinion that this inscription is earlier than that of
Surendravarman, mentioned above. At any rate this early inscription is a sure index to the spread of
Brahmanic culture as far east as the Sarupather region. The inscription is in the eastern variety of the
Gupta script.
3)The Badganga Rock Inscription of Bhutivarman:
It is in the eastern variety of the Gupta scripture and belongs to the reign of Bhitivarman of the Bhauma-
Varman dynasty;and thus it can be placed somewhere in the first part of the 6thcentury. It refers to
Bhutivarman as the performer of the Asvamedha sacrifice(horse sacrifice). The inscription shows that by
the time of Bhutivarman, if not earlier, the Daboka and the peripheral region,which flourished as a
separate kingdom in the 4th century A.D.,as evidenced by the Allahabad Pillar inscription of
Samudragupta, became a part of the kingdom of the Bhauma-Varman dynasty.
4)The Dubi Copper-plate Inscriptions of Bhaskaravarman and its seal:-
These are the earliest of the copper-plate inscriptions so far discovered in Assam. These plates were
issued as a substitute for an earlier set of damaged inscriptions,in all probability of Bhutiavarman, and
belong to the earlier part of the reign of Bhaskaravarman. The grants as well as the seal attached ti it
give the genealogical list of the Bhauma-Varman dynasty, starting from the legendary Naraka down to
Bhaskaravarman, the last scion,although some of the names differ from those found in the subsequent
inscriptions due probably to metrical necessity,want of space in the seal the tendency to use synonyms
for the actual names. While the plates mention Bhutiavarman as the performer of a horse sacrifice but
remain silent about such performances by Mahendravarman and Sthitavarman, the seal of the plates
mention both of them as performers of two horse sacrifices each but remains silent about Bhutivarman.
The plates also record the first instance of the Vedic coronation ceremony of Kamarupa ruler, i.e. of
Sthitavarman.
5)The Three Nalanda Clay Seals of Bhaskaravarman :
These seals,found between 1917 and 1928,are important in that,while the one found in 1917-18
provides the genealogy of the Bhauma-Barman dynasty from Ganapativarman downloads,the other two
seals give the complete list, besides describing Mahendravarman and Sthira (Sthita) Varman as
performers of two horse sacrifices each.
6)The Nidhanpur Copper-plate Inscriptions of Bhaskaravarman :
These plates are of a later date than the Dubi copper plates of the same monarch,and were issued from
the royal residence in Karnasuvarna, capital of Gauda which he wrested from king Sasanka. The donated
land in question belonged to the Chandrapuri Visaya, the location of which has been variously suggested
as either in Srihatta or in Pundravardhana in the context of determining the extent of Bhaskarvarman's
kingdom. It is now generally accepted that Chandrapuri Visaya was located in Pundravardhana, probably
in the modern Purnea district. The plaits are reissues of former grant made by Bhutivarman which was
destroyed by fire. They also give the complete genealogical list of the Bhauma-Varman dynasty,as also
such administrative terms as Nayaka (governor),Nyayakaranika (clerk of the judiciary), Vyavaharin (law
officer),Mahasamanta (feudatory ruler),Bhandagarika (treasurer),Utkhetayitri (revenue collectors),etc.
7)Tezpur Rock Inscription of Harjaravarman :
This inscription of Harjaravarman consists of nine lines and is inscribed on a sheer rock-face, facing the
Brahmaputra river at Dhenukhana parvat on the west of Tezpur town. The inscription is a public notice
pertaining to a toll, and the river boundaries which certain fishermen were allowed to ply their boats. It
also mentions the name of Sri Sucitta, a Mahasamanta Senadhyaksa (a great feudatory lord and chief of
the army of Sri Harjaravarman ).The importance of the inscription,however, lies in the fact that this is
the first dated inscription of Assam, giving the Gupta Era 510 (A.D. 829/830).
8)The Hayungthal Copper Plate Inscription of Harjaravarman :
Belonging to the middle of the 9th century, it gives, inter alia, the genealogical list of the Salastambha
dynasty down to Vanamala, son of Harjaravarman, who issued the grant probably as prince-regent from
Hadappesvara. The inscription is incomplete, as only the middle plate out of the total of three plates
could be recovered and as such the purpose of the charter remains, undetermined. However,it makes
reference for the first time to a ''Mleccha'' dynasty, with Salastambha as its first known king. The
inspiration gives such administrative terms as Maha-Sainyapani (commander-in-chief),Maha-
dvaradhipath (chief gatekeeper),Maha-Pratihara (chief usheer), Maha Amatya (chief counsellor)and
Brahmanadhikara (officer-in-charge of the welfare of the Brahmanas).
9)Tezpur Copper Plate inscription of Vanamalavaramadeva:
Issued in the 9th regnal year from the capital city of Hadappesvara, the inscription,besides giving the
genealogical list of the Salastambha dynasty down to Vanamala, also records the gift of a village named
Indoka, and incidentally gives such place-names as Dasalangha, Chandrapuri, Avari, Naukuva and,
interestingly, the name of the river Trisrota. There were atleast three Trisrotas in ancient Kamrupa, and
the Trisrota, mentioned in the inscription, is sought to be identified with the river Karatoya.
10)The Parbatiya Copper Plate Inscription of Vanamalavaramadeva:
Neither any date nor any regnal year has been mentioned. From the genealogical point of view,it
mentions the names of Naraka,Bhagadatta, Vajradatta, Salambha, Arathi and that of the donor only. It
records the grant of a village Haposagrama in the Svalpamangoka Mandala in the Uttarakula (North
Bank) to a Brahmin. The identity of the village as well as the Mandala remains undetermined.
11)The Dighaligaon Copper Plate Inscription of Vanamalavaramadeva:
It contains no date nor any regnal year, and mentions the names of Naraka Bhagadutta, Vajradatta,
Salambha, Harsa and Harjara among the predecessors. The first twenty four lines of the epigraph are by
and large similar to those of the Parbatiya Grant. According to D. Chutiya,'' A comparison of the three
records of the same king indicates that the present one is complete in all respects. While the
similarities.... bring the present text nearer to the Tezpur plates, the discrepancies between them
indicate that the present record is earlier in date than both the Tezpur and the Parbatiya plates''. It
records the donation of land in the Purjjika Pradesa in the Dakshinakula (South Bank), the location of
which is yet to be determined. The name Purjjika, however, reminds one of the Puruji Visaya of the
Khonamukh Copper Plate Grant of Dharmapala.
12)The Uttarbarbil Copper Plates of Balavarman III:
The Uttarbarbil plates were issued in the 5th regnal year of the king. The names of only some of his
predecessors find mention there,such as, Salastambha,Palaka, Vijaya,Vanamala and Jayamala. It records
the donation of land in the Varesapattana Visaya.
13)The Nowgong(Nagaon)Copper Plates of Balavarman III:
The first twenty-five verses of this grant are similar to those of the Uttarbarbil plates. So are the
immediately following prose portions ending in the world''Kusali''. The land in question was granted in
the Dijjina Visaya. The plates were issued in the 8th regnal year.
14)The Ulubari copper Plates of Balavarman III:
These plates were issued in the 13th regnal year of the king in connexion with performance of a
Lakshahoma ceremoy . Here,too,the first few lines ending with the word''Kusali'' are the same as those
of the above two inscriptions. The lans in question was denoted at Dikkura in the Manjai Visaya in the
Uttarakula.
15)The Coratbari Copper Plate Inscription of Ratnapala :
Ratnapala, the second ruler in the line of the Pala dynasty of Pragjyotisha,issued this grant in the 12th
regnal year from Hadappaka (Hadappesvara). Although the first inscribed page is badly damaged,the
beginning of the extant portion shows that the first fifteen verses were the same as those of the
Bargaon plates mentioned below. The land was donated in Havrnga Visaya.
16)The Bargaon Copper Plate Inscriptions of Ratnapala :
These were issued by the king in the twenty-fifth year of his reign in connexion with the grant of land at
placed called Lavukuti in the Trayodasagrama Visaya in Uttarakula,Judging by the high literary standard
of the inscription,it has been assumed that Ratnapala's court witnessed literacy and scholarly activities
of high stan-dard.
17)The Sualkuchi Copper Plate Inscriptions of Ratnapala :
These three plates were issued in the twenty-sixth regnal year of Ratnapala. The contents of the first
plate and the first page of the second plate ending with the word ''Kusali'' are common to those of the
Bargaon grant. The land grant was made at Vamadevapataka Trayodasagrama in the Kalanga Visaya.
None of these places has been identified.
18)The Guwahati Copper Plate inscriptions of Indrapala :
Issued in the eighth regnal year of his reign,the grant mentions that the land in question was granted in
the Kasipataka of Hapyoma Visaya of Uttarakula,the location of which could not yet be determined. The
inscription also mentions a number of administrative terms,such as, Visayakarana, Vyavaharka,etc.,etc..
19)The Guakuchi Copper Plate Inscriptions of Indrapala :
The grant was issued in the twenty-first regnal year of Indrapala's reign at Pandaribhumi of Mandi
Visaya in Uttarakula. The first part of the inscription up to the word ''Kusali'' is exactly similar to that of
the Guwahati Copper Plates mentioned above. Scholars have sought to identify Pandaribhumi with the
present day Panduri Mauza in the Rangiya subdivision. Incidentally,the inscription also contains four
figures of Garuda (Visnu's Vahana) sitting on a snake as well as a lotus, a conch and a cakra, all of them
ayudhas (implements) of Visnu, although the grant in the beginning pays obeisance to Siva. However,
this is the only instance of a copper-plate bearing art-works.
20)The Gachtal Copper Plate Inscriptions of Gopalavarmadeva :
Found at Gachtal near Dabaka, Nagaon district, the inscriptions, containing two plates, give the
genealogy of the Pala dynasty of Assam, of which Gopala was the fourth in succession, the earlier three
being Brahmapala, Ratnapala and Indrapala. According to this grant, Indrapala is stated to have
defeated and annihilated Kalyanachandra, vanquisher of the king of Gauda and son of Sricandra, king of
Vanga. More important, the inscription also mentions that his great grandfather Ratnapala defeated
king Rajyapala (c. A.D.908-940) of Gauda. Thus,his contemporaneity with Rajyapala suggests, according
to D.C. Sichar, that the must have flourished about the first half of the 10th century. If that is so,the
chronology of the preceding ruling monarchs will need slight revision, and the beginning of the rule of
Brahmapala, founder of the Pala dynasty of Assam, will have to be assigned to the beginning of the 10th
century, and not to the fag-end of that century, as has hitherto been done. The inscription also makes
mention of the capital city of Hadapyaka of Pragjyotisa which may plausibly be identified with
Hadappesvara, which was formerly the capital of Harjara and Vanamala of the Salastambha dynasty.
This suggests that Gopala retransferred the capital from Durjaya to Hadappesvara.
21)The Khobamukh Copper Plate Inscriptions of Dharmala :
The grant was most probably issued in the first regnal year of Dharmapala, and its gives us the
genealogical list of the Brahmapala dynasty down to the donor. It is for the first time that a ''mangala''
verse in the name of the deity Ardhayuvatisvara (Ardhanarisvara) finds mention in an inscription of
ancient Pragjyotisa. The land in question was donated at Digalandi in the Puruji Visaya, the locations of
which cannot be as yet determined. The term Puruji is redolent of Purujika of the Dighaligaon inscription
of Vanamalavarmadeva, as mentioned above.
22)The Subhankarapatak a Copper Plate Inscriptions of Dharmapala :
The first part of the inscription ending with the work ''Kusalina'' is exactly similar to that of the
Khonamukh grant. It was issued in the third regnal year of the king;and it gives us such place-names as
Sudhankarapataka and Dijjina Visaya,the later also finding mention in the Nagaon Grant of Balavarman
III of the Salastambha dynasty.
23)The Pushpabhadra Copper Plate Inscriptions of Dharmapala :
This grant was issued much later. It gives the names of three of his predecessors,viz.,Brahmapala,
Gopala and Harsapala,but leaves out those of Ratnapala and Indrapala. Interestingly,the first eight
verses of the inscription were composed by Dharmapala himself, where he calls him
''Kavicakravalacudamani''.
24)The Kamauli Copper Plate Inscription of Vaidyadeva:
This is a grant issued by Vaidyadeva, minister of Kumarapala, the Pala king of Gauda, who was appointed
ruler over the region to the east of the Pala kingdom, in place of Tingyadeve who became rebellious. By
the time the grant was issued, however, Vaidyadeva assumed the imperial title of Maharajadhiraja-
Paramesvara-Paramathattaraka, indicating thereby that he became an independent ruler and that
Pragjyotisa Kamarupa constituted a part of his kingdom, since Pragjyotisa is referred to as a Bhukti and
Kamarupa as a Mandala,and the grant was issued from the victorious camp at Hamsakonchi, which was
in all probability situated in modern Kamrup, as the suffix ''Konchi'' suggests.
25)Tezpur or the Assam Copper Plate Inscriptions of Vallabhadeva :
These plates, dated Saka Era 1107 (A.D.1185), give the names of four rulers,viz, Bhaskara, Rayarideva,
Udayakarna and Vallabhdeva himself of the Candra Vasma. It is,however,possible that Rayarideva
started as a feudatory of Vaidyadeva and ended up as an independent ruler. It is not known whether it
started as an independent dynasty. At any rate, it is generally agreed that Vallabhadeva was an
independent ruler. The inscription also mentions that Rayarideva defeated a king of Vanga who is
supposed to be Vijayasena of the Sena dynasty of Bengal. The inscription also mentions such place-
names as Hapyaca Mandala and villages like Devanikonchi and Samsrahikonchika among others.
Hapyaca is supposed to be comparable to Haposagrama of the Parbatiya plates of Vanamala,as also of
Hapyoma Visya of the Guwahati grant of Indrapala. More important, however, are the
suffixes''Konchi''and ''Konchika'',which point to their existence in the old Kamrup district. Scholars have
also sought to identify Samsrahikonchika with Sangsari about ten Kms. north of Pandu, Kamrup district.
26)The Sankara-Narayana Stone Sculpture Inscription:
Inscribed on a Visnu image,this inscription mentions the name of Maharajadhiraja Sri Jivara,whose name
is not be found in any of the copper-plate inscriptions of the ruling dynasty of Kamrupa. The inscription
belongs to the 8th century A.D. on palaeographical ground. Since the names of two rulers immediately
succeeding Balavarman II could not be found in any of the inscriptions of the Salastambha dynasty,
historians have accommodated him after Balavarman II ti fill up a part of the gaps.
27)The Stone Inscription From Bishnupur,Golaghat:
Inscribed on an image of Yama (Harihara?). It also mention the name of Jivara in connexion with the
consecration of an image of Hara.
28)A Fragmentary Copper Plate Inscription from Nagaon:
This badly damaged inscription of the 8th century A.D. distinctly mentions the name of Maharajadhiraja
Sri Jivaraja, engraved on the seal,who appears to be no other than Sri Jivara of the Sankara-Narayana
inscription and the Bishrampur Inscription mentioned above. Thus the name of Jivara appears to be an
orthographical error. We thus have altogether two short inscriptions bearing the name of Jivara and one
bearing the name of Jivaraja.
29)The Harihara Stone Image Inscription :
This inscription,belonging to the eight century,mentions the name of Maharajadhiaraja Sri

