AERODYNAMICS

FUNDAMENTALS OF Temperature
= 519°R = 288 K
AERODYNAMICS
Gas Constant (R) for Air
AERONAUTICS = 287.08 J/kg·K
 The science that treats of the operation = 1716 ft·lb/slug·R
of aircraft; also, the art or science of = 53.342 ft·lb/lb·R
operating aircraft
Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity
AERODYNAMICS = 3.7372 x 10-7 slug/ft·sec
 The study of the motion of air and of =1.7894 x 10-5 kg/m·sec
the forces on solids in motion relative
3
to the air 2.329×10−8 𝑇 2
= slug/ft·sec
𝑇+216
3
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE 1.458×10−6 𝑇 2
= kg/m·sec
𝑇+110.4

Atmospheric Constituents
ALTITUDE
Nitrogen 78.03% Absolute Altitude
Oxygen 20.99%
Argon 0.94% ℎ𝑎 = ℎ𝐺 + 𝑟
Carbon Dioxide 0.03%
Hydrogen 0.01% Where: 𝑟 = radius of the earth = 3959 miles
Helium 0.004% ℎ𝐺 = Geometric Altitude
Neon 0.0012%
And a small amount of water vapor and gases
Geopotential Altitude
Four Layers of Earth’s Atmosphere
𝑟
1. Troposphere ℎ= ℎ
𝑟 + ℎ𝐺 𝐺
2. Stratosphere
3. Ionosphere
Pressure Altitude
4. Exosphere
 Altitude given by an altimeter set to
29.92 in. Hg.
STANDARD VALUES FOR AIR AT SEA LEVEL
Density Altitude
Pressure  Altitude corresponding to a given
= 14.7 psi = 2116.8 psf density in the standard atmosphere
= 29.92 in. Hg. = 76 cm Hg.
= 101325 pa = 1 atm Temperature Altitude
 Altitude corresponding to a given
Density Temperature in the standard
= 0.002377 slug/ft3 atmosphere
= 1.225 kg/m3

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 AERODYNAMICS
SEA LEVEL UP TO TROPOPAUSE (0-11 km) For incompressible fluid (𝝆 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭)

𝑇 = 𝑇0 + 𝜆ℎ 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

𝜆 = Lapse Rate 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝐴
=
= −0.0003566 °𝑅/𝑓𝑡 𝑉 𝐴
= −0.0065 𝐾/𝑚
= −6.5 𝐾/𝑘𝑚 For compressible fluid (𝝆 ≠ 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭)

𝑃 𝑇 5.26 𝜆ℎ 5.26 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2
=( ) = (1 + )
𝑃𝑜 𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑜
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝜌
𝜌 𝑇 4.26 𝜆ℎ 4.26
+ + =0
= (𝑇 ) = (1 + ) 𝑉 𝐴 𝜌
𝜌𝑜 𝑜 𝑇𝑜

HYDROSTATIC EQUATION
ABOVE TROPOPAUSE UP TO STRATOSPHERE
(11-32 km)
𝑑𝑃 = −𝜌𝑔𝑑ℎ𝐺

𝑇 = 390.15°𝑅 = 216.5 𝐾
BERNOULLI PRINCIPLE
𝑃 𝜌 𝑔
(ℎ−ℎ11 )
= = 𝑒 −𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 + 𝑞
𝑃𝑜 𝜌𝑜

AIRFLOW 𝜌𝑉1 2 𝜌𝑉2 2

𝑃1 + = 𝑃2 +
2 2
Fluid
COMPRESSIBLE BERNOULLI EQUATION
 Homogeneous, has a very slight
resistance to tension and moves
𝑉1 2 𝑘 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑘 𝑃2
continuously under shear + = +
2 𝑘 − 1 𝜌1 2 𝑘 − 1 𝜌2
Streamline
VENTURI TUBE
 The path that air particles follow in
 A convergent–divergent tube with a
steady airflow
short cylindrical throat or constricted
 In steady airflow, particles do not cross
section
streamlines

1
Streamtube 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌(𝑉2 2 − 𝑉1 2 )
2
 Collection of many adjacent streamlines
ISENTROPIC RELATIONSHIP
LAW OF CONTINUITY
𝑘
𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 𝑃2 𝜌2 𝑘 𝑇2 𝑘−1
=[ ] =[ ]
𝑃1 𝜌1 𝑇1

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 AERODYNAMICS
ENERGY EQUATION
𝜌
𝜎=
𝑉1 2 𝑉2 2 𝜌𝑜
𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇2 +
2 2
Ground Speed
SPEED OF SOUND  The airplane’s actual speed over the
ground
𝑉𝑎 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝐺𝑆 = 𝑉𝑇 − 𝐻. 𝑊. = 𝑉𝑇 + 𝑇. 𝑊.

