CONVERSION FACTORS FOR STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

OVERALL GEOMETRY
Spans 1 ft= 0.3048 m
Displacements 1 in= 25.4 mm
Surface area 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2
Volume 1 ft3 = 0.0283 m3
1 yd 3 = 0.765 m 3

STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES
Cross-sectional dimensions 1 in= 25.4 mm
Area 1 in 2 = 645.2 mm 2
Section modulus 1 in 3 = 16.39 (10 3) mm 3
Moment of inertia 1 in4 = 0.4162 (10 6) mm~
r'v1ATERIAL PROPERTIES
Density 1 lb/ft3 = 16.03 kg/m 3
Modulus and stress values 1 psi = 0.006895 MP a
1 ksi = 6.895 MPa
LOADINGS Force to Force Force to ,'v\ass
Concentrated loads 1 lb =4.448 N 1 lb = 0.4536 kg
1 kip = 4.448 kN 1 kip = 0.4536 Mg
Density 1 lb/ft3 = 0.1571 kN/m 3 1 lb/ft3 = 16.03 kg/m 3
Line loads
(linear density) 1 k/ft = 14.59 kN/m 1 k/ft = 1488 kg/m
Surface loads 1 1b/ft2 = 0.0479 kN/m 2 _ 1 lb/ft2 = 4.882 kg/m 2
1 k/ft2 = 47.9 kN/m 2 1 k/ft2 = 4882 kg/m 2

STRESSES, MOMENTS
Stress 1 psi = 689 5 Pa -
1 ksi = 6.895 MPa (MN/m 2 or N/mm 2)
Moment, torque 1 ft-lb= 1.356 m · N
1 ft-k = 1.356 m ·kN

MISCELLANEOUS
Energy 1 ft-lb force = 1.356 N · m or J
Temperature tc = (t~ -32) 5/9 tK =~ + 273.15
Linear Expansion Coeff. ~F- 1 = 1 .8 °c- 1 or K-1
Acceleration of Gravity g = 386 in/sec2 = 9.81 m/sec2

I
 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Structural analysis involves the prediction of the performance of a given structure under
prescribed loads and/or other exte_mal effects, such as support movements and temperature
changes.

The fundamental purpose of.a structural analysis is to determine the magnitudes of force and
displacement for each element of a design system for a given set of design loads. Force is used
to rep_resent stresses or stress resultants, e.g., axial forces, shear forces, bending moments, and
torsional moments along with their associated stresses.

Structural engineering is the science and art of planning, designing, and constructing economicaj
structures that they can safely resist the forces to which they are subjected to with elegance.

Planning phase

l
Preliminary structural design

Estimation of loads

Structural analysis

Revised
N o - - structural
. design

Yes

Construction phase

Fig. 1.2 Phases of a Typical Structural Engineering Project

 1. Planning Phase The planning phase usually involves the establish-
ment of the functional requirement of the proposed structure, the general
layout and dimensions of the structure, consideration of the possible types
of structures (e.g., rigid frame or truss) that may be feasible and the types
of materials to be used (e.g., structural steel or reinforced concrete). This
phase may also involve consideration of nonstructural factors, such as
aesthetics, environmental impact of the structure, and so on. The outcome
of this phase is usually a structural system that meets the functional re-
quirements and is expected to be the most economical. This phase is per-
haps the most crucial one of the entire project and requires experience and
knowledge of construction practices in addition to a thorough under-
standing of the behavior of structures.
2. Preliminary Structural Design In the preliminary structural design
phase, the sizes of the various members of the structural system selected
in the planning phase are estimated, based on approximate analysis, past
experience, and code requirements. The member sizes thus selected are
used in the next phase to estimate the weight of the structure.
3. Estimation of Loads ~stimation of loads involves determination of
all the loads that can be expected to act on the structure.
4. Structural Anizlysis In structural analysis, the values of the loads
are used to carry out an analysis of the structure in order to determine the
stresses or stress resultants in the members and the deflections at various
points of the structure.
5. Safety and Serviceability Checks The results of the analysis are
used to determine whether or not the structure satisfies the safety and
serviceability requirements of _the design codes. If these requirements are
satisfied, then the design drawings and the construction specifications are
prepared, and the co~~tructj_on phase begins. _
6. Revised Structural Design If the code requirements are not satis-
fied, then the member sizes are revised, and phase~ 3 through 5 are re-
. peated until all the ~afety and seajceability require:111ents ·are satisfied.
 DESIGN OBJECTIVES
Factors which influence design include: safety, serviceability, feasibility, and esthetics.

Safety - Normally, structural engineers design with some level of safety in case something
unforeseen or unknown happens. To properly access safety, the structural engineer must:

A Understand the environment, use of the structure, behavior of the construction

materials, structural behavior, appropriate allowances for the uncertainty involved in
the prediction of load effects and structural response, and any other influences which
may influence the design or design performance.

B. Determine the internal forces and failure load.

A number of approaches to structural safety are possible. One method is referred to as Allowable
Stress Design (ASD). ASD is based on the assumption that if the stresses under working loads are
limited to values substantially smaller than stresses corresponding to failure, then safety is assured.

Other approaches include: Ultimate Strength Design, Plastic Design, Load and Resistance Factor
. .

Design and others. These procedures incorporate safety by multiplying dead loads and liye loads
by load factors greater than one but less than two. The live load factor is typically larger than the
dead load factor since dead loads are more accurately assessed.

Furthermore, all design procedures typically reduce the load carrying capacity or strength
parameters associated with the structure. Typically, the structural strength parameters are reduced
by 0.60 to 0.90.

Serviceabilicy -All aspects of performance must be acceptable for the intended use. Some specific
performance considerations that the structural engineer must consider include: deflection and
cracking must be limited, i.e., not visible; vibration and noise should be controlled; liquid and gas
containers should not leak; foundations must not settle improperly; etc.

Feasibility - Construction of a proposed structure must be economical as well as plausible

(feasible). A basic rule in design is that the designer should have in mind at least one method of
construction. The structure may not be built in exactly the manner anticipated, but still the
feasibility of the structure is assured.

Esthetics (or Aesthetics) - The looks of the structure are of great concern to the community and
the designer.
· 11

J
I!ir

I
;
 TYPES OF STRUCTURES

Truss: A truss is a geometrically stable arrangement of slender members which primarily

support axial load.

Frame: A frame,is a stable structural form consisting of two or more..flexural members which
can resist bending moment, shear, and axial forces. A frame is classified as a rigid frame
when its members are joined together by moment resisting connections; i.e., where joint
translations and rotations occur without relative rotations between the connected
members. Semirigid frame connections have notable moment resistance capability, but
to a lesser degree than found at rigid joint connections. Semirigid joints can experience
some degree of relative rotation between connected members. Pin connection joints
provide little or no moment resistance and allow the pin connected members freedom
of rotation urtder load.

Arch: The arch can be defined as a curved structural shape that is usually configured to
support gravity loads in a manner that results in uniform compressive resistance.
Gravity loading tends to flatten the arch and push its supports outward.

Membranes, plates and shells: Membranes are thin-walled structures such as air supported
stadium roofs and weather balloons which provide tensile resistance in two directions.

Flat plate structures can provide bending, tensile, and compressive force resistance, e.g.,
floor slabs.

Shells are often defined as curved plates. Roof domes, water and fuel storage tanks,
and grain silos typify some forms of shell structures.

Cable: Cable supported structures are very common and are often expressed in the form of
suspension and cable-stayed bridge construction.
 Table 1. Idealized Structural Supports
Movements AUowed Reaction Unknowns
Sketch Symbol or Prevented Forces Created

(a)Pin

r OR OR
Prevented: horizontal
translation, vertical
translation
Allowed: roration
A single linear force of
unknown direction or
equivalently
A horizontal force and a
vertical force which arc
the components of the
single force of unknown
R
r
direction

(b) Hinge
.... - .;. ··~[ I _.... ~,,
Prevented: relative
displacement of
member ends
Allowed: both rotation
and horizontal and
vertical displacement
Equal and oppositely
directed horizontal and
vertical forces
-~
R.,.t

(c) Roller Prevented: vertical A single linear force

translation (either upward or
Allowed: horizontal downward*)
translation. rotation

(d)Rocker

OR

(el Elastomeric
pad

(/) Fixed end Prel'ented: horizontal Horizontal and vertical

translation, vertical components of a linear
translation. rotation resultant; moment

t== . Allowed: none

(gJ Link Prei•enred: translation A single linear force in

in the direction of link the direction of the link
Allowed: translation
perpendicular to link.
rotation

(h)Guide Prevented: vertical A single vertical linear R

translation, rotation force; moment
Allowed: horizontal
translation

_ _ _ _ _......J_ _ _ _ _ ___,1__ _ _ _ _ _......J_ _ _ _ _ _ __,L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _---1______________ _

 EX.A l'v\PLE. 1

·C
.,.,.,
wl!.:IW
"'"'~
::,::,:,
GOO
,,,,,,,,,
.,,.,,.,
.:;:,!~ · -fo'
w".IUll,l'J
;.,..t,a,,-.
:.i.:MJW

~~~
000
_,..'
""JOO

_,,o,. .,
,:QQ'Jo:I)
~r;!i:;;
i:"11;"1"1";:
-.,--t-t:;
+) 2 \\1\s = o = 4 k (3z') - 30 \/A + i (\D\:.) ( lo 1)
r \J~-=- G".2~7k

~' '2 Fj :: 0 = - 4 "- + y ~ - G:, k + 1 RB

~ Rs = G. 222 k

~zfx=o= \-\P. - ~(10)-'tR~

-=J> \4~=- ·\Z.'.978k

+~ z Ml\ = 0 = 4 t (z I ) - 1 (IO 1) ( z. 0 I )

+ ~ 'R,g (3 O)
= 8 - \20 + 112. k

G
 !
! _____________ ., ___ ., ·-·------------ ----·- ---······--·-·-~- -----~-~-~---~-----------·---- · · · · · · - · - - - · - · · - ..

~L Fx = 0 ~ Gk - ~R

.,\, WR = 6 k
t
\2 I
t) ~ ""\i = o = - \IL tzo) )5' .
+ so.;)\ k ( {, / + 8 I
,i,:j,,"I.}~
,;'"h'""'

~:J·-~:

(; k_ ( \5 I)
I )

a· r l~J
,,"., \/L = 21.14k L . tvR
L ~ I2 I _ _ _ ._ _ _
~· _J
t-1 LF1 = 0 =+\Jt - 'RuL \{L \JL

;. \JR = g\JL - \IL ::. S0.91 - 31. \4

VR-= \9 17 k

C..heQk ~

~ ?..1\/\L = 0 .::: -50.91k.((,') - ~k (20') + 1--/ll. ( zo '- J5 ' ) + Ve (zo 1 1

I
=- -o.o~ ft . k~pi
~ 0
I
 INTERIOR IDNGES IN CONSTRUCTION

Interior hinges (pins) are often used to join flexural members at points other than support
points, e.g., connect two halves of an arch structure (e.g., Fig. I), and in cantilever bridge con-
struction ( e.g., Fig. 2). Such structures are more easily manufactured, transported, and erected.
Furthermore, interior hinges properly placed can result in reduced bending moments in flexural
systems, and such connections may result in a statically determinate structure.
Arch· Structures - Arch· structures are usually formed to support gravity loads which tend to
flatten the arch shape and thrust the supported ends outward. Hinge or fixed-end supports are
generally used to provide the necessary horizontal displacement restraint. The horizontal thrust
forces at the supports acting with the vertical loading tend to develop counteracting moments
that result in low bending stresses.
Cantilever Construction - Cantilever construction represents a design concept that can be ·
used for long span structures. If spans are properly proportioned, cantilever construction can
result in smaller values of the bending moments, deflections, and stresses as compared with
simple support construction.
Figure 3 shows a typical highway overpass structure designed as a series of simple spans; a
statically indeterminate continuous beam, ·and a cantilevered construction beam along with their
respective bending moment diagrams for a uniform load of 2 kips/ft. Note that the bending
moments are most evenly divided into positive and negative regions for the three-span
continuous beam and that the location of the internal hinges for the cantilevered constructed
bridge resulted in a more even moment distribution as compared to the overpass analyzed as
three simple spans.

Movement of the two internal hinges towards the interior supports results in a reduction of the
negative moment magnitudes at the supports and an increase in the mid-span positive bending
moment. Ideal placement occurs when the each interior hinge is approximately 109 ft from an
end support, this location of the internal hinges results in a maximum negative and positive
bending moments of 5000 ft-kips.

(a} (h}

JOit
l_ I-
-;--
. '" Y.
~
1==60
-
...
ft---+l-~60ouft---t
120ft-----

Fig. 1. Arch Structures: (a) and (b) Statically Indeterminate, (c) Statically Determinate
Three-Hinge Arch (from Tartaglione, 1991)
 --- ----
jf(J
HintZc

I" I Cunt ii ever cun.•trt1s'tit111

1/,\ Camile>er tru.s construction

Fig. 2. Examples of Cantilever Construction

2 kit'

,jj;-• ··•~i- _-~ .,di• • I • •••

;1~- ·······-··~ Simple bi:ums

l--sol\ 2001\
10,000
I eon---l

KiOO l6llO
0
ll 0 M, kip•ft
(a)

.
J;· & ~ k Continuoos ""-"m
4400

+:?S +25
0 0 M, kip•ft

-5600 -5600
(bl

Hinge

,Ji;.' ,;1--.0Z •. ,L.... .....?>. ,. ;;;· .,_...,l. Cun1ilev...-

consuuclinn

I-so 1t-+so tt-j-100 tt--l-so rr+-80 n---1

2500

M. kip•ft

-7500 -7500

Fig. 3. Highway Overpass Bridge: (al Three Simple Spans, (b) Three Span Con-
tinuous Beam, (c) Cantilever Constructed Bridge (Tartaglione, 1991}

9
Principle of Superposition
Linear elastic structural analyses are often simplified by application of the principle of
superposition. The principle states that the total effect of a system of forces acting on a
structure is equivalent to the sum of the effects caused by each individual force if (1) the
geometry of the structure undergoes negligible change during the application of loads, and (2)
the· system of loads results in linear elastic behavior of the structure. In the first figure below,
the left RL and right Ra support reaciions are· expressed as the sum of three left and right
support reactions for each individual load acting on the structure. Similarly, total stresses or
displacements can be determined in the same manner as long as conditions (1) and (2) are
satisfied. The second figure below illustrates the superposition of displacements.

P1 P; P1
2
..---:----i...,__~...:..,...i - ,..............1- +
~ J:£k=~ ~:&
hL t
RR tRL, . RR1 t tRL!
RL = RL1 + RL? + RL_,
RR = RR1 + RRJ + RR_,

~~·-
w,
AtTfna
\--\
0,4 /j
8 . o.~! 08 !

IQ
 zero-force members The method of joints becomes easier if one can
first visually identify members of zero force.

Figure 3.17

DF =0
BG= o·
'
(....,
GH= 0
JJ =
0
LJ = 0

(a) (b)

u
C Figure
-j)
,,._
0
3.17 presents a truss with several zero-force members. Since applied exter-
nal loads are not present at joints B, ·D, H, and J, orthogonal axes can be
established to identify zero force in members DF, BG, GH, and JJ (see Figs.
L. 3.17a and 3.17b). It is important to note that member DF shown in Fig.
I~ 3.17a is a zero-force member for the range of fJ values b~tween O and 180
degrees. A visual inspection of joint L reveals a horizontal roller reaction, a
horizontal member KL, and a vertical member JL; by applying the equa-
tion :EV = 0 .at joint L, one can easily identify that JL is a zero-force
member. If the applied load at joint Eis removed, both ED anci EF must be
zero force members. to satisfy the :EH = 0 and :EV = 0 joint equilibrium
equations. Therefore, certain truss members inay have zero force for some
load cases and develop force resistance for other load conditions. Also be
aware that zero-force members often serve to subdivide long compression
members to increase their loaq capacity.

JL
 I ,

,--·-=---·-----------·---··· ---·--··· ----.~- -·~--------- =' ~----- ~---~ --·-·----·---· --~--------- ·--
!i

E 'X.A.1\.-\PLE - ME.TH-OP §)f .JOINIS

Ue+ermir-.e.. t'h~ force \ n e.o..c. h '\TLA.SS 'CY\et\"\be, \oy --\"he

\'Y\ttl.od o .C jot ~ls.

lv\e!'-i,b~y· +~Y-ces b't

1' l'\ ~Fee +i.o~ :
F,7 ;;; o
----tv =.zsk!~
1

I
"1)ue +o s;.-tru.c¼re. s.y~me. "+-v,, t
Sylhv-,,,.
Mem bet" -h>rc.es Oh ¾e le.+\:, e f --lie ~'/r<>me...'+ry pIC\ne
ebu. o. \ '-Yko s.e. on ---\ie. r ~ kt of- ,--t-1'~ syMmehy p\ane:
Fi~ -= ~4 ' F.., s = Fa, , ~3 =

~2 = F4z ·

--z. ') =o = ; Fa~ +2s \c.

· s l
:. f 8 ~=- - }'3(2.s) ;-,n.,/1

"'2 ~)( ~0 = ~ ~\? 1- \-g4

• i::- =- _ 4c:- ::: 2 '.J.-:z 3 k
•• 1-g4 "'§' I 8f, ;; v J

2 F¥. = 0 = - ~AB + F4z.

• F42.
0 .. =,
f 48 =,
33.33\<

I
I

J?. ~
 Z. ~ • 0 == - ~ ( ~B t t-1,i_ \ 7 fG,4
•
·"
L
1(;,'2,
=:-o/3F,
t>4
-f."18 = -3/~(\oJ ~ 41.ln

~2 - 25 \:.

'2 f \(. =- 0 = -1 ~8 +~ ~2 ;- f'1,

: . F'2, =- ~ ( \\., 8 - f~z )
. ~ .

·, ~I := -£3. 34 ·
-~r,i,,.·-·
mcom:
M-,M

~~~;

....., . "'j(~6 .
..;,J
?f
0 (C')

33,33k
2 ;
8 "7

MEM.BE:IZ.. Fo~cES
\ -a Te f"ts (on
C. = Qoh"'\pre.~s.: (on

I
l
I
I

1.1-a.,.
I
 :
I t/
---- -.. _L-~-- ----------------------- -------~------ - - - ----------- ___ / .

E)(f-\MDLE - MET\4-0D 0F' SEC.TIONS

torc.e.s. h, me.m hers f

,s'
... '
20 1 i

~or-l \<..e.o.c.t~or\s
?. Fx == 0 -=;> ~°' = - <o k
+'):z:.l\J\· ::: 0 =- -45'\/o.. t- 30 1 (10"-) -\-- IS'(,o~\ - 30'(31:. )'
l

• , 1
•• 'IQ
= . (.::.oo+ 11:iO -s·oY.4
. 5'

{~"Z. Mh = o =-Go' v'oc.

- 30' (B \t..) +- .ts' <,o"-)

:,, \J°'oc-=- ~o ( \SO - 240) == -\.51!.

!4;
 ?
'- ,··
/

Fc.J I
------,-o
+~ "2.. M~ =- o -=- -2ofc.d_ I

~
+ \S' (\O\.:.) - 30' (8 k)

• t::- - \ 50 - 240 =- . - 4. 5 \!..

~ • red zo
1..1..uUi~
~"~
~:!i

~
CCC
~m,
~!:lloll!'
-1-t 2: 1~1 == 0 = 8 k - \0 \=. - I Ok 4- fhJ
---
~~"'
MW . .

