CHAPTER 2 ratio of one- to-two.

This proportion of silicon

LESSON 5: EARTH MATERIALS AND to oxygen is true for any sample of pure quartz,
regardless of its origin.
RESOURCES
 Mineral is any naturally occurring inorganic
 Rock is any solid that consists of an
solid that possesses an orderly crystalline
aggregate of minerals, pieces of pre-existing
structure and can be represented by a
rocks, or a mass of mineral-like matter such
chemical formula.
as natural glass. Some rocks are composed
almost entirely of one mineral.
1. Naturally Occurring
- Minerals form by natural, geologic processes.
HOW DO WE CLASSIFY MINERALS?
Synthetic materials, meaning those produced in
a laboratory or by human intervention, are not
 Physical Properties
considered minerals.
1. Color
2. Solid Substance
- It is the most evident characteristic and usually
- Only crystalline substances that are solid at
the first property used to identify minerals.
temperatures encountered at Earth’s surface
- Least reliable means of identifying minerals
are considered minerals.
2. Streak
- Ice fits this criterion and is considered a
-Color of the mineral in powder form
mineral, whereas liquid water and water vapor
-Usually, the mineral is rubbed on a streak plate
do not.
(a piece of unglazed porcelain) to determine its
- The exception is mercury, which is found in its
color.
liquid form in nature.
-Not all minerals produce a streak when rubbed
across a streak plate. For example, the mineral
3. Orderly Crystalline Structure
quartz is harder than a porcelain streak plate.
- Minerals are a crystalline substance, which
Therefore, no streak is observed using this
means their atoms are arranged in an orderly,
method.
repetitive manner.
3. Hardness
- This orderly packing of atoms is reflected in
-The mineral’s resistance to scratching or
the regularly shaped objects called crystals.
Abrasion
- Some naturally occurring solids, such as
-To quantify the hardness of mineral, the Mohs
volcanic glass (obsidian), lack a repetitive
scale is used. The harder the mineral, the less
atomic structure and are not considered
prone it is to scratches.
minerals.
WHAT ARE THE PROS AND CONS USING THE
4. Inorganic
MOHS SCALE OF HARDNESS?
- Inorganic crystalline solids, such as ordinary
table salt (halite), that are found naturally in the
ground are considered minerals.
- Organic compounds, on the other hand, are
generally not. Sugar, a crystalline solid like salt
but which comes from sugarcane or sugar
beets, is a common example of organic
compound.
-Many marine animals secrete inorganic
compounds, such as calcium carbonate (calcite),
in the form of shells and coral reefs. If these 4. Cleavage
materials are buried and become part of the -Breakage of minerals may take place in weak
rock record, they are considered minerals by parts of the crystalline structure. The plane of
geologists. weak bonding or the breakage along the
crystalline structure where a mineral is likely to
5. Can be represented by chemical formula break smoothly is known as cleavage.
- Most minerals are chemical compounds 5. Fracture
having compositions that can be expressed by a - A mineral fractures when it breaks in a
chemical formula. direction where there is no cleavage. The
mineral is then broken or crushed.
- For example, the common mineral quartz has
the formula SiO2, which indicates that quartz
consists of silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) atoms in a
6. Crystal shape or habit
- Shape of a crystal or aggregate of crystals, this
is a unique arrangement of atoms in a crystal.
- Minerals that do not have crystalline structure
are called amorphous crystals, and lenses with
extremely high magnification are needed to
validate this.
7. The ability to transmit light
- Indicates the extent of light that can pass
through the mineral.
-When no light is transmitted, the mineral is
described as opaque. When light but not an
image is transmitted through a mineral, it is said
to be translucent. When both light and an
image are visible through the sample, the
mineral is described as transparent.
8. Magnetism
- Indicates the ability of mineral to attract or
repel other minerals.
9. Tenacity
- Tenacity is the mineral’s ability to hold its
particles together or the mineral’s level of
resistance to stress such as bending, breaking,
crushing, or tearing.
- Tenacity indicates if a mineral is brittle, elastic,
malleable, etc.