AIRSPEED MEASUREMENT
MACH NUMBER
If 𝑀 < 1 , the flow is subsonic
Pitot-Static System 𝑉
𝑀= If 𝑀 = 1 , the flow is sonic
 It consists of a pitot tube that senses
𝑉𝑎 If 𝑀 > 1 , the flow is supersonic
total pressure (PT), a static port that
If 0.8 < 𝑀 < 1.2 , the flow is transonic
senses ambient static pressure (PS), and
If 𝑀 > 5 , the flow is hypersonic
a mechanism to compute and display
dynamic pressure
𝑘−1
Indicated Airspeed (IAS) 2 𝑃𝑇 + 𝑃 𝑘
𝑀2 = [( + 1) − 1]
 The instrument indication of the 𝑘−1 𝑃
dynamic pressure the airplane is
exposed to during flight

KUTTA-JOUKOWSKI THEOREM
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)
 Indicated airspeed is corrected for
𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2
instrument error 𝑃 = 𝑃∞ + 2
(1 − 4 sin2 𝜃)

Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)

 Calibrated airspeed is corrected for
compressibility error

2(𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃)
𝑉𝑒 = √ 𝑉 = 2𝑉∞ sin 𝜃
Γ
𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑟
𝜌𝑜

True airspeed (TAS) 𝐿 𝑇 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ [2𝜋𝑟(2𝜋𝑟𝑁)] × 𝑙

 Actual velocity at which an airplane
moves through an air mass Vortex
 The circular circulation of particles of
fluid having the same energy content
2(𝑃𝑇 − 𝑃) 𝑉𝑒 𝑉𝐼 and center of rotation
𝑉𝑇 = √ = =
𝜌 √𝜎 √𝜎

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 AERODYNAMICS
VISCOUS EFFECTS, BOUNDARY LAYER AND TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
FLOW SEPARATION  The flow is unsteady and not smooth,
but eddying
REYNOLD’S NUMBER
0.37𝑥 0.0592
𝛿= 0.2 𝐶𝑓𝑥 = 0.2
𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑥 (𝑅𝑁𝑥 ) (𝑅𝑁𝑥 )
𝑅𝑁 =
𝜇∞ 0.074 𝐷𝑓
𝐶𝑓 = =
(𝑅𝑁 )0.2 1 2
Skin Friction 2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆
 Air resistance, and it is the tangential
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑓 = 𝐶𝑓 × 2
component of force on the surface of a
body due to the friction between the
two particles FLAT PLATES

𝜌
Streamline Flow 𝐹 = 1.28 𝐴𝑉 2
2
 Defined as smooth non-turbulent flow

𝐹 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 2 √2(1 − cos 𝜃)

Turbulent Flow
 Defined as a flow characterized by
turbulence that is a flow in which the AIRFOIL THEORY
velocity varies erratically in both
magnitude and direction with time

Laminar Flow
 Employs the concept that air is flowing
in thin sheets or layers close to the
surface of a wing with no disturbance
between the layers of air

Mean Camber Line

Boundary Layer
 The line joining the midpoints between
 The layer of air adjacent to the airfoil
the upper and lower surfaces of an
surface
airfoil and measured normal to the
chord line
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER
 The flow is steady and smooth
Chord Line
 The line joining the end points of the
5.2𝑥 0.664
𝛿= 𝐶𝑓𝑥 = mean camber line
√𝑅𝑁𝑥 √𝑅𝑁𝑥
1.328 𝐷𝑓 Thickness
𝐶𝑓 = =
√𝑅𝑁 1 2  The height of profile measured normal
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆
to the chord line
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑓 = 𝐶𝑓 × 2
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DRAG POLAR
Thickness Ratio
𝑡 𝐶
The maximum thickness to chord ratio, 𝑐
(𝐶 𝑙 ) = tangent to the 𝐶𝑑 − 𝐶𝑙 Curve
𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥

Camber AIR PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

 The maximum distance of the mean
camber line from the chord line 𝑃 − 𝑃∞ 𝑉 2
𝐶𝑝 = =1−( )
1 𝑉∞
𝜌 𝑉 2
Leading – Edge Radius 2 ∞ ∞
 The radius of a circle, tangent to the
upper and lower surfaces, with its CRITICAL VELOCITY
center located on a tangent to the
1
mean camber line drawn through the
(𝑘 − 1)𝑀∞ 2 + 2 2
leading edge of this line 𝑉𝑐𝑟 = 𝑉𝑎∞ [ ]
𝑘+1