Dighekhavarman, whose name is not to be found elsewhere. Historians have placed him immediately
after Jivara or Jivaraja to fill up the gaps occuring after Balavarman II in the Genealogical list of the
Salastambha dynasty.
30)The Narakasur Pahar Bronze Plaque and Copper Bell Inscription :
The inscription of the plaque mentions the name of Kumaradeva and his father Sri Palaka, in connexion
with the donation of the same containing the image either of Nirriti or of Agni,depending upon the
correct identification of the vahana (vehicle)of the deity. Both Kumaradeva and Palaka are scions of the
Salastambha dynasty.
31)The Kanaibarashi-bowa Rock Inscription,North Guwahati:
It records the annihilation of the Turuska (Muslim) army in Saka Era 1127. This is considered to refer to
Muhammed -bin-Bakhtiyar who was on his way back from his abortive Tibetan expedition, and who was
confronted and worsted by the army of king Bartu or Prithu, who was probably the successor of
Vallabhadeva, although his name has not been mentioned. According to D.C. Sircar, Bakhtiyar was
probably defeated by ''the combined forces of several rulers of the kingdom into which the country was
then divided''.
32)The Narakasur Pahar Bronze Plaque Inscription:
This plaque, containing an image of a deity standing on a tiger whose iconographic details do not lead to
its correct identity, mentions the name of Sri Harjara of the Salastambha dynasty, as the one in whose
realm this family deity (Kula-Devata) was donated. Earlier, D.C. Sircar read it as ''Sri Hastisya
(correctly,Hastinath) Rajyapala (h)'',leaving the second line undeciphered, and suggested that it referred
to the Rajyapala of the illustrious Hastin, whose identity could not be determined. Later, B.N. Mukharjee
read it as ''Nabhasya'' (Krata) devata Vani-har (r)i Pratima''. Subsequently, D. Chutia, with plausible
ground, deciphered it as ''Sri har (j)arasya-rajya-prarthiya kule-daivata-dharma-dasta-pratima''.
33)The Narakasur Pahar Bronze Plaque Inscription:
The Plaque contains a four armed female deity standing on the back of a buffalo, holding discus, trident,
mace and rein and, in altogether five lines, mentions the name of the Vanamala who donated the image
and referred to it as a ''J(y)aksina''or a Yaksini/Yaksi. Vanamala here is referred to as the lord of
Hadapyaka (Hadappesvara), lord of Pragjyotisa and a ''Maharajadhiraja''.
34)The Inscribed Sun Image in the Assam State Museum:
This mentions the name of Harjaradeva of the Salastambha dynasty, during whose reign the image in
question was made.
35)The Stone Inscription of Samudrapala,Ambari,Guwahati:
The inscription was issued in the Saka Era 1154 (A.D.1232)by one king Samudrapala, and it makes
mention of the existence of a Satra (monastic establish-ment) at Yogihati. The identity of Samudrapala
has yet to be identified.
36)Nilacala Plates of king Madhava:
The inscription was issued by one Maharajadhiraja Paramesvara-Paramabhattaraka Sri Madhava in his
twentyfifth regnal year in connexion with the donation of land at Daluagrama in the Pandari Mandala.
The first plate contains an incised image of Ganesha on the upper left-hand side,on the basis of which
Neog has sought to identify him with a ruler belonging to the dynasty of the Ranee principality. To the
south-west of Guwahati, since the tutelary deity of this dynasty was Ganesha. Interestingly Pandari also
finds mention as a locality (Pandari-bhumi) in the Guakuchi plate of Indrapala. As such, some scholars
have identified it with the Panduri Mauza of the Rangia subdivision. Neog, on the other hand seeks to
locate it around the present Baihata Chariali region, about 35 Km north of Guwahati, in the Uttarakula,
on the plausible ground of the existence of the Dimow rivulet and Kamesvara temple there, both of
which find mention in the inscription. Regarding the date of inscription, Neog believes that on
palaeographical ground it belongs to 16th-17th century, while D.C. Sircar assign it to the 15th century.
S.C. Bhatacharya, on the other hand, is inclined to assign it to the first half of the 13th century.
Madhava's identity has remained an engima. Neog attempts to identify him with a ruler of the Rance
Pricipality. However, the assumption of the high-sounding title of Maharajadhiraja Paramesvara-
Paramabhattaraka by a local chieftain makes it unlikely, if we accept the date assigned by him.
37)The Rautkuchi Copper-Plate Grant of Parushottama Das Saka 1251(A.D.1329)
It records the grant of land to a Brahmana at Raukuchi, Nalbari,Parushottama Das was a local Bhuyan
chief,ruling in this region as vassal of the Kamata king,who was in all probability-either Dharmanarayana
or Durlabhanarayana. Inscription of the Late-Medieval Period. During the late-medieval period or,to be
more precise,from the time of king Naranarayana of Kamatapur, quite a large number of inscriptions
were issued down to the beginning of the 19th century, the majority of which were issued under the
patronage of the Ahom rulers, About thirty-seven of these were inscribed on stone,and the rest on
copper plates,bells,cannons,images,etc. Most of these inscriptions were related to the donation of
land,either Devottra (i.e., for the maintenance of the day-to-day activities of the temples or monastic
establishment ), or Brahmottara (i.e.,for the maintenance of the persons,especially the priestly class), as
well as different articles to temples or sattras. About eleven of these inscriptions are related to war, and
about fourteen to the construction of temples. As regards the inscriptions on the cannons, they either
relate to their capture or to manufacture. Of these inscriptions, the credit of issuing the highest number
goes to Sivasimbha (40). Next in order come Rajeswarsimha, Pramattasimha and Laksmisimha. There are
a number of inscriptions,all engraved on stone,which record battles with the Mughals. These are as
follows: 1)The two Stone Inscription of Chamdhara Garh,Sonitpur -Pratapsimha,Saka 1538(A.D.1616).
Inscribed on two faces of stone pillar situated on the northeast of the Bhomoraguri hill,both the
inscriptions record victory over the enemies,presumably the Mughals;and one of them also record the
construction of a defensive earthen rampart (garh)from Chamdhara to Bhomoraguri. 2)Rock Inscription
at Bhomaraguri,Sonitpur. -Pratapsimha,Saka 1538(A.D.1616). This inscription is also situated on the
southern end of the Bhomoraguri hill and records the vanquishing of the Yavanas(the Mughals)and the
subsequent construction of a defensive rampart by cutting the 'Parvata',thereby meaning the
Bhomoraguri hill. It will thus be seen that all the above three inscriptions relate to a single battle or a
series of battles waged in the same year between the Mughals led by Saiyyad Abu Baqr and the Ahoms
during the reign of king Pratapsimha (A.D.1603-1641). This fact is corroborated by different Buranjis
(chronicles). Incidentally, these are also the earliest extant inscriptions of the Ahom rulers. 3.The North
Guwahati inscriptions of Bahgarihia Buragohain, -Chakradvajsimha,Saka 1589 (A.D.1667). Situated near
the Kanai-Barashi-Bowa inscription at the eastern end North Guwahati, there exit two inscriptions
inscribed on a huge boulder, which record the defeat of the Mughals and the killing of their
commanders. Saiyyad Chana and Saiyyad Firoz,in Saka 1589(A.D.1667)and the subsequent construction
of defensive rampart. The inscription at the base of the boulder is topped by beautiful image of
Ganesha. 4)The Stone Inscription of Namjani Barphukan,Guwahati - Chakradhajsimha,Saka
1589(A.D.1667) Inscribed on a pillar 3'7'' height,it records the vanquishing of the Yavanas(Mughals)by
Namjani Barphukan in Saka 1589(A.D.1667). 5.Cannon Inscription of Jayadvajsimha,Saka 1580
(A.D.1658) Found at False Point near Diamond Harbour, Calcutta, it records the seizure of the cannon
from the Yavanas (Mughals)by king Jayadhvajsimha in Saka.....80. Although the date is incomplete,the
last two digits,as also the mention of the name of Jayadhvajsimha (A.D.1648-1663),would place the
event in Saka 1580 (A.D.1658). 6)The two Cannons of Chakradhvajsimha : Both the cannons were
captured from the Mughals in Saka 1589 (A.D.1667)and Saka 1590 (A.D.1668)respectively. 7)The two
Cannons of Gadadharsimha: Both the cannon bear the Saka 1604(A.D.1682)and were captured from the
Mughals. A list of the remaining inscriptions of the period are given below: 1)Stone Inscription of
Nilacala Kamakhya Temple, -Naranarayana,Saka 1487(A.D.1565) It records the reconstruction of the
Kamakhya temple by Sukladhvaja alias Cilarai,brother of king Naranarayan of Kochbehar. 2.Stone
Inscription of Ganesvara Puskarini of Sri Sri Herambesvara Dununtra Rai, -Saka 1499 (A.D.1577)
According to Neog, there is mention of a kingdom called Heremod in the Garu Charita. However,no
mention of Dununtra Rai or of any other king is to be found in the Guru Carita. Dununtra Rai could be an
alternative name of the Kachari king Yasonarayandev who flourished during this period. Buranji also
refer to the Kachari Kingdom sometimes as Heremial and sometimes as Heremod. 3.Stone Inscription of
Hayagriva-Madhava Temple,Hajo -Raghudev Narayana,Saka 1505 (A.D.1583) It records the construction
of the Hayagriva-Madhava temple by Raghudev Narayana, son of Sukladhvaja or Cilarai,brother of
Naranarayana, wherein he calls himself a Bhupati (king),although he became an independent ruler by
Saka 1510 only. 4)Stone Inscription of the Kamateswari Temple of Kamatapur -Prananarayana,Saka 1507
(A.D.1585) It records the construction of the Kamatesvari (Bhavani)temple at Kamatapur (Gosanimari)by
king Prananarayana. 5)Stone Inscription of Pandunath Temple,Pandu -Raghudeva Narayana, It records
the construction of the Pandunath temple at Pandu near Guwahati by Raghudeva Narayana. 6. Copper
Plate Land Grant of Bisvesvar Temple Kamrup -Godadharsimha,Saka 1605 (A.D.1683) The location of the
temple is not known. It is,however,not unlikely that temple referred to is the Bilvesvara temple at
Chamata, Nalbari. The name Bisvesvara may be a scribal error since the reading is based on a copy from
the ''Mazhar Book''in the Deputy Commissioner's office at Guwahati. According to Neog, this inscription
gives us ''for the first time method of having Sanskrit verses at the beginning and at the end,with lines in
Assamese of details (vivarana)of the gift intervening''. 7.Stone Inscription of Umananda
Temple,Guwahati, -Gadadharsima,Saka 1616(A.D.1694). It records the construction of the Umananda
temple by Sri Garhgaya Sandikoi Barphukan at the behest of king Gadadharsimha. Neog remarks,''it is to
be noted that it is the present epigraph among the ones so far discovered that we find the epithet
''Saumaresvara''applied for the first time to an Ahom king.'' 8.Copper Plate Land Grant of
Umananda,Guwahati, -Gadadharshima., Saka 1617(A.D.1695). 9.Copper Plate Land Grant of Umananda
Guwahati, -Rudrasimha,Saka 1619 (A.D.1697). Here too,the king has been called''Saumaresvara''. 10.
Copper Plate Land Grant of Siva Temple, Joysagar, Sivasagar. -Rudrasimha,Saka 1622(A.D.1700). 11.
Copper Plate Land Grant of Keshabrai Vishnu Temple, Joysagar, Sivasagar. -Rudrasimha,Saka
1622(A.D.1700). 12.Copper Plate Land Grant from Lepetkata T.E.Dibrugarh, -Rudrasimha,Saka
1623(A.D.1701). Found in a stone case,it records the donation of land and a tank to six Brahmins. Neog
thinks that the land in question was in the present-day Barbarua region near Dibrugarh and the tank is
the Barbarua Pukhuri. 13. Copper Plate Land Grant of Kamakhya, Pandunath and Ugratara
temple,Guwahati. -Sivasimha,Saka 1637(A.D.1715). 14. Copper Plate Land Grant of the Barpeta and the
Bausi Parganahs, -Sivasimha,Saka1639(A.D.1717). 15. Copper Plate Land Grant of the Damodar
Sattra,Patbausi,Barpeta, -Sivasimha,Saka1639(A.D.1717). 16.Copper Plate Land Grant of Bangsar
Parganah,Kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1639(A.D.1717). 17.Stone Inscription of Nilachal Kamesvara Siva
Temple,Kamakhya,Guwahati, -Sivasimha,Saka1640(A.D.1718). It records the construction of the temple
in question of the behest of king Sivasimha. 18. Stone Inscription of Nilachala Sidhesvara
Temple,Kamakhya,Guwahati,kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1640(A.D.1718). 19.The Umananda Image
Inscription,Umananda,Guwahati,Kamrup, -Sivasimha,Saka1641(A.D.1719). The image in question is now
lost. 20.Stone Inscription of Asvakranta Temple,North-Guwahati,Kamrup. 21.Stone inscription of
Candika Temple at Chaygaon. -Sivasimha,Saka1647(A.D.1725). Badly damaged,it probably records the
building of the temple in question by Tarun Duvara Barphukan. 22.Stone Inscription of Asvakranta
Kurma-Janardona Phalgutsava Temple,North Guwahati. -Sivasimha,Saka1660(A.D.1738). It records the
construction of the Phalgutsava temple in question. 23.Copper Plate Land Grant of Garaimari
Sattra,Chamaria Parganah,Kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1648(A.D.1726). 24.Copper Plate Land Grant of
Madan Mohan Parganah,Kamrup, -Sivasimha,Saka1660(A.D.1738). 25. Copper Plate Land Grant of
Siddhesvara Devalaya,Saulkuchi,Kamrup, -Sivasimha,Saka1665(A.D.1743). Neog remarks,''This epigraph
re-endorses a grant of land made by Gadadharsimha, as referred to in the Sanskrit,but the date given in
the Assamese,1601 Saka/1679 A.D. and the name Budhajana(the old king)is confusing,unless we take it
to mean Gadadhara, who become king in 1603 Saka after Sulikpha Lara-Raja (the boy king) (1679-
81A.D.)''. 26.Stone Inscription of Mandakata Garh,North Guwahati,KAmrup, -
Sivasimha,Saka1650(A.D.1728). 27.Stone Inscription of Nilacala Kamalesvara
Temple,Kamakhya,Guwahati,Kamrup, -Sivasimha,Saka1650(A.D.1728). It records the construction of the
temple in question under the aegis of Sivasimha. 28. Stone Inscription of Rangmahal Moat,North
Guwahati,Kamrup, -Sivasimha,Saka1650(A.D.1732). 29.Stone Inscription of Paschim-dvara(western
gate)of Guwahati,Kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1654(A.D.1732). 30.Stone Inscription of Vijaya-dvara(victory
gate)of Guwahati,Kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1655(A.D.1733). 31.Copper Plate Inscription of Dergaon Siva
Temple,Dergaon,Golaghat. -Sivasimha,Saka1656(A.D.1734). 32.Copper Plate Inscription of Barpeta
Sattra,Barpeta. -Sivasimha,Saka1657(A.D.1735). 33.Stone Inscription of Digheswari Temple,North
Guwahati,Kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1657(A.D.1735). It records the construction of the temple in question
on the order of king Sivasimha. 34.Stone Inscription of the southern Vijaya-dvara of the Durbar Mandir
of the Barphukan,Guwahati,Kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1660(A.D.1738). 35.Copper Plate Land Grant of
Madan Mohan Parganah,Kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1660(A.D.1738). 36.Stone Inscription of the Northern
Jaya-dvara of the Mantra Bhavana of Barphukan,Guwahati,Kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1660(A.D.1738).
37.Inscription of the Bell-Metal Gong of the Bali Sattra, -Sivasimha,Saka1660(A.D.1738). 38.Copper Plate
Land Grant of Sundaridiya Sattra,Barpeta,Kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1660(A.D.1738). 39.Copper Plate
Land Grant of Dharesvar Devalaya,Hatimura Parvat,Kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1660(A.D.1738). 40.Copper
Plate Land Grant of Chengagram,Khetri Parganah,Kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1661(A.D.1739). 41.Copper
Plate Land Grant of Makhibaha Gaon,Nambarbhag Parganah,Kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1661(A.D.1739).
42.Copper Plate Land Grant of Asvakranta Devalay,North Guwahati,Kamrup. -
Sivasimha,Saka1661(A.D.1739). 43.Copper Plate Land Grant of Umananda,Guwahati,Kamrup. -
Sivasimha,Saka1663(A.D.1741). It re-affirms the grant made by Rudrasimha to this temple in Saka 1619.
44.Copper Plate Land Grant to Satsangi Bhaktas in the Bangsar Paraganah,Kamrup. -
Sivasimha,Saka1663(A.D.1741). 45.Copper Plate Land Grant of Konwarbhag and Pubpar
Parganahs,Kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1663(A.D.1741). 46.Copper Plate Land Grant to a Geeta-Pathaka in
Namborbhag Parganah,Kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1663(A.D.1741). 47.Copper Plate Land Grant of
Maregaon,Komarbhag Pub-parganah,Kamrup. -Sivasimha,Saka1664(A.D.1742). 48.Copper Plate Land
Grant of Kathabari Govindapur Grama of Khata Parganah,Nalbari. -Sivasimha,Saka1664(A.D.1742).
49.Copper Plate Land Grant of Bisikuchi Village,Bajali Parganah,Barpeta. -Sivasimha,Saka1664(A.D.1742).
50.Copper Plate Land Grant of Bichankuchi village,Bajali Parganah,Barpeta, -
Sivasimha,Saka1665(A.D.1743). 51.Copper Inscription of the main Janardana Temple,Guwahati,Kamrup.
-Pramattasimha,Saka 1666(A.D.1744). It records the construction of one of the two Janardana temples.
52.Stone Inscription of the Nilachala Amratakesvara Temple,Kamrup,Guwahati. -Pramattasimha,Saka
1666(A.D.1744). It records the construction of the temple in question. 53.Stone Inscription of Sukresvara
Devalaya.Guwahati,Kamrup. -Pramattasimha,Saka 1666(A.D.1744). It records the construction of the
temple in question. 54.Stone Inscription of Nilachala Durga Sarovara Kamakhya,Guwahati Kamrup. -
Pramattasimha,Saka 1666(A.D.1744). 55.Stone Inscription of Silaghat Kamakhya temple,Nagaon, -
Pramattasimha,Saka 1667(A.D.1745). It records the construction of the temple in question by Gadadhar
Barphukan. The inscription calls Pramattasimha Purandara of Saumarapeetha. 56.Stone Inscription of
Hatimura Durga Temple,Nagaon, -Pramattasimha,Saka 1667(A.D.1745). It records the construction of
the temple in question at Silghat. 57. Copper Plate Land Grant of Dakhinpat Sattra,Majuli,Jorhat, -
Pramattasimha,Saka 1671(A.D.1749). 58.Copper Plate Land Grant to Vaidya Visharada Ramacharya
Upadhyaya, -Pramattasimha,Saka 1671(A.D.1749). 59.Stone Inscription of Rudresvar Devalaya,North
Guwahati,Kamrup, -Pramattasimha,Saka 1671(A.D.1749). It records the construction of the Sri Sri
Rudresvara Siva temple at the behest of the king. 60.Stone Inscription of the Phalgutsava Temple of
Janardana,Guwahati,Kamrup, -Pramattasimha,Saka 1672(A.D.1750). 61.Stone Inscription of the
Nilachala Phalgutsava Temple,Kamakhya,Guwahati,Kamrup, -Pramattasimha,Saka 1672(A.D.1750).
62.Stone Inscription of the Phalgutsava Temple of Hayagriva Madhaba Temple,Hajo,Kamrup, -
Pramattasimha,Saka 1672(A.D.1750). 63.Stone Inscription of Nilachala,Kedara
Mandir,Kamakhya,Guwahati,Kamrup. -Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1673(A.D.1751). 64.Stone Inscription of the
Enclosure Wall of the Rudresvara Devalaya,North Guwahati,Kamrup. --Pramattasimha,Saka
1674(A.D.1752). In this connexion Neog observes,''The date in the inscription,1674 Saka, is particularly
to be noted,as Rajeswarsimha succeeded Pramattasimha, who had the wall made in the previous year. It
was under order of Pramatasimha that the temple of Rudresvara was built in 1671 Saka.....and it is
possibly at his behest that the raising of the wall was started, even though it may have been completed
after his death''. 65.Stone Inscription of the Navaratna Temple at Chitrachala,Guwahati,Kamrup. -
Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1674(A.D.1752). It records the construction of the Navaratna or popularity known
as Navagraha temple on the Navagraha(Chitrachala)hill. 66.Stone Inscription of the Navagraha
Puskarini,Kamrup. -Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1675(A.D.1753). It records the excavation of what is at present
popularly known as the Silpukhuri. 67.Copper Plate Land Grant of Sundarikhel Sattra, Pubpar
Parganah,Kamrup. -Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1675(A.D.1753). 68.Copper Plate Land Grant of Diptesvara