10. Luster
- The appearance or quality of light reflected
from the surface of a mineral is known as luster.
- Luster can be any of the following:
a. metallic, where the mineral is opaque and
behaves like a metal when reflecting light
b. submetallic, where the mineral is opaque,
dull, and dark colored
c. nonmetallic, where the mineral does not
reflect light like a metal
11. Odor
- Odor is a distinct smell of a mineral that is
usually released from a chemical reaction
manifested when the mineral is subjected to
water, heat, air, or friction.
- For example, Sulphur smells like what is
emitted when lighting a match. The strength of
this smell increases when heated or struck,
giving off an odor similar to rotten eggs.
11. Specific Gravity
- Specific gravity is a measure of density of the
mineral.
- It determines how heavy the mineral is by its
weight to water.
- It is used when two minerals have the same
size and color.
 Chemical Properties
Silicate Class
- It is the largest group containing silicon and
oxygen with some aluminum, magnesium, iron,
and calcium.
- Silicate class is divided into mafic (with
magnesium) and felsic (with feldspar).
Carbonate Class
- Carbonate class is mostly found deposited in
marine environments.
- They have been formed from the shells of
dead plankton and other marine organisms.
Sulphate Class
- Sulphate class is found in areas with high
evaporation rate, and where salty waters slowly
evaporate.
- During this process, the formation of sulphates
and halides in water-sediment interface occurs.
Halide Class
- Halide class contains natural salts and includes
fluorite, halite, sylvite, and ammoniac
components.
- Halide minerals are usually found in lakes,
ponds,, and other landlocked seas.
Oxide Class
- Oxide class is perhaps the most important
class, at least in human civilization, as this
contains the metals considered to be valuable.
Sulphide Class
- Sulphide class minerals have important metals,
such as copper, lead, and silver, which are
considered economically significant in the
modern civilization of man.
- Some of these are found in electrical wires,
industrial materials and other things that are
needed in construction and building of
structures.
Phosphate Class
-Phosphate class contains minerals with
phosphorus, antimony, arsenic, or vanadium.
- The phosphate class is considered an
important biological mineral found in the teeth
and bones of many animals.
Element Class
- Element class contains pure native elements.
-This class has minerals, which are usually
metals, in naturally pure form but semimetals
like bismuth, arsenic, and antimony also belong
in this class.
= Cave of Crystals is a cave connected to Naica
Mine in Chihuahua, Mexico. The main chamber
contains giant gypsum crystals, some of the
largest natural crystals ever found.
SUMMARY
- A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic
solid. It has a definite composition and crystal
structure.
- The atoms in minerals are arranged in regular,
repeating patterns. These patterns are
responsible for a mineral’s physical properties.
- Minerals are divided into groups. The groups
are based on their chemical composition.
- Silicates are the most common minerals.
- The chemical feature of each groups is: native
elements – only one element; silicates – silica
tetrahedron; phosphates – phosphate
tetrahedron; carbonates – one carbon atom
with three oxygen atoms; halides – a halogen
bonded with a metallic atom; oxides – a metal
combined with oxygen; sulfates –sulfur and
oxygen; sulfides – metal with sulfur, no oxygen.
LESSON 6: THREE TYPES OF
ROCK
 IGNEOUS ROCKS
- Igneous from the Latin word ignis which
means “fire”
- formed from the solidification of molten rock
material
- The process of solidification involves the
formation of crystalline solids called minerals.
- Rate of cooling determines the texture of the
rock.
 INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS
(PLUTONIC)
-from solidified magma underneath the earth
- Gradual lowering of temperature (slow
cooling)
- Coarse-grained crystals (large crystals)
 EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS
(VOLCANIC)
- from solidified lava
- fast rate of cooling
- fine-grained crystal (small crystals)
- vesicular
= Igneous rocks are also classified according to
silica content and relative amounts of K, Na, Fe,
Mg and Ca. They can be classified as felsic,
intermediate, mafic and ultramafic, practically
based on presence of light and dark colored
minerals.