= 15 ~
w~w
:!::!::t:
\l"lll'l'ln
ooc
11"!1~~ -

~,r-.o,..:
:. Fh d = ¾ (20 - 8)
~~~;
NN~:
"""1"'1

Co\\AMENts

1,., \.I\" C" 3 "'""'"e." t e f" Ll2brt U""- en -Iie se.C .\-rOh c.uh, .!
I.

-ti~ .··ho.Y\S\"t'\LSS~bi\~4-i pr~hCLp\Ci:. ct s+o..tks ho..~ be~r. I

u.+1'.'\l re..d. The. +ra.ris,....iss;l;;/;~y pr('t\c:cple s-,.to..tes -tho.t o... .force!
C.O.Y'\ \:,e. °'\9f\\e:d ctt" O.n~ fOLl'\t Cf\ 'i.4-s l~ne. ot o.ctiot1
i.u~¼ou.t o. c 'h o..~e. J~ --the e.x.-terno.. \ e +.fects.

2. Ir'\ ¼e. a.~ o.. \~ ~ ~s o t ~oAt ca.Uy de+erMLV\a.te -tYLJ..sse~;

'f ov... -+'I ~ ~C..D.. \ \y w ~\\ u. ~e. bDtl +'he. 'N\el4u d ct- j (!)tY\tS
O.l'\cl. .+-he tne.i-'ho~ ef c:;;ec.t~cns +o c..o.\c::u..\o._\e., Q\l ~e
'\'l\e.. rn'be.(' f ti r-c.e. s.

t5
.-.:.•
 Figure 3.22
+ r '? 2j
~ 23+3:=26_.
- m · m + r? 2j
~ . t3+3=l
Determinate· Determinate
~ ~ .

m + r '? 2] m + r? 2j
14 + 4 = 18 19+3=~
Determinate Determinate

m + r '? 2j '~m+r?1j
8+3< 12. , - - 20 +3 >
Unstable ·· .~:: ; ",~ 3 Redundar.

m + r? 2j
8+3<'12
Unstable

Figure 3.23
m = 17 m + r = 2]
r=3 Statically
. ~ j = IO determinate
and stable
Panel I l l 2 I 3 l 4 l 5 I
(a)

m = 17 m -1:' r = 2j
r= 3 Unstable
j = IO

(b)

m = 17 m+r>2j
r= 5 Stable
· j = 10. 2 r~dundants

(c)

··.. :,-'.- .• . ·- .- . -.... '~: ·- .. ··:._ -, ~- ·- ·---. .. -:·· _._ :. ~

 EXA.Jv\PLE
Dia te.rM~he. +he. \o o..d, s he.ar J O.Y\ d bel\dcnj lV\olY\e.~ t
~x.pre.sstor-.s. ""Draw i1.L sheec,.r c:s.ncl. beJ\d(hj \'Y\oMe,dr
dla.jrQl'li~ OT\cl ct r;.a.\~iCAJ,ve detftt+e.J' shQF~-

2.tlft '2.G ft-kl'.ps

--1"<10,, •
t E.i (?
~lil)IJ)

>I~ ,.1 ..
.""l'i"'.I°'"',
:~~~;

4' G' 41 81 81 II'

25k

P.B = -\Ok p = zsk p:: \9k

' Q. ' ~
= - 2 Vft , wG.'rl = - --4_ .x; .1/fL · ;

== 2G t' t- ki.f s

S\.iegc Eon::e.s:
V-= v~s -= 0 fer a'~ x. < 4'

·y - \/t,C == P1s {- v:.e ::. -\Dk tu, I

Ll < x. < lD'

\/ = \/'t:,. t) - ~c +- \J~c. - \S k tor \{)' < }( ~ \4'

\J· ::: vor: :=.

s'i(I>
0
Woe d.)l + \J_t)C-l)'
·,
+or \4 ~ ,<. ~ 22'

- - 2 ~1) +_ 15 C o'_~ ?<.1) ~ e/)

\J ==- VF'r -..<y te ' '.'.. : -· ~ Ik :for 22 ,· ~ K. ,/' 30 I
\J _- \:d FG
.V.· ,·
_ : .· EF
- · \lr . _- ;- - \ 1t. · · r- ·
'tt>.L
-
30
1 < v "'4t '
. . "' ....._ . -
C.--.. i/ J ~fii tr~"~;tJ ~ ;t \;::\]~ .·• · for !efl '/ ,i'. ~ iO:'
' ; · :_· : _02 ~t/9 --i.L :. ; d-,=;,;~ Xe, . ~ ~I)
I
I '7
;
·, . ••' ., . •'•. - ._ -~- - . -·-·. . . -·-·· .... L
 bens:l i o~ Moffi€b:tS x

l\t\ ~ MqB '::. 11\ "-~~ clx. 0

1 -
~ '>(:<4
I

iv\ -:: MSC-:: s.Xi vsc.dx

0 .

= - \OXrs ( 0' '!5 Kg < ', 1 )

www
"'"'"'
= ~)I.e.
J~ vc.~ d~ + M~c:
·C. .
tor \0 1 < x ~ 14'
<<<
"""
000
"'"'"'
n.,.., -= 15~ - GO . (o'< Xe. :S. 4')
~~~
www

- s:l> V~E cl}( :+ Iv\~ \4 1 ~ ~

WWW
:c:cz
""'"'
OOQ
">00
-r, •
...-11"110.•'
tor X 2'2'
= - xt -t- Is ><
IOQlloCIICl:i

~~2~
...... ,.!
ti' ~0 ( ;i<D · ~ 8')
- SOXE \J=r dx + M'Oi tor 22' ~ ><.. < 30'

- - XE + SG ( O ~ Xf < 8 ')
- lXF yFG d K + M~\= + Mr-
0

- - XF + '74 ( 0 < X-r= ~ \\I ) tor '50 1 <X~4\ '

M -= MGH = SXG
6
v» Jx +
-
M~c;
G -
for 4\ I~ x. < 54'
~
::: - z X.G/2 ri - )(G +- b3 (o'~X6 < 9')

A B C

-e -l

j I

·-···(····- - ·-r
Sr+cAR FoRce_·t;~Grl~'.° : .
:(S.Fl))
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34.
 STRUCTURAL DEFLECTIONS

Structures, like all other physical bodies, deform and change shape when subjected to forces.
Other common causes of structural deformation include temperature changes and support
settlements. However, the deflections of civil engineering structures under the action of usual
design loads are known to be small in relation to both the overall dimensions and member
lengths. You may now be wondering, "Why bother to compute deflections?" Basically, the
design engineer must establish that the predicted design loads will not result in large deflections
that may lead to structural failure, impede serviceability, or result in an aesthetically displeasing
and distorted structure. Several examples which demonstrate the value of deflection analysis
include (Tartaglione, 1991):

1. Wind forces on tall buildings have been known to produce excessive lateral deflections that
have resulted in cracked windows and walls, as well as discomfort to the occupants.

2. Large floor deflections in a building are aesthetically unattractive, do not inspire confidence,
may crack brittle finishes or cause other damage, and can be unsafe.

3. Floor systems are often designed to support motor-driven machines or sensitive equipment
which will run satisfactorily only if the support system undergoes limited deflections.

4. Large deflections on a railway or highway structural support system may impair ride quality,
cause passenger discomfort, and be unsafe.

5. Deflection control and camber behavior of prestressed concrete beams during various stages
of construction and loading are vital for a successful design.

6. Deflection computations serve to establish the vibration and dynamic characteristics of

structures that must withstand moving loads, vibration, and shock environment -- inclusive of
seismic design loads.

If the structure deflections disappear and the structure regains its original shape when the actions
causing the deformations are removed, the deformations are termed elastic deformations. The
permanent deformations of structures are referred to as inelastic or plastic deformations. This
course will focus on linear elastic deformations. Such deformations vary linearly with applied
loads and the principle of superposition is valid for such structures. Furthermore, since the
deflections are expected to be small, deflections are measured with respect to the original,
undeformed or reference geometry.

35
Work-Energy Methods
Worlc-energy methods for truss, beam and frame structures are considered. Such methods
are based on the principle of conservation of energy, which states that the work done by a
system of forces applied to a structure (W) equals the strain energy stored (U) in the
structure. This statement is based on slowly applied loads that do not produce kinetic of heat
energy, which can be written as
W=U
A disadvantage of work-energy methods is that only one displacement component or
rotation can be computed with each application.

Work= force (moment) times displacement (rotation) in the force (moment) direction
Differential work of Fig. 1 can be expressed as
dW=P (dL1)

F=/(8) or M-/(0)

.
0 Fortvl Figure 1. Force versus
Displacement Curves
...8
.g

0 ___J. i-- 8or9 0 8or8

d8ord0 displacement
displacement (b)
(a)

For P = F (force), L1 equals displacement o:

6
W = jFdo (la)
0

For P = M (moment), L1 equals rotation 8:

9
W = jMd8 (lb)
0

Equations (la, b) indicate that work is simply the area under the force - displacement (or
moment - rotation) diagrams shown in Fig. 1.

36
For a linearly elastic structure (Fig. l(b)):

W=lFo (2a)
2

W=lMe (2b)
2

The internal strain energy for a linear elastic structure can be expressed generically as

U = if vol
< cr > { s} d( vol) (3)

where < cr > = < crx cry O'z 't'xy 't'yz 't'zx > = row vector of three-dimensional ·stresses; and

{a} = < Bx By Bz y xy y yz y zx >T = column vector of three-dimensional strains.

Complementary Work

The area above the load-displacement diagrams ofFig.1 is known as complementary work,
as shown in Fig 2. For a linear-elastic system:

p
(4)

Direct use of work-energy calculations is only W = complementary

capable of calculating displacements at the location work
of an applied point force and rotations at the point
of application of a point couple; obviously a very
restrictive condition. Consequently, virtual work
Figure 2. Complementary Work
principles are developed in the subsequent sections.

Virtual Work
Virtual (virtual= imaginary, not real, or in essence but not in.fact) work procedures can
produce a single displacement (rotation) component at any desired location on the structure.
To calculate the desired displacement (rotation), a dummy or virtual load (normally of unit
magnitude) is applied at the location and in the direction of the desired displacement
component. Forces associated with this virtual force are term V-system in Nelson and
McCormick (2003) and are subscripted with a V.

The structure force systems due to the actual or real applied forces have been referred to as
the P-system and do not use a subscript.

Use of a virtual force in calculating virtual work is defined as the principle of virtual forces
(which will be the focus of this chapter):
Principle of Virtual Forces 1
If a deformable structure is in equilibrium under a virtual system offorces, then the
external work done by the virtual forces going through the real displacements equals
the internal virtual work done by the virtual stress resultants going through the real
displacement differentials.

Alternatively, if virtual displacements are applied then the virtual work is defined as the
principle of virtual displacements:

Principle of Virtual Displacements

If a deformable structure is in equilibrium and remains in equilibrium while it is
subject to a virtual distortion, the external virtual work done by the external forces
acting on the structure is equal to the internal virtual work done by the stress
resultants.

The virtual work principles (forces and displacements) are based on conserving the change in
energy due to the applied virtual load or displacement. For the principle of virtual forces,
this energy conservation can be expressed mathematically as
Wy =Uy (5)

The real and virtual complementary external work is shown schematically in Fig. 3.

In Fig. 3 Py = virtual force Fy or moment P+Pv

My and 6- = real displacement o or rotation 8. p
w
Truss Structures

The external virtual work for a truss structure

involves an external virtual force Py of unit
magnitude times the real displacement, i.e.
Figure 3. Real and Virtual
Complementary Works
(6a)

and the virtual strain energy is expressed as (shown schematically in Fig. 4):
m m
Uy= L-OYi = LFvi 0i (6b)
i=l i=l

1 Yhiual force is defined to be a concentrated force for a displacement calculation and a point couple for the
calcull!-tion of a rotational displacement.

38
 where Uyi = complementary virtual
strain energy for truss member i; Fvi
= virtual force in truss member i due
to Py = 1; 8i = real displacement in I
I

truss member i due to structural ''

''
loading; and m = number of truss '
members. The real displacement for I
: 8·
1

truss member i for various load

considerations are · Figure 4. Real and Complementary
Virtual Strain Energies

EL·1
8i = - 1- for a mechanically loaded truss member with member force F1 where E =
EiAi
elastic modulus and A = member cross section area;

Bi =a.i Li ~Ti for a thermally loaded truss member (a = linear coefficient of thermal
expansion and t1T = change in temperature); and

8i =~Lfi for a fabrication error of ~L in member i.

Normally, a truss structure is built from the same material resulting E 1 = E throughout.

Non-mechanical 8. are positive if they produce a positive change in member length

I
consistent with tension positive forces in truss members.

For truss structures, Wy = Uy for Py = 1 leads to

m
1°8 = LFYi 8i (7)
i=l

Beam and Frame Structures

Calculation of the displacements and rotations for beam and frame structures follow the same
logic as truss structures. The difference is that the real and virtual loadings produce internal
bending moments that are not constant along the length of the member(s). In addition, axial
deformation of the frame members is considered to be negligibly small (typical in most
building frames).
 M+Mv

M
dU

d0
Figure 5. Schematic of Beam Deflection Figure 6. Schematic of Complementary
Real and Virtual Strain Energies for a
Differential Beam Segment
dUv = Mvd8

The virtual strain energy for the beam and frame members is evaluated as

(8)

where Mv = virtual moment due to the application of a virtual force for calculating a
displacement and is the virtual moment due to the application of a virtual couple for
calculating a rotation; M = real moment in the beam segment or frame member due to real
loading on the structure; E = elastic modulus, I = moment of inertia for the member/segment;
and n = number of beam segments or number of members in a frame assuming each frame
member is prismatic. Normally, a beam or a frame structure is built from the same material
resulting Ei = E throughout.

Thus, for beam and frame structures, 'conservation of complementary virtual work
( Wv = Uy) for calculating the displacements and rotations can be expressed as:

L·
1•8 =
m
""1
L.i
j=l
f
O
J M·
Mvs·-J dx
JEI·
J
(9a)

(9b)

where subscript j is used to signify that expression is evaluated for member or segment j and
subscripts 8, 8 on the virtual moments emphasizes the calculation of a real displacement or
real rotation.

40
TR.us s "DEFLE.C.. Tl ON . E~~MPL E

Fir'\d ~e hO'(LrOY\to..\ o,r-,d '\/€.'('"-\-le.a.\ cle.+l€_c:.:f-ton CO'!'l\'f011E'1'~

Dt J-0~"t ~ by -\ie l'Y\e.-thod o+ v'i-c-+u.a.\ vJork. /Y!ASS i

pY-t1per ~; es 1f\c.\1.Acl€: E = 2.01 occJ ks-(. J or€o.. o {: bal'" s-
A. 6, AC I D. n cl E C. =- \. 0 1l\ 2 ,; °' Y\ d cd \ b'ther \oar ttr-eo..s
. 2.
2..0 II'\ ,
IOk A

!5~.
2 o't:.--- ~---~
~ \2.'_J . 2.t"- i20•
Truss G~o~e-h-1 o~d Rec..\ Truss F~rrc:~S' ( FpJ
Loa.di,'j

I. 33 1.33

Hroritol"'itr...\ Ylrtv.~I \r1As:s; Ver~c.ctl Vir+uo.\

Fnrc. ('. s- ( rep~) \Y'lA ss:: fe:,rce s ( F~v)

4·1.
 C's\
(\J ~
----·--· -~---·--

L I\ ' F,
FQH
t-qlFJ-/~) fQv F~v(F~~)
l\J\ e.M be-r- ( '" )
(i1Jz.) lk) (\::_ ;·,1') lk hi\)

f:\ b 9~ 1.0 l~. 33 I. s3 \'102.0 -l -IZ'lJ.'7

f\C. \ 1. 0 \.Q - I /.J./o '1 - I. &7 33'40.'7 0 0

BC r-i z_ l, 0 -\o 0 a 0 0

BD 9G 2.. b 13.33 \. 3 3 635\. 0 -I -(o3'}.8

Ct) \20 2.0 ta. 33 0 0 0 0

C.E 120 '2.0 - z5 -1-67 2.505. 0 0 ('.)

DE 144 'LO lS" I . \080.0 0 0

~Fv·l ( FL/r::.._) 347&,l -/919.5

1 _ 0C'. ,.n,
" 11
_ El ( -., Lr.,u fp L;'A\
L 14, 17 /J.r)
_ 9 4 7 8 , 7 /2
/
0 CJD O
...::.--
---P---
('
lJ·A \-l -::::: 0,. 4 74 '-
Lf\
( '\
-'.),- J

., -; ·,,. ••. ,·.. 1717'nlr.7f.Jt;,'N

J•'o'nOS < 5ll3HS OOo 6.C"i:>
,..,.flt.JS ; SlllflS OOl 1:BC·ot
3,'1'v1l(IS: S: S133HS or I !:It' Z::,,
-§--
-"
 -I Russ be.FL'EC.. T)oN. E;,<,p.._t-i\PLE 2

A ·~+ee.\ root +r!J\S~ e~?t'r~€.Y\t.es Cl. 50;l)F +ervirer-a..tu'f~

r\se._ &n o.l\ u.pp~r c..~ord IY'ltl'"\'\bers ;· ¾e ve,,~1ca\s· a.l"\d

c~ho.5on0-ls ri,se. 30°F; O..f\d -rhe loo\+cM. r..hord Y'ne.l'v\be.Y-

+thipero..+u.,es ,e.~o..th.. I.AV"'\ t..\a..'j e.d. By 71e. Y~r+u.4 \
wort ~ef'ho d1 de. +e, M( 1Y€. +he ve.r-4..:c.a..l l'<\o+~oh, Q \;

§§E
~~~
joi.ht G. LLr.eax toe.f{:icl(.1''1: tit --\1.e,MaJ e,<.?Qt'\SlCY\
oco
,.,~~
_,..,c,. .:
"'"'"'
:-"ll''Js",

~~~! ~
d =- Ca x. \ 0 - 6 /°F . +oi- o.. \ \ 'YYlehi-\b €."CS.

tt t
©,5

VLr+uoJ FQrc.e.~

nt.\i,-,\,e, ot Upfer
i . SG\J - L. Fq 0((6T) L c. 'hon~ N")emloe,7
- - l. \ \ 8 ( {oX\O-b/oF) (So f)(zo1.2SV)) (4)
0

+ I ( ~ x \ O- 0/ f ) ( 3 0 ~ F )
0 ( 180 if\) .._ Mel'v-,be-r CG

+- ~-e10 C: D f\-t.~ bu.+i Of\ -tro1y; C\. \) o'ii~r

'rf,,e.1'(\ b~T'S

- - o. 235 'i"

... b.:GV - Q. z 38 " ~ ( t)

43
--------- · + - - - - - - - - - - : - - - " - - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' - - -

BEAM.. l)ER.EcT10N Ex~MPLE

Co.l C!.l~()..+e --\"he vey+\'.c:a..\ cHsp\a.t~ment Qt'\J ro+a.-!-ton

a.t potr\t A o t -ri\e ~e.a.m · '"' 4-erW\!; ct E.I ..

,.M
·.i;.~!l!:
,~~
');::~
\ . s~ =-
s
J4 -.
lv\(-:'..)

1
8
MCQ.('ll)
EI.()(.)

(._-x)
dx

!~~
AIP".!VI
= -)( EI d.x.
0

s
.~w
-::l:
,"'lln'II>
~-=
·-~~~
9 (-y..)
,m,.
.Nil,.

~...,- + --t.2 dx
:·-:~ - '2 EI.
4

~i. :::
4EI.
x_414
i:i
+ "419
8EI.
4 iea.\ Forc.e. rl\o"N'.I!\"\ \ \)~rllM
1
bA - Bs2.,zs/t;,r ( t )*
t.___-r~.
1. e~ : s-Mt ) M~i{:.<I
')(. El()()
clx

= s -){'
0
4 (-1)
E:I
dx

t
s9 -xz (-l)
2.e.r: dx
-'.4 1
(------;,·~ .

* ET ~ ust be e t.fY-<~e d in
+eYMS of 'M
.o.n cl ~
_kN . t-o __ e.
.b
·,
CoMpa:.+~b\e ~~+[ ~€. -~tA~~a..\-or. I

Tu tleclihn sl<~+~ k
44
 -· ·--···-------··--- -------·------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - · - - - · - · · - - ___ ,L' .....