LIFT FORCE 1
𝑀∞ 2 + 5 2
𝑉𝑐𝑟 = 𝑉𝑎∞ [ ]
1 6
𝑙 = 𝐶𝑙 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑐
2
CRITICAL PRESSURE
DRAG FORCE
𝑘
1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀∞ 2 + 2 𝑘−1
𝑑 = 𝐶𝑑 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑐 𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 𝑃∞ [ ]
2 𝑘+1

PITCHING MOVEMENT 3.5

𝑀∞ 2 + 5
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 𝑃∞ [ ]
6
1
𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑐 2
2
CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT
LIFT CURVE
𝑃𝑐𝑟 − 𝑃∞
𝐶𝑝𝑐𝑟 =
1 2
𝑑𝐶𝑙
𝑎0 = 2 𝜌𝑉
𝑑(∝𝑜 −∝𝑖 )
𝑘
𝑎𝑜 2 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀∞ 2 + 2 𝑘−1
𝑎= 𝑎𝑜 𝐶𝑃𝑐𝑟 = {[ ] − 1}
1 + 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 𝑘𝑀∞ 2 𝑘+1

𝑎1
𝑎2 = 3.5
𝑎 1 1 𝑀∞ 2 + 5
1 + 𝜋1 [𝑒𝐴𝑅 − 𝑒𝐴𝑅 ] ( 6 ) −1
1 2
𝐶𝑝𝑐𝑟 =
0.7𝑀∞ 2

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 AERODYNAMICS
NACA AIRFOIL DESIGNATION SUBSONIC AERODYNAMICS
4-Digit Airfoils: NACA 4412
Wingspan
 The distance between tip to tip of the
4 = Camber 0.04c
wing
4 = Position of Camber at 0.4c at L.E.
12 = Maximum Thickness 0.12c
Wing Area
 Projection of the planform on a plane of
5-Digit Airfoils: NACA 23015
reference which is usually the chord
plane
2=camber 0.02c
Design 𝐶𝑙 = 0.15 x First digit
WING ASPECT RATIO
0.30
30 = Position of camber at c
2
15 = Maximum Thickness 0.15c 𝑏2 𝑏 𝑆
𝐴𝑅 = = = 2
𝑆 𝑐 𝑐
6-Digit Airfoils: NACA 653-421
TAPER RATIO
6 = Series Designation
𝑐𝑡
5 = Minimum Pressure at 0.5 c 𝜆=
3 = 𝐶𝑑 near min. value over a range of 𝐶𝑙 of 0.3 𝑐𝑟
above and below the design 𝐶𝑙
MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD
4 = Design Lift Coefficient 0.4
21 = Maximum Thickness 0.21c
For straight tapered wing:
2 𝜆2 + 𝜆 + 1
7-Digit Airfoils: NACA 747A315 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑟 ( )
3 𝜆+1
7 = Series Designation
4 = Favorable pressure gradient on the upper Sweep Angle (Λ)
surface from L.E. to 0.4c at the design 𝐶𝑙  The angle between a line perpendicular
6 = Favorable pressure gradient on the lower to the centerline and the leading edge
surface from L.E. to 0.7c at the design 𝐶𝑙 or the quarter chord line
A = Serial letter to distinguish different sections
having the same numerical designation but LIFT
different mean line or thickness distribution
1
3 = Design Lift Coefficient 0.3 𝐿 = 𝜌𝑆𝑉 2 𝐶𝑙
2
15 = Maximum Thickness 0.15c
DRAG

1
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑆𝑉 2 𝐶𝐷
2

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Parasite Drag
 It is all drag that is not associated with LIFT TO DRAG RATIO
the production of lift  𝐿⁄𝐷 AOA produces the minimum
𝑚𝑎𝑥
total drag
Form Drag
 𝐴𝑡 𝐿⁄𝐷 AOA, 𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖
 Caused by airflow separation from a 𝑚𝑎𝑥