- felsic: granitic: >65% silica, generally light-
colored
- intermediate: andesitic:56-65% silica,
generally medium colored (medium gray)
- mafic: basaltic: 45-55% silica, usually dark
colored
- ultramafic: <45% silica, generally very dark
colored
 USE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
- Granite, an example of an igneous rocks, is
used for flooring or as table top, as well as walls
in modern houses.
- Other uses of igneous rocks include pumice (as
an ingredient in making lava soaps), basalt, and
gabbro (both as aggregate material for concretes
and metals).\
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
- Rocks that form through the accumulation,
compaction, and cementation of sediments.
- Sedimentary rocks form at surface or near
surface conditions.
SEDIMENTS
- Sediments are small fragments of rocks and
minerals. Pebbles, sand, silt, and clay are
examples of sediments.
- Sedimentary rocks may include fossils. Fossils
are materials left behind by once-living
organisms. Fossils can be pieces of the
organism, like bones. They can also be traces of
the organism, like footprints.
-Size: Clay-Silt-Sand-Pebble-Cobble-Boulder
 CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY
- Clastic rocks are commonly classified based on
particle size
- The presence of variable grain sizes (including
matrix and cement) is indicative of sedimentary
differentiation which is actually a function of
processes happening in different sedimentary
environments.
 NON-CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY
- evaporation and precipitation from solution or
lithification of organic matter
- classified as evaporites (halite, gypsum and
dolostone), precipitates (limestone) and
bioclastics (coal, coquina).

 USE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
- Most sedimentary rocks are found in beaches,
rivers, and oceans where sand, mud, and other
type of sediments are present. It preserves or
“record” the kind of environment that existed
while they were being formed.
- Some scientists use sedimentary rocks to learn
about the changes in climate and environment in
Earth’s history.
- Fossils (or remains of organisms that had lived
millions of years ago) are also preserved in
sedimentary rocks.
- Examples of sedimentary rocks are sandstones,
limestone, conglomerates, and shales, which are
all used in construction materials, bricks, and
cements.
- Coal which is a fossil fuel used for energy
production.
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
- comes from the Greek to "change form," is
formed by applying great pressure and
temperature to pre-existing rocks (igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks) converting
it into a new distinct type of rock
- Metamorphism can involve changes in the
physical and chemical properties of rocks in
response to heat, pressure, and/or chemically
active fluids.
CONTACT METAMORPHISM
- heat and reactive fluids as main factors
- occurs when a pre-existing rock gets in contact
with magma which is the source of heat and
magmatic fluids where metamorphic alterations
and transformations occur around the contact of
the intruding magma and the rock layers.
REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
- pressure as main factor
- occurs in areas that have undergone
considerable amount of mechanical deformation
and chemical recrystallization during orogenic
event which are commonly associated with
mountain belts
-occurs in a regional/large scale
 USE OFMETAMORPHIC ROCKS
- Metamorphic rocks are commonly used for
building materials, artwork, and decoration and
as component of toothpaste, plastics, and paper.
SUMMARY
- Igneous rocks form from cooled magma or
lava.
- Magma cools to form igneous rocks. Two
factors determine what type of rock forms. The
composition of the magma determines if the
rock is mafic, felsic, or intermediate. The rate
the magma cools determines the texture of the
rock.
- Sedimentary rocks form from sediments that
are cemented and compacted.
- Sediments are small fragments of minerals,
rocks, or fossils. Sediments range in size from
tiny bits of silt or clay to enormous boulders.
Sediments are deposited in many different
environments.
- Metamorphic rocks form as an existing rock is
altered by high temperature or pressure
- Any type of rock—igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic— can become a metamorphic
rock.
- Contact metamorphism occurs when a rock is
altered by heat from a nearby magma. Regional
metamorphism occurs over a large area when a
rock is buried or compressed.
LESSON 7: MINERAL DEPOSITS
Mineral Occurrence - concentration of a
mineral that is of scientific or technical
interest
Mineral Deposit - mineral occurrence of
sufficient size and grade or concentration to
enable extraction under the most favorable
conditions
Ore Deposit - mineral deposit that has been
tested and known to be economically
profitable to mine.