C Q l Ct.t \aJe +~e ~or l t:O\'\ -tcx\ cl (sr\ a.c.e.tnel\t o..t C. O'r\d

¾~ v-o-bJt.oJ\ cx.t B.

p 2 \-~ =-o ~ WA = - P
~
....
;.1,1':.UIW

◄ <◄
=~:::;
~

2.ff\A=-o= LVc.-~Lz -F'l

000
~•JH,'I
,r-."':-'f'!-

§~~
::c.::::-r
: .. \Jc. = ""Yz. + P =- 3~
~•M

L
00C
""=!~
.-NO.·l
~a;ia:. -z F7-=-o = _VA fVc - wl
r-:t?~
r :: sbt
~,. E
NC'! ...... ~

C.o'f\

j
ot'"t-<11'.;.

:. vi+ = -, 3 ~z + p := - o/z..
wl -=- "P
A
\-!A a;,,-
"

VA
t
.
PL
T'L

__::...--1,.--------=..,...,-JP-1
Xe. ._t
l

·u":-l-- v~r-k~l
h>r-c.e -Co r ~or~~"kl

cltrp,o..c.eM&.t a."t C

YL
ul'\~+
, Vt1rk( MOMer-.t

4S
 ......
-,ww
,('(<
-:Ji:::::::i
: : . (P"'l
3E:I
+ 3Px~ _
GEI
515151
"'"'"'
..."'"'"'
W,Uw
WWW
~~

,:,::,:
=- p~ Er -t- PL_/2E-I
fl3 /
"'"'"'
000
-
<>OO
... /8EI.

- 1'7 PL3/
G4EI

\ ·9s =S M
L
o (',<,c.)
M~tKc)
EI
'JL (3Pxc. - wxZ.). "'~~
z ()
=- - 1iL dx

PLz. _ fl 2
•

2 er BE.I.

r-,~
v!2 - :Sfl2~E-.L
/'c ( C \ CC kW\S~
. )

Qu.o..l~ \~tv e
l)e_ t \e.c.tLO ('\
D\ a..3 r O. l'r\
I
I
I

\._

4(;!1
 '
!
,.ts Co..\cv.\o.t~ -the tlp ~e_t,let.ilQ)'\ G\1\J s\ope {f~30)000L-d!,

35k.
z.slt./ft T
-2.
::: lOdo '" 4 = ~'I:,
4
,1-----.--....----,.-------- s - C
',1------J.----+---t---+---+--iClt-------...,;--------a D
I.1 = 4000 ti'\ 4-
I G' - - -..... ~!llooll"'~- a•-,..{

Ml\!'.
i35~
~.------·--==--===--.,___ ~ 1
\ t==--:r::=-.--::r_~\
RA-
S12,
8'
tRe 8' 1)

k.
2.. tv\~D = 0 :P- e~-::: \b (35"-) :~ Rs.-= 70
L ,=SD = 0 9 Sa : 35' - "Re. = ~ 35 k.
j

35'1!. ·
.s M.'
1(= ' ½

-.
8' ~ Xp ' l6' 0 ~ X.0 < 8

tv'\ = 7o (l(o-8) -3S><t>

= 35.><.i,- S'bD

.. I
0 ~ XB ~ l(q

. . fv\ = - ~BX.~ -2~~~B (Xs/2) ~ 35";>(.B t .. 25 X.~

2 46
'Z4f; f r~-k; ps
- ...... 35'X. 8 - 1. 2sxit
==========:::"::
ft·kip s · · · ··
d) "'.+--I Xo-
◄-
_...,...,.
::::::i~.i::i.,
,,
-""1..--"l-'1":1-
0 :s; Xo < 8' 8' ~ Xo ~ lb 1 0 ~ Xg ~ t6'
-1"-1-l"ol,;-:,j
~-= ""1' ~

Mo-o -= - x.o Mu-A-= '(}? - \fo Mu-~-= Xs

~M>\ 9 -=- 2
~1 ) 1 l
t Sss=- -Ys
1·
l
R.AG = -'Is Ya
"-c.s = l
I

O ~ Xp < 8 B' $Xo-'\6 1 0 ~ X.p. ~ \G'

l
j

M1.1s = -1 W\i.r.e -= l( 0 A8 - z : X5/B

i
M\Je

J.

~o - 0. G23 i.n

i::. Sog M N'11.J"e

E .t.z.
_r__,
Q "0 J..
1'' a
MM
EI2.
\J"e Jxo
- .
-
+ 1 ·

o
- (nl\1 <re - d}(13
Ito
er, ·-
-
= 3:I, I , 35 Xo d)(D t k
(. B lb
(4 .. '3.15" x/ ~ 140Xp + ll2o) J.<D
)
_
. . I
---:---+ e.r, _
1 'b (
0 _· 4. 375 Xs2
.
:-_
.- 3 )
ti. JS-6z~ Xe_
dXs
______________________,._ _ Go--~-_ -6~ 061 l ·:~Cl.cl ___ --:--- ----------~-- _:-- ______: -__ -_ 48
. -· ·-···-·· ··- . .--- .....-,.-~ ._ •.. _~-' .
Live Load Forces: Influence Lines for
Determinate Structures
8.1 Introduction
A
Previous developments have been limited to structures
subjected to fixed loads. Structures are also subjected to
live loads whose position may vary on the structure.
Figure 8.1: (Kassimali, 1999)
Chapter 8 focuses on such loads for statically determi-
nate structures. If a structure is to be safely designed, members must be
proportioned such that the maximum force produced by
8.2 Influence Lines dead and live loads is less than the available section ca-

Consider the bridge in Fig. 8.1. As the car moves across. pacity.

the bridge, the forces in the truss member change with Structural analysis for variable loads consists of two
the position of the car ·and the maximum force in each steps:
member will be at different car locations. The design of
1. Determining the position(s) of the 1oad(s) at which
each member must be based on the maximum probable
the response function is maximum; and
load each member will experience. Therefore, the truss
2. Computing the maximum value of the response
analysis for each member would involve determining the
function.
load position which causes the greatest force or stress in
each member.
Response· Function = support reaction, axial force, shear 8.3 Construction of an Influence Line
force, or bending moment. (Equilibrium Method)

Influence Line = graph of a response function of a struc- 1

-~ .'CB l
ture as a function of the position of a downward unit A ~
load moving across the structure.
I (L
-L-
- xtf'
~r__a_--f__ L-----il ,--y-
I fC _ 1(x)

(a)

NOTE: Influence lines for statically determinate struc-

tures are always piecewise linear. Ms
A, OSx<a csB C
t
Once an influence line is constructed: 1.0 Ss=-C,
.
B
M 8 =C1(L-a) L__:__
.--L-a
--I C 1

(1) Determine where to place live load on a structure 0 X

0 0.25L a 0.6L L
to maximize the drawn response function; and (b) Influence Line for A,.

(2) Evaluate the maximum magnitude of the response

function based on the loading.
c, c,=-r
:t

a<x:;;L
S8 =A7
M8 =A,.Ca)
X
0
(c) Influence Line for C1 (d)

Figure 8.2 (Kassimali, 1999)

0
- a
/ -z.
SB -~-- C, ~,._.---
- Lz

(e) Influence Line for S 8

M8 =C1 (L-a)= f(L-a)

0 L
- {f) Influence Line for 1,tB

~~(conz.tl.)
 For +he dtvin3 bco..r-d eXv\fv"lple1
to.\ c..u_ \o.t~ O.I"\ cl cl ro.w -tie B
tl"\tlue"'c.e. line t4nc+ior\s fee
the s I.A.pf art lf"C:a.c +i Or'\S o.n cl
,;iv.iv.,
!--~1-
~ww
tor -\-ie s; heafs Q:n d rnoJv\enls-
La.JWW

~;;~
000
~~~
-NO...-:
a.t poLt\tS" A o.ncl Ea
~~~;
;:~~~

~ '2.. \y\R~ = 0 = - ~ RL + • )(..

a6 • RL : : )(. / 3 0 ~ X ~ ;>
3 /-c:::::::$l (
~'
+t'2: Fj =- 0 = l<l 4- R12. - \ . ~ O'
-2.~ -
..·• ~ = I - 12 L : \ - "'/3 ILD tor RR..
1.

s~1~~~~
Sheo:r O.t\d \V\oMe."'-t a..t ~
For o '~ X < 3 1
:

+t-z.'F\; 0 ~ ~A - \ + _gR.
:.. SA. ~ I -:- RR. '=- 3/3 0 1~ )( <3 I

+) ~ l\t\ A = 0 .= - M~ - l ( 3 - )( ) -t :) Rf!.

,.6 • ·\\l\i, ~ - \ ( 3 -x) + 3 -(, - )(!3 ) =- o

' '. ,' .

Fo, ~/<--,<.:S'J :
+t 2. r:)' = 0 = . St.. t R12. ":;> ~A :=: -R~ = 1/3 - I

.. 1)2:'IV\\-= 0 = - MA + ~Kg :::) \v\A; 3R& -= 3 ( \ - X(3)

-- -~-~---····----- f ------- 'Y
I! sh go,'<' o.nd M oMe.nt o.+ B
I
I
Fo-r- o, ~ )(.. "' '7 ' :
i t-~ ~ F-y = O =- SB ,·. Si =- 0
l

\-t-z. r1 == o == sB +\ . . sB
D.
:z -1

~~\'v\g=-O = tv\~ + i(x-ri.)

;. MB _-::. 1- X

2~ .
. ~ J' 11 o• .
·..--GJ-~- t - - - - -
91 3' O'
-l

ILb for S~

0 ,,, ,.,, o'

[1/
-2

· ILD tor Mg
 REAtv\ lNfLUtNCE L,NE LX.Pdv\PlE 2
Co. \cv.\a..te ~t'\d dr°'w i'li(l il'I+ /ue nee lt'n e -func.J.,,'011 r ~r
-ti.e 5 Ltff0 rt 1"€Ctction s.1 ~e shears a.t C anJ. E 1
and f/1e IYlant"ntr a.t 13 and E -h,r ~e Jiven beam -S-ft-ucfu.re..
7 S' ~
And s:heoc at C l\4~;¼~;a
~ \o' ~ s ~ 5' -,.t
_;-,,,o..,
:>:1111=:1
14-,,..,
•....;""?
...... :i;
~
~

-:L: :;- Mc.o ==

c . 0 ~ 12t> .= 0
t- X

10'

1 ~<:O = 0 ~ Sc = - RD ==: 0
0 I ~ X, ~ 1'5 1
· ~ L 1\/\~c = O = • - IO R~ t- I ( \ 0- x)

.". \< A : l- 1/i O

+')z: M~D =-0 ::: ·- I (X-15') + 5 l<o t--,o-,_ ;~

RA. 1 -~ Sc ~
:. Ro -= - 3 + 1/s
\S' < "/-.. ~ 20'
+1~~cr;, 0 : ~c - \ + Rb
: • Sc = \ - Rb = 4 - X/s

....",L
-
MA,C
8 .: o :. -10 RA. - S Sc. ; :. l<1'; = - 2I Sc ==-

Co- ~o
 i

-------------------,----------------------~---________:,:L
, A,f? .
+,2M 13 =- O =- ...:\oR,.__ + \ (\o-x) +tv\8
:~ M 8 :. lcR;l..-1(\o-)(,}= o

•
~. Iv\ B ::. 10\<JI...-= \0-)(

\0 1 < X. ~ 15 1
■ ,N0-
0 .. ~
;-:l"'l.r:,
":"'\ - ~,._A..t?.
1- J L IV\13 = 0 -=- - \ 0 Rb, + MB '/.... --~1

1 ~Bjjs-8!Cf~JScr
~;~·;:

: • M,e, ~ \0 KA '=- - 20 + i"

Rl!I.
ts' < )(.. ~ 2ot
...
'1

S "eo. Y" o. 1'\d N'!Cl'V\e.rJ· o.4:, E

+12~ :a:.o""' £~ - I - SE
~)Ht-E.----t-H 1
R~ . SE Rs S: Rr,
• S r.,_ ... X.J
b. E -- 'SA""'.' I =- /\0

+i '2:M~s =- - SRl:l\ + \ ( s-x) +ME

:. ME = SR~ ..:. I (S->C.) -= 1/2

5/ ~ 'I,._:{ 15 I

+t2 F-,ll.e. = 0 = R~ - Se-

: .. Se = Rt-.. == - 2 t x/\o
I .
\S<,<.~20'
~L M~E = o =- - SR~ + Mt:::
:~ M~ = 5 RA = - l O + ~2
 i
~ 15 20 TU) h>• 'R~
0 ~ .
-112

~-
0 ID IS' 2.0

-NCl',-1
llD for Ro
,;D~Q;J-
.:S:,("J<"'J,
~~f'~{
"=l"ll""'"1
IS 2.0

I~ I.Lb +oY- Sc.

0 15' 20

Yi.
~ IS ZO

-s
2,5

~ 15 20

5 ~
. -z,'5
 Cop;rtghtt:I Th■ Mcmaw-HII Co~al'llas, Inc. PsmllssllHI :l'ftlull'ld lotteproductlaa.ardlspt..y.

8.4 Muller-Breslau Principle

Muller-Breslau Principle= The influence line for a re-
A
sponse function is given by the deflected shape of the re- I
.l.
leased structure due to a unit displacement (or rotation)
{C)
(")
at the location and in the direction of the response func-
A B
f,: ..·, .· .
tion. A released structure is obtained by removing the
displacement constraint corresponding to the response l.-s·--l-s'.....;.-- - 1 s ' - - - - i
1

(bl (d)
function of interest from the original structure.
Figure 8.11: Influence Line for Shear
CAUTION: Principle is only valid for force response
functions.
deflected
M shape

Releases:
Support reaction - remove translational support re- i----10·---- 10·-----I ,. , . .
(4}
(c)

straint. hinge 5
A
I B
~
Internal shear - introduce an internal roller support to C .
'
M,-(kip•fl)
{b) Cd)
allow differential displacement movement.
Bending moment - introduce an internal hinge to allow
Figure 8.12: Influence Line for Moment ·
differential rotation movement.
 t>
II
i:>
II
Qualitative Influence Lines
...
:,..

Ilti
t,.
~
r-i. In many practical applications, it is necessary to deter-
·T.
~ -i ~L]ft\\
.~Qi.-. lhJ~~
:,..

T~il• s
.. . * E J_
mine only the general shape of the influence lines but not

l ~- , l -\
b:iif • S'
the numerical values of the ordinates, which is known as
:e;
t,.
II :t~,: ..,==
:::, 0
:J.
G<I

5" . a·
e. c-,
a qualitative influence line diagram. An influence line
:::,
" r--
.. t,:j
. ;::. ,,,, ,,
C
= "'2

I
.t: .
=
n
0

I !fl
<I>
r--
,,
n
o'
-,
.. * "
c
~ diagram with numerical values of its ordinates is known
...n ~

1
II
=
0
1- ,_ ~

#,
~-... "'a
. \ as a quantitative influence line diagram.
=
~ ri - I ---• 0

-
'I ...ri b-
'
...ri
0

....
-
II ...ri

NOTE: An advantage of constructing influence lines

-II

I
,-,.. using the Muller-Breslau Principle is that the

s> ~~~] response function of interest can be determined

,:, "' ,,,,

-a:>'' e directly. It does not require determining the in-
L . l!::: ,, 5'
.
r. , -
.. b:, "' • b;!
t::I
=
::,
fluence lines for other functions, as was the case
~ n
n
5'
.
:::,
= .
C
::, with the equilibrium method.
::,
n
n
r
c-,
I
-= It
/1,
a
~ H
II~
H •
a· _y:, ,,
//
0 H
.,o' 'I u
I/
..,';:;. C) //

ri -I
..,o
'<
II

T
i-r~
c
 INFLUENCE LINE - PLANE TRUSSES
In a gable-truss frame building, roofloads are usually transmitted to the top chord joints through
roof purlins as shown in Fig. 1. Similarly, highway and railway bridge truss-structures transmit
floor or deck loads via stringers to floor beams to th~ truss joints as shown schematically in Fig.
2. These load paths to-the truss joints provide a reasonable assurance that the primary resistance
in the truss members is in the form of axial force. Consequently, influence lines for axial mem-
ber forces are developed by placing a unit load on the truss and making judicious use of free
body diagrams and the equations of statics. Due to the load transfer process in truss systems, no
discontinuity will exist in the member force influence line diagrams. Furthermore, since we are
restricting our attention to statically determinate structures, the influence line diagrams will be
piecewise linear.

Analysis Procedure:
1. Determine the support reaction influence line functions.
2. Using the method of sections or joints, obtain the equilibrium equation that will be used to
determine the expression(s) of the member force whose influence line is desired. The
desired member force must be the only unknown in the equilibrium equation.
Otherwise, additional expressions must be determined.
3. If using the method of sections, apply the unit load to the left of the left end of the panel
through which the section passes, and determine the desired member force using equilibrium.
Next, apply the unit load to the right of the right end of the sectioned panel and again
calculate the member force using equilibrium. Construct the in:B.uence line by plotting the
member force equations and connecting the ordinates at the ends of the sectioned panel by a
straight line.
4. When using the method of joints, if the joint being considered is not located on the loaded
chord of the truss, then determine the desired member force expression using equilibrium.
Otherwise, apply a unit load at the joint and determine. the magnitude of the desired member
force via equilibrium. Next, determine the member force expression(s) when the load
position(s) is (are) outside the panel(s) adjacent to the joint. Finally, connect the influence
line segments using straight lines to define the influence line diagram for the member being
considered.

59
Portal
hradng

Floor beam

. . Floor br.i.cing

6tJ
 : l -

-·- ·1
[
------
_ _________,/
i Tuuss lNFLUE!-!CE LrNE E.x.!\MPLE

C.o.\c.u\o.{e O.\'\d d~o.w +'he 'tnflu.enc:e ltr-.~ +~nc-\-t.ons

~r Mel"¼'\b€'fs ~\i) T j 1 r.t), Clf\d J.\fS f0r fi-ie j\V€Y"\
brtclje. +russ struc -tl.rre. .

. .J!J.,U.1

,,_..,.,,

TLD +or B\-4 ~

\oy 't r-i £pee +i.on : fs~ ""- 1 tor X = 30 lYI
i
I
FB~ = 0
- ~o:c '){:::: Orn ~ U>mi
l::----'-'-':;

+J"2. M 0 =- o = -'3-oAy +1 (~o ..x) +2sF~:r ~2lv\o = o == - <:>o A.y- + 2.s Fu

:. F1.J ~
• 1<c,- ( 'I../ )
1/50 ... f11 ... 5 I- 118D
 12
I

)(=0

~EE
,u,uw
;;~~
oco
11',~~

-,:',10.••
,;ca:i...O.:
r':",M,'1";1-
~C"t~;
"'<t-.:t"'lf":,_

o so 60- lac

,. 8

~//T~::~
0 bO 9o \Bo
- TLD tor F:r.j

ii,,.~ I.LO +or F~g

-ID/b
 T 12.uss IN FLUE-NC. E. L n-!E t:.x.~N\PLE 2.
4@ \5m = toOW\.

§§§
J:..:C::::-.
LIW)LJ'I
000
in:=g
;;;~~~
,C,:,t<'.!f".l:
NC-:.~:
'<t"<t-s!--:;
Dr"w '"{.'\uehc.e l\~e.s tor L, L2.. , U, VL 1 \J 2 l~ 1 a:~
V2. L, .

+-~ 2 M1<. = 0 =- - 6 0 J2 L + 1 ( 00 - >< )

~•. "f<l : I - ¾o
ViU2.. IL
...,,.-------.------"'> - _?IVZ
t /
R -
L

- 1. 5 u, uz.

·31 2. ML, ;:: 0 =- - \5"\<L - 1. 5U1 \.) z.