Temple,Paschimpar Parganah,Kamrup. -Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1676(A.D.1754). The location of the
temple in question is not known. According to Neog,there is mention in the ''Kamarupar Buranji''of a
'Than'named Diptevari to the north of the Dharesvara Siva Temple on the Hatimura hill,Kamrup.
69.Copper Plate Land Grant of Saktipara Grama of Khata Parganah,Nalbari. -Rajeswarasimha,Saka
1677(A.D.1755). 70.Copper Plate Land Grant at Konwarbhag Pubpar Parganah for the provision of
lamp,etc.,of the Hayagriva-Madhava Temple,Hajo,Kamrup. -Pramattasimha,Saka 1677(A.D.1755).
Regarding the anomaly in the date, Neog observes ''The Assamese portion gives the year of the
endorsement as 1677 Saka, so that the chronogram muni-vidhu-rasendu-saka should also stand for it.
But Pramattasimha, whose order are recorded in the inscription,was succeeded to the throne by
Rajeswarasimha in 1673 Saka........ It may also be noted that the gift was made by an earlier Barphukan,
that is,the present officer's father,through a patra (an epistle on paper or bark)which being not a
permanent thing,had now to be replaced with a tamrapatra by the present Tarun Duvara Barphukan''.
71.Copper Plate Land Grant to Chandikuchi Barua,Kamrup, -Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1677(A.D.1755).
72.Stone Inscription of the Manikarneswara Devalaya,North Guwahati,Kamrup. -Rajeswarasimha,Saka
1677(A.D.1755). 73.Silver ''Japi''(Umbrella)to Dirgheswari Temple,North Guwahati,Kamrup. -
Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1679(A.D.1757). 74.Stone Inscription on the Brick Enclosure of the Kedara
Temple,Hajo,Kamrup. -Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1680(A.D.1758). 75.Copper Land Grant of the Matha of
Kalakuchi Grama.Orara Talik,Khata Parganah,Nalbari, -Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1681(A.D.1759). 76.Copper
Plate Grant of Pubpar,etc.,Parganahs,Kamrup. -Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1681(A.D.1759). 77.Stone
Inscription of the Natamandapa of the Kamakhya Temple,Guwahati,Kamrup. -Rajeswarasimha,Saka
1681(A.D.1759). 78.Copper Plate Grant for the daily worship at Sukresvara Temple,Guwahati,Kamrup. -
Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1681(A.D.1759). 79.Copper Plate Grant of Nambarbhag,Parganah,Kamrup. -
Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1685(A.D.1763). 80.Stone Inscription of Siddhesvara Temple,Sualkuchi,Kamrup. -
Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1686(A.D.1764). It records the construction of the temple in question. 81.Stone
Inscription of the Vasisthasrama Temple,Guwahati,Kamrup. -Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1686(A.D.1764). It
records the construction of the temple in question. 82.Copper Plate Land Grant of the Jayar
Sattra,Barpeta. -Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1686(A.D.1764). It is revalidation of the land previously granted
by king Rudrasimha and also by king Sivasimha. 83.Copper Plate Inscription of the Vasudeva
Matha,Dakhinpat Sattra,Majuli,Jorhat, -Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1686(A.D.1764). 84.Copper Plate Land
Grant to Pranapati Brahmana,Bajali Parganah,Kamrup. -Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1687(A.D.1765). It renews
an earlier land granted by emperor Shahjehan,and appoints Pranapati Brahmana as Chaudhari of Bajali
Parganah,together with Khata Taluk,and gives additional Brahmottara land,together with servitors,to
the recipient in question. 85.Copper Plate Land Grant to Kaviratna Bhagavate Mahajan,Bajali
Parganah,Kamrup. -Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1687(A.D.1765). 86.Copper Plate Land Grant to Kaviratna
Chakravarti of Patidarang,Barnagar and Bajali Parganah,Kamrup. -Rajeswarasimha,Saka 1687(A.D.1765).
87.Stone Inscription of Bilvesvara Temple,Chamata,Nalbari. -Lakshmisimha,Saka 1694(1772) It records
the renovation of the temple in question. 88.Copper Plate Land Grant of the Matha at Ksudra-
Makhibaha,Nambarbhag Parganah,Kamrup. -Lakshmisimha,Saka 1692(1770). 89.Copper Plate Land
Grant of Patbausi Sattra,Barpeta, -Lakshmisimha,Saka 1694(1772). 90.Copper Plate Land Grant of
Sandheli Village Namghar,Panigaon Taluka,Nambarbhag Parganah,Nalbari. -Lakshmisimha,Saka
1695(1773). 91.Copper Plate Land Grant etc. to Biswanath Gosain Temple,Biswanath,Sonitpur, -
Lakshmisimha,Saka 1696(1774). 92.Copper Plate Land Grant to Gaurivallabha temple,Rangpur,Sivasagar.
-Lakshmisimha,Saka 1696(1774). 93.Copper Plate Land Grant to Gangavallabha Pahumaria
Goswami,Umananda,Kamrup. -Lakshmisimha,Saka 1696(1774). 94.Copper Plate Land Grant to Bengena-
ati-Sattra. -Lakshmisimha,Saka 1699(1777). 95.Copper Plate Land Grant to Anwar Faqir at
Banbhag,Konwarbhag,etc.,Parganahs,Kamrup. -Lakshmisimha,Saka 1702(1780). It records the grant of
land to Anwar Faqir, as also his disciples and shares in the income of the four Maqams(holy places)of
Shah Madar in the Bausi parganah,Shah Faqir in the Barnagar Parganah,Panch Pirs 'Maqam in the
Kshetri parganah and Bar Maqam of Hajo(Known popularly as powa or quarter-Mecca)'(Neog).
96.Copper Plate Land Grant to Madanachala Temple,Kamrup. -Lakshmisimha,Saka 1696(1774).
97.Copper Plate Land Grant to Pingalesvara Devalaya,Kamrup. -Gaurinathsimha,Saka 1703(A.D.1781). It
renews the grant previously made by Sivasimha in Saka 1661. 98.Copper Plate Inscription Recording one
Lakh Sacrifices to Goddess Kamakhya,Guwahati,Kamrup. -Gaurinathsimha,Saka 1704(A.D.1782).
99.Copper Plate Grant to Hayagriva-Madhava Temple, Hajo,Kamrup. -Gaurinathsimha,Saka
1705(A.D.1783). 100.Copper Plate Inscription Granting Boats, Boatsman,and Money to Hayagriva-
Madhava Temple,Hajo,Kamrup. -Gaurinathsimha,Saka 1705(A.D.1783). 101.Copper Plate Land grant to
Devi-ghar,Marangi,Golaghat. -Gaurinathsimha,Saka 1705(A.D.1783). 102.Copper Plate Land Grant to
Dakhinpat Gosai of Majuli in the Darrangi kingdom. -Gaurinathsimha,Saka 1707(A.D.1785). 103.Copper
Plate Land Grant of Paschimpar Parganah,Kamrup. -Gaurinathsimha,Saka 1708(A.D.1786). 104.Copper
Plate Land Grant to the Medhi of Haridevi Pantha at Bajali,Nambarbhag Baruagar Parganah,etc. -
Gaurinathsimha,Saka 1709(A.D.1787). 105.Copper Plate Land Grant of Hayagriva-Madhava
Temple,Hajo,Kamrup. -Gaurinathsimha,Saka 1710(A.D.1788). 106.Copper Plate Land Grant of the
Kalikamatha,Jayantiyapur,(now in Bangladesh). -Queen Kasasati Devi,consort of Badagosain or king
Vijaynarayana. Altogether three plates were issued by queen Kassasati Devi Sakas 1710,1721 and 1725
respectively. 107.Copper Plate Land Grant of the Beltola Principality,Kamrup, -Gaurinathsimha,Saka
1710(A.D.1788). 108.Copper Plate Land Grant to Auni-ati Sattra at Kacharimahal,Pubpar and Sarukhetri
Parganah,Kamrup. -Gaurinathsimha,Saka 1711(A.D.1789). 109.Copper Plate Land Grant pertaining to the
worship of Govinda at Guwahati,KAmrup. -Gaurinathsimha,Saka 1714(A.D.1792). 110.Copper Plate Land
Grant of Pubtharia, -Gaurinathsimha,Saka 1714(A.D.1792). 111.Copper Plate Inscription Regarding
Appointment of Kataki at Guwahati,Kamrup. -Gaurinathsimha,Saka 1714(A.D.1792). 112.Copper Plate
Land Grant to Bhuvanesvari Temple,Kamakhya,Guwahati,Kamrup. -Gaurinathsimha,Saka 17...? The year
of issue is partly missing. 113.The Balisatra Bell-metal Gong Inscription,Nagaon. -Gaurinathsimha,Saka
1717(A.D.1795). It was donated by Mahidhar Buragohain who, according to Neog, was probably no
other than Purnananda Burahohain. 114.Rock Inscription of Chatrachal Temple,Guwahati,Kamrup, -
Kamaleswarasimha,Saka 1721(A.D.1799). It records the construction of the Chatrachala Devi Temple.
115.Rock Inscription of Chatrachala Visnu and Siva temples,Guwahati,Kamrup. -Kamaleswarasimha,Saka
1721(A.D.1799). It records the construction of the two temples in question. 116.Copper Plate Inscription
on the Settlement of Dipute over Bardowa Sattra,Nagaon. -Kamaleswarasimha,Saka 1721(A.D.1799).
117.Copper Plate Land Grant of Hayagriva-Madhava Temple,Hajo,Kamrup. -Kamaleswarasimha,Saka
1722(A.D.1800). 118.Copper Plate Inscription of Kalangpur Brahmachari Sattra,Nagaon. -
Kamaleswarasimha,Saka 1722(A.D.1800). It is renewal of the grant of land and Paiks (servitors)originally
given by Lakshmisimha. 119.Copper Plate Inscription reissued as Brahmottara Charter Lost During the
Mayanmara Rebellion. -Kamaleswarasimha,Saka 1727(A.D.1805). 120.Copper Plate Inscription on Land
Settlement in Bausi Parganah,Kamrup. -Chandrakantasimha,Saka 1738(A.D.1816). 121.Copper Plate
Inscription on Provision of servitors to Pahumaria Sarujana Gosain. -Chandrakantasimha,Saka
1738(A.D.1816). 122.Copper Plate Land Grant to Auniati Sattra,Majuli,Jorhat. -Chandrakantasimha,Saka
1742(A.D.1820). 123.Copper Plate Inscription Pertaining to the Appointment of Outpost-keepers at
Batakuchi,Kamrup. -Chandrakantasimha,Saka 1742(A.D.1820). 124.Copper Plate Land Grant in the
Barbangsar Paraganah,Kamrup. -Chandrakantasimha,Saka 1743(A.D.1821). 125.Copper Plate Land Grant
in the Pachimpar Parganah,Kamrup. -Chandrakantasimha,Saka 1743(A.D.1821) It revalidates the land
grant previously made by Gaurinathsimha in Saka 1711. 126.Copper Plate Land Grant to Hayagriva-
Madhava Temple,Hajo. -Chandrakantasimha,Saka 1743(A.D.1821) 127.Inscription on the Brass-door of
Sundaridiya Sattra,Barpeta,Kamrup. -Bhaktacharan Atoi,Saka 1769(A.D.1847). 128.Document pertaining
to the Grant of Dharmottara land to Aibheti Na-Sattra,Khana Taluk,Khana Parganah,Kamrup.
Chandrakantasimha,Saka 1744(A.D. 1822). Written in handmade paper or ''pera Kakat''. Regarding this
inscription, Neog remarks,''The utterly corrupt Sanskrit of the epigraph is most evidently a hopeless
imitation of some such epigraphs. The phrase Sri-Duvara-kulabjatarunadityena is quite meaningless. It is
evident,therefore,that the date of the epigraph cannot be 1583 Saka........... It may be 1683 Saka,in
which case 1583 can be bonafide mistake. But Nityananda Gosai of the Chaityanya school of Vaisnavism
who, along with Chintamani Gosai was given the dharmatra land gift by the Ranee chief,
Dharmasimha,seems to have been a man of the late 16thcentury,in which case the whole document will
fall under the shadow of doubt. Then again,the mention of different types of taxes and other
liabilities,to which an ordinary subject of the Ahom state is liable,would show either that the Ranee
principality had the same taxation and penal system as the Ahom state or that the whole document is to
be considered doubtful.
Coins:-Numismatic evidence is one of the most reliable source for determining the courses of history of
particular country. It generally helps us in determining the Chronology and reigning period of the
dynasty. But it is difficult to prove that single rulers of the ancient Assam (Pragjyotisa-Kamarupa) had
ever minted coins,as yet no coins of the ancient period have ever come to light. But we cannot say that
those kings had not minted a single coin. But there are good reasons to believe that these kings actually
struck coins but for non-availability of a single coin uptil now makes us doubtful. It appears from the
Articles of Dr. H.H. Wilson that atleast the western part of Assam, at an early period was predominately
Hindu and the same may be inferred from the names of the main stream,the Lohit and the
Brahmaputra,which are Sanskrit terms. At the beginning of the 13th century a new heard of people
which accord-ing to Manuscripts-the chief of which came down from heaven by golden ladder, in
memory of which event the Rajas of Assam uniformly takes the title-'Swargadeva', Lord of Paradise or
Heaven appeared in the main land from the East and existed till the Burmese invasion of the nineteenth
century which ended by signing the treaty in 1826 at Yandaboo between Britishers and Burmese. It
may,therefore,be concluded that Assam was subjected to new from of Government, a new race of
princes and new religion imported from Loas towards the close of 12th century and the beginning of
13th century,which can be identified by some coins as a base materials. The coins of Assam, so far
collected goes back to the 16th century A.D. only but the Silimpur Inscription, it is stated that the king
Jaypala, the last king of the Brahmapala dynasty of Assam who ruled Assam (Kamarupa) in the later part
of the 12th century minted coins,but due to the non-availability of these coins we cannot prove it so far.
The coins so far discovered and found are as follows:-
Ahom Coins :The ancient coins found as yet,is that of Shu-Klen-Mung (A.D.1539-1552) who issued in
A.D.1543. Shu-Klen-Mung was counterpart of Koch king Nara Narayana (A.D.1515-1540) and he is
known as Gargayaraja. But D. Wilson gives us some of the image of the coins of 13th century as below. 1
of Subinpha who ruled in the eighties of the thirteenth century. A.D.1281-93 1 of Sutupha one of the
sons of Sutepha. A.D.1364-76 1 of Supatpha who also preferably a son of Sutepha. -Ditto- 1 of
Suhumpha. In the beginning of 16th century Probably Suhumpha of Dr. Wilson is infant Suhungmung
(A.D.1497-1539) one of the son of Supimpha (A.D.1493-97) who were also designated as Raja,i.e.,Pha.
Sutumla A.D.(1648-63) the successors of Sutyinpha (Nariya Raja) (A.D.1644-48) was the first king to
convert into Hinduism,who after assuming a Hindu name Jayadhvaja Singha introduced Sanskrit Script in
his coins. But Ahom scripts were again reintroduced by king Supatpha (Gadadhar Singha) (A.D.1681-96)
and his son Sukhrunpha (Rudra Singha) (A.D.1696-1714) followed his father's examples in the annual
issue of his coins. This procedure continued till A.D.1821 the fall of the Ahom rule. The first coin struck in
the name of the Ahom queen is that of Rani Phuleswari. She used Persian script and its shape was
square. The coins issued by king Suklenmung (A.D.1539-52) was in Ahom script and language. The coins
of earlier kings started the year of succession of the king who issued these coins,but the coins of
Suklenmung did not contain any such statement. All the Ahom coins were octagonal in size till the
introduction of square shaped coins by queen Phuleswari. But the later king Rajeswar Singha (A.D.1751-
69) made experiment with different shapes besides issue of octagonal coins which was the general form
of Ahom coins. Rajeswar Singha (A.D.1751-69)issued coins generally in Assamese script but he also
made experiment with Ahom,Nagari and Persian script. The rupees and the gold coins of the Ahom kings
were struck to the Indian standard of about 170 grains. It was probably king Rudra Singha (A.D.1696-
1714)introduced half of quarter rupees. Rajeswar Singha (A.D.1751-69 )introduced eight and sixteenth
of both the rupee and the Mohar (gold coins)while Gaurinath Singha (A.D.1780-95)added one more
variety; i.e.,thirty-secondth. There was no copper currency-instead Cowri was issued in its place. During
the reign of Gaurinath Singha (A.D.1780-95),the Moamaria rebellion took place. The rebel Moamarias
after driving away the Ahomm from Rangpur declared independence and ran almost a parallel
Governments with the Ahoms. During that time,in their domain,coins in the name of Bharat Singha and
Sarbananda, two of the insurgent leaders were issued in the A.D.1791 to 1795. The Burmese also during
their last invasion in 1826 are said to have struck very rough varieties of coins.
The Koch Coins: The Koch rupees (coins) are round in form and follows the model of the coins Hussain
Shah of Bengal. The first Koch king to strike coins in his name was king Nara Narayana (A.D.1515-40). His
coins are of silver. King Nara Narayana (A.D.1515-40) was a famous Koch king who extended his reign
over the entire Assam including present Meghalaya and beyond upto Manipur, Tripura and Sylhet. The
only known coins of the Eastern Koch kingdom are very few full rupee coins of king Raghudeva
(A.D.1581-1603),king Prananarayana(A.D.1633-66)and single rupee of king Parikshit Narayana(A.D.1603-
13). The half-rupee Koch coins minted during Mughal domination are known as Narayani rupees in
Assam. Some of the Koch coins will be found in Guwahati and British Museum.
The Kachari Coins : The Kacharis are the earliest known inhabitants of the Brahmaputra Valley. The
Assam coins cabinet possessed coins of Yasonarayana Dev and of Satrudaman alias Pratap Narayana
Dev. One rupee of the former king bears a date of 1505 Saka (A.D.1583) showing that Yaso Narayana
ascended the throne some twenty years before Satrudaman. The existence of a coin of Tamradhvaj
whose date was (A.D.1706-1708)shows that this series of coins continued for at least 120 years. A coin
of modern type was issued by the last Kachari king Gobinda Chandra(A.D.1813-30).
The Jayantia Coins :Very little is known of the history of the earlier rulers of Jayantia, except the
occasional references in the Koch, Kachari and Ahom annals and their conflicts with the Koches, Kacharis
and Ahoms. Coins are known bearing the saka dates 1591,1592,1630,1653,1696,1704,1707 and 1712
(A.D.1669,1670,1707,1731,1774,1782,1785 and 1790) and it can easily be assumed that as in the case of
the earlier Ahom coins those dates represent the dates of accession or perhaps of the installation of the
kings who issued the coins, None of the Jaintiya coins bear the name of the king who issued it probably
due to prohibition of Koch king in this respect. But the quarter rupees dated 1653 and 1712 Saka era
bear the name of Borgosain and Ramasingha respectively. The rupees are locally known as 'Katrataka'
(Sword rupees) from the fact that they bear the device of two handed sword and a musket on them.
Monipuri Coins : A few Manipuri coins so far has been discovered which is locally known as 'Sel' or
'Shell' coins. There is no evidence of having been at any time a gold coinage in existence,but it is said
that square silver coin existed from at least A.D.1712. A square coin of Churajit Singha dated 1734 Saka
found to have weighed 173 grain-the Indian standard weight for a rupee. Square copper coins of large
size and a greater weight are also known to have been use in Manipur. After British occupation
indigenous coins ceased to exist from A.D.1891.
The Naga Coins:Whether the Naga kings had ever struck cons in their own names is not known,but we
have evidence that there existed some peculiar arrow shaped 8''long copper coins known as Jabily
Particularly used by the Ao Nagas to purchase valuables till the advent of the British. Some Jabilys have
been preserved in Guwahati Museum.
Habitation Sites: Any spot on the earth that contains something that is the handiwork of human agency
suggest human habitation either at the spot itself or in its vicinity. Innumerable such isolated spots are
to be seen strewn across the length and breadth of the State,especially the Brahmaputra Valley,where
in some spots,only a few chiselled stones lying together,or a small section of a rampart or a depression
which once may have been a pond for all we know,are encountered. The mere enumeration of such
spots is not likely to yield a clear and definite pattern of human settlement. Therefore,for the sake of
convenience,by habitation sites are meant only those areas where there are sufficiently large
concentrations of architectural ruins,sculptural remains,ancient tanks, ramparts, tumuli, networks of
ancient roads, etc.,within defined areas which can ipso facto be termed as human settlements. A
number of such areas can be seen throughout the State which can plausibly be said to have once
contained fairly dense and well-organised human populations.
A brief description of some of these are given below:
Pratimanagar: Situated near Burha-Burhi-Nepaligaon, about 15 km from Chapakhowa in the Sadiya