Aggregate - rock or mineral material used as
filler in cement, asphalt, plaster, etc. ; generally
used to describe nonmetallic deposits
Ore - naturally occurring material from which
a mineral or minerals of economic value can
be extracted.
 Most rocks of the Earth's crust contain
metals and other elements but at very low
concentrations
 The average concentration of Gold in rocks
of the Earth's crust is about 0 005 ppm (parts
per million) which is roughly 5 grams of
gold for every 1000 tons of rock
 Extracting Gold at this concentration is not
economic (the cost of mining will be too
high for the expected profit) Fortunately,
there are naturally occurring processes
(geologic processes) that can concentrate
minerals and elements in rocks of a
particular area
MINERAL RESOURCES CAN BE
DIVIDED INTO TWO GROUPS
1. Metallic mineral resources - gold, iron,
silver, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, and
aluminum
2. Nonmetallic resources - coal, clay, salt,
marble, talc, fluorite
MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS
- valuable substances are concentrated within an
igneous body through magmatic processes such
as crystal
fractionation, partial melting and crystal settling
- magmatic processes can concentrate the ore
minerals that contain valuable substances
- Crystal settling: as magma cools down, heavier
minerals tend to crystallize early and settle at the
lower portion of the magma chamber
- From a basaltic magma, chromite (FeCr2O4),
magnetite (Fe3O4) and platinum (Pt) can be
concentrated through crystal settling
- Fractional crystallization: the residual melt
contains high percentage of water that are
favorable for the formation of pegmatites.
Pegmatites are enriched in Lithium, Gold,
Boron, rare elements and some other heavy
metals
HYDROTHERMAL ORE DEPOSITS
- concentration of valuable substances by hot
aqueous (water rich) fluids flowing through
fractures and pore spaces in rocks
- Hydrothermal solutions - are hot, residual
watery fluids derived during the later stages
of magma crystallization and may contain
large amount of dissolved metals.
SEDIMENTARY ORE DEPOSITS
- Some valuable substances are concentrated by
chemical precipitation coming from lakes or
seawater
- Evaporite Deposits: As most of the water
evaporates, the dissolved substances become
more concentrated in the residual water and
would eventually precipitate.
- Halite (NaCl), gypsum (CaSO4∙2H20), borax
(used in soap) and sylvite ( KCl , from which K
is extracted for fertilizers) are examples of
minerals deposited through this process.
- Iron Formation: These deposits are made up
of repetitive thin layers of iron rich chert and
several other iron bearing minerals such as
hematite and magnetite.
- Iron formations appear to be evaporite type
deposits and are mostly formed in basins within
continental crust during the Proterozoic (2
billion years or older).
PLACER ORE DEPOSITS
- Deposits formed by the concentration of
valuable substances through specific gravity
separation during sedimentary processes.
- Usually aided by flowing surface waters either
in streams or along coastlines.
- Concentration would be according to the
specific gravity of substances, wherein the heavy
minerals are mechanically concentrated by water
currents and the less dense particles remain
suspended and are carried further downstream.
RESIDUAL ORE DEPOSITS
- A type of deposit that results from the
accumulation of valuable materials through
chemical weathering processes.
- During the process, the volume of the original
rock is greatly reduced by leaching
- Important factors for the formation of residual
deposit include parent rock composition, climate
(tropical and sub-tropical: must be favorable for
chemical decay) and relief (must not be high to
allow accumulation)
DIFFERENT MINERALS ARE
IMPORTANT FOR DIFFERENT
PURPOSES:
- household items - travels
- construction - recreation
- energy sources - food processing
- communication - multivitamins
LESSON 9: ENERGY RESOURCES
DIFFERENT SOURCES OF ENERGY
- Non-renewable Sources - coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear
energy
- Renewable Sources - solar, wind, hydroelectric,
biomass and geothermal
USE OF ENERGY
- agricultural - trsnsportation
- residential - commercial
- industrial
 NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY
- Nonrenewable sources of energy refer to fossil fuels
(oil, natural gas, and coal) and nuclear energy.