I:.u, u'" = 'X/2 0 - 2. I

 2

Fo-r C 5 X. :S IS

+i L Mvz =o '= \5_ \-\L1L2 - 30 'KL + 1 (30- X)

1.-. H L1 ~z = ,<./20 \

+~ 2\'v\uz. = 0 :. IS'\..\l, Lt - ~~ gL
-NC-I

I:., \-\ I
,no:;.,:,:,•
1":=1,"'!!":I

~~~J
L1L i- -= z - "¼a
L, L2 = ✓ s/2 l-/1.,lz.-

•
•• U2..l2 = -2'1L,Lz
- /-J l, l 2.

-1--\ L N\u4 = o = -(oo f?.L

+ 1 (bO - X)

For 4'=> ~ >' s 4, o

~ '2: l\'\u4 -= o = -~ o I( L +- 3 o' 'lu2.L3

 \:. \/1.J,L, = z. - %a I

...... ,:-.:o,.;,
mm-ti:.=
(")M,r-1;,
NN~i
""q""'<t'oiti.

l .S'

0 15 30 , Go

0 IS 30 60

~~ -

½.
0
----~n===-===--==.
30 45 bO
8 .5 Use of Influence Lines
Point Response due to a Single
Moving Concentrated Load
Each ordinate of an influenc_e line gives the value of the
response function due to a single concentrated load of
unit magnitude placed on the structure at the location of
that ordinate. Thus,
1. The value of a response function
due to any single concentrated.
load can ·be obtained by multi--
plymg the magnitude of the load
by the ordinate of the response
function influence line at the po-
sition of the load.
2. Maximum positive value of the
response function is obtained by
multiplying the point load by the
maximum positive ordinate.
Similarly, the maximum negative
value is obtained by multiplying the point load by the
maximum negative ordinate.
Point Response due to a Uniformly Distributed
Live Load
Influence lines can also be em-
ployed to determine the values of
response functions of structures
p due to distributed loads. This fol-
A B l C [;
lows directly from point forces by
treating the uniform _load ayer a
differential segment as a differen-
tial point force, i.e., dP = w 1. dx. Influence line for M8
(a)
Influence line for M8
(a) Thus, a response function R at a
j_llJllJJlllllJJlc
p point can be expressed as . J.l,. D
-l
l
B d.R=d.Py=w.e dxy
.
~
B .-..
0.75£---t-D.25£
(b) Arrangement of Uniformly
(b) Position of Load P for Maximum Distribured Live Loadw,fo_r
PositiveM8 where y ·is the influence line ordi- Maximum Positive Ma
p Wt
nate at x, which is the point of ap- cITlIIJ
A B i
D
A
.£!.
B
.£b. D
plication of dP. To determine the - - 0.75£.-......---t-D.25£-I
(c) Position of Load P for Maximum (c) ~gement'ofUnifonnly
NegativeM8
total response function value at a Disuibuted Live Load wt for
Ma,:;imum Negative M8
point for a distributed load between x = a to x = b, sim- 8. 7 Influence Lines for Trusses
ply integrate:
In a gable-truss frame building, roof loads are usually
b b
f
R= Wtydx= W1_ fydx transmitted to the top chord joints through roof purlins as
a a shown in Fig. 1. Similarly, highway and railway bridge
in which the last integral expression represents the area truss-structures transmit floor or deck loads via stringers
under the segment of the influence line, which corre- to floor beams to the truss joints as shown schematically
sponds to the loaded portion of the beam. in Fig. 2. These load paths to the truss joints provide a

SUMMARY: reasonable assurance that the primary resistance in the

truss members is in the form of axial force. Conse-
1. The value of a response function due to a uniformly
quently, influence lines for axial member forces are de-
distributed load applied over a portion of the struc-
veloped by placing a unit load on the truss and making
ture can be obtained by multiplying the load inten-
judicious use of free body diagrams and the equations of
sity by the net area under the corresponding portion
statics. Due to the load transfer process in truss systems,
of the response function influence line.
no discontinuity will exist in the member force influence
2. To determine the maximum positive (or negative) line diagrams. Furthermore, since we are restricting our
value of a response function due to a uniformly dis- attention to statically determinate structures, the influ-
tributed live load, the load must be placed over those ence line diagrams will be piecewise linear.
portions of the structure where the ordinates of the
response function influence line are positive (or
negative).
 L ()Ui s C. T~r f ':3 /;one.
S·h·u.e, tura. I AY\O.. IyS' i s
me. Graw - /-Ii// I New York NY
\<3.91
6.10. MOVING-LOAD PLACEMENT FOR MAXIMUM
EFFECT -

6.10.1. Singular Figure 6.25 shows four familiar influence line shapes for simply supported
Concentrated Load members. If only one concentrated moving load (P) is to be placed on the
members, positioning the load at the maximum positive ordinate of each
respective influence line (see arrow designations in Fig. 6.25) will affect
maximum positive values of reaction, shear, or moment. Placing the load at
the maximum negative ordinate of Fig. 6.25b and 6.25d will yield maximum
negative shear. Locating a cluster of closely spaced concentrated loads in
the vicinity of the peak amplitude of the influence line will approximate the
maximum function· value. The actual location of the cluster loading to
produce a maximum effect, called the critical position, can be accomplished
by trial and error. Section 6.10.3 offers a method which uses influence lines
to determine the critical position of a series of fixed-spaced concentrat.::d
moving loads.

Figure 6.25

(t1) End shear (reaction) (cl Interior moment

(h) Interior· beam shear (d) Deck girder panel shcur

6.10.2. Uniform With reference to the influence lines of Fig. 6.25, maximum function values
Distributed Load . can easily be obtained for uniformly distributed live loads. As in the follow-
ing examples:
1 A maximum positive end reaction will occur by placing the uniform load
over the entire beam length of Fig. 6.25a.
2 Maximum positive beam shear or panel shear is found by placing the
uniform load over the positive regions only for the influence lines of Figs.
6.25b and 6.25d, respectively; vice verAa for negative shear.
3 Maximum positive interior moment will occur by placing the uniform
load over the entire beam length of Fig. 6.25c.
 ~E\<.O 012..01NATE Loc:.A.--r,oN
- l\Nt;A;R, lNFLUENCE L1NE

T
b+ r X- 4
1 ~--~----, l
b_
~~§ l
~;;;~
ace
'"''::?~
-NO-
L ➔I
~~~;
~I~,...;:
""' .... :

-b / . _ 6_ " "· b+
+ tftt- I Yri+ - L

ti)_ = b+ - b -
/ L

NcTE ~ ~o+h o~ +he.se. so \u..~LO'r\~ oxe. o 'n-\-a.lned

-troM y = m ;( + b wrth '/ -==- 0.

 Example Truss Problem: Application of Loads to Maximize
Response

,_
1

BC

-~~l'l
..,....___.,.....,'Z.Ci. ~/(1

L---~--JU~::::::::~z,i't:t.:::=~\;\~'t.~==--:,,, CM
···-· ·-· ·-· · · · - · · - - - - - -~- ... --·--------- ------ ---·---·-----------·------··· ·-

Giv~r. -the i~tluer"\c.e. lines f'or meMbe.rs Lol, O.l"\d

U,L 2 (ver+ic.0-.I ~om-pcneT\tJ ~ deterrnLne +he ·mo.X-lY'iiLJ.TY\

+e.nst\~ O..l'\cl c:omo-r-::..;;:s;ve_ MEmbeY-- tDrces if -thE \oo..cl(r-jq

,... I J
I '
Gr·
l. ul'"\~ h)n," De0-d L0a.d ( UDL) - I. 2 ~/ft: ;
2.. Ul"\, for-m Live l ::i a. d l \J LL) - ! • 6 k/ft j

3. M~v~l',J Cor")ce11+rite.d L,v~ loa..ci (CLL) ==- 1sk.,,. C<nd

4. hA pQ ct to. c +or dg t LT\ ~~ by I. = SO/( L t 1z s) ~ s. 3 o
tu he.T'1. L " \ o o.. Je. cl \~r.J\1-.. \'r\ fee 1: ( see. Chapler z).
t
s'
-,--
\61
£----.,_;;;;l:..,..,-----'""'-----'-L~J_ _-4,,.·-LA .J..
,,r-

r- 41.14t--, ~
0 24 ,-1®
~ / L~ 54.8'. _ _ j°
· ri2.

ILt1L,: S'o/c~btlzs ') = o. 23 :

f ¾L,. = ,;'1/(54.Bb +1z.sl = 0,2.8

. 1-.--------·-·· i_~, ~~ ,:_. -5 o/'( 41. 14 + l2 5) ~ O. 30 '7---·/.0 !I
~
 lv\e'fv-l~Y Lu L, orJ, e.;i<...pe,\e.,'f\c:es- -+ei\.S~Qf) l IL 'f)(!)S-~+,ve_
-+~.,o~~out). Th1...~s

(~oL 1 }r-,._ax. = ~OL +- (FULL )h\o'.l( t (FC:.LL)~ax

+-TLJ.., [ ( FVL.L) Y'r\O.~ -\- ( FCLL JIY\(.\.')<]

_,.,.
./1'JUI;,
1. 2 [ :/2 ('%) ('~Vs)] '=
..i.,u.iW

;;~~
coo
,'}~~-

;;,;~~:-
.'l~o!")'
:NC"'l.-1
CF. ) "'Co<.
VLL =.
ULL •
A+
f-\L.,L1 ~ ,. 8 [ Y2 ( '')(
IQ
9 ,,,~)'7 = ~7.z'.<.
rb '..J -
--:r""<t"":

' (F;LoL1 ) ""AX -

'• <o-4.8 + '3'1.2 + \~.9 + ei.23 ('9'7.2 + l0.9)

~ 205'. I k. ( \}

MeMbe.r \J\L 2 exp~v-,enc.es: 'bo+t.. +~ns~).e_ af\d c:rrr"press\v~

behO..vLDY- or s+-ress- reve,sa..\ . C.onse..r,J,..Q.rrtly) ~CO(LlYIUr/\

fo -r bo¼ -+--€ ns lti f\ °'" J co n--i f, e.s-5; 1. Dr'\ mu.s + be.

( vl....J1L.2.1,"t\Q.l(. T =: FU'DL t (FULL} )Y\Q)(., T + ( rCLL) r,,ax T

+ T-~1L,_[((~LL }~0>1. T' T ( ~I...L) MO)( T J

FuoL - UDL • AU.Lz - I. 2 [ 1/z. (41. 14) (- 5112) + ½. (54 .sl,)(¼.)
~ - 4.e/·
\. a [ Yz. (s4.Bb)( 1/0)] ~ e. 2 k.
 ~-- -·---------·······--·----

- C:LL IS ( 1/"') == 2. 5 k

6
•
a
(VuL'
I l- } n,a :,l_ \
- -4,8 1< + 00 .zk. +z .. sk + (J.28 ( 8.2+2.s)

~ 8,9 k.

( Yu1L~ J hO)I_ c_ :: FIJDL + ( rvLL )MOX C + (Fc.u lr,,a;. C

.;~~
-~ -~ ....

+- I ~1L2. [ ( FvLL) l'I\O)(. C t ( fcu... ) ,.,_ax. CJ

.... ~1l2.l~a)I.C' :: -4 .. 8 -15.4 - ro.3 +o.3a (-15.4 -b.3)

~ - 33,Q

:Re.mat ks
\. Du.~ +o stress: reversal \y,.. rr,,e~ber lJ,L1. J ta1Lqu.e.
mo.'/ h,we. to be. c:.ons~dere.ct \r-- de~,jl"\lJ f"he ~M6e.r.
2. UQL ;~ o.\w-a.1 s: p\c,..<::e..J: Cl"\ ~e. ,Y\¼re. spetV\ \~~--\i .
.3. ULL. O.Y"\d C.Ll a..v-e plo..cEa-d hr ma.~\YY\U.W'\ e.f:.fec.t.

72
8.8 Live Loads for Highway and
Railroad Bridges
Cc(\ c.u.lo..-kr.j Ord~l\o..te. \f o..\u...e r +or
Live loads due to vehicular traffic on highway and rail- Li:11e.ar In +l1.1.el\ce. L~l\eS-
way bridges are represented by a series of moving con-
centrated loads with specified spacing between the
loads. In this section, we discuss the use of influence
lines to determine: (1) the value of the response function
r
for a given position of a series of concentrated loads and
(2) the maximum value of the response function due to a
a..
series of moving concentrated loads. lo

To calculate the response function for a given position

of the concentrated load series, simply multiply the
value of each series load Pi by the magnitude of the in-
--
. '_._-.. .... .

fluence line diagram ordinate Yi at the position of Pi, i.e.

The ordinate magnitude Yi can be calculated from the

slope of the influence line diagram (m) via
 Bk !Ok ISk Sk
where xi is the distance to point i measured from the
zero y-axis intercept. For example, consider the ILD of
A

="
B

l - - ! O f t - - 1 - - - -2ort~·--~
C
iii ~
I rtl set I
4ft !3
(a)
Fig. 9.5(b)
Load Position 1:
Sm= 8( 3~ 20) + 10(3116) + 15( 3113) + 5( 3~ 8) A

= (3~)(8(20) + 10(16) + 15(13) + 5(8)) (b} Influence Line for S8 (kilt)

-0.333 .
= mLPixi = 185k
8k 10k 15k 5k

Load Position 2: ~ cb----d>-db<b iia

LI:__,,
10...,,.ft--+i-:-4-:::-ft+!3:;-:ftd1-·5~ft.:--tl---'isi1ift;---il (c) Loading Position 1
SB2 = 3~(-8(6)+ 10(20)+ 15(17)+5(12))
8k 10k lSk 5k
= 15.6k
A cb---4--cb---d) C

12ft (d) Loading Position 2

Thus, load position 1 results in the maximum shear at
8k 10k 15 k Sk
pointB. J

A ©:::ID:©::::© ail
'ri:-~LI-ft+I
3 4 3c-:-/+[--::5,-:;:ft~f-l-----.1c5~ft --ii (e) Loading Position 3

10k15k 5k

AM-4 5
~1
2ft3ft
i::1
I 5ft
B ~
-1--4-:-4--t----::;;:;o-;:ft----,I 2 (f) Loading Position_ 4

,.;,,._,,.;..; ................. .,,.;..,-,._,.,;;-••r, •• m,.,,:-,•,,.,,:;,,,;;,;,;;,:;-,;,;;,:;,,.,-::-,===-:;;::-m,.,.m •• ,,,.,,._,_ .•,,."w'"--=~• ,,._r-,'="''",,,,'<>.,, O•Jr.~-, ... ••• .. >. • ••
 NOTE: If the arrangement of loads is such that all or
most of the heavier loads are located near one of the
ends of the series, then the analysis can be expedited by
selecting a direction of movement for the series so that
the heavier loads will reach the maximum influence line
ordinate before the lighter loads in the series. In such a
case, it may not be necessary to examine all the loading
positions. Instead, the analysis can be ended when the
. value of the response function begins to decrease; i.e.,
when t~e value of the response function is less than the
-preceding load position. This process is lmown as the
~"Inc11ease-Decrease Method", which· is discussed further
in Section 8.9 in your textbook.
CAUTION: This criterion is not valid for any general
series of loads. In general, depending on the load mag-
nitudes, spacing, and shape of the influence line, the
value of the response function, after declining for some
loading positions, may start increasing again for subse-
quent loading positions and may attain a higher maxi-
mum.
 iI
! I

- - - - + - - - - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - - - ·_· -'--!- - - - - - - - - - - - " ' / .

+
;

+he
'

G \~r'\ (nf lue..t"lc e. \ l T\ <!. tor. h.e. ve,-+(to..\ CO m~or-.e,d;

o+ rne."M.be.r S; \oca.-te. --the. s:er~es: o~ c~cel'..\r-a..te.d ~arces:
-+a n\a~tN\,-3<:. -he +el'\s(le. o"'ct <:ompre.s~\Y€. re..s:pon..\°e tor
member s .
.,.,.,
......
.........
;MIUW

.,.,.,
::c:::::c

t::ISL?~
000
W"I~~

-NO-. . .!I
~l!)a::I~
i
1.
"'"'"'
Nr-.il"'I·~
..... ...,"i

I"" 4@ \OM= -40M ,.j

I..LD +oY Ys
Fs ; 3/=, \/'S.

.lY\~x LMu M.. Te.Y\s t0 b· ·

. Move. loo..ch· .fi-Q'l'n- f'"j ht ~ ±o ' \e.ft C,\ '(\ cl f \0.C~ pol"\- +on:.e ~
oJ. pea.k on:hl"'\Qtes. ·

20 zo 20 2.0 20

l ~ ·i 4 ½ Fosi .\- ior-, 1

20 z.o :2.0 20 z.o za
.l l l ·i l +
2.o 2.0 zo z.o u, 20

i t l l l i

'7G
 ------·------ ·--·-·- ----- ····-·-----·------------·· ·--------·----------·-·---··-·--- -, . ·-·-···-·---

(V~1lT = 2... PL~ ( =- 20 ( 1/2..) [ 2 o/zo + 1¾0 -\- '½e, + ¾o i- '½o]

- ZS kN

20 l \J/2 \J [ 'I .. b7/1{,,,.fo7 t-

1.1:Jj
rzo +-
15"j
12.0 t-
10/
12.0 +-
· 5;
no
0/ 1 '
t 120J.

~ 21.s kN

( Vs3)T -= Z. \\ 'j~ :. zo(-¼) +z:o ( ½. >[ 1·"'1'G:i.<o7 + 2 ½.o + IS"/2° r '% 0 + o/5o]
- ,_
::-::o = 22..Sk\'1

,.",. ~\~c.v. T -=- 3/3 ( \IQ )T - 45.,83 k. "1

tv\().x,i ro\.lro. Co~press I OY\

Move loo-.d~ f.oJ\I'\ \ e -ft
o:t pe.o.k or dlV\o..tes.
20 2.0 z.o
t t l
20 zo 20 zo
~ 11 J
 Introduction to Statically
Indeterminate Structures1
Support reactions and internal forces of statically deter-
minate structures can be determined using only the equa-
tions of equilibrium. However, the analysis of statically
indeterminate structures requires additional equations
based on the geometry of deformation of the structure.
Some of the additional equations come from compatibil-
ity relationships, which ensure continuity of displace-
ments throughout the structure. The remaining equations
are constructed from member constitutive equations, i.e.,
relationships between stresses and strains and the inte-
gration of these equations over the cross section.
The design of an indeterminate structure is carried out in
an iterative manner, whereby the (relative) sizes of the
structural members are initially assumed and used to
analyze the structure. Based on the computed results
( displacements and intemr:il member forces), the member
1 Review Section 3.10 in the textbook as well.
sizes are adjusted to meet governing design criteria.
This iteration process continues until the member sizes
based on the results of an analysis are close to those as-
sumed for that analysis.
Another cons~quence of statically indeterminate struc-
tures is that the relative variation of member sizes influ-
ences the magnitudes of the forces that the member will
experience. Stated in another way, stiffness (large mem-
ber size and/or high modulus materials) attracts force.
Despite these difficulties with statically indeterminate
structures, an overwhelming majority of structures being
built today are statically indeterminate.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Statically
Indeterminate Structures
Advantages: Smaller stresses,greater stiffness, and re-
dundancy. Redundancy helps insure that failure in one
part of the structure will not result in catastrophic or col-
lapse failure of the structure.
..& • + +
w
• + • • • + 1 Disadvantages: stresses due to support settlement and
stresses due to temperature changes and fabrication er-
L rors.
E, I E. l

Statically Determinate Beam ·Statlcally Indeterminate Beam

Af5e;::.===I=nt=em=al\:=~=>in;:::g=:=====n::9:C
-
A.[l_ :2:B

(b) Statically Indeterminate Beam

(a) Statically Determinate Beam
Bending Moment Diagram Bending Moment Diagram
Fig.11.J
(a) (b)

Fig. 11.1

B
A li,.-1

1L--~L~_--!-z'I\J E. A, I 5=a(ilnL

(a) Statically D.:tcm1inaLc Beam

Statically Determinate Beam ~B
---
Internal hinge Aftr ==========,K;-~-F=aWT)AE
\ Statically Indeterminate Be3!11 F=a(AT)AE-w= 1j
~- L
E,A, I
~
(b) Statically Indeterminate Beam
. I
· ·· S_tatically Unstable · Statically Stable Fig. 11.4
(a) (b)

fig.11.2
 Indeterminate Structures: Influence Lines
14.1 Introduction
Influence lines for statically indeterminate structures
provides the same information as influence lines for
statically determinate structures, i.e. it represents the
magnitude of a response function at a particular location
on the structure as a unit load moves across the structure.
Our goals in this chapter are:
(1) To. become familiar with the shape of influence
lines for the support reactions and internal forces
in continuous beams and frames.
(2) To develop an ability to sketch the appropriate
shape of influence :functions for indeterminate
beams and frames.
14.4 Qualitative Influence Lines for Beams
In many practical applications, it is usually sufficient to
draw only the qualitative influence lines to decide where
to place the live loads to maximize the response func-
tions of interest. The Muller-Breslau Principle of Sec-
tion 8.4 (see also Section 14.3) provides a convenient
mechanism to construct the qualitative influence lines.
Recall that the Muller-Breslau principle is stated as:
The influence line for a force (or moment) response
function is given by the deflected shape of the released
structure by removing the displacement constraint corre-
sponding to the response function of interest from the
original structure and giving a unit displacement (or ro-
tation) at the location and in the direction of the re-
sponse function.