subdivision,Tinsukia, there exists an extensive fortified enclosure with three concentric earthen
ramparts,the innermost one measuring 240 m x 185m. Inside the enclosure,on the western end,there
are two mounds contain-ing bricks, probably of temples. The area is now under cultivation.
Barhapjan ruins,Tinsukia : Locally known as Rajgarh or Ahomgarh,within the Sukanguri T.E.and

contiguous to the Barhapjan town,the earthen fortification is surrounded by a deep moat. Local
tradition ascribes it to one Naga Raja. Inside the fortified area is a pond.
Rajakhana or Rajgarh area,Dhemaji : Situated about 7 km. northwest of Dhemaji. Rajakhana or Rajgarh
is a rather lofty fortification measuring 150m x100m in area,and is now reduced into a swampy land by
the Dihing river which changed its course in 1984 and started flowing through it,thereby washing way
parts of the northern and the southern ramparts. Inside,in the centre, is a brick mound which was
destroyed by the subsidence caused by the subsidence caused by the earthquake of 1950. Locally,it is
associated with the name of Arimatta. About half a kilometre north of Rajakhana, there exist the ruins of
a brick wall with five layers of bricks still extant,together with a piece of chiselled stone. Similarly, brick
ruins,together with the foundation of a stone temple,are to be found about half a kilometre south of
Rajakhana. The site contains stone structural components and,judging by their style, they seem to
belong to 11th/12th century. West of Rajakhana also are to be found architectural ruins as well as
mounds containing ruins.
Arimatta Garh, Dhemaji : Situated at a distance of about 19 km from Dhemaji and one kilometre from
Choukhamgaon, this fortified area,although associated with the name of Arimatta,is a late-medieval
site,measuring 315 metre square and surrounded by a moat,with one entrance. Inside is to be found an
earthen mound,in all probability a tumulus (Moidam),which has been badly pilfered. There also exit a
number of patches of elevated land which were probably foundations of thatched houses. IN all
probability,it was a permanent army camp,meant to check the periodic incursion of the Daflas from the
northern hilly tracts. Hence its alternative name is Dafalagarh.
Biswanath : Situated at the confluence of the Brahmaputra and the Burhidihing