surface and the low pressure wake that  𝐿⁄𝐷 AOA produces the greatest lift
𝑚𝑎𝑥
is created by that separation to drag ratio
 𝐿⁄𝐷 AOA is the most efficient AOA
𝑚𝑎𝑥
Friction Drag
 Retarding Force created in the
WING STALL
boundary layer due to viscosity
 Due to flow separation
 flow separation progresses chord wise
Interference Drag
and span wise on a wing depends on
 Generated by the mixing of streamlines
the following items:
between components
o Airfoil Stall Characteristics
o Planform Geometry and Twist
Induced Drag
 Portion of total drag associated with the
Planform Effects Important in Determining
production of lift
Stall Behavior
a) Taper Ratio
Induced Angle Of Attack
 The tip section will tend to stall
first for a tapered wing
𝐶𝑙
∝𝑖 =  As the taper ratio is decreased
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
it promotes tip-stall
Induced Drag Coefficient b) Aspect Ratio
 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 increases with aspect
𝐶𝑙 2 ratio
𝐶𝐷𝑖 = c) Sweep Angle
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
 For swept aft wings, less lift at
Induced Drag the tips causes the nose to
come up
1 𝐿2  A swept forward wing tend to
𝐷𝑖 = 𝜌𝑆𝑉 2 𝐶𝐷𝑖 = exhibit pitch down
2 𝜋𝑞𝑒𝑏 2
 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 decrease with sweep
TOTAL DRAG COEFFICIENT FOR A WING angle
d) Twist (or Wash Out)
𝐶𝑙 2  The angle of attack at the wing
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + tip is less than that of the root,
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
the wing is said to have
washout

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 AERODYNAMICS
 The tips will be at a lower angle
of attack than the root, and
thus the tip stall may be
delayed until after the stall has
occurred at the root
THRUST REQUIRED
 The amount of thrust that is required to
overcome drag
Thrust Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight

Stall Speed 𝑊
𝑇𝑅 = 𝐷 =
𝐶𝑙
⁄𝐶
𝐷
2𝑊 2(𝑊 − 𝑇 sin 𝜃) 1
𝑉𝑆 = √ =√ 2
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜌𝑆𝐶𝑙 2 1 𝑊
𝑉𝑇𝑅 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = [ √ ]
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 𝑆
EQUATIONS OF MOTION 𝐶𝐿 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
( ) =√
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 4𝐶𝐷𝑜

Note: Minimum thrust required is independent

of altitude

THRUST AVAILABLE
 The amount of thrust that the airplane’s
engines actually produce at a given
𝑑𝑉 throttle setting, velocity, and density
𝑇 cos 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡  Turbojets do not suffer a decrease in
𝑉2
𝐿 + 𝑇 sin 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑊 cos 𝜃 = 𝑚 thrust available with velocity because
𝑟𝑐 ram-effect overcomes the decreased
acceleration
For Level, Unaccelerated Flight
 As the density of the air decreases,
thrust available decreases
𝑇 cos 𝛼 𝑇 = 𝐷
𝐿 + 𝑇 sin 𝛼 𝑇 = 𝑊
MAXIMUM VELOCITY
 The intersection of the 𝑇𝐴 − 𝑇𝑅 curve
If Thrust Line is aligned with Flight Path
𝑇=𝐷
POWER REQUIRED
𝐿=𝑊
 The amount of power that is required to
produce thrust required
MINIMUM DRAG
𝐶𝐷
𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝐷𝑜 = 2𝑊 √ 𝑜 2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷 2
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 𝑃𝑅 = 𝑇𝑅 𝑉∞ = √
1
𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝑙 3
2𝑊 2
𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = [ ]
𝜌∞ 𝑆√𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅𝐶𝐷𝑜

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1 Service Ceiling
2
4 2 3𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝑊  The altitude above sea level, under air
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑊[ √ ]
3 𝜌∞ (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3 𝑆 conditions, at which a given airplane is
unable to climb faster than a small
1 specified rate
2 1 𝑊 2
𝑉𝑃𝑅 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = [ √ ]
𝜌∞ 3𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 𝑆

3𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖
3
3 4
𝐶𝑙 2 1 3𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
( ) = ( 1 )
𝐶𝐷 4
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝐷𝑜 3

1
2
2 𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝑊
𝑃𝑅𝐷 = 2𝑊 [ √ ]
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜌∞ (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3 𝑆

POWER AVAILABLE
 The amount of power that the 𝐴𝐶 𝑅⁄𝐶 = 0 𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛
airplane’s engines actually produce at a
given throttle setting, velocity, and 𝑆𝐶 (𝑅⁄𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 100 𝑓𝑡/𝑚𝑖𝑛
density
TIME TO CLIMB
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑇𝐴 𝑉∞ = 𝜂𝑃
ℎ2
RATE OF CLIMB 𝑑ℎ
𝑡= ∫
𝑅 ⁄𝐶
ℎ1
𝑇𝑉∞ = 𝐷𝑉∞ 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑅 ⁄𝐶 = =
𝑊 𝑊 𝐻𝑜 𝐻𝑜
𝑡= ln ( )
(𝑅⁄𝐶 )𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑜 𝐻𝑜 − 𝐻
𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝑅
GLIDING FLIGHT
ABSOLUTE AND SERVICE CEILING