(3) To establish how to position distributed live loads

Procedure for constructing qualitative influence lines for
on continuous structures to maximize response
indeterminate structures is:
function values.
 ( 1) Remove from the structure the restraint corre- line ordinates tend to diminish rapidly with distance
sponding to the response function of interest; from the response function location, live loads placed
more than three span lengths away can be ignored. Once
(2) Apply a unit displacement or rotation to the re-
the live load pattern is known, an indeterminate analysis
leased structure at the release in the desired response
of the structure can be performed to determine the
function direction; and
maximum value of the response function.
(3) Draw the qualitative deflected shape of the re-
leased structure consistent with all remaining sup-
port and continuity conditions.

Notice that this procedure is identical to the one dis-

cussed for statically determinate structures. However,
unlike statically determinate structures, the influence
lines for statically indeterminate structures are typically
curved.

Placement of the live loads to maximize the desired re-

sponse function is obtained from the qualitative ILD and
results of Chapter 8. Uniformly distributed live loads are
place.3over the positive areas of the ILD to maximize the
drawn response function values. Because the influence
 j

Q. r: e.
-£ :g
L b
11. h c d e

--

~ - 1

+f~
~ . =---==--=----.

--==

-PoslTIVE Sl-tE:llt.R. QuALITJ'>Tlve. lNFLvEJllcE LNe s:

( Fltp ----010..jro;rns .for Ne90.-\-;ve S'l-ear)

~. =-::::::::::---
. ~ ;- : + ~~--~-
·--•--·-··-- ~ .
·- .•...
•• - - ' . - , __ • -• •• ~~-••--•~• ' •• •■--:• '-·- ·-•,-.-.--IL •••.•:-, a".-·- - - __ ___L,.___ • ·•·--•·-•·•• -~ ·'-' •·

~'·: ;_}~-< :~~-~~~::-~; .

-·--··--·· '-----·-···•--··-··-··--'---- ·------·----·-----·-···--·- ·-·--------·-· - ___.:_ _ ___
_.
--...,.....-,L--..,......,--~---=-··~-----'------'---·~--- ------ - - - -
 14.5 Live Load Pattern to Maximize Forces in
Multistory Buildings
Building codes specify that members of multistory build-
ings be designed to support a uniformly distributed live
+l
load as well as dead load of the structure. Dead and live
,..... ==~
loads are normally considered separately since the dead .
load is fixed in position whereas the live load must be
varied to maximize a particular force at each section of
the structure. Such maximum forces are typically pro-
duced by patterned loading.

Qualitative Influence Lines:

---~- .
1. Introduce appropriate unit displacement at the

Superscr tph : desired response function location.

2. Sketch the displacement diagram along the beam

or column line (axial force in column) appropri-
.,
,;:::;.
ate for the unit displacement and assume zero ax-
'PDSITlVE $1-t-E.~P.. Qu.P..LlTG>.T\VE tNFLV~NCE L\tlES
(r:1;p U1"jt~m.s ~r N.':'.Jo..·hve Sle0-'f) ial deformation.

3. Axial column force (do not consider axial force

in beams):

••---••••'.•,••nnm..;;.r:;-,,, . .•.C-<i",-,-;, - .,";,s-,s,:,;, .. , •~t~"'--•~ /')'I_,,_,_,,_,==;,, ..- - - •••" ••••••••< S-»<•,m><•>•••<•••••••••••~•••••••<•,-<•<••>•..................... •• , , , , , .• ._. ......, , , , , - - - ,. ......... ,,,,
 . -· ·-· ---· ·-·-·. ----··---· -

A 13 C 7)

(a) Sketch the beam line qualitative displacement

diagrams. E

(b) Sketch the column line qualitative displace-

ment diagrams maintaining equality of the C

connection geometry before and after defor- QILD l<A

mation.

4. Beam force:

(a) Sketch the beam line qualitative displacement

diagram for which the release has been intro-
duced.
A--=---
(b) Sketch all column line qualitative displace-
ment diagrams maintaining connection ge-
ometry before and after deformation. Start
column line qualitative displacement dia-
D
grams from the beam line diagram of (a).

(c) Sketch remaining beam line qualitative dis-

E.
placement diagrams maintaining connection
geometry before and after deformation.
 A 8 i C j D £
Q- SPQn number
~t~ <D ;J£ cl)~ Q) JJ;.@~
R,. tRa -

-<.::.-:::> <==>- R,.

(a)

R·8

tltil OJ
-=- 4f'......._ -== +V;
-.=_;;;a,,.""7-~"'r,ll.;;::,,.,..-<.::o;:::::=-->=="""".:::=::=- (lo:i.ds pl:i.i:ed ror
~ , mlL'timum + 11;)
(c)

(d)
---====-
.
-===- +M,-

'=:.:->~........__.... -M"
(e)

Qu.a.\~t~+ive.. \Sie.l\"h\ \l\t{'-'e"ce LLt"\€.S l To..t~o.jl~on~, \<;91)

"
(a) (h)

(c)
. (d)

Q.tet\L+o...\.,ve Fr a.~e. {.1'\+\l.-\e -nc e. L"LT"\e. s · ~" d Lr~+~ c~\ _

l,ve. Loa.d "1'\o.ceN'iel\tS (T°'Y-to..5\iane., \'99\)
. 8':i
 QUALITATIVE INFLUENCE LINES USING KYFrame

KYFrame can be used to construct qualitative influence lines using double nodes at the influ-
ence line function point and the nodal displacement load option. Simply impose nodal dis-
placements/rotations consistent with the desired influence line function. An example problem
( example 4) illustrating this technique is included in the KYFrame User's Manual.

ENVELOPE CURVES

Design engineers often use influence lines to construct shear and moment envelope curves for
continuous beams in buildings or for bridge girders. An envelope curve defines the extreme
boundary values of shear or bending moment along the beam due to critical placem~nts of de-
sign live loads. For example, Fig. 1 below shows a three-span continuous beam. Qualitative
influence lines for both positive and negative moments are given on the next page, shear influ-
ence lines are presented 13 pages from this page. Based on the qualitative influence -lines,
critical live load placement can be determined, KYFrame can be used to calculate the member
end shear, and moment values for the dead load case and the critical live load cases. These
results are presented starting three pages hence. A spreadsheet program is used to evaluate
the moment values along the span lengths and is used to graph the live load moment envelope
curve. The final moment envelope curve is the superposition of the live load moment enve-
lope curve and the dead load induced mo_ments.

Construction of the shear envelope curve follows the same procedure, except more live load
cases must be considered. This is the case since for a given span shear influence point only a
portion of the span is loaded rather than the full span as is the case for the moment envelope
curve. A compromise analysis involves loading only one-half of the span being considered
plus adjacent spans that cause an increase in the span shear. However, a complete analysis
should also load increasing/decreasing fractions of the span where shear is being considered.

m m rn

Fig. 1. Three Span Continuous Beam

· 06 -
 QuA.L\ T~T\\IE. \NfLVE~CE . L \NE Dlt\GR./\N\S

MoME\'-ff b--\vE.LO PE CuRve:s '

b C.

-.:.:::::::::
___ _;::::::=-=

-L"'IO-•
~(OCC.-
C;C';'~.
NNt'-1 ~
'<$',o; "'I! r.

:::::---,.,

_;::::.:>"" ~ <-...:.::
o:::::::::___ ____,,

-:::::::::::

::::----,, c:.::::::::::::___:::;x::::::

____;:;> ~
--:::::::::::::

-Me.
::::--:-,,,. ~ '

,._ .. -.~ . -· •, .. :,_ -,.~

 2 3 4-,
~}l ;g,;; , ""A A
1- L :;.I .... L ~I~ L ,.1

L~ 20'
E = 3000 k.rl WOL =- L2 y ft,
A= 00 in z WLL - 4· .. e Yr1.
j_ :::,, ' 4
500 U1

\J,e "" V' - xt 1 ,

Mte "' - h\ + Vt 'l.t - / l(•/2

\he == Vi.,
M le.= ~ .M·c + Vl x~
W1..1..

Loo.. d Co. s e s
Wt1L
,4: 11 11 :;Q. ;,Q.
1: J._ I 1. I £ i 1_ Wu
fl 11
Wu.,

3~t;,; 1. 1 11

88
Member-End Shear and Moment Results for the
Three-Span Continuous Beam Subjected to
Seven Different Load Cases to
Determine the Moment Envelope

RESULTS FOR LOAD SET: 1

***** ME MB E R F 0 R C E S *****

MEMBER AXIAL SHEAR BENDING

MEMBER NODE FORCE FORCE MOMENT
(kip) (kip) (ft-k)

1 1 0.00 9.60 0.00

2 -0.00 14.40 -48.00

2 2 0.00 12.00 48.00

3 -0.00 12.00 -48.00

3 3 0.00 14.40 48.00

4 -0.00 9.60 0.00

RESULTS FOR LOAD SET: 2

***** ME MB E R F O R C E S *****

MEMBER AXIAL SHEAR BENDING

MEMBER NODE FORCE FORCE MOMENT
{kip) (kip) (ft-k)

1 1 0.00 43.20 0.00

2 -0.00 52.80 -96.00

2 2 0.00 0.00 96.00

3 -0.00 -0.00 -96.00

3 3 0.00 52.80 96.00

4 0.00 43.20 -0.00
 RESULTS FOR LOAD SET: 3 -- - .... -

***** ME M B E R F 0 R C E S *****
MEMBER AXIAL SHEAR BENDING
MEMBER NODE FORCE FORCE MOMENT
(kip} {kip} {ft-k)

1 1 0.00 -4.80 0.00

2 -0.00 4.80 -96.00

2 2 0.00 48.00 96.00

3 0.00 48.00 -96.00

3 3 0.00 4.80 96.00

4 0.00 -4.80 0.00

RESULTS FOR LOAD SET: 4 - ........... - -

***** M E MB E R F 0 R C E S *****
MEMBER AXIAL SHEAR BENDING
MEMBER NODE FORCE FORCE MOMENT
(kip) (kip) (ft-k)

1 1 0.00 41.60 -0.00

2 0.00 54.40 -128.00

2 2 -0.00 8.00 128.00

3 0.00 -8.00 32.00

3 3 0.00 -1. 60 -32.00

4 0.00 1. 60 -0.00

RESULTS FOR LOAD SET: 5 - - ..... - -

***** M E MB E R F 0 R C E S *****

MEMBER AXIAL SHEAR BENDING

MEMBER NODE FORCE FORCE MOMENT
{kip) (kip) (ft-k)

1 1 0.00 1. 60 0.00
2 -0.00 -1.60 32.00

2 2 0.00 -8.00 -32.00

3 -0.00 8.00 -128.00

90
 3 3 0.00 54.40 128.00
4 o.oo 41.60 -0.00

RESULTS FOR LOAD SET: 6

***** M E MB E R F 0 R C E S *****

MEMBER AXIAL SHEAR BENDING

MEMBER NODE FORCE FORCE MOMENT
(kip) (kip) (ft-k)

1 1 o.oo 36.80 -0.00

2 -0.00 59.20 -224.00

2 2 0.00 56.00 224.00

3 0.00 40.00 -64.00

3 3 o.oo 3.20 64.00

4 0.00 -3.20 0.00

RESULTS FOR LOAD SET: 7

***** ME MB E R F 0 R C E S *****

MEMBER AXIAL SHEAR BENDING

MEMBER NODE FORCE FORCE MOMENT
(kip} (kip) (ft-k}

1 1 0.00 -3.20 0.00

2 -0.00 3.20 -64.00

2 2 o.oo 40.00 64.00

3 -0.00 56.00 -224.00

3 3 o.oo 59.20 224.00

4 0.00 36.80 -0.00
 Shear and Moment Equations for the Three Span
Continuous Beam

Load Case 1
V12 = 9.6- l.2x1
M12 = 9.6x1 - 0.6(x1)2
V23 = 12- l.2x2
M23 = -48 + 12x2 - 0.6(x2)2
V34 = 14.4- l.2x3 . 2
M34 = -48 + 14.4x3 - 0.6(x3)

Load Case 2 Load Case 5

V 12 = 43.2 - 4.8x1 V12 = 1.6
M12 = 43.2x1 - 2.4(x1)2 M12 = l.6x1
V23=0 V23 = -8
M23 =-96 M23 = 32-8x2
V34 = 52.8 - 4.8X3 V34 = 54.4-4.8x3
M34 =· -96 + 52.8x3 - 2.4(x3)2 M34 = -128 + 54.4x3 - 2.4(x3)2

Load Case 3 Load Case 6

V12 = -4.8 V 12 = 36 . 8 - 4.8x1
M12=-4.8x1 M12 = 36.8x1 - 2.4(x1)2
V23 = 48-4.8x2 V23 = 56-4.8x2
M23 = -96 + 48x2 - 2.4(x2)2 M23 = -224 + 56x2 - 2.4(x2)2
V34 = 4.8 V34 = 3.2
M34 = -96 + 4.8X3 M34 = -64 + 3 .2x3

Load Case4 Load Case 7

V12 = 41.6-4.8x1 V12 =-3.2
M12 = 41.6x1 -2.4(x1)2 M12 = -3.2x1
V23=8 V23 = 40-4.8x2
M23 = -128 + 8x2 M23 = -64 + 40x2 - 2.4(x2)2
V34.=-l.60 V34 = 59.2-4.8x3
M34 = 32 - l.6x3 M34 = -224 + 59.2x3 -2.4(x3)2

9 2.
 Bending Moment Diagram for Load Case 1

Bending Moment Diagram for Load Case 2

~r•

- r1s2. in -bips

Bending Moment Diagram for Load Case 3

Bending Moment Diagram for Load Case 4

-;,J 104 " IIIE-

- 15¼ \ I\ - k(rr

Bending Moment Diagram for Load Case 5

Bending Moment Diagram for Load Case 6

l00 1' t----

1i.;z ;". k.\r~

Bending Moment Diagram for Load Case 7

95'
 Moment Envelope Example: Three Span Continuous Beam
Live Load Total Load
LC1 LC2 LC3 l,.C4 LCS LC6 LC7 E-Mom E-Mom
X (ft) M (ft-kips) M (ft-kips) M (fl-kips) M (ft-kips) M (ft-kips) M (ft-kips) M (ft-kips) (+) (-) (+) (-)
0 0.0 0.0 0,0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 9.0 40.8 -4.8 39.2 1.6 34.4 -3.2 40.8 -4.8 49.8 4.2
2 16.8 76.8 -9.6 73.6 3.2 64.0 -6.4 76.8 -9.6 93.6 7.2
3 23.4 108.0 -14.4 103.2 4.8 88.8 -9.6 108.0 -14.4 131.4 9.0
4 28.8 134.4 -19.2 128.0 6.4 108.8 -12.8 134.4 -19.2 163.2 9.6
5 33.0 156.0 -24.0 148.0 8.0 124.0 -16.0 156.0 -24.0 189.0 9.0
6 36.0 172.8 -28.8 163.2 9.6 134.4 -19.2 172.8 -28.8 208.8 7.2
7 37.8 184.8 -33.6 173.6 11.2 140.0 -22.4 184.8 -33.6 222.6 4.2
8 38.4 192.0 -38.4 179.2 12.8 140.8 -25.6 192.0 -38.4 230.4 0.0
9 37.8 194.4 -43.2 180.0 14.4 136.8 -28.8 194.4 -43.2 232.2 -5.4
10 36.0 192.0 -48.0 176.0 16.0 128.0 -32.0 192.0 -48.0 228.0 :.12.0
11 33.0 184.8 -52.8 167.2 17.6 114.4 -35.2 184.8 -52.8 217.8 -19.8
12 28.8 172.8 -57.6 153.6 19.2 96.0 -38.4 172.8 -57.6 201.6 -28.8
13 23.4 156.0 -62.4 135.2 20.8 72.8 -41.6 156.0 -62.4 179.4 -39.0
14 16.8 134.4 -67.2 112.0 22.4 44.8 -44.8 134.4 -67.2 151.2 -50.4
15 9.0 108.0 -72.0 84.0 24.0 12.0 -48.0 108,0 -72.0 117.0 -63.0
16 0.0 76.8 -76.8 51.2 25.6 -25.6 -51.2 76.8 -76.8 76.8 -76.8
17 -10.2 40.8 -81 .6 13.6 27.2 -68.0 -54.4 40.8 -81.6 30.6 -91.8
18 -21.6 0.0 -86.4 -28.8 28.8 -115.2 -57.6 28.8 -115.2 7.2 -136.8
19 -34.2 -45.6 -91.2 -76.0 30.4 -167.2 -60.8 30.4 -167.2 -3.8 -201.4
20 -48.0 -96.0 -96,0 -128.0 32.0 -224.0 -64.0 32.0 -224.0 -16.0 -272.0
21 -36.6 -96.0 -50.4 -120.0 24.0 -170.4 -26.4 ·. 24.0 -170.4 -12.6 -207.0
22 -26.4 -96.0 -9.6 -112.0 16.0 -121.6 6.4 16.0 -121.6 -10.4 -148.0
23 -17.4 -96.0 26.4 -104.0 8.0 -77.6 34.4 34.4 -104.0 17.0 -121.4
24 -9.6 -96.0 57.6 -96.0 0.0 -38.4 57.6 57.6 -96.0 48.0 -105.6
25 -3.0 -96.0 84.0 -88,0 -8.0 -4.0 76.0 84.0 -96.0 81.0 -99.0
26 2.4 -96.0 105.6 -80.0 -16.0 25.6 89.6 105.6 -96.0 108.0 -93.6
27 6.6 -96.0 122.4 -72.0 -24.0 50.4 98.4 122.4 -96.0 129.0 -89.4
28 9.6 -96.0 134.4 -64.0 -32.0 70.4 102.4 134.4 -96.0 144.0 -86.4
29 11.4 -96.0 141.6 -56.0 -40.0 85.6 101.6 141.6 -96.0 153.0 -84.6
30 12.0 -96.0 144.0 -48.0 -48.0 96.0 96.0 144.0 -96.0 156.0 -84.0
31 11.4 -96.0 141.6 -40.0 -56.0 101.6 85.6 141.6 -96.0 153.0 -84.6
32 9;6 -96.0 134.4 -32.0 -64.0 102.4 70.4 134.4 -96.0 144.0 -86.4
33 6,6 -96.0 122.4 -24.0 -72.0 98.4 50.4 122.4 -96.0 129.0 -89.4
34 2.4 -96.0 105.6 -16.0 -80.0 89.6 25.6 105.6 -96.0 108.0 -93,6
35 -3.0 -96.0 84.0 -8.0 -88.0 76.0 -4.0 84.0 -96.0 81.0 -99.0
36 -9.6 -96.0 57.6 0.0 -96.0 57.6 -38.4 57.6 -96.0 48.0 -105.6
37 -17.4 -96.0 26.4 8.0 -104.0 34.4 -77.6 34.4 -104.0 17.0 -121.4
38 -26.4 -96.0 -9.6 16.0 -112.0 6.4 -121.6 16.0 -121.6 -10.4 -148.0
39 -36.6 -96.0 -50.4 24.0 -120.0 -26.4 -170.4 24.0 -170.4 -12.6 -207,0
40 -48.0 -96,0 -96.0 32.0 -128.0 -64.0 -224.0 32.0 -224.0 -16.0 -272.0
41 -34.2 -45.6 -91.2 30.4 -76.0 -60.8 -167.2 30.4 -167.2 -3.8 -201.4
42 -21.6 0.0 -86.4 28.8 -28.8 -57.6 -115.2 28.8 -115.2 7.2 -136.8
43 -10.2 40.8 -81.6 27.2 13.6 -54.4 -68.0 40.8 -81.6 30.6 -91.8
44 0.0 76.8 -76.8 25.6 51.2 -51.2 -25.6 76.8 -76.8 76.8 -76.8
45 9.0 108.0 -72.0 24.0 84.0 -48.0 12.0 108.0 -72.0 117.0 -63.0
46 16,8 134.4 -67.2 22.4 112.0 -44.8 44.8 134.4 -67.2 151.2 -50.4
47 23.4 156.0 -62.4 20.8 135.2 -41.6 72.8 156.0 -62.4 179.4 -39.0
48 28.8 172.8 -57.6 19.2 153.6 -38.4 96.0 172.8 -57.6 201.6 -28.8
49 33.0 184.8 -52.8 17.6 167.2 -35.2 114.4 184.8 -52.8 217.8 -19.8
50 36.0 192.0 -48.0 16.0 176.0 -32.0 128.0 192.0 -48.0 228.0 -12.0
51 37.8 194.4 -43.2 14.4 180.0 -28.8 136.8 194.4 -43.2 232.2 -5,4
52 38.4 192.0 -38.4 12.8 179.2 -25.6 140.8 192.0 -38.4 230.4 0.0
53 37.8 184.8 -33,6 11.2 173.6 -22.4 140.0 184.8 -33.6 222.6 4.2
54 36.0 172.8 -28.8 9.6 163.2 -19.2 134.4 172.8 -28.8 208.8 7.2
55 33.0 156.0 -24.0 8,0 148.0 -16.0 124.0 156.0 -24.0 189.0 9.0
56 28.8 134.4 -19.2 6.4 128.0 -12.8 108.8 134.4 -19.2 163.2 9.6
57 23.4 108.0 -14.4 4.8 103.2 -9.6 88.8 108.0 -14.4 131.4 9.0
58 16.8 76,8 -9.6 3.2 73.6 -6.4 64.0 76.8 -9.6 93.6 7.2
59 9.0 40.8 -4.8 1.6 39.2 -3.2 34.4 40.8 -4.8 49.8 4.2
60 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
 LIVE LOAD MOMENT ENVELOPE
3000-.---------------------,