rivers,Biswanath,Sonitpur district,was reputed to be of great strategic importance during the late
medieval period,where the Ahom rulers had a regular camp. The area contains a river islet known as
Umatumoni, which once constituted a part of the mainland. Here once existed a brick temple of goddess
Uma (now renovated). Hence is its name. The islet also contains a huge rock bearing as many as three
inscriptions,twelve geometric designs of various types like grids and labyrinths,in-cised temple forms
and animal motifs,all engraved on the rock face. On the mainland,evidences of low ramparts show that
this part was once thickly populated. There once existed altogether five temples of late-medieval
period,of which only two have survived more or less intact. Besides,existing architectural as well as
sculptural evidences show that during the medieval period also there existed more than one
temple,some of which may go back to 8th century A.D. The low-lying area in between Umatumani at the
main land contain the remains of medieval stone temple which remain submerged during the monsoon.
Patapgarh : Patapgarh is situated about twelve kilometres west of Biswanath Chariali. Also known as
Pratappur, it is a fortified rectangular area surrounded by an earthen rampart measuring 4km east-west
X 2 km north-east,and a moat all around. The fort was reputedly built by Pratapsimha alias
Ramachandra, a section of Dharmapala alias Jitari, and father of Arimatta, sometime in the 14th
century. It has its entrance at the centre of eastern rampart, which is reinforced by two parallel
ramparts on its north and three similar ramparts on the south. It was further surrounded by a number of
additional ramparts and moats,their lengths ranging between 0.30 km and 8km. Of which remains of
three ramparts still exist. West of it runs the late-medieval Salagarh,starting from Biswanath and ending
at the foot of Dafla hills. Inside this vast fortified area is to be seen another fortress comprising about
four acres of land with its ramparts measuring about 6 metres in height. The inner four sides of the
ramparts bear traces of three offsets or terraces facilitating ascent to the top of the rampart. Inside this
fortress there exists a circular pond. South of this inner fortress, there exists another large rectangular
tank. The area is littered with bricks of the late-medieval period. In this area are to be seen remains of
three ancient roads,one of them emanating through the entrance of the fort, another,starting from the
north-east end, which is locally known as Raj-ali,and the third one running south to Biswanath. In
addition, there are to be seen in this region more than a dozen tanks in between Pratapgarh and
Biswanath, the largest of which is known as the Kunwari pukhuri.
Bihali Forest Reserve : In an area of about 9 (nine) sq. km. inside the deep jungle of Bihali Forest
Reserve, Sonitpur district, remains of altogether 4 (four) stone temples and altogether 7 tanks, one of
them lined with stones, can be seen, which probably belong to the early part of the late-medieval
period. These are enclosed by an earthen rampart. The area also contains ruins of two brick temples.
These apart, south of the Forest reserve down to the Brahmaputra river, more than a dozen tanks, both
large and small,exist, which are probably contemporaneous with the above ruins. At any rate, all these
ruins existing together are indicative of a flourishing settlement there once upon a time. In this area are
also to be seen three ancient roads probably contemporaneous with the above ruins.
Sotea Jamuguri region : Inside the Ghiladhari T.E., adjacent to Sotea there are three large tanks, one of
these lined with stones, which are reputed to have been excavated by some local Bhuyan Chiefs. South
of the Sotea there are two late-medieval medium-sized tanks. Similarly, in the Khanaguri Gaon near
Sotea area are two such tanks. Sotea itself has a tank together with the ruins of a medieval temple. This
region also contains two roads of the late-medieval period measuring in length approximately 6.50 km.
And 5 km. Respectively. At places in this region there exists a few other such roads some of which are
still in use. Similarly, Jamuguri region also contains altogether 16 tanks of the late-medieval period.
Singri region, Sonitpur : Situated at a distance of 11 km south of Dhekiajuli, there exist inside the Singri
T.E. Extensive ruins of two temples, locally known as Visvakarma Mandira and belonging to c. 10th
century. A kilometre east of this place are to be seen a number of small brick and stone mounds in a row
at a place called Dhirai-Majuli,from which a number of stone architectural components belonging to
c.10th century have been recovered. A.kilometre west of Visvakarma Mandir are to be seen the ruins of
a c.12th century temple at a village called Bangaligaon. Three km south of Bangali-gaon, there exits the
Singri temple with different phases of repair. Close by,on top of a hill are the ruins of a medieval stone
temple. Lastly,about 3 km east of the Singri T.E.scattered ruins of a stone temple of c. 11/12 century
along the Brahmaputra exist. This region thus bears firm evidence of human habitation from the 10th
century onwards. It is very probable that this region had a flourishing population even earlier,constitute
as it did a part of the kingdom of the Salastambha dynasty with their capital at Hadappesvara in the
Tezpur region which is situated about 50 km west from Singri as the crow-files.
Tezpur region : The modern town of Tezpur and its peripheral region,where the ancient capital of
Hadappesvara of the Salastambha dyansty (c.A.D.655 to c.A.D.900) was located, contain a large number
of ancient brick and stone ruins,both of the medieval and the late-medieval periods. On the south-
eastern outskirts of the town,on top of a hillock known as Bamuni Pahar, there once existed a temple
complex of c.11th century,consisting of altogether seven structures including those of a torana
(gateway). On west of this hillock,along the Brahmaputra river,diggings for purposes other than
archaeological have yielded from time to time large numbers of various types of temple
components,variously ascribable to the period ranging from 7th to 11th century. In fact,the entire
township is littered with stone architectural components. It also contains the remnant of a huge dried-
up tank known as Harjara-Pukhuri, a name suggestive of Harjaravarman of the Salastambha dynasty. In
the heart of the town are the ruins of the c.9th century Mahabhairava temple,lying scattered around the
modern temple which has been built on the foundation of the old one. On the southern outskirts of the
town,not very far from Bamuni hill ruins are to be seen the remains of a medieval Sakti temple,where
the modern Bhairavi temple stands. In the village of Da-Parbatiya, existing on the western outskirts of
the town,there is a large concentration of architecture and sculptural remains. Noteworthy among these
are the door-frame of a temple of the Gupta period of late 16thcentury. Other remains of this area
are,the brick foundation of an old temple over which the modern Henguleswar temple stands;the stone
pillars and lintels used in the Silar Namghar (amodern Vaisnavite prayer-hall);the brick ruins and the
stone pillar of c.7th century at Baralimara Satra (now shifted to the Cole Park at Tezpur);the Garh-
dol,containing the ruins of two brick structures enclosed by a low rampart with brick reinforcement;a
cluster of seven tanks existing not far from the Garh-dol and traditionally assigned to Harjaravarman;the
structural ruins at Brahmachari Satra,Da-Chuburi;the inscription of Harjavarman engraved on a sheer
rock-face at the Dhenukhana-Parvat on the bank of the Brahmaputra;the brick remains on the
Dhenukhana parvat along the Brahmaputra near Da-parbatiya;the more than 4 m tall mukhalingam
known as Tingyesvara at Ketekibari on the outskirts of Tezpur; the 8th century temple ruins at Majgaon
near Ketekibari,etc. All these ruins are indicative of human habitation in this region from 6thcentury
onwards.
Kalaigaon region : The Kalaigaon region,west of Tangla,contains a number of ancient ruins and
tanks,scattered all over the region,suggesting human habitation. At Baruah Hawligaon is an old large
tank on the bank of which there once stood a brick temple with stone components belonging to the
medieval period, locally known as Bhoga Baruaar Mandir. The nearby village of Barnagari has an ancient
tank,together with the ruins of a stone temple belonging to c.11th century. The Muradeor temple,built
in the 16thcentury during the reign of Naranarayana,exists at Kabirali,a village near Barua Hawli. Kabirali
also contains stone architectural remains of 11th/12th century.
Darangipara region : Similarly, at the Darangipara region,about 9km south of Odalguri, extensive signs
of human habitation can be seen, such as, at Nalkhamara with stone temple components, and a brick
temple which has been washed away by the turbulent Chandana river. About 5km south of Odalguri are
to be seen a large tank and the sanctum of a ruined brick temple,as also some stone ruins on another
bank of the same tank. The Jarpukhuri ruins of 12th century situated about 15 km north of Tangla,exists
in the reserved area of Majgaon T.E. There also exist at a little distance two medium sized tanks, as also
broken bricks spread over a wide area around these ruins,pointing to human settlements from the
medieval period down.
Rajgarh : Rajgarh is situated a few kilometres north of Harisingha. It is a fortified area extending over
about 50 acres of land. It has four entrance with stone pillars about 4 m.high. Other sites:Not very far
from Sipajhar,there exists the Jaypala tank,supposedly excavated by a Bhuyan chief named Jaypal,and as
such belonging to c.14th/15th century. Around this region are numerous other tanks,such as the Deoraj
pukhuri at Byaspara village, west of which,as per tradition,was the city of local chief named Lokarai. On
its bank there once stood a stone temple which no longer exists. The other tanks of this region are
Baldeo pukhuri,Baghmara pukhuri with the remains of brick steps leading down to the
bottom,Barhampur pukhuri,Pachakia pukhuri, Lakshmi pukhuri, Dighi pukhuri, Gorukamora pukhuri,etc.
Bhurar Garh exists near Charandhara in Kalaigaon Mouza and it is a fortified area of about 130 acres.
Inside the fortified area are to be seen a number of raised grounds suggesting their use for residential
purposes,as also two small tanks. The entrance to the fortification was protected on either side by
ramparts. The term Bhura may originally have stood for Bhuyan,which was in due course distorted into
Bhura. This probability can not be discounted since this region was once ruled by a number of Bhuyan
chiefs during the 14th/15th century. As such,it might have been constructed sometime in the 15th
century, if not earlier.
Guwahati region : Guwahati has been traditionally known as Pragjyotishpur, capital of ancient kingdom
of Pragjyotisha. The greater Guwahati region,including North Guwahati, contains archaeological ruins
ranging in date from the 5th century A.D. Down to the 18th century. The southern part of this area,
i.e.,the present day city of Guwahati,was bounded on the north by the Brahmaputra,on the south by the
hilly ranges of the Khasi Hills district,on the east and the west by two ramparts respectively. Within this
area are to be found a number of brick built temples of the late-medieval period,almost all of which
were constructed on the foundation of the earlier stone teples of the medieval period. Notable among
these are the temple complex are Kamakhya containing about a dozen temples of the late medieval
period where building activities started from the 6th century,the Sukra-Janardana temples,the
Chatrakara temple,the Basistha temple,the Umananda temple,the Navagraha temple,the Ugratara
temple ,etc. The area also contains a number of tanks excavated in different periods. Quite a few stray
sculptors engraved on rock-faces at different parts of this area,as also architectural ruins of stone as well
as brick,are also encountered. Apart from the two ramparts,constituting the eastern and the western
boundaries,a few other ramparts,built during the medieval period,are to be seen,notable among these
being the one running east-west along the spine of the Narakasur pahar and,south of it,another brick-
reinforced rampart running north-south and ending up at the foot of the Khasi Hill range. The earliest
inscription found in this region,viz,the Umachal Rock inscription,which is located at the foot of the
Kamakhya hill,belongs to the 5th century A.D. At the foot of the Kamakhya hill, there is also a single-line
Persian inscription,as also an 18th century inscription in Assamese,known as the Duar-Garila
inscription,marking the western gateway to the headquarters at Guwahati during the Ahom occupation.
Occasional diggings done for purpose of construction of buildings,etc.,as also regular
excavations,especially at the central sector of the northern part of the present city,have yielded stone
architectural components, remains of brick structures, potteries,etc.
Similarly,the North Guwahati region has number of 18th century brick temples,all of which were
constructed on the foundation of medieval stone temples,namely,the Asvakranta temple,the Kurma-
Janardana temple,the Maniikarneswar temple and the Dirgheswari temple. Besides these,the area also
contains a number of earthen ramparts,a stone bridge of the late-medieval period,tanks,three stone
inscriptions,the earliest of them belonging to A.D.1206,and a host of stray stone sculptural pieces
belonging to the medieval period.
Hajo region : Hajo in the Kamrup district was once a strategic region and the strong-hold of the Mughals
who were in occupation of the region west of Barnadi after the defeat of Nilambar by Hussain Shah in
A.D.1498. Hajo proper has altogether six temples built a different times,most of them on the stone
foundation of medieval temples. The earliest structural activities,especially of the Hayagriva-Madhava
Temple,which is the principal temple of the locality,goes back to 8th century. Centering on this temple
an extensive habitation area grew up in course of time. This shrine is equally venerated by the Lamaist
Budhists as the alleged place of Mahaparinirvana of Sakyamuni or the Budha. The area also contains two
large tanks. Close by,on a hill-top exists the 16thcentury dargah of Ghiyasuddin Auliya,and the place is
venerated by the Muslim community of Assam as Poa Mecca. In A.D.1657,a mosque was built
here,which does not exist now.
Baidyar-garh is situated at Betna at a distance of 25 km. north of Rangiya town, and is a fortified
area of several acres of land. As the area has been badly vandalized by modern habitation,no details of
ancient remains are available. Baidyargarh is traditionally associated with Arimatta. However, going by
its name, it is more probable that it was constructed during the reign of Vaidyadeva sometime in the
12th century,which was subsequently used as capital by Arimatta.
Baihata Chariali area : This area is replete with archaeological ruins,such as,architectural remains,old
ramparts,tanks,etc.
The architectural ruins at Madan Kamdev, situated at a distance of 5km south-east of Baihata
Chariali and 40km north of Guwahati,exist on the top of the hillock of the same name. Remains of
altogether with evidences of brick works existing side by side,all of which belong to a period ranging
from the late 11th to 12th centuries,are seen here. On the south of it,right in the midst of swampy area
is the Jalpeswar hillock which also contains contemporary stone structural evidences. About half a
km.north of Madan-Kamdev,are to be seen stone structural remains on the Narasimha pahar . About 6
km north of Madan-Kamdev as the crow flies are to be seen the 12th century stone temple ruins at
Pingalesvar together with a tank and scanty remains of a brick-built in mosque of late-medieval period
nearby. Thus,this region bears evidences of altogether 25 stone structures,all of them temples. About
3km.north of Madan-Kamdev,in village of Januru,is a large ancient tank,and another about one km.west
of it. Besides,on the south of Madan-Kamdev,across the seasonal Madan-Kuri river flowing nearby and
along the spine of the Bhitarsala hill range,is a road-cum-rampart with brick reinforcement running
northeast-southwest and curving down south along the Changsari-Kahara pahar and ending up at
Lakhipahar. Along this north south stretch,this road-cum-rampart is interspersed with number of
earthen bastions. It was from Lakhipahar that this road again probably swerved nothwest, this time
simply as road,and passed through the old stone bridge which was destroyed by the earthquake of
1897,and ended up at Sessa in the neighbourhood of Hajo or,more probably,continued further to Hajo.
That this region had flourishing human population at least from the medieval period,if not earlier,with
the Madan-Kamdev complesx as it nerve-centre,can easily be de-duced from the extant of the ruins and
other remains in this region.
Sualkuchi area: Sualkuchi is about 25km west of Guwahati where a medieval stone temple belonging to
c.12th century exists on top of a hillock,which was party renovated during the late-medieval period. A
long earthen late-medieval rampart,starting from one hill and running one kilometre and ending at the
foot of another hill exists on the west Sualkuchi. Subsequently,a good number of late-medieval
Vaisnavite monasteries grew up here. Sualkuchi thus bears evidence of human habitation from at least
12th century. About three kilometre north of this place,there exists a natural cave which enshrines a
number of Hindu metallic icons. The antiquity of this cave as a place of veneration is not known.
Suryapahar region : The Mornoi-Suryapahar region,Goalpara district,is situated about 20 km.east of