- formed hundreds of millions of years ago by the action
of heat from Earth’s core and the pressure from rocks
and soil on the energy rich remains or decaying plants
and animals
- provides over 80% of the energy used in the world
COAL - Coal provides 40 percent of the world’s electricity. It
- a sedimentary rock composed predominantly of solid produces 39 percent of global CO ₂ emissions. It kills
organic materials with a greater or lesser proportion of thousands a year in mines, many more with polluted air.
mineral matter OIL/PETROLEUM
- has the largest reserve and is often the cheapest of - The word petroleum comes from the Latin words petra
the fuel options (rock) and oleum (oil), and so literally means rock oil.
- formed by hydrocarbons with the addition of certain
other substances, primarily Sulphur
- The oil does not exist as a liquid mass but as a
concentration of oil within sandstone pores.
- Petroleum is usually found in rock layers folded by
geologic forces.
- In 1859 Edwin Drake sank the first known oil well, this
was in Pennsylvania
NATURAL GAS
DIFFERENT TYPES OF COAL - a fossil fuel formed when layers of buried plants and
animals are exposed to intense heat and pressure over
thousands of years
- It is one of the cleanest, safest, and most useful of all
energy sources
- It is colorless, shapeless, and odorless in its pure form.
The most common example of natural gas is methane.

 RENEWABLE ENERGY

- Renewable energy is energy generated from natural

sources such as sunlight, wind, water, waves, tides,
various forms of biomass, and geothermal heat.
- also known as alternative or clean energy sources
- can be replenished faster than fossil fuels and have a
lower environmental impact

SOLAR ENERGY
- is radiant light and heat from the sun harnessed using
a range of technologies such as solar heating, solar
PEAT
photovoltaics, etc.
- Peat consists of partially decomposed vegetation.
- produces less than one tenth of one percent of global
Today it is used only in a few regions, such as Ireland.
energy demand
LIGNITE COAL
WIND
Lignite is 65 to 70% carbon and 63 to 53% volatile
- Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the
matters. It is a low grade fuel with a high moisture
atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth's
content that is used in industrial boilers.
surface, and rotation of the earth
SUB-BITUMINOUS
- Wind flow patterns are modified by the earth's terrain,
- Sub bituminous coal is 70 to 76% carbon and 53 to
bodies of water, and vegetative cover.
42% volatile matter. It is burned in industrial boilers.
HYDROPOWER
BITUMINOUS COAL
- electricity generated using the energy of moving water
- Bituminous coal contains 70 to 86% carbon and 46 to
- The first hydroelectric power plant was built at Niagara
31% volatile matter. It is used to make coke, used in
Falls in 1879.
metallurgy.
- provides almost one fifth of the world's electricity
ANTHRACITE COAL
- The Agus VI Hydroelectric Power Plant is powered by
- Anthracite is 86 to 98% pure carbon and 8 to 3%
Maria Cristina Falls in Iligan City, Lanao del Norte,
volatile matter. It is an excellent fuel that is still used to
Mindanao
heat homes.
BIOMASS
COAL
- is biological material derived from living, or recently
- It’s the dirtiest of fossil fuels. We burn eight billion tons
living organisms
of it a year, with growing consequences.
- is often used to mean plant based material, but
biomass can equally apply to both animal and vegetable - Sustainable energy comes from resources
that can serve the needs of the present
derived material. without jeopardizing the needs of other
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY communities or the future users.
- Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth.
- The world’s first geothermal power plant was
constructed in 1904 in Larderello , Italy, and it still
continues to generate power to this day
- Next to the United States, the Philippines is the second
largest producer of geothermal power and the largest
consumer of electricity from geothermal sources in the
world.

- Sustainable energy includes

hydroelectricity, solar power, geothermal
energy, and wind power.
- They use technologies that improve energy
efficiency. While there are drawbacks in the
use of these renewable resources, their
renewability
far outweighs these minimal and resolvable
concerns.

FOSSILS FUELS (NON-RENEWABLE)

LESSON 10: ENVIRONMENTAL
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
IMPACT OF ENERGY RESOURCES Carbon emissions
Surface disturbance and erosion
MANAGEMENT SCHEMES
-Develop and use technology to
reduce carbon content of fossil fuel
before combustion.