32·
I
C:

1:
(I)
E
~ -1000 ···························································· ····································.··················---~------1

-2000 ·······························-----

-3000 . . . . . . . .~....,.....,-.--r-r--r--r-.....-.-.-~~..,.....,......~....,..,...,...~,........,..,.."T""T'"'T""T"--.-,....,...,........,....,..r--,-r-,-T""T'""T'""T".,.......,...
0 108 .240 360 480 612 720
Beam Distance (in)

[ --- Pos Mom Envelope ---+- Neg Mom Envelope

97
 MOMENT ENVELOPE

2000 ·······-·

'en
C.
~
I
C:
:.::..
,f-1
C:
(I)
E
0
~ -2000 · · · - - --··········-····--

-3000 ··············································~······•--4•.j.

~4000~. . . . . . . .........-T"".........-,_...........,...,...,................,..............--.-..............,...,.........-.-.-,-~...............................,....................................
........-......-r-.-.......-.-.-'

o 108 240 360 480 612 720

Beam Distance (in)

1--.- Pos Mom Envelope -+- Neg Mom Envelope

':18 .
 a. C e
£ :g M- =Mr
L b d R

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100
 Approximate Analysis of
li' Indeterminate Structures
Every successful structure must be capable of reaching
stable equilibrium under its applied loads, regardless of
structural behavior. Exact analysis of indeterminate
structures involves computation of-deflections and solu-
tion of simultaneous equations. Thus, computer pro-
grams are typically used. To eliminate the difficulties
associated with exact analysis, preliminary designs of
indeterminate structures are often based on the results of
approximate analysis. Approximate analysis is based on
introducing deformation and/or force distribution
assumptions into a statically indeterminate structure,
equal in number to degree of indeterminacy, which
maintains stable equilibrium of the structure. No
assumptions inconsistent with stable equilibrium are
admissible in any approximate analysis.
Uses of approximate analysis includes: (1) planning
phase of projects, when several alternative designs of the
structure are usually evaluated for relative economy; (2)
estimating the various member sizes needed to initiate an
exact analysis; (3) check on exact analysis results; (4)
upgrades for older structure designs initially based on
approximate analysis; and (5) provide the engineer with
a sense of how the forces distribute through the structure.
In order to determine the reactions and internal forces of
indeterminate structures using approximate equilibrium
methods, the equilibrium equations must be supple-
mented by enough equations of conditions or assump-
tions such that the resulting structure is stable and stati-
cally determinate. The required number of such addi-
tional equations equals the degree ofstatic indeterminacy
for the structure, with each assumption providing an in-
dependent relationship between the unlmown reactions
and/or internal forces. In approximate analysis, these
additional equations are established by using engineering
judgment to make simplifying assumptions about the re-
sponse of the structure.
15 .2_ Approximate Analysis of a Continuous
Beam for Gravity Loads
Continuous beams and girders occur commonly in build- .
ing floor systems and bridges. In the approximate analy-
sis of continuous beams, points of inflection or inflection
point (IP) positions are assumed equal in number to the
degree of static indeterminacy. For continuous beam
structures, the degree of static indeterminacy equals
where NbR = number of bending reactions (vertical
support reactions and moment support reactions) and C
= number of equations of condition in bending.
Each inflection point position introduces one equation of
condition to the static equilibrium equations. Two
strategies are used to approximate the location of the in-
flection points: ( 1) qualitative displacement diagrams of
the beam structures and (2) location of exact inflection
points for some simple statically indeterminate struc-
tures.
Approximate analysis of continuous beams usmg the
qualitative deflection diagram is based on the fact that
the elastic curve (deflected shape) of a continuous beam
can generally be sketched with a fair degree of accuracy
without performing an exact analysis. When the elastic
curve is sketched ·in this manner, the actual magnitudes
of deflection (displacements and rotations) are not accu-
rately portrayed, but the inflection point locations are
easily estimated even on a fairly rough sketch. With the
inflection points located (equal in number to the degree
of static indeterminacy), the analysis can proceed on the
basis of statics alone. An inflection point may be
thought of as an internal hinge for purposes of analysis.
In the case of beams, there will always be at least enough
inflec~on points to reduce the structure to a statically de-
terminate one and typically there are more inflection
points than the degree of indeterminacy. From the total
set of inflection points, select the needed number to
achieve a solution by statics. Recall that sketching the
elastic curve requires practice.

In addition to using qualitative deflected shapes, qualita-

tive bending moment diagrams can also be used to locate "'BEt-\'OING
Mon-.a1,·
inflection points. Recall that zero moment locations cor- ""Di "'-GRA:I'.\

respond to the inflection point locations.

(
Some examples to guide the "learning" and "practice" \
1 I
are given on the following pages. Both the elastic curve
and bending moment diagrams are given. When consid-
Ji:
k-L ~k L
' l
_,.1~ L
4
--1
'S"TF.VC.1iJ RE
El.= co"s-knt

ering problems which do not match the exact values

given, some useful guides are:

( 1) Inflection points move towards positions of re-

duced stiffness, and 1?£Ntil»G'
MoMEt,ff
(2) No more than one inflection point can occur in an DtAGR."""'-
unloaded span, and no more than two inflection
points will occur in a loaded span. l
'·
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- - - - -...i

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 15.6 Trusses with Double Diagonals
Truss systems for roofs, bridges and building walls often
contain double diagonals in each panel, which makes
each panel statically indeterminate. Approximate analy-
-
sis requires that the number of assumptions introduced
must equal the degree of indeterminacy so that only the
equations of equilibrium are required to perform the ap-
proximate analysis. Since one extra diagonal exists in
each double diagonal panel, one assumption regarding
the force distribution between the two diagonals must be
made in each panel. If the diagonals are slender, it may
be assumed that the diagonal members are only capable
of resisting tensile forces and that diagonals subjected to
compression can be ignored since they are susceptible to
buckling, i.e., assume very small buckling load and ig-
nore post-buckling strength. Such an assumption is il-
lustrated in Fig. l(a). In Fig. l(a), the total panel shear is
assumed to be resisted by the tension diagonal as shown.
Compression diagonals are assumed to resist no loading.
-
G
'1
With this assumption, the truss of Fig. 1 is statically de-
terminate.
The assumption discussed in the previous paragraph is
generally too stringent, i.e., the compression diagonals
can resist a portion of the panel shear. Figures 1(b) and
(c) show two different assumptions regarding the ability
of the compression diagonals to resist force. Figure 1(b)
shows the shear (vertical) components of the diagonal
members assuming that the compression and tension di-
agonals equally resist the panel shear. Figure 1(c) shows
the vertical force distribution among the compression
and tension diagonals based on the tension diagonal re-
sisting twice the force of the compression diagonal or
two-thirds of the panel shear. Any reasonable assump-
tion can be made.
Once the diagonal member forces are determined, the
remaining member forces in the truss can be calculated
using simple statics, i.e., the method of sections and/or
the method of joints.
 . . .. -- -·· ·- .. _ •• . . -·---- •.1 .. , . __ -::... ___\,, ,.·....-...J-a....:....,..,~ •.;.,.,.,...:...:...:_. -1.,._ .,i,~,. .•'_;.,:,_. ~

T
25 ft

l
10 kips 10 kips 10 kips 10 kips 10 kips
i----------6 @ 25 ft = 150 ft----------o.1
Only tension diagonals active:

2.S kips 25 kips

10 kips 10 kip:o. to kips 10 kips 10 kips
Compression diagonals (shown_ ~ashed) assume zero force resistance
(a)

Tension and compressive panel diagonals resist shear equally:

10 kips 10 kips 10 kips 10 kips 10 kips 25 kips -

Only left panel diagonal values shown due to symmetry
(/,)

. !

;t•

~5 kipi. 25 kips
to kips ~ 10 kips 10 kips 10 kips 10 kips
'(

Only left panel diagonal V-Jlucs shown due to symmetry

. '
- (c)

Ft.~. l Fo rc.e. As s-uMP-r 1oN s \N

UouGLE: -"D1~GDN 1-'\L TRv.5r
,M£JV\\3·El(. (·TA1<-TAGLlbNEJ 1991)
 Chapter 16
Approximate Analysis of
·statically Indeterminate Structures
This material is copied from:

James K. Nelson and Jack C. McCormac

Structural Analysis Using Classical and Matrix Methods,
3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2003, pp. 373-378.

16.1 INTRODUCTION

The approximate methods presented in this chapter for analyzing statically indeterminate structures
could very well be designated as classical methods. The same designation could be made for the
moment distribution method presented in Chapters 17 and 18. The methods discussed in this and the
next several chapters will often· be seen and used by an engineer in the course of everyday design-they
are the methods of analysis commonly used in current engineering practice.

Statically indeterminate structures may be analyzed "exactly" or "approximately." Several "exact"

methods, which are based on elastic distortions, are discussed in Chapters 13 through 15. Approximate
methods, which involve the use of simplifying assumptions, are presented in this chapter. These
methods have many practical applications such as the following:

1. When costs are being estimated for alternative structural configurations and design
concepts, approximate analyses are often very helpful. Approximate analyses and
approximate designs of the various alternatives can be made quickly and used for initial cost
estimates.
2. To analyze a statically.indeterminate structure, an estimate of the member sizes must be
made before the structure can be analyzed using an 11 exact" method. This is necessary because the
analysis of a statically indeterminate structure is based on the elastic properties of the
members. An approximate analysis of the structure will yield forces from which reasonably
good initial estimates can be made of member sizes.
3. Today, computers are available with which "exact" analyses and designs of highly indeterminate
structures can be made quickly and economically. To make use of computer programs,
preliminary estimates of the size of the members should be made. If an approximate analysis
of the structure has been done, very reasonable estimates of member sizes are possible. The
result will be appreciable savings of both computer time and design hours.
4. Approximate analyses are quite useful for checking computer solutions, which is a very
important matter.

5. An "exact" analysis may be too expensive for small noncritical systems, particularly when
preliminary designs are being made. An acceptable and applicable approximate method is
very appropriate for such a situation.

\09
 6. An additional advantage of approximate methods is that they provide the analyst with an
understanding for the actual behavior of structures under various loading- conditions. This
important ability probably will not be developed from computer solutions.

To make an "exact" analysis of a complicated statically indeterminate structure, a qualified analyst must
model the structure, that is, the analyst must make certain assumptions about the behavior of the structt.u;e.
For instance, the joints are assumed to be simple or to be semi-rigid. Characteristics of material behavior
and loading conditions must be assumed, and so on. The result of these assumptions is 'that all analyses are
approximate. We could say that we apply an "exact" analysis method to a structure that does not really
exist. Furthermore, all analysis methods are approximate in the sense that every structure is constructed
within certain tolerances-no structure is perfect-and its behavior cannot be determined precisely.

Many different methods are available for making approximate analyses. A few of the more common
ones are presented here, with consideration being given to trusses, continuous beams, and building frames.
The approximate methods described in this chapter hopefully will provide you with a general knowledge
about a wide range of statically indeterminate structures. Not all types of statically indeterminate
structures are considered in this chapter. However, based on the ideas presented, you should be able to
make reasonable assumptions when other types of statically indeterminate structures are encountered.

To be able to analyze a structure using the equations of static equilibrium, there must be no more
unknowns than there are available equations of static equilibrium. If a truss or. frame has 10 more
unknowns than equations of equilibrium, it is statically indeterminate to the 10th degree. To
analyze it by an approximate method, one assumption for each degree of indeterminacy, a total of 10
·. assumptions must be made. Each assumption effectively provides another equation of equilibrium to
use in the calculations.

16.2 TRUSSES WITH TWO DIAGONALS IN EACH PANEL

16.2.1 Diagonals Having Little Stiffness

The truss shown in Figure 16.1 has two diagonals in each panel. If one of the diagonal
members were removed from each of the six panels, the truss would become statically
determinate. Therefore the truss in Figure 16.1 is statically indeterminate to the sixth degree.

7 20ft

x-----~~-4--¥-+-----+---=--+~--------,.&._J_
10 k 20k 20 k

- - - - ~ - - - - - - - - 6 at 20 ft= 120 ft - - - - - - - - - - - -

Figure 16.1 A truss analyzed assuming diagonals act only in tension

Frequently the diagonals in a truss are relatively long and slender, often being made of a pair of small steel
angles. They can carry reasonably large tensile forces but have negligible capacity in compression. For
this situation, it is logical to assume that the shearing force in each panel is carried entirely by the diagonal
that would be in tension for that sense of the shearing force (positive or negative). The other diagonal is
assumed to have no force. Making this assumption in each panel effectively provides six "equations"
with which to evaluate the six redm1dants. The members in the remaining members can be evaluated with the
equations of static equilibrium cast as the method of joints or the method of sections. The forces in Figure
16.1 were obtained on this basis.

16.2.2 Diagonals Having Considerable Stiffness

In some trusses, the diagonals are constructed with sufficient stiffuess to resist significant compressive
loads. In panels with two substantial diagonals, the shearing force is carried by both diagonals. The
division of shear causes one diagonal to be in tension and the other to be in compression. The usual
approximation made is that each diagonal carries 50% of the shearing force in the panel: other divisions of
the shearing force are also possible. Another typical division is that one-third of shearing force is carried by
the diagonal acting in compression and two-thirds is carried by the diagonal in tension.

The forces calculated for the truss in Figure 16.2 are based on a 50% division of the shearing force in each
panel.