Goalpara town comprising an area of roughly 30km. At Suryapahar proper,on the foothills,are to be seen
quite a few sculptures ranging in date from 8th to 9th century,all depicted on the body of three large
rock formations,Sivalingas cut out on boulders,small rock-cut cubicks with Sivalingas inside,a number of
solid Buddhist stupas,some freestanding and the others,curved out on the body of large
boulders,images of jaina Tirthankaras of 8th/9th century,a tank with brick linings,the ruins of brick
temple containing terracottas of 7th/8th century,etc. In between Suryapahar and the nearby Mornoi
village,there exists a huge tank,now dried up. At the Mornoi village itself,architectural and sculptural as
well as terracotta plaques of the medieval period have been recovered from time to time. At a little
distance on the south of Suryapahar,three exists the ruins of a brick temple of the medieval period atop
a hillock known as Bamun pahar. The existing chiselled and decorated stones now used as stairways to
the top of the hillock suggest the existence of a temple there of an earlier period. About 5 km west of
Suryapahar is the Dekdhowa-pahar right on the bank of the Brahmaputra where quite a large number of
Sivalingas cut in the fashion of those existing at Suryapahar,together with a two-line short inscription of
c.9th century,can be seen,as also panels bearing the images of Ganesha,Brahma,Sadasiva,and another
unidentified image. There also exist a brick-built dargah of the late-medieval period as well as two small
mounds littered with old brick-bats,prob-ably of temples,plus another single line stone inscription in old
Assamese script on a boulder on the east of these mounds. Similar Sivalingas in a large number are also
to be seen at Mahadebpahar near Suryapahar and opposite the Sainik School. About 5 km south of
Suryapahar,at Matia,there exist on top of a hillock the ruins of a brick-built temple with decorative
terracotta pieces,and a few chiselled stone blocks,which indicate the existence of stone temples there
from the medieval period onwards. Suryapahar also finds mention in late-medieval chronicles. This area
thus bears evidences of human habitation from atleast the 7th century onwards. This is one place in
Assam where three religious beliefs,viz,Buddhism,Hinduisim and Jainism,coexisted and flourished
without apparently any conflict. Now where else in Assam have remains of the Jaina religion been found
so far.
Pancharatna region : The Pancharatna region,situated about 8 km of the Goalpara town,comprises