-Use natural gas instead of coal as
this has lower carbon content.
-Avoid unstable slopes that can
cause instability. If feasible, use
special construction techniques in
areas of steep slopes or soils prone
to erosion.
-If access roads need to be created,
develop, and follow the natural
topography of the land.
-Clean and maintain catch basins,
drainage ditches, and culverts
regularly.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SCHEMES

IMPACT
Dust pollution -Cover all open areas.
-Vegetate most of the open grounds to avoid
erosion and dispersion of dust particles in the
air.
Surface disturbance -Same mitigation measures as fossil fuels.
and erosion
Noise pollution -Locate all noisy equipment and facilities as
far as possible from nearby residences and
other sensitive receptors.
-Install or use low-noise systems such as
ventilation systems, pumps, generators,
compressors, and fans.
-Operate noisy equipment during daytime
only.

HYDROELECTRIC POWER
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SCHEMES
IMPACT
Alteration of natural -Create “fish passage” that direct
river flow patterns organisms away from turbines and
stressing fish and other other intricate systems of the
aquatic organisms hydropower plant.
Changes in water -Install aeration systems in the dam to
quality (such as levels control or regulate temperature and
of dissolved oxygen, oxygen levels prior to discharge to
temperature, and silt) water systems.
that may be harmful to -Silt can be captured by small-scale
organism weirs or dikes that can be dredged.
-Create a flood bypass channeling
flood waters away from the dam.
- The Philippines, through the Department
of Energy, will work on ensuring the
implementation of the following plans and
programs to contribute to the attainment of
these broad policy and program frameworks
These plans and programs are embodied
in DOE's Energy Reform Agenda ERA).
A. POWER SECTOR DEVELOPMENT
- provide the platform to put in place long
term reliable power supply, improve the
country’s transmission and distribution
systems and attain nationwide
electrification
- The government will concentrate its efforts
on the completion of committed power
projects, as well as attract local and foreign
investors to venture into indicative and
potential power projects to include
electrification projects.
B. FUELLING SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT
PROGRAM
- The energy sector is mainly concerned on
other alternative options to fuel the
transport sector.
- seeks to convert public and private
vehicles from diesel and gasoline to
compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) and electric power
- promotion of electric vehicles for public
transport and the increase in biofuels
blends to 20.0 percent.
- The government hopes to reduce the
carbon footprint from road transport in the
Philippines. It has been estimated that
road transportation accounts for around
50.0 percent of the total air pollutants in
the country.
C. INDIGENOUS ENERGY
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
- Even with the dawning of renewable
energy development , the DOE recognizes
the fact that the country will remain
dependent on conventional fuels for many
years to come to address its growing energy
requirements.
- The Plan programs the conduct of energy
contracting rounds as an effective strategy
to bring in critical investments for the
exploration, development and production of
local energy resources
D. NATIONAL RENEWABLE ENERGY
PLAN
- The Renewable Energy Act was passed in
2008 to fully harness the country’s
renewable energy potential such as
geothermal, hydro , wind , solar, biomass
and ocean. To guide the full implementation
of the law, the National Renewable Energy
Program (NREP) was launched on 14 June
2011 by President Aquino.
- The PEP (Philippine Energy Plan) includes
the targets set under the NREP to
strengthen its energy security plan .
Specifically , the NREP seeks to increase
the country’s renewable energy based
capacity by 2030
E. ENERGY EFFICIENCY CONSERVATION
PROGRAM
- one of the centerpiece strategies in
pursuing energy security of the country and
looks into it as a major solution to the
energy challenges of the future
- To lay the groundwork for a national
energy efficiency plan, the PEP recognizes
the need for an energy conservation law as
a critical measure in managing the
country’s energy demand.
- aims to incorporate policies and measures
to develop local energy auditors and energy
managers , establish the ESCO industry,
encourage the development of energy
efficient technologies.