l
20 ft

~~~~~~~l-
~1 10 k 20 k 20 k
~ ..,,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 6 at20 ft= 120 ft - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ -
;,f
Figure 16.2 Approximate analysis of attlH ~ diagonals amy50% ofpanel shearing furce .

16.3 CONTINUOUS BEAMS

Before beginning an "exact" analysis of a building frame, the sizes of the members in the frame must be
estimated. Preliminary beam sizes can be obtained by considering their approximate moments. Frequently a
portion of the building can be removed and analyzed separately from the rest of the structure. For
instance, one or more beam spans may be taken out as a free body and assumptions made as to the
moments in those spans. To facilitate such an analysis, moment diagrams are shown in Figure' 16.3 for
several different m1iformly loaded beams.

It is obvious from the figure that the assumed types of supports can have a tremendous effect on the magnitude
of the calculated moments. For instance, the uniformly loaded simple beam in Figure 16.3 will have a
maximum moment equal to wL2/8. Ori the other hand, the uniformly loaded single-span fixed--ended beam
will have a maximum moment equal to wL2/ 12. For a continuous uniformly loaded beam, the engineer
may very well decide to estimate a maximum moment somewhere between the preceding values, at
perhaps wL2/ 10, and use that value for approximating the member size.

wL2/B wL2/24
~ ..
~

w w

~ aw-u-~-!i-·---:f-·!-~•-J.I
I . L ., . . . L ~ LL----1.-L_J
0.0703wL2 0.0703wL2 wL2/24 wL2/24
.
~:5JP"~ ~ .~

wL2/a ,.

o.oawL2 · o.o2swL2 o.oawL2 wL2124 wl2124 wl2!24

~---==-> ~ ~ .<:::::::-:. ~

o.1wT ~ w L2

Figure 16.3 Moment diagrams for some typical beams

A very common method used for the approximate analysis of continuous reinforced-concrete
structures involves the use of the American Concrete Institute bending moment and shearing force
coefficients 1. These coefficients, which are reproduced in Table 16.1, provide estimated
maximum shearing forces and bending moments for buildings of normal proportions. The values
calculated in this manner usually will be somewhat larger than those that would be obtained
with an exact analysis. Consequently, appreciable economy can normally be obtained by taking
the time or effort to make such an analysis. In this regard, the engineer should realize that these
coefficients are con~idered to apply best to continuous frames having more than three or four con-
tinuous spans.

1 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, ACI 318-95 (Detroit: American Concrete Institute) Section
8.3.3, pp. 79-80.
 TABLE 16. I ACI MOMENT COEFFICIENTS*

Positive moment
_End spans
1
If discontinuous end is restrained -wL2
11 n
I
If discontinuous end is integral with the support -wL2
14 ll

Interior Spans J.wL2

16 R

Negative moment at the exterior face of the first interior support

1
Two spans -wr,:
9
l.
More than two spans -w~
10
I
Negative moment at other faces of interior supports -wL2
11 n
Negative moment at face of all supports
. for (a) slabs with spans not exceeding 10
. .
ft
and (b) beams and girders where ratio of sum of column stiffness to beam stiffness ·. .!_w~
12
exceeds 8 at each end of the span
Negative moment at interior faces of exterior supports for members built integrally
with their supports
1
Where the support is a spandrel beam or girder -wL2
24 n

1
Where ~e support is a column -w~
16 .
1.15wL.i
Shear in end members at face of first interior support
2
wLu .
Shear at face of all o~er supports
2.

*American Concrete Institute ACI 318-02

fu developing the coefficients, the negative moment values were reduced to take into account the usual
support widths and some moment redistribution before collapse. fu addition, the positive moment
values have been increased somewhat to account for the moment redistribution. It will also be noted
that the coefficients account for the fact that in monolithic construction, the supports are not simple
and moments are present at end supports, such as where those supports are beams or columns.

\I3
In applying the coefficients, w is the design load per unit of length, while L 0 is the clear span for
calculating positive bending moments and the average of the adjacent clear spans-for calculating
negative bending moments. These values weredeveloped for members with approximately equal
spans-the larger of two adjacent spans does not exceed the smaller by more than 20%-and for
cases where the ratio of the uniform service live load to the uniform service dead load is not greater
than 3. In addition, the values are not applicable to pre-stressed concrete members. Should these
limitations not be met, a more precise method of analysis must be used.

For the design of a continuous beam or slab, the bending moment coefficients in effect provide two
sets of moment diagrams for each span of the structure. One diagram is the result of placing the live
loads so that they will cause maximum positive moment out in the span. The other is the result of
placing the live loads to cause maximum negative moments at the supports. Actually, it is not
possible to produce maximum negative moments at both ends of a span simultaneously. It takes one
placement of the live loads to produce maximum negative moment at one end of the span and another
placement to produce maximum negative moment at the other end. The assumption of both maximums
occurring at the same time is on the safe side, however, because the resulting diagram will have greater
critical values than are produced by either one of the two separate loading conditions.

·,::\'.:"',·L -,

Figure 16.4 Moment envelopes for continuous slab Figure 16.5 A portion of a building frame
constructed integrally with exterior supports that are to be analyzed by the equivalent frame
spandrel girders method

The ACI coefficients give maximum values for a bending moment envelope for each span of a continuous
frame. Typical envelopes are shown in Figure 16.4 for a continuous slab that is constructed integrally
with its exterior supports, which are spandrel girders.

On some occasions the analyst will take out a portion of a structure that includes not only the
beams but also the columns for the floor above and the floor below, as shown in Figure 16.5. This
procedure, usually called the equivalent frame method, is applicable only for gravity loads. The
sizes of the members are estimated and an analysis is made using one of the exact methods of
analysis we have discussed.
 0..1.1. ] .

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.·IA.I
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-lhl 0. ll

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[ A] ~ Oz., -0.23

0..32

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Clu tt 32 - th, C:Czz. a3, a,z. - C/11 thz a,, 422 - an.42,

115
 INDETERMINATE ANALYSIS - FORCE METHOD
The force (flexibility) method expresses the relationships between displacements and forces
that exist in a structure. A primary objective of the force method is to determine the chosen set
of excess unknown forces and/or couples, which are called redundants; The number of redun-
dants is equal to the degree ofstatic indeterminacy of the structure. Once the redundants have
been evaluated, the equations of equilibrium may be used to determine all internal forces and
moments needed in the designprocess.

STATIC INDETERMINACY EQUATIONS

The degree of static indeterminacy for a stable plane or space truss with m members and j joints
IS
i = (m + r) - 2j for a plane truss or i = (m + r)- 3j for a space truss

and the degree of static indetenninacy for a rigid plane or space frame is

i = (3m + r)-3j for a plane frame or i = (6m + r)- 6j for a space frame

where r is the number of support reactions and i is the degree ofstatic indeterminacy.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FORCE METHOD PROCEDURE

1. Determine the degree of static indeterminacy. A number of releases equal to the degree
of static indeterminacy are applied to the structure, each release being made by the re-
moval of an external or an internal force. The released structure is referred to as the
primary structure. The released structure must be chosen such that the remaining struc-
ture is geometrically stable and statically detenninate. In some cases the number of re~
leases can be less than the degree of indeterminacy, provided the remaining structure
can be readily analyzed. In all cases, the redundant forces should be carefully chosen so
that the primary structure is easy to analyze
2. The releases introduce displacement inconsistencies into the structure and as a second
step these inconsistencies or "errors" in the primary structure are determined. In other
words, we calculate the magnitude of the "errors" in the displacements corresponding to
the redundant forces. These displacements may be due to external applied loads, set-
tlement of supports, temperature variation, etc. They are calculated using the method of
virtual forces.
3. The third step consists of a determination of the displacements in the primary structure
due to unit values ofredundants (method of virtual forces). These displacements are
required at the same location and in the same direction as the displacement errors de-
termined in step 2.
4. Values of the redundant forces necessary to eliminate the errors in the displacements are
now determined. This requires the writing of superposition equations in which the ef-
fects of the separate redundants are added to the displacements of the released structure.
The superposition of the displacements results in a set ofn simultaneous linear equa-
tions (n = number of releases) that express the fact that there is zero relative displace-
ment at each release. These compatibility equations guarantee a final displaced shape

'1 IG
 consistent with known support conditions, i.e., the structure fits together at then re-
leases with no relative displacements. Then unknowns in the system of equations are
the redundant forces and/or couples.
5. Hence, we find the forces on the original indeterminate structure. They are the sum of
the correction forces (redundants) and forces on the released structure.

RELEASES
A release is a break in the continuity of the elastic curve. One release only breaks a single
type of continuity, so that a release is not the same as a cut through the structural member that
would break all continuity (axial, bending, and shear). Figure 1 shows several types ofre-
leases.

Displacement Release Corresponding Released Force

(a) Initially Continuous Segments

-)(--
(b) Angular Release

lt
(c) Lateral Release

(d). Longitudinal Release

Fig. 1 - Definition of Releases

A special form of release is often utilized in the analysis of externally statically indeterminate
structures, particularly continuous beams. This form of release is the continuity between the
structure and the support reaction. In this case, it may be easier to think in terms of simply re-
moving the redundant reaction.

117
Table 10.1 Expressions for Internal Virtual Work

Virtual Real Internal

Type of Force Displacement Virtual
Deformation Component q Component d Work =q x d

p - p
Axial force p di =-dx J p EA dx
EA
M ·-M
Bending bending m dip =-dx
El
J m Eldx
V - V
Shear shear v dy =>,..GA dx f vX GA dx

T - T
Torsionn torsion t d/3 = CJ dx J t CJ dx

Where p, m, v, -t. = internal forces due to external virtual force Q

A, I, J = geometric properties of structural element
E, C = material properties
P, M, V, T = internal forces due to real load system .
A = form factor to. account for variation in shear stress distribution
(1.2 for a rectangular section, 10/9 for a circular section, and
approximately 1.0 for a wide flange or I-beam). See Roark (1965].

a Torsional expression is confined to nonwarping cross sections such as a circular shape.

R.N. White, P. Gergeley and R.G. Sexsrnith

Structural Engineering - Combined Edition
John Wiley & Sons, 1976.

·.I IB
 10,3 INTERNAL VIRTUAL WORK EXPRESSIONS

Fig. 10.5
Forms of internal displacements.

Virtual forces: Virtual forces:

<=m(0h=m
~dx~

p-o~p
Real displacement:
-,
_j
Real
displacement:

~ ~dl

For real load P: For real moment M:

dl= 1:.dx;;::;f dx=E~dx def,=.11.dx
El

(a) Axial displacement. (b) Bending displacement.

Virtual forces: Virtual forces:

•=v10f•=• ij=f {l____D) q=T

\, dx .I
-Jdx~
Real displacement: Real displacement:
,-r_1
v10rty-..;

For real shear V: For real torque T:

dfl=ciJdx (for circular sections only)
dy=-ydx ={;dx= AdA_dx

(c) Shearing displacement. (d) Torsional displac~ment.

R.N. White, P. Gergeley and R.G. Sexsmith

Structural Engineering - Combined Edition
John Wiley & Sons, 1976.

ll9
FLEXIBILITY COEFFICIENTS
Displacement components Di are at the ith release caused by external loading on the primary
structure and are measures of the flexibility of the structure, i.e., the more flexible the structure,
the higher the value of the displacements. The primary structure displacements at the releases
are related to the unknown redundant forces Rj via

(1)

where fij is the displacement at release i due to a unit force in the direction of Rj at release j;
the fij 's are called flexibility coefficients.

Equation 1 is written in concise tensor notation where repeated subscripts imply summation
over the range of values. For example, if a structure possesses three redundant forces R 1, R 2
and R 3 the expanded form ofEq. 1 is

-D1 = f11 R1 +f12 R2 +f13 R3

-D2 = f21 R1 +f22 R2 +f23 R3 (2a)
-D3 = f31 R1 +f32 R2 +f33 R3

which is three equations in three unknowns. Equation (2a) can be expressed in matrix form as

-{D} = [F]{R} (2b)

where {D} = < D1 D 2 D 3 >Tis the displacement vector at the released degrees of.freedom;

-
{R} = < R1 R2 R3 >T is the redundant force vector; and [F] = f21
[fjl &2
f22
fj3l is thejlexibil-
f23
f31 f32 f33
ity matrix. The :flexibility matrix is square (3 x 3 for this particular example) and symmetric.

Displacements at the primary structure releases are calculated in the usual manner using the
principle of virtual forces, i.e.

(3)

where subscript i is used to signify in the direction of Ri at release i; d.e = differential axial
displacement, dcp = differential rotation displacement, and dy = differential shear displace-
ment.

The :flexibility coefficients are computed using

(4)

3
120
where

fa
ij -
-J-Pi EA(x)
Pj d
x
= axial flexibility influence coefficient

=bending flexibility influence coefficient

= shear flexibility influence coefficient

Examples 1 -4 deal with the use of the flexibility method for solving statically indeterminate
beam and truss structures subjected to mechanical loading.

NONMECHANICAL LOADING
Structures can and generally are subjected to loadings other than the mechanical type ofload-
ing. Temperature, shrinkage, prestress, imperfect fit and support settlements are other types of
load that a structure may experience. Any of these departures from the theoretical dimensions
in a statically indeterminate structure induces stresses into the structure that are in addition to
those caused by mechanical loading.

The analysis procedure for incorporating nonmechanical loads follows the same procedure used
for mechanical loading. Now the compatibility (superposition) equations must include the
terms resulting from dimensional changes. These dimensional changes are in addition to the
displacements caused by the mechanical loading on the primary structure.

Letting of, D~, ... , D~ represent the relative displacements corresponding to release 1, 2, ... ,
n caused by dimensional changes and support settlements, then the flexibility equations can be
written as

[F]{R} = -({D}+{D 8 }) (5)

Dimensional change displacements of are also calculated using the principle of virtual work.
Careful consideration on the signs of the of displacements is necessary. These change of di-
mension displacements are all relative displacements, as are all displacements corresponding to
releases. They are positive when they are in the same vector direction as the corresponding
release.

STRUCTURE FORCES
Once the redundant forces are calculated from Eq. (5), all other support reactions and internal
member forces can be calculated using static equilibrium along with the appropriate free body
diagrams. This is possible since the force method of analysis has been used to determine the
redundant forces or the forces in excess of those required for static determinacy.

4
Example 1 included such a calculation for the support reactions that were not redundant. Ex-
amples 5 and 6 also include such calculations for statically indeterminate structures subjected
to nonmechanical loading.

DISPLACEMENT CALCULATIONS
Displacements for the statically indeterminate structure can be calculated using the exact mem-
ber deformations for a truss or exact shear and moment expressions along with the virtual force
expressions on the primary structure.
For a truss structure, calculation of a joint displacement A using the principle of virtual forces
results in

(6)

where Pi are the primary structure member forces due to the application of a unit virtual force
at the joint for which the displacement A is desired and in the direction of A for the primary
structure; <>i are the exact member displacements that are obtained for the statically indetermi-
nate structure using the calculated redundant forces to determine all the member forces within
the truss structure and initial member strain influences or.t ;and 6A is the nonmechanical dis-
placement at 6.

For a frame structure; in which shear and axial deformations are ignored, the displacements are
calculated as

l(d) = m L L f mf [M· . Jdx + .AA

-~ + Kt (7a)
i=l O Ell

1(0) = m L L f m? (M·
-~ + Kint. Jdx + 9A (7b)
i='1 0 Ell

where mf, mf are primary structure virtual moments based on the desired displacement .A or
rotation 0; KF°t = member initial curvature strain for segment i; and AA, 9A = initial dis-
placement, rotation at the desired displacement A or rotation 0. The moment expressions Mi
are exact based on the statically indeterminate structure subjected to the external loads with the
redundant forces known from the flexibility analysis.

Equations (6), (?a), and (7b) are correct only because exact real member forces are used in the
calculation of the desired displacements. Examples 7, 8 and 9 illustrate the application of the
virtual force method for calculating structure displacements.

5
 1

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3
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T!
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131 .:,,
 APPENDIX B

Displacements of
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
A UNIFIED CLASSICAL AND MATRIX APPROACH prismatic members
FOURTH EDITION

A. Ghali
Professor of Civil Engineering,
University of Calgary The following table gives the displacements in beams of constant flexural
rigidity El and constant torsional rigidity GJ, subjected to the loading shown
on each beam. The positive directions of the displacements are downward
A. M. Neville fortranslation, clockwise for rotation. The deformations due to shearing forces
Civil Engineering Consultant
Formerly Principal and Vice-Chance/for,
are neglected.
University of Dundee

q per unit length

f P(l-b)x 1 1
1 = 61£] (21b - b - x ) when x,,;;;b
E &: FN SPON
An Imprint of Thomson Pro!H91on ■I
Pb(l-x)
London · Weinheim · New York · Tokyo • Melbourne • Madras _6_/_E_I_ (21x - x 2 - b2 ) when x~b

r _Pb(/ - b) 21
6lEI ( -
. i - b) r-
· 3 - -
Ph 12 i
6tE/ - b )

When h = fn, .f2 = - /3 = P/2 /(16El), and .f, = P/ 3 /48El at x = 1/2.

765
766 DISPLACEMENTS OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS
DISPLACEMENTS OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS
767

~
~ ~ '1
f, = 768£[
7P/3

P/2
!.. f2=-- . .
l/2
+ l/2 ~ 32£[

~ l/4 + //4 --I-- l/4-+- l/4 ---1 f4 = -

Mi2
16EI
q per unit- length

2lMl2
fs = - 384EI

Ml
r l/2
,1 112
~
Ji= 4EI
~
fz = - 256El
9Ml2
~?;;:5f
~_fi fi =
M/2
2EI

f3 = -
Ml 2
32EI ,. 112 lt2 Ml

I- 1/4 -+-1/4 -{-t/4 ---+-1/4 --1 3Ml2

·/ C
·I fi = El

f 4 = -: 256El Ip{ {j(

M/2
rwithl/I~1
./~ = BE/
(t-/3)
/3112
T q /unit length
~%1-------------1~----• - i l f = 24EJ
q/ 4 p2 1p(2 - p2 -
Tl
~t >i\~ f1 2,1,2)
.,,
t, f1 = GI
l½ ,, '2 e'4 J q/4

,
(Effect of warping ignored) f2 = 384£/ P3(32 - 39p + 12p2)

/3 = q/3 p2(2 - pi)

Pl3 24EJ
fi =3El
h =- q/3 p2 (4 - 4P + p2)

~
24EJ
f 2 =Pi2/2El

f4=f1 +df2
Ml
f1=-f2=--
P/ 3 ( 3b b3 ) 2EJ
f3 = 3EI l-21+ 213
f _ Mx(i-x)
3 f• '· 3 - - 2£/
for O~b~l
q per unit length
/1 = ipl 2/8
, t/Jx(l-x)
J2 2
BeamJII\·
depth L.J::}1fr=curvat-ure
ipl
---1/2---+---1/2 ---i f3 = -f4=2
Thermal expansion (strain)
-----e--------------------------------··-······-
'1. For -t1,e +rl.lS s o f' -e X,.0.h') fl le 3, ca..\ cu.lQ,~e -\1, e
'ler+~c.a.\ dtspla.cemenl CAt node 4 (i.e. 1 qt ~e a.ppl~e.d
force. P).
1P
0.112 P(T} t 4 _jtv4 2. ~(T)
- - 1 7 EA = cons+ttl\ t 4
~
l-
!i .......
...... 0

12.e clu.n Ja:,, t S¼ru. c kv-e 'PrlMo.ry S'ti'Ltc.b.r-e S-1.1.bjec-W

- "Bar Forces ¼o U" ~ .\- \/ lr ht et.l Force a.t
'Des heJ U'i s p\a.c-erv,en. b
1 # A"~ -EA
- \
"?- Pi FL Ll
" \ -7..
p
-- C 1 Co. \72. l)
E=A
I-?, t--..Z:-4 - 2-3 .3- 4-
+- 'a ~ + i (o.nz~) + o + ofo.sz~\)]
= pQ ( o .. ,..., 2 + o .4-eG:> + o. \12.)
EA,

- (). z'J 3
Pl
EA

\ 34
---...--------~------------------·---··-·--

--"'1 L I"'- '2.l -"-'1 L t-t- R\ ~2.

Ac. \-u_ c,J S-\-n.1. c:tt.tye Prtm a.vy St-t\A.c~re

w/ R~JuY\da.rJs
