Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Vector space
A real vector space is a set V endowed with operations called
addition and scalar multiplication,
V × V → V , (x, y ) 7→ x + y , R × V → V , (λ, x) 7→ λx, such
that there exists an element 0 ∈ V called the zero vector, and for
each x ∈ V there exists an additive inverse −x ∈ V , and
∀ x, y , z ∈ V and ∀ λ, µ ∈ R the following properties hold:
(i) x + 0 = x, (additive identity)
(ii) x + (−x) = 0, (additive inverse)
(iii) x + y = y + x, (symmetry)
(iv) x + (y + z) = (x + y ) + z, (associativity)
(v) 1x = x, (multiplicative identity)
(vi) λ(µx) = (λµ)x, (compatibility)
(vii) λ(x + y ) = λx + λy , (distributivity)
(viii) (λ + µ)x = λx + µx, (distributivity)
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Examples
The elements of V are called vectors. If the field of scalars R is
replaced with C one obtains instead a complex vector space.
I (R, +, ·), the set of real numbers R endowed with the usual
addition and multiplication is a real vector space.
I More generally,
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Subspaces
Let V be a vector space. A non-empty subset W ⊂ V is a
subspace of V if it is closed under linear operations, i.e.,
W ⊂ V subspace of V ⇔ λx + µy ∈ W ∀ x, y ∈ W and ∀µ, λ ∈ R (C)
In particular, 0 ∈ W , and W is itself a vector space (the axioms
for a vector space follow from those of V ).
I In any vector space, {0} (the set consisting only of the zero
element) is a subspace, since λ0 + µ0 = 0 ∈ {0} for all
scalars λ, µ.
I Consider R = {(x, 0, 0) : x ∈ R} as a subset of
R3 = {(x, y , z) : x, y , z ∈ R}.
Then R is a subspace of R3 , since it is non-empty and
λ(x1 , 0, 0) + µ(x2 , 0, 0) = (λx1 + µx2 , 0, 0) ∈ R ⊂ R3 .
I Q2: a) give another example of a subspace of R3 , b) give an
example of a subset of R3 that is not a subspace.
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Examples of subspaces
I Q3: give an example of a proper subspace of
Mn×m , l∞ , C (I , R)
I Similarly, the set of real-valued continuous functions on R
which vanish on some set S ⊂ R is a subspace of C (R, R):
since
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Examples of linear spans
I Let x = (1, 0), y = (2, 0) and z = (1, 1) be vectors in R2 .
Then
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Linear dependence
Q4: Find three linear dependent vectors such that each pair is
linearly independent.
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Examples of linear independent sets
I The vectors x = (1, 0), y = (2, 0) and z = (1, 1) are linearly
dependent in R2 , since
2 1
=2 .
0 0
Q5: Give some examples of Hamel bases, can you find an infinite
example?
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Examples of bases
I {e1 , . . . , en }, with
ej = (0, . . . , 1
|{z} , 0 . . .)
jth position
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Dimension
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Isomorphism of vector spaces
Two vector spaces which allow for such a mapping are called
isomorphic, and we write
V ∼
= U ⇔ ∃ isomorphism T : V → U.
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Isomorphism examples
I Regarded as a real vector space, the space Cn of complex
n-tuples, z = (z1 , . . . , zn ), z1 , . . . , zn ∈ C is isomorphic to
Euclidean space R2n via the isomorphism
z = (x1 + iy1 , . . . , xn + iyn ) 7→ (x, y ) = (x1 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , yn ).
I Q6: Write down bases for C 2 over C and over R.
I The set of polynomials with real coefficients of degree at most
n, Pn (R), is isomorphic to Rn+1 . The mapping
T : Pn (R) → Rn+1 , an x n + . . . + a1 x + a0 7→ (a0 , a1 , . . . , an )
is both bijective and linear,
n
X
n+1
∀ (a0 , . . . , an ) ∈ R ∃! p(x) = ak x k ∈ Pn (R),
k=0
Xn n
X n
X
k k k
T λ ak x + µ bk x =T (λak + µbk )x
k=0 k=0 k=0
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Finite-dimensional vector spaces
If V is a real vector space with a finite basis {e1 , . . . , en } then
V ∼= Rn .
By the definition of a basis, any x ∈ V has a unique representation
n
X
x= aj ej .
j=1
Let T : V → Rn
be P
the mapping defined
P by Tx = (a1 , . . . , an ).
T is linear: if x = aj ej and y = bj ej ,
T (λx + µy ) = (λa1 + µb1 , . . . , λan + µbn )
= λ(a1 , . . . , an ) + µ(b1 , . . . , bn ) = λTx + µTy ,
surjective: for any (a1 , . . . , an ) ∈ Rn there exists
T is P
x = nj=1 aj ej ; Tx = (a1 , . . . , an )
T is injective:
Tx = Ty ⇐⇒ ∀j : aj = bj =⇒ x = y.
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Normed space
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Examples of normed spaces
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Further examples of Normed spaces
The space of real- (or complex-) valued bounded and continuous
functions on an interval (open or closed), BC (I , R), becomes a
normed vector space when endowed with the supremum norm
kf k∞ = sup |f (x)|.
x∈I
N.b. Metric spaces need not be vector spaces. The set of positive
real numbers, R+ = (0, ∞), with the metric given by
d(x, y ) := |x − y | is a metric space, but it is not a linear space.
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Equivalence of norms
Two norms k · k1 and k · k2 on a vector space X are said to be
equivalent if there exists a number c ∈ R such that
c −1 kxk1 ≤ kxk2 ≤ ckxk1 for all x ∈ X.
Hence
n−1 kxkl∞ ≤ kxkl1 ≤ nkxkl∞ for x = (x1 , . . . , xn ).
I On a finite-dimensional vector space, any two norms are
equivalent. In particular, any norm on Rn is equivalent to the
Euclidean norm.[PROOF]
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Unit balls
The unit ball may look quite different depending on the underlying
metric/norm. The following illustration captures this in the case of
the lp -norm on R2 . Homogeneity and the triangle inequality
however imply that a ball in any metric given by a norm will always
be a convex set in the underlying space.
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Banach space
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
Hamel and Schauder basis
PN
meaning that limN→∞ kx − j=1 xj ej k = 0. The scalars xj are the
coordinates of x.
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
A basis for the sequence spaces
Let ej = (0, . . . , 1, 0 . . .). Then {ej }∞
j=1 is a (Schauder) basis for lp ,
1 ≤ p < ∞.
Approximation property:
X ∞ X∞
p
x = {xj }j∈N ∈ lp ⇒ |xj | < ∞ ⇒ |xj |p → 0 as N → ∞.
j=1 N+1
N
X
xj ej − x
p = k(x1 , . . . , xN , 0, . . .) − (x1 , . . . , xN , xN+1 , . . .)kp
j=1
∞
X 1/p
= |xj |p → 0 as N → ∞.
N+1
Uniqueness of coordinates:
∞
X ∞
X N
X
xj ej = yj ej ⇔ lim |xj − yj |p = 0 ⇒ xj = yj , for all j ∈ N.
N→∞
j=1 j=1 j=1
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10
This week summary, Sections 3.1-3.4 in Lecture notes
Eugenia Malinnikova, NTNU, Institutt for matematiske fag TMA4145 Linear methods, Lectures 9&10