F. NATURAL GAS MASTER PLAN
- Master Plan Study for the Development of
the Natural Gas Industry in the Philippines
- evaluation of the natural gas
infrastructure requirements in the Visayas
and Mindanao regions in view of the DOE’s
plan to implement a Natural Gas
Infrastructure Development Plan in these
regions.
- The Masterplan, with technical assistance
from Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA) and World Bank, evaluates
the opportunities , critical infrastructures
and required investments for the
development of the natural gas industry.
LESSON 11: WATER RESOURCES
- Water is a compound, made of two atoms of
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen bonded
together.
- Water is not the universal solvent but it is
capable of dissolving nutrients and many
substances in the planet.
- Without water, life could probably not even
exist on Earth.
- Forms: solid, liquid, gas
WATER FOR HUMAN USE MAY COME FROM
THE FOLLOWING SOURCES:
RIVERS
- Rivers that are considered more useful are
those that are flowing so that replenishment is
apparent.
- River water usually comes from larger
freshwater sources upslope, water from
underground, snow, or from rainfall.
- The flow of a river fluctuates over time. The
river’s water discharge is crucial in determining if
it can be a primary source of water for
community use.
RESERVOIRS OR LAKES
- These water sources usually are surface run
offs and may be groundwater seepage, or from
rivers or rainfall that have accumulated in a low
area.
- If reservoirs are to be used on a larger scale,
the amount lost due to evaporation or seepage
should be considered aside from the average
volume of water in the lake.
GROUNDWATER
- Groundwater is found beneath Earth’s surface.
It is pumped up to the surface before it can be
used. Pumping groundwater from wells is
common all over the world
- Groundwater may be found in coastal plains as
well. The quality of water coming from these
areas is brackish or saline due to its proximity to
the sea. Inland groundwater may also be
brackish in places where the soil contains much
soluble salts.
- The water table is the top of an aquifer below
which is water and above is rock or soil mixed
with air.
- Aquifers are underground areas of sediment
or rock that hold groundwater. An aquifer needs
good porosity and permeability. People dig or
drill wells to access groundwater.
- Evaporation and infiltration naturally filter
and purify water as it travels to the aquifer.
Water treatment performed at sewage treatment
plants mimics natural processes.
DIFF. ACTIVITES THAT AFFECTS THE
QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY OF WATER
FOR HUMAN USE
-Agricultural development
-Irrigation system
- Use of agricultural chemicals
- Urban and industrial development
- Drainage of the land surface
- Modifications of river valleys
- Removal of natural vegetation
- Modifications of atmosphere
- Global warming
HOW TO CONSERVE AND PROTECT
SUMMARY
- Although Earth's surface is mostly water covered,
only 3% is freshwater.
- Water is a simple chemical compound. It exists on
Earth in all three states of matter: liquid, gas, and
solid. As a gas, water is called water vapor. As a
solid, water is called ice.
- Oceans of salt water cover much of Earth’s surface.
- Freshwater is water that contains little or no salt.
Most of Earth’s freshwater is frozen in ice caps and
glaciers.
LESSON 12: SOIL RESOURCES  Deforestration
- One of the most important barriers to
 Soil is the thin top layer of Earth’s erosion is plant life, as long lived trees and
crust. It consists of minerals, organic other species put down roots that literally
material, organisms, water, and air. help hold the soil together.
- Logging kills these plants, and even if the
operation plants new trees to replace the old
ones, the younger plants require years to
put down the kind of root system that once
protected the soil.
 Mining
- Mining operations are major contributors
to erosion, especially on a local level
- Many mining techniques involve shifting
large amounts of earth, such as strip mining
LAYERS OF SOIL
or mountaintop removal. These operations
leave large amounts of loose soil exposed to
- Horizon O: A dark layer composed of
the elements, and they often require large
decaying plant matter ( like leaves ) and
amounts of water, which can exacerbate the
humus that is only a few centimeters thick.
erosion process.