Pr \ Mar\, S\y.u cl-uve.]), '5. f lAcm,e r-A· s4
1--t- r
2.
P _!_ -4
z.
j_ = 4L

F\ex'- bt \~+y Coe.ff~~te.nts 1

t, I ~ s.Q."3 /1~aEI = 3 t:liz EI
t2.\ =- '1-P/iitoaEI = '1LJ/,2.E.I

f1.z = s9./"1',5EJ: =- 9 L3ft2 EI

-h2 : ~z., = i/Lo/\ze.T

IV\a.-\-r·"'- E.1u.a. t;ons

l~~I [ : :J {:J =
ll PL3
121::I.

11 ~\~xtb~lt.+y e~u.o..\.con e:oett~cLer\ts --ta.keV\ trom Gho..\1 c01.cl

Ne_v ~ \l e ( \. ~ 9 7) ho.. n d o u:t .
\ 35
---------------------------------~----··"-

Du.e -\--o sj M W\e.hy

\IL = Y2. ':. Y/2 - \H'/\6
:::. - 'l>t'/\lo

MoMe,,\:. E}u,:,.½:tcns V\. bl)

M,cx)= - ~r: (o ~)(, L) fx~

3?/\i
~ X -,,t
1-..A t~) = - "3Px + .!lf ( X-L)
"'1. \b 1/o ~ L j ) Mz.lx)
= "Px .ill:l
- 1f ill'
2 HJ lb \lo
( L ~ X. ~ 2l)

: .-
.\
:
'

= _-2_[-UIL
EI 31. o
+- ( Px 3
11.. - 11:~K') l~L]
-== ~
EI
[- PL! + S Pl:
3'2. 12
44 ?L?,
G4
Pl~
12
1l PL3
+- <o4
J
-- StiEI.
?L: ( -~ + l28 - \32 -\G +33)

D. 7P~
96E.1

136
.3. Co..\c.u..\o..te +he il\+tr~ or su~~ort 'fo+a.\tof\s +or
exa.mr\e prob\e M Ga
Q,::: 30 1 = '3(oQ

it*
II
~I 12.1.
E :C. = c.onstcu, 't
I.tr
~..l 4..t +!
~
--,I
C.o.\t\.l\cd-e.c\ ttclv.Y\ciQJ\t.r 'R\ R2. tun 1 be expre~re_J Qs
< R_ R2 ) -=- EI < - 2. _!_) =:; M < - I 1/4 )
1 5'4,ooo 3 ~

9A

!I~*
'
k ,... f H---~-,;,;
4
*
ReQ\ S-trl.t.ckre. D,sp\Q.c.eMerth Pr i. rnory S: +n-tc:\·ure 1)-;sf\ o.ceme..,.\.r
1---+ ><.1 i--+Xi. t.¾_ ., M3 ~
It:::::::::---
.::;;J;( i-.-x, .J,. ~--~ -hh
tv\, . -M M2. r-> r't Met-rt S:kd-1.C.v-e V,t-bl\y
Lo ~cl e. c) ~ r e ,
Re,d .r-h-Li1..c.+ur e N\ o )\\e 11. t Dt'Ti:uv,
"Rea.\ MoMeY\t Egu.a..\..rons
\\t\(x1) = - M 1 J
N\1. (~J = 5: 11. - W\ Pr 1. MO.'rj
Mo Men t
-\~ 1 · m,. ()(-z.1)
S--t,--\.lc.4u. re \l,rkq_ 1
\J'ill..jf om fa., e,
N\ (K, ) ~ ~ (1- ~J
7hr ;w;. w~ 1

N)~(><i\; Xi/~ Vr(Mo.-ry Sbc:-{u, e Vtr-ko.l~

Loa.~ecl +ov Bz.
)(\~ ()(l \ = -J..1./D._ - i ~1<x1)

~ (x-il ,=,: - ){ 2/ ~
i
(Y\ (iLl ~I
rnt(X.3) = 1- x~/.Q'
Pr-LtY'Ar,y s+ructL<.'f e. Vi r ka. \
}\t\ on.te1t l) ~ °'j ra.l'\'\ for 62. f 317
--------------------------------------·

1• e,

-- M~ + _1
24EI t
EI.('3G:,o) + _1_
81,000 C2-4 e1:.) ~ bO 2100

1. e
z.
-: S2.. ""'2 '"v-2. )
o 2.
lY\2(.x.2,)
EI.
J
ll y.
+ Jo
f Q ro3(~)
2 3
M:iCX,) dx
EI.

=- - M
EI
s! (.o
':>Xi -
4~..Z
h\ dx +
)J
M
4EI
fl ( \ - 1.i)z dx
Jo {
_ -.M.. ( S~i _ Xi ) IQ. _ Mi ( \ _ ~, ) '3 {
- EI. \2..Q.,~ 21. 0 . \H~I T 0

- fil
\2.EI
-\- Mi
\2.EI

- - E r (1ti,o) = \ r a. A
8t 1 ooo(b)E! \35'0
 Force Method of Analysis Equation Summary

Redundant Force Calculations

[F]{R} = -( {D}+{DA}) (1)

[F] = symmetric flexibility matrix calculated in terms of the structure redundants for
the primary structure

f11 f12 f1n

f21 f22 f2n

n = number of redundant force degrees of freedom = degree of static indeterminacy

fij = displacement at redundant degree of freedom (dot) i due to a unit virtual force at
redundant degree of freedom (dot) j

f1•J· ;::: f.~ + f.~ + f.~lJ (2)

lJ lJ

fa -
ij -
J-Pi EA(x)
Pj d
x = axial flexibility influence coefficient (2a)

= bending flexibility influence coefficient (2b)

= shear flexibility influence coefficient (2c)

{R} = vector of redundant forces at the released degrees of freedom

{D} = vector of primary structure relative displacements at the released degrees of

freedom due to mechanical loading

D·1 = J--Pi EA(x)

P dx + Jm· ~ d x + Jv·
EI(x) 1
V
GAs(x)
dx 1
(3)

= i-th released dof displacement; P = real internal axial force; M = real inter-
nal bending moment; and V = real internal shear force.

139
 { D8 } = vector of primary structure relative displacements at the released degrees of
freedom due to non-mechanical loading

of = JPi dl + Jmi dq> + Jvi dy = i-th released dof displacement (4)

dl = differential axial displacement

d<!> = differential rotation displacement
dy = differential shear displacement

Structure Forces
Once the redundant forces are calculated all other support reactions and internal member
forces can be calculated using static equilibrium along with the appropriate free
body diagrams.

Alternatively, you can express the desired actions Ai (i.e., support reactions and internal
member forces) in matrix form following the usual superposition process of the
force method of analysis:

{A}= {Ap} + [A0 ]{R} (5)

where {A} = vector of desired forces and moments for the structure excluding the redundant
forces; {Ap} = {A} for the primary structure; [A0 ] = desired forces and mo-
ments for the primary structure subjected to unit values of the redundants, i.e.
the ith column of [A0 ] = {Auh = {Ap}IR·=l; and {R} is the vector ofredun-
1

dant forces calculated using equation (1 ).

Displacement Calculations
Displacements for the statically indeterminate structure can be calculated using the exact
member deformations for a truss or exact shear and moment expressions along
with the virtual force expressions on the primary structure.

For a truss structure, calculation of a joint displacement A using the principle of virtual forces
results in

1 (A)= m L PiOi + oL\= Lm Pi ( F. L· + or. t J+ OL\

A
_1_1
A

· 1
1= · 1
1= EA1·
where Pi are the primary structure member forces due to the application of a unit virtual force
at the joint for which the displacement A is desired and in the direction of A for
the primary structure; oi are the exact member displacements that are obtained
for the statically indeterminate structure using the calculated redundant forces
to determine all the member forces within the truss structure; oint are the

/40
 member displacements due to nonmechanical member loading; and BA is the
nonmechanical displacement at Ll.

For a frame structure, in which shear and axial deformations are ignored, the displacements
are calculated as ·

1(0) = f Jo mf (M~ + tjnt )ax+

i=l EI1
9A

where mf, mf are primary structure virtual moments based on the desired displacement A or
rotation 0; Kj_int is the initial member curvature caused by the nonmechanical
member loading; and AA, 0A = initial displacement, rotation at the desired
displacement A or rotation 0. The moment expressions Mi are exact based on
the statically indeterminate structure subjected to the external loads with the
redundant forces known from the flexibility analysis.

Alternatively, you can express the desired displacement calculations also in matrix form fol-
lowing the usual superposition process of the force method of analysis:

{A} = {Ap} + [FA] {R} (6)

where {A} = vector of desired displacements; {Ap} = vector of desired displacements for the
primary structure for both mechanical and non-mechanical loading; and [FA] =
matrix of displacement influence coefficients at the desired displacement loca-
tions due to unit values of the redundant forces {R}. Stated mathematically,
the coefficients of [FA] are

(7)

which simply states that the displacement influence coefficients equal the displacement at de-
sired displacement i on the primary structure due to a unit force at redundant j
on the primary structure.

·114.1
 PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS 1

INTRODUCTION
An elastic analysis of a structure is important to study its performance, especially with
regard to serviceability, under the loading for which the structure is designed. However, if the
load is increased until yielding occurs at some locations, the structure undergoes elasto-plastic
deformations and on further increase a fully plastic condition is reached. The fully plastic
condition is defined as one at which a sufficient number of plastic hinges ar~ formed to
transform the structure into a mechanism, i.e., the structure is geometrically unstable.
Additional loading applied to the fully.plastic structure.would lead to collapse. A study ofthe
mechanism of failure and the knowledge (?f the magnitude of the collapse load are necessary to
determine the analysis load factor that would cause failure. Alternatively, if the load factor is .
specified, the structure can be designed ·such that the load factor· times the service loading is
equal to or less than the collapse load.
Design of structures based on the plastic or limit state approach is increasingly used
and accepted by various codes of practice, particularly for steel construction. Figure 1 shows a
typical stress-strain curve for mild steel and the idealized stress-strain tesponse for performing
plastic analysis. The idealized stresses and strains are proportional up to the yield stress, at
which the strain increases without any further increase in stress.

a
nec.ldn9
,IV' lli!i!l-avlof ., ....
I t'i, ,. Yield StrJin
.
f

E
Fig. 1. Idealized stress-strain relation.

1This material is principally taken from: A. Ghali and A.M. Neville, Structural Analysis: A
Unified Classical and Matrix Approach. Intext Educational Publishers, San Francisco, CA ,
Chapter 21 (1972); and Welding Research Council and American Society of Civil Engineers,
Plastic Design in Steel: A Guide and Commentary; Second Edition. ASCE, New York, NY \ 41
(1971).
 ULTIMATE MOMENT
Consider a beam whose cross section has a vertical axis of symmetry as shown in Fig.
2(a) with bending in the plane of symmetry. For small bending moments, the stress and strain
vary linearly over the cross section as shown in Fig. 2(b). Increasing the moment (through
increased load), the top compression fibers of the beam will eventually reach the yield stress as
shown in Fig. 2(c), and with a further increase in load the yield stress will reach the bottom
· tension fibers as shown in Fig. 2( d). If the bending moment continues to increase due to
increased loading, yield will spread from the outer fibers inward until the two yield zones meet
(Fig. 2(e)); the cross section in this state is defined to be fully plastic.

r-ar-~ .t--ar-,.
I

-7t--
Centroid
X

y Stress distribution r-aY-,

(a) lbl (c) (dl

/--aY-,
. Neutral axis in
fully plastic state
l__·

Stress distribution
(e)

Fig. 2. Strea distribution in .1 symmetrical cross section stibjected to u bending

moment or increasing m.1gnitude. (a) Beam cross section. lb} Elnstic. (c) Plastic at
top tiber. {d) Plastic at top.and bottom fibers.

The value of the ultimate moment in the fully plastic condition is determined in terms of
the yield stress cry. Since the axial force is zero in this beam case, the neutral axis in the fully
plastic condition divides the section into two equal areas, and the resultant tension and
compression forces are each equal to cr,1)2, forming a couple equal to the ultim~te moment

MP = }cryACYc +Yt) (1)

where Ye and y t are the distances from the centroid of the compression and tension areas to ·
the· neutral axis in the fully plastic condition, respectively; A = cross section area; and MP =
plastic moment. ·
The maximum moment which ·a section can resist without exceeding the yield stress
(defined as the yield moment My) is the smaller of l A3
 (2a)

or
(2b)

where St = tension section modulus ( = I/ Ct); Sc = compression section modulus ( = I/ Cc); ct

= distance from neutral axis to the extreme tension fiber; cc = distance from neutral axis to the
extreme compression fiber; and I = moment of inertia:. The ratio a = MJMy depends on the
cross section shape and is defined as the shape factor; it is always greater than one. For a
rectangular cross section of width band depth h, Sc= St= bh2/6, MP= crybh2/4; hence a=. 1.5.
For a solid circular section, a = 1.7, while for wide flanged and channel sections, a varies
within the small range of 1.15 to 1.1 7.

PLASTIC BEHAVIOR OF A SIMPLE BEAM

If a load P at the mid-span of a simple beam (Fig. 3(a)) is increased until the maximum
mid-span moment reaches the fully· plastic moment ~' a plastic hinge is formed at this section
and collapse will ·occur under any further load increase. Since this structure is statically
determinate, the collapse load Pc can easily be calculated to give
Pc= 4Mp IL (3)
P/J

r
D == 4BE/

A B

4- C
b}
.f--112 ·!· 1127 Deflection
during collapse
lal (h)

_l
· A ~. 8
I i/2
T~ tr
Id
{dl

!ig. 3 • .Plastic _behaviour of a simple. ~am. (a) Be~m. (b) Deflection Jines. (c} Change
tn deflection durmg collapse. (d) Elevation of beam showing yielding near the mid-
_span section. - ·

The bending moments at other points along the beam are less than the plastic moment MP and
the beam remains elastic due to the assumed idealized condi•tions. Beam deflections for the
elastic and plastic state 3(b). The increase in deflection during collapse is caused by the central
hinge rotation. Figure 3(c) represents the idealized deflection at collapse, a straight line for
each half of the beam. The same figure shows the beam collapse mechanism.
1.41.
 The collapse load of the beam can be calculated by equating the external and
internal work during a virtual movement of the collapse mechanism (this· approach is
equally applicable to the collapse analysis of statically indeterminate beams). Let each half
of the beam in Fig. 3(c) acquire a virtual rotation 0, so that the corresponding rotation at the
plastic hinge_ is 20, and the downward displacement of the collapse load is LS/2 (assuming
small displacements). Equating_ the external virtual work' We done by the force Pc to the
internal virtual work W 1 done by the moment MP at the plastic _hinge:
LS
⇒ Pc 2 = Mp(20)
(4)
⇒ Pc =4Mp/L

which is identical to the result given in Eq. (3).

The idealized relation between load and central deflection for this beam is represented
by line OFM in Fig. 4. When the collapse load corresponding to point F in Fig. 5 is reached,
L3
the elastic deflection at mid-span is Dp = Pc;: 48EI ._ However, the actual load-deflection
relation follows the dotted curve GKE in Fig. 4. When the yield moment is reached at the mid-
span section, the upper or lower or both fibers yield and the elastic behavior ceases. If the load
is increased further, the yield spreads inward at this section and also laterally to nearby sections. . .
Figure 3(d) illustrates the spread of yield. After My has been reached, the deflection increases
at a greater rate per unit increase of load until ~ is reached, as indicated by the curve GK in
Fig. 4. In practice, rolled steel sections continue to show a small rise in the load-deflection ·
curve during collapse (line KE); this is due to strain hardening (see Fig. 1) which is not
generally considered in ordinary plastic analysis.

Load
p
Actual

F
K
.,,,.--~
. L--
~---E
~-----....::.---~-----M
Yield load
causing MY Idealized
at mid-span

P 13 --+---1-~-+----'o ___-i
~ 2
48£/

OL------------:---~
Mid-span deflection D

Fig 4, Load-denection relation for the beam in Fig. 3

ULTIIVIATE STRENGTH OF FIXED-END AND CONTINUOUS BEAMS.

Consider a prismatic fixed-ended beam subjected to a uniform load of intensity q (Fig.
5(a)). The resulting elastic bending moments are MA= M~ = -qL2/12 and MB= qL2/24. When
the load intensity is increased to q 1 such that the moments at the supports reach the fully plastic ., 4J
the load intensity is increased to q1 such that the moments at the supports reach the fully plastic
moment Mp= q 1L2/12, hinges are formed at A and C. The positive moment at B remains in the
elastic range for load q1, · If the load is further increased, the moments at· .the supports will
remain constant at Mp; free rotation will take place there so that the deflection due to the load in
excess of q1 will be the same as in a simply supported beam. The collapse will occur at a load
intensity qc, which produces a mid-span moment of magnitude Mp, At this stage, the plastic
moment Mp= qcL2/16. Thus, q1 = 0.75 qc. The limit elastic (qe, My) and plastic (qc, Mp)
bending moment diagrams are shown in Fig. 5(b). The collapse mechanism is shown in Fig.
5(c) and the collapse load is calculated by equating the external and internal virtual works, i.e.

I 1/2 1/2
1
Load intensity. q

*t
A
I I t •
X
B
f I t I f
t *
C
la)

2
M = qeL
y 12
. . L2
M -~
P- 16

'l
I
I q 8 = elastic load limit
I
I qc = collapse load My
I
I
I
I

f bt

-~-
' ' 9
·
{C)
28
•

Fig. 5. Collapse of a beam with fixed ends under a uniformly distributed load (a) Beam,
(b) Bending moment diagrams, and (c) Collapse mechanism
 (5)

where L0/4 is .the corresponding downward displacement of the resultant load on one-half
of the beam; and 8, 28, and Sare the virtual rotations at the plastic hinges A, B, and C.
If the beam is a solid rectangular section, Mp = 1.5 My and the maximum load intensity
computed by elastic theory with the maximum fiber stress cry is qe =12 MylL2 as given in Fig.
5(b ). Thus, the ratio qc/qe = 2, which clearly indicates that the design of the beam using elastic
theory is conservative. For I-beams, qc/qe f'lj.1.55.

A 8
ZS
r
E
C
ZS
r
F
D
Z\
f-112 ·I· 1/2
+ 112-f--112-,

I I - I
I
(a}

~ .,.. (b)
D

A 8
'

(c)

( d.)
- Mp
.

Fig. G. Plastic analysis of a continuous beam. (a) Continuous beam of constant

section and of plastic moment of resistance Mp· (bl Collapse mechanism 1. (c) Collapse
mechanism 2. (d) Bending-moment diagram.
 Next consider the three span continuous beam shown in Fig. 6 with each span having a
plastic moment capacity of Mp, Values of the collapse load corresponding to all possible
mechanisms are determined;· the actual collapse load is the smallest of the possible
mechanism collapse loads. For this structure, there are two possible collapse mechanisms are
shown in Figs. 6(b) and (c). Span BC requires the formation of three plastic hinges since both
supports B and C are locations of negative bending and point E is the location of the maximum
positive bending moment in span BC. Span CD only requires the formation o ftwo plastic
hinges since the moment at D is zero. Support C is a negative moment location and point F is
the location of maximum positive bending in span CD. No collapse mechanism is possible in
span AB since at most one plastic hinge can form at point B and two plastic hinges would be
required to form a mechanism in span AB (no positive bending in span AB). We want to
calculate the smallest load P which will cause either the mechanism in span BC or the
mechanism in span CD. Using the principle of virtual work <Yve = Wi) for each mechanism
leads to

Pei (~0) = Mp(8+28+8) (Fig.6(b))

(6a)
⇒ Pei= 8Mp /L

Pc2 (~0) = Mp(0+20) (Fig.6(c))

(6b)
⇒ Pe2 = 6Mp /L
The smaller of these two values is the true collapse load. Thus, Pc = 6Mpl'L and the
corresponding bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 6(d). When collapse occurs, the .
part of the beam between A and C is still in the elastic range, and the value of the bending
moment at B can Q.e calculated by analyzing a continuous beam ABC, hinged at A and C, and
subjected to a clockwise couple of Mp at C and a vertical load Pc= 6Mp/L at E.
The process described in these notes and in the example problem to follow uses what is
referred to as an "upper bound" approach; any assumed mechanism can provide the basis for an
analysis. The resulting collapse load is an upper bound on the true collapse load. For a
number of trial mechanisms, the lowest computed load is the best upper bound. A trial
mechanism is the correct one if the correspondi,ng moment diagram nowhere exceeds the
plastic moment capacity.
Two-Span Continuous Beam
Next consider the two span continuous beam shown below.. The unique considerations in this
problem are:
1. the plastic moment capacity of span 1-2 is different than the plastic moment capacity of
span 2-3; and
2. the location of the positive moment plastic hinge in span 2-3 is unknown.

Two-Span Continuous Beam: (a) Beam, (b) Mechanism 1, (c) Mechanism 2

p
I qL = p
Pc
L
--.1
1 I
2
t: q
2::cr:,<;;:.- _ _ >,,_,., .,.. -::+~
~ L . .I◄ L ~1
(b)

( c)

Mechanism 1:

14Mp
We=Wj ⇒ Pc=--
L
Mechanism 2:

wi = Mp e + Mp(B+P)
Ll2 = (L-L1) p = L1 0 ⇒ p = ____!:i__9
L-L1

Since L1 is unknown, we can differentiate the above equation with respect to L1 and set the
result to zero since qcL is a constant and calculate L1:
2
d(qcL) = O = -2(LL1 -L1) - (4L-2L1)(L-2L1)
dL1 Lj (L-L1) 2
⇒ 2Lj - 8LL1 + 2L2 = 0

L1 = (S- ✓32)L =· 0.5858L

4

Substituting this result for L1 into the qc L expression gives

L= 4L-1.1716L M = ll. 66 Mp
qc 0.5858L(0.4142L) P L

Since qc L = P, collapse with occur in span 2-3 for P = 11.66 Mp. Thus, the second mechanism
controls the collapse load for the structure. L

M < 2Mp
Collapse Load
Bending Moment
Diagram

-M > -2Mp

\S_O
Direct Procedure to Calculate Positive Moment Plastic Hinge Location for
Unsymmetrical Plastic Moment Diagram
Consider any beam span that is loaded by a uniform load and the resulting plastic moment
diagram is unsymmetric. Just as shown above the location of the maximum positive moment is
unknown. For example, assume beam span B - C is subjected to a uniform load and the plastic
moment capacity at end B is Mpl, the plastic moment capacity at end C is Mp 2 , and the beam
moment capacity is Mp3; which is greater than or equal to Mpt or Mp2, The location of the
positive plastic moment can be determined using the bending moment equation

M(x) = ax2 +bx+ c

and appropriate boundary conditions.

Mp3
Mpt:::; MP3

Mp2 s;; MP3

(i) x = 0: M = -Mpt = c
--..,.--~-+---.. . - X
--+

:. C = -Mpt
-Mp1~ L,
__j-Mp2
L

(ii) x = L1 : M = MP3 = aLj + bL1 + c

2
aL1 + bL1 = MP3 + Mpt

(iii) x = L1: dM = 0 = 2aL1 + b

dx
⇒ b =-2aL1

Substituting the result of (iii) into (ii):

a= -(Mpt +Mp3) . b = 2(Mpl +MP3)

2 ,
L1 L1

(iv) x = L: M = - MP 2 = aL2 + bL + c

- -(Mp!+ Mp3 i(t ) + 2(Mpl + MP3>( t )- Mp1

Solving the quadratic equation:

(~)=
L1
2(Mp1 +Mp3)±.J4(Mp1 +Mp3) 2 - 4(Mpt -Mp2)(Mp1+Mp3)
2(Mpl + Mp3)

L
:. L1 = ----======
1+ 1 (Mpl -Mp2)
l Mp! +Mp3