among others,a number of small bare caves,some with traces of steps in front,belonging to the medieval
period,a solid stupa measuring 1.13 m.,huge yoni-peetha plus a number of temple components. About 5
km east of this place,on the scrap of a hill,is the bare existence of the foundation of a brick temple with
a few blocks of chiselled stones. Right across the river Brahmaputra,at Jogighopa also,there are to be
seen a number of small caves. One of them with steps cut in front,the inside back-wall bearing Buddhist
stupa motif in very low relief in some of them.
These are indicative of the fact that this region was once agog with tantrik-Buddhist religious
activities,perhaps from 8th century onwards.
Panbari region : About 17 km. West of Dhubri,there exists at Panbari an area of approximately nine
acres containing brick structural ruins with stone solings, adjacent to the Ship & Goat Farm of the
Vetenary department. It was in all probability set up in the beginning of the 16th century,as
administrative headquarters,after this region was wrested by Saiyyad Hussain Shah of Bengal from the
contemporary ruler of Kamata in A.D.1498. Across the road and facing the site is a triple-domed mosque
which in all probability was built at the same time as the structures of the headquarter. About three km.
West of this,behind the B.S.F.camp is an Idgah with a brick enclosure and a brick well nearby.
Parikshit Rajar Garh is situated at Rupsi, 20 km east of Dhubri, and is covered by deep jungle. As
the name suggests,it was set up by Parikshit Narayan of the Eastern Koch dynasty in the 17th century.
The area is enclosed by an earthen rampart with an entrance to it. Inside are to be found scattered ruins
of brick structures and stray decorated terracotta pieces.
Innumerable ruins of brick temple,brick-reinforced earthen ramparts,tanks,megaliths,sculptures

bearing inscription,other stone inscriptions,etc.,have been noticed in the region between the Dhansiri
and the Dayyang river,located mostly in the Golaghat district,bearing eloquent testimony of human
habitation right from the early centuries of the christian era to the late-medieval period.
Sarupathar region : The Nagajari-Khanikar Gaon existing near Sarupathar,has yielded fragmentary stone
inscription of 5th century. From the same place has been recovered a number of pebbles,each bearing a
letter of the Eastern Brahmi script ascribable to the 2nd/3rd century A.D. Besides these,there also exist a
brick mound at Ahomgaon and a number of ancient tanks at Rajapukhuri, both adjacent to Sarupathat.
Deopani a small village 4km from Sarupathar, originally had a brick temple which no longer exists. The
site,however,contains about 20 stone sculptures belonging to 7th/8th century. Similarly, Sisupani near
Deopani contains two ancient tanks,on the banks of which the ruins of two ancient brick temples exit.
Barpathar region : Duboroni village,existing at the outskirts of Barpathar,has yielded number of

sculptures of c.8th century,together with some Sivalinagas,which are probably contemporaneous with
the sculptures. This village also contains a six-metre high brick reinforced rampart running north east,as
also the ruins of a brick temple and a tank measuring 72 m X 69 m. Alichiga Gaon, about 3 km north of
Duboroni. contains scattered old bricks of a brick temple and a stone Surya-image of 8th century.
Kasomari region : In the Kasomari pathar region,Telisal, about 20 km from Barpathar,contains a large
tank measuring 480 m X 240 m,the ruins of an old temple,as also fragments of old sculptures. Nearby
exists another large tank locally known as Lashminagar. About 4 km away from here,another large tank
named Yajnapukhuri and a stone image of the medieval period are to be seen. Several similar other
mounds littered with brick-bats exist at a number of spots in that area. At Rajabari, about 8 km east of
Telisal in the Kasomari Reserve Forest there are a number of beautifully chiselled flat megalithic
orthostats bearing floral and other designs belonging probably to the early part of the late-medieval
period and raised under the patronage of the Kachari kings whose kingdom embraced this part. There
apart,a number of stone sculptures of the medieval period,all badly weathered,are to be seen lying
scattered in this region. Judging by the existing ruins,it can be said that during that period the area was
fairly inhabited.
Numaligarh region : About 13 km east of Bokakhat,the Numaligarh region,which finds frequent mention
in the history of 15th/16thcentury,and which constituted a part of the Kachari kingdom prior to its
occupation by the Ahoms,contains a long brick-reinforced rampart of the medieval period,running along
the National High-way No.37,and partly damaged by it as also by encroachers, besides a number of
earthen ramparts running upto the foothills of Karbi-Anglong Hills. At a distance of 3 km from
Numaligarh,there exists on a hillock the ruins of 12th century temple, known as Deoparvat ruins,as also
evidences of brick and stone ruins in the vicinity. Near it,inside the Numaligarh T.E.,there exists the
foundation of a huge temple,as also the quarry-sites for the stones used for the purpose of building this
stone temple, Charaideo,Sibsagar district,is a place where Sukapha,the first ruling monarch of the Ahom
dynasty set up his capital which continued as such down to the reign of Jyaokhamti. Charaideo was
divided into three areas,viz.,the burial area,the place of worship respectively. The burial area contains
innumerable tumuli (Moidams)where the king and the members of the royal household were buried.
The place of worship contains the Deosal with eight columns and the Langkuri Dol,theirantiquity going
back to the pre-Ahom period,as these were already in existence when Sukapha appropriated them from
the Barahis then ruling in the region. Besides,Charaideo contains a number of tanks,such as Sa-dhowa
pukhuri,Tenga pukhuri,Petudhowa pukhuri,Lengibar pukhuri,Bargohain pukhuri,etc.
Chargua the second capital of the Ahoms was set up by Sudanpha which at present contains two
large Moidams as well as traces of household compounds. Be-sides,there are three more Moidams,all
of which have been levelled to flat terraces. It remained as the capital of the Ahom kingdom down to
the reign of Supimpha.
10 km east of Sivasagar town exists Bakata where the capital of Suhungmung once existed. Six
Moidams in north-south axis in a paddy field are to be seen here,measuring on an average 30 to 40 m
dia x 4 to 7 m high. An embankment along the Dihing river flowing nearby exists here.
Maduri,about 4 km south of Bogidol area on the Jaisagar-Nazira Road,has altogether 10

Moidams. The biggest one of them,app. 60 m dia x 12 m high,is known as Laithepena's Moidam. The two
other Moidams measure 47 m.dia x 12 m high and 42 m dia x 7 m high respectively.
Garhgaon exists at a distance of 10 km east of Sivasagar town. First established by Suklenmung

alias Garhgayan Raja in A.D. 1540,the capital area is en-closed by three concentric
ramparts,viz.,Bajgarh,Bhitargarh and Pakhigarh. The first two were constructed by Pratapsimha and
Suklenmung respectively ,and the Pakhigarh together with the three principal masonry gateways at
Bajgarh by Pratapsimha,the latter three known as Barduar,Paniduar and Chunparaduar,none of which
exist at present. The masonry-built seven storeyed royal palace was built there during the reign of
Rajesvarsimha in A.D.1752,of which the lower three storeys are said to be underground. The area
contained,besides the palace,two more structures,viz,the Golaghar (magazine house)and a store-house
(now in total ruins).and two tanks,besides several residential compounds (Dhaps).
Nearby are the fortified township of Bakata capital of king Suhungmung,as mentioned
above,and Darikanagar,founded by Sudaipha in the latter half of the 17th century.
Around this extensive area are to be seen a number of defensive ramparts built at different
times,and a number of roads which are still in use today.
Rangpur,situated 5km south of Sivasagar town,was originally founded by king Rudrasimha in

A.D.1699. The greater Rangpur area,for our purposes,comprises Sivasagar town,Jaysagar ,Gaurisagar
and other peripheral regions. Within this extensive area a number of old temples,tanks,ramparts,stone
bridges,etc.,are to be seen,all belonging to the later part of the late-medieval period. Especially
noteworthy is the royal palace,known as the Talatal-ghar,which was started by Rudrasimha and
completed by Rajeswarsimha. Although the palace is reputed to be seven storeyed, only three storeys
are at present to be seen overground,consisting of altogether thirty-six chambers,inclusive of a small
chapel. The palace is enclosed by three ramparts,viz.,Bajgarh (outer rampart),3.20 km in circumference
and encompassed by a moat,Bhitargarh (inner rampart)1.;30 km in circumference,and the innermost
rampart known as the Tolagarh. Inside the fortified areas are two tanks,a magazine house and the
foundation ruins of other structures.
West of the palace,just across the road,is the two-storeyed pavilion known as Rang-ghar,built by
Prattasimha (A.D.1704)and meant for enjoying sports by the royalty. In front of it was a smaller pavilion
built by Rajeswarsimha which no longer exists.
A little south of the palace are the Ranganath temple,Haragauri temple,Gaurivallabh temple and
the Fakua Dol,the last one reputedly the burial place of Jaymati Kunwari,mother of Rudrasimha. These
were built by Rudrasimha and the subsequent rulers.
About a km from the palace complex is the Jaysagar tank,excavated by Rudrasimha in memory
of his mother. On its banks stand the Visnudol, the Sivadol,and a little to the north-west,the
Ghanshyamarghar,all built during Rudrasimha's reign.
About 3km south of Jaysagar,there exists a tank,known as the Kalugayan pukhuri, with two
brick-built temples,viz,Jayaddatridol,Vishnudol, of the time of Sivasimha. \
On the west of Jaysagar,there exist a tank and a temple,known respectively as Rudrasgar or Na-
pukhuridol,all belonging to the reign of Lakshmisimha. North of this,across the road,is the Puranipukhuri
or Athaisagar excavated during the reign of Jayadhvajsimha. About 10 km west of Rudrasagar there
exists the tank known as Gauridagar,together with three temples,belonging to the reign of Sivasimha.
North of Rangpur,at the heart of the Sivasagar town,is the Sivasagar tank,together with its
three temples,viz.,Sivadol, Visnudol and Devidol, belonging to the reign of Sivasimha.
Besides these,there are a number of old tanks around Rangpur,notamle among them being the
Bogi-Rajmao pukhuri,the Mechagharar pukhuri and the Rajmao pukhuri,belonging respectively to the
reigns of Lakshmisimha,Pratapsimha and Sivasimha. Each of these tanks once had a temple on its
banks,which no longer exists. These apart,the entire region has a network of old roads criss-crossing and
radiating from which are still in use.
Dabaka region : Situated about 34km. Southeast of the Nagaon town,Dabaka or ancient Dabaka,once
constituted an independent kingdom which finds mention in the Allahabad pillar inscription of
Samudragupta,thus bearing indubitable testimony to a kingdom flourishing in the 4th century A.D.,and
probably from an earlier period,although the present surface archaeological take one only as far back as
the 6thcentury. Judging by the existing ruins in an around Dabaka, it can perhaps be safely said that the
Dabaka kingdom once comprised the south-west region of the present Nagaon district including the
greater Jogijan,Amtala and Lanka regions,and also a part of the eastern section of the Karbi-Anglong
district,i.e.,Hamren subdivision,to find mention in Samudragupta's inscription. Be that as it may,the
archaeo-logical ruins existing here belonging to period ranging from 6thto the 12th century A.D.and
later. Most of these ruins are to be found along the Kapili and the Jamuna valleys.
At Dabaka itself,at a distance of one km south of the Dabaka bazar,in a village known as
Mikirati,there exist two rows of small stone temples,all symmetrically placed. which were constructed
sometime around 10th century A.D. In the same area,further south,is the garbha-griha (sanctum-
sanctorum)of a brick temple over-grown with a pipal tree. Besides,archaeological components and
figure sculptures datable to c. 7th century have also been found,and further exploration/excavation of
the area is likely to yield archaeological evidences of earlier period.
About 19 km southeast of Dabaka,there exist,at Devasthan, stone temple ruins,symmetrically