- Horizon A: A dark layer called topsoil
 Development and Expansion
that is composed of more humus and small
- Urban and suburban development can also
pieces of rock. It is home to many animals.
exacerbate erosion, especially if the
For example , around 1 billion small and
developers ignore the natural state of the
microscopic animals live in one cubic meter
land.
of topsoil. Minerals dissolve from this layer
- Construction of a building often begins by
in a process called leaching
clearing the area of any plants or other
- Horizon B: A layer of clay and small rocks
natural defenses against soil erosion.
called subsoil where dissolved minerals
- In addition, some landscapers replace
from Horizon A collect. The color of this
natural ground cover with plant species
layer depends on the rock and mineral types
unsuited to the climate, and these plants
in the soil.
may not be as effective at preventing
- Horizon C: A layer of weathered rock
erosion.
pieces and minerals.
 Recreational Activities
- Horizon D: Solid rock, called bedrock,
- Humans also cause erosion through
which formed over time. This layer cannot
recreational activities, like hiking and riding
support plant life.
off road vehicles.
- An even greater amount of erosion occurs
HUMAN ACTIVITIES
when people drive off road vehicles over an
area. The area eventually develops bare
 Agricultural Depletion
spots where no plants can grow. Erosion
-Farming can degrade the topsoil and lead
becomes a serious problem in these areas.
to an increase in erosion.
- To plant a field, a farmer must first till the
soil, breaking it up and loosening it so the
new plants can take root. Once the plants
are harvested, the loose soil remains and
wind or rain can easily wash it away.
- Rotating the crops planted can help return
nutrients to the soil to prevent its
degradation.
 Overgrazing Animals
- Grazing animals are animals that live on
large areas of grassland. They wander over
the area, eat grasses and shrubs. They can
remove large amounts of the plant cover for
an area.
- If too many animals graze the same land
area, once the tips of grasses and shrubs
have been eaten, they will use their hooves
to pull plants out by their roots
SOIL CONSERVATION PRACTICES
- Enhance organic matter content of soils
- Avoid excessive tillage
- Apply proper pest management
- Prevent soil compaction
- Maintain a ground cover
SUMMARY
- Soil erosion is a natural process that has
been greatly accelerated by human
activities.
- Activities that accelerate erosion include
agriculture, grazing, logging, mining,
development, and recreation
- Soil is an important natural resource and
should be protected as any natural resource
- Farming methods that can reduce soil
erosion include terracing, contour cropping,
windbreaks, and no till planting.
- Many human actions make it easier for
wind and water to carry away soil. They
include plowing, logging, construction, and
even some types of recreation.
- Many practices can be adopted to slow
down or prevent soil erosion.
LESSON 13: HUMAN ACTIVTIY
AND ENVIRONMENT
- Payatas is one of the many garbage
dumpsite in Metro Manila.
- On the 10th of July 2000, a landslide of garbage
killed 218 people living on the dumpsite with
300 people still missing. The dumpsite covers an
area of about 13 hectares.
- Waste disposal has always been a big problem
for the Philippines.
- It is estimated that, in the next 30 years, Metro
Manila alone will generate approximately 230
million cubic meters of solid waste enough to fill
the country’s largest shopping mall over 175
times (Asian Development Bank, 2004).
METRO MANILA
SOURCES OF WASTES
 Industrial Waste
- Waste released from manufacturing
plants, such as chemical plants, cement
production, textile industries, metallurgical
plants, textile, food processing, power plants,
etc.
 Agricultural Waste
- Excess use of fertilizers and pesticides can
cause land and water pollution.
- Rice paddies release methane to the
atmosphere.
- Excess excrement from poultry and other
livestock can cause eutrophication of bodies
of water.
 Mining Waste
- Waste generated from the exploitation of
mineral resources.
- Overburden material - ground (soil and
rock) that is removed to extract the mineral
deposit Release of overburden material to the
environment as a result of improper
management can cause siltation of bodies of
water
- Acid mine drainage - water that has come to
contact with oxidized rock or overburden that
contains sulphide material ( zinc, copper, and
lead)
- When acid mine drainage is not properly
managed, it can find its way into waterways
and the ground water
- High pH waters can be detrimental to plant
and animal life
 Biomedical Waste
- Waste generated by hospitals and other
health care institutions
-This type of hazardous waste includes
infectious waste and chemical waste dangerous
to people and the environment