placed in the manner of the Dabaka ruins,containing structural ruins of altogether eight stone
temples,datable to 8th century. About two km. North-west of Dabaka are the Gachtal ruins,containing
evidences of three structures,a stone well built in two phases,and two huge tanks which have now
completely dried up. The ruins belong to the medieval period.
Kampur region : Kampur is located 23 km south of Nagaon town. Close to the township,at a village
named Kawoimari,ruins of more than two stone temples belonging to c. 12th century are to be seen. A
good number of scattered architectural ruins are also to be found within a radius of about 6 km. all
belonging to the period ranging from 10th to 12th century.
Jogijan region : The greater Jogijan region is situated about 6 km northwest of Hojai.Jogijan proper
contains the ruins of a temple complex,locally known as Rajbari .Evidences show altogether six stone
structures,built during the late 11th/12th century. The entire area was enclosed by a brick
rampart,traces of which are still to be seen. About 1/2 km west of this spot are to be found ruins of
three fairly large temples,locally known as Sankhadevi,which are contemporaneous with the Rajbari
ruins. About a kilometre southwest from Jogijan across the Jogi river ,at a place called Na-Nath,there are
altogether 8 brick temples arranged in a manner similar to those of Mikirati and Vasudev Than,and
belonging to the mid 7th/early 8th century.
Amtala : About 9km. South of Hojai,a large tank and some smaller ones,all silted up,together with
elevated areas bearing potsherds,broken bricks,ruins of stone temples and scattered architectural
pieces,spread over an area of about 6 acres,are to be seen in a village called Amtala. The ruins belong to
the medieval period ranging in date from 10th to 12th century.
On either side of the road leading from Hojai to Lanka,there exist a good number of large
tanks,excavated sometime in the beginning of the late-medieval period. Although no other
archaeological remains have hitherto been found in this region,the very existence of these tanks,as also
the recovery of a large quantity of cowries from this region,are indicative of flourishing human
habitation during that period.
Jangal Balahu garh : The Jongal Balahu Garh is located about 5 km west of Raha,Nagaon. It is fortified
area of about 800 m X 200 m,with three concentric earthen ramparts interspersed with ditches,of which
only the southern side exists at present. This is traditionally assigned to one Jongal Balahu,the alleged
son of Arimatta who ruled in the later part of 14th century.
Hamren Sub-division,Karbi Anglong : The Parakhowa -Urdhavaganga area in the Hamren subdivision of
Karbi Anglong district contains a network of earthen ramparts. In this region,there are to be seen several
tanks as also brick and stone ruins,some of which exist on the shallow bed of the Urdhavaganga rivulet.
Several km. Around Dokmoka,Hamren,a number of temple ruins of brick and stone are to be
found at places,such as Burhagosain Than,Charlock-pathar, Mahamaya-pahar, Badganga,etc.,ranging in
the date from 6th to the late medieval period. A rock cave at Mahamaya Pahar is assignable to the 6th
century and other ruins of this hill are assignable to the 12th century and later. The rock inscription
existing at Badganga belongs to Bhutivarman of the Varman dynasty,and is assignable to the mid 6th
century.
The Tilapara-Bagadol area at Langhin, Hamren, contains a medieval rock-out Durga image,a
similar Ganesha image and brick ruins. Similarly,the Phulani region,approximately 8 sq. km. In
area,contains a number of tanks,both large and small ruins of stone temples, brick ruins and earthen
fortifications covering a fairly large area. The evidence of an old road connecting Dokmoka and Bakalia is
also to be seen here. The Langlokso region,a fertile valley of about 12 sq. km. In the upper reaches of
Karbi-Anglong has the ruins of stone temple at Sikrai-Rongpi Gaon. The region must have been well-
populated in the olden days,judging by the fertility of the valley,although no other archaeological ruins
have hitherto been found to reinforce this view. Donkamokham and its surrounding areas contain a
fairly good number of megalithic uprights in clusters,most of which are of early date,judging by their
state of existence.
It is to be borne in mind that although the southern parts of the Nagaon district and the Hamren
subdivision have been divided into a number of habitational areas for the convenience of description,no
such watertight compartmentalization is possible in practice,since these areas are contiguous and so are
the archaeological remains existing there,with only minor gaps here and there due to ravages caused by
the frequently changing course of the rivers,especially the Kapili, as also due to the existence of hills and
cultivated lands. Large-scale modern habitations are also responsible for the loss of many archaeological
sites and ruins. Even then,many stray ruins and silted up tanks are to be seen here and there gaps,some
of them on lofty hill-tops suggesting habitation below in ancient days.
Maibang in the North Cachar district was the second capital of the Kachari kingdom which was
set up in the east bank of the Mahur river sometime around A.D.1676 after the sacking of their first
capital at Dimapur by The Ahoms. It is a fortified area measuring approximately 900 m X 400 m,with a
part of it washed away by the Mahur river. The area was divided into a number of sectors by brickwalls
of approximately one-metre thickness criss-crossing it which probably contained different
establishments,such as the palace complex,the royal court,the area for the courtiers,etc. At the
northeast end there is an area containing a number of low receding terraces like that of a stadium. The
township contains two small tanks,one of them brick-lined,as also a brick well. There was also a temple
built of brick and stone,as evidenced by chiselled by stone blocks engraved with geometrical patterns
and bearing dowel marks,as also a number of decorated terracotta plaques. There are also the remains
of a number of sentry towers built of bricks and boulders along the riverside. The capital was entered
from the east where there was a gateway through which a path ran east-west. At the western end was
the main entrance known as the Simhadvara,constructed by king Meghanarayana in A.D.1576,as
evidenced by two inscriptions bearing more or less the same legend,and a tall brick mound. Standing
across the river is the monolithic Chandi Mandir carved in A.D.1761.
Contemporary chronicles (Buranjis) also mention the existence of a number of fortified areas,
some of them brick-built, which the conquering Ahoms captured during their conflicts with the Kacharis.
No archaeological evidence of such fortresses, however, have hitherto been found.
Khaspur is situated at a distance of about 12 km. North of Silchar town, Cachar. Formerly also
known as Brahmaputra, it was the last capital of the Kacharis and was set up during the eighties of the
18th century when their former capital at Maibang was sacked by the Ahoms, as a result of which they
had to abandon it. The capital area contains altogether six brick structures,which are 1) Snana Mandir,
with a lotuspetalled dome overhead and four opening on four sides,2) Bengal hut-type structure with a
gabled roof, known as Ranachandi Mandir, 3) a double storeyed structure known as Baraduari,4)another
Bengal hut-type structure known as Siva Mandir,5)the Simhadvara with a Bengal hut-type roof and 6)yet
another structure with roof similar to no.2 above, known as Lakshmi Mandir. Siva Mandir and Baraduari
are enclosed within a brick wall.

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Chapter 1 The Pre History of India

Chapter 2 History of Ancient India

Chapter 3 Assam In Ahom age

Chapter 4 The modern period of Assam

Chapter 5 The Freedom Movement

History of Ancient Assam :

Ruling Dynasties of Ancient Assam :

Assam in the Ahom Age (1228-1826):

The Advent of the Ahoms :

The Early Ahom State :

Expansion of the Ahom Kingdom :

The Period of Ahom-Mughal Conflict

Later Ahom Kings :

Decline and fall of the Ahom Kingdom :

The Ahom system of Administration :

The Modern Period : Annexation of Assam :

The Freedom Movement :

Anti British movement-Later phase :

Freedom Movement in the post – 1857 period :

Impact of the rising :

The period of preparation and growth of political consciousness :(1901-1918):

Non-co-operation and Dyarchy on Trial (1918-1947):

Inscription and epigraphs :

1)The Umachal Rock Inscription of Surendravarman :

3)The Badganga Rock Inscription of Bhutivarman:

4)The Dubi Copper-plate Inscriptions of Bhaskaravarman and its seal:-

5)The Three Nalanda Clay Seals of Bhaskaravarman :

6)The Nidhanpur Copper-plate Inscriptions of Bhaskaravarman :

7)Tezpur Rock Inscription of Harjaravarman :

8)The Hayungthal Copper Plate Inscription of Harjaravarman :

9)Tezpur Copper Plate inscription of Vanamalavaramadeva:

10)The Parbatiya Copper Plate Inscription of Vanamalavaramadeva:

11)The Dighaligaon Copper Plate Inscription of Vanamalavaramadeva:

13)The Nowgong(Nagaon)Copper Plates of Balavarman III:

14)The Ulubari copper Plates of Balavarman III:

15)The Coratbari Copper Plate Inscription of Ratnapala :

16)The Bargaon Copper Plate Inscriptions of Ratnapala :

17)The Sualkuchi Copper Plate Inscriptions of Ratnapala :

18)The Guwahati Copper Plate inscriptions of Indrapala :

19)The Guakuchi Copper Plate Inscriptions of Indrapala :

20)The Gachtal Copper Plate Inscriptions of Gopalavarmadeva :

21)The Khobamukh Copper Plate Inscriptions of Dharmala :

22)The Subhankarapatak a Copper Plate Inscriptions of Dharmapala :

23)The Pushpabhadra Copper Plate Inscriptions of Dharmapala :

24)The Kamauli Copper Plate Inscription of Vaidyadeva:

25)Tezpur or the Assam Copper Plate Inscriptions of Vallabhadeva :

26)The Sankara-Narayana Stone Sculpture Inscription:

27)The Stone Inscription From Bishnupur,Golaghat:

28)A Fragmentary Copper Plate Inscription from Nagaon:

29)The Harihara Stone Image Inscription :

This inscription,belonging to the eight century,mentions the name of Maharajadhiaraja Sri

31)The Kanaibarashi-bowa Rock Inscription,North Guwahati:

32)The Narakasur Pahar Bronze Plaque Inscription:

33)The Narakasur Pahar Bronze Plaque Inscription:

34)The Inscribed Sun Image in the Assam State Museum:

35)The Stone Inscription of Samudrapala,Ambari,Guwahati:

36)Nilacala Plates of king Madhava:

37)The Rautkuchi Copper-Plate Grant of Parushottama Das Saka 1251(A.D.1329)

A brief description of some of these are given below:

Pratimanagar: Situated near Burha-Burhi-Nepaligaon, about 15 km from Chapakhowa in the Sadiya

Barhapjan ruins,Tinsukia : Locally known as Rajgarh or Ahomgarh,within the Sukanguri T.E.and

Biswanath : Situated at the confluence of the Brahmaputra and the Burhidihing