Absolute Ceiling
 The maximum altitude above sea level
at which a given airplane would be able
to maintain horizontal flight under air
condition

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𝑇=0 RANGE
𝐷 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃
𝐿 = 𝑊 cos 𝜃 𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊𝑓

1 𝑊 = Weight of airplane at any instant during

tan 𝜃 =
𝐿⁄ flight
𝐷
𝑊0 = Gross Weight of airplane
1 𝑊𝑓 = Weight of Fuel
𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = tan−1
𝐿 𝑊1 = Weight of airplane when the fuel tanks
(𝐷 )
𝑚𝑎𝑥 are empty

ℎ 𝐿 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑅= =ℎ 𝑆𝐹𝐶 = 𝑇𝑆𝐹𝐶 =
tan 𝜃 𝐷 𝑏ℎ𝑝 ∙ ℎ𝑟 𝑙𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 ∙ ℎ𝑟
𝐿
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ ( )
𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉∞
𝑐𝑡 = 𝑐
𝜂𝑝𝑟
RATE OF DESCENT

Propeller-Driven Aircrafts

𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝐿 𝑊0
𝑅(𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠) = 375 ln
𝑐 𝐷 𝑊1

Note: For maximum range: 𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖

Jet-Driven Aircrafts

1
2 2 𝐶𝑙 ⁄2 1 1
𝑅= √ (𝑊0 ⁄2 − 𝑊1 ⁄2 )
𝑐𝑡 𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐷
𝑊 2 1
𝑅𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √( ) ( ) ( 3 ) cos3 𝜃
𝑆 𝜌 𝐶𝑙 ⁄𝐶𝐷 2
Note: For maximum Range: 𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 3𝐶𝐷𝑖

3𝐶𝐷0 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑖 ENDURANCE

𝐶𝑙 3 3 3𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 Propeller-Driven Aircrafts

( 2) = 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅√
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
16 𝐶𝐷𝑜
3
𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝐶𝑙 ⁄2 1 1
𝐸(ℎ𝑟𝑠) = 778 √𝜌𝑆 ( − )
𝑐 𝐶𝐷 √𝑊1 √𝑊𝑜
2𝑊
𝑉𝑆 = √ cos 𝜃
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥
Note: For maximum Endurance: 3𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖

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 AERODYNAMICS
Jet-Driven Aircrafts Take-off Phases of Flight
1. Accelerating ground-run
1 𝐶𝑙 𝑊0 2. Rotation
𝐸= ln
𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝐷 𝑊1 3. Lift-off
4. Climb out
Note: For maximum Endurance: 𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖
Ground Roll
TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE

Summary of CTOL Take-Off Rules

MIL-C5011A FAR Part 23 FAR Part 25

ITEM
(Military) (Civil) (Commercial)

𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 ≥ 1.1𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 ≥ 1.1𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝐿𝑂𝐹 ≥ 1.1𝑉𝑠

SPEED
𝑉𝐶𝐿 ≥ 1.2𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝐶𝐿 ≥ 1.2𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝐶𝐿 ≥ 1.2𝑉𝑠

GEAR UP: 𝐹 = 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝑅 = 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝜇𝑟 (𝑊 − 𝐿)
GEAR DOWN;
500 fpm @
GEAR UP: ½% @ VLOF
S.L. Coefficient of Rolling Friction
300fpm @
CLIMB (AEO)
S.L. GEAR UP: 𝝁
(AEO) 3% @ VCL Surface Brakes off Brakes on
100fpm @ S.L.
(OIE)
(OEI) Dry concrete 0.03-0.05 0.3-0.5
Wet concrete 0.05 0.15-0.3
115% OFF Icy concrete 0.02 0.06-0.10
FIELD TAKE-OFF TAKE-OFF TAKE-OFF Hard turf 0.05 0.4
LENGTH Distance Distance DISTANCE
Firm dirt 0.04 0.3
DEFINITION OVER 50 OVER 50’ WITH AEO
OVER 35% Soft turf 0.07 0.2
Wet grass 0.08 0.2

AEO = All Engine Operating

OEI = One Engine Inoperative 𝑉 2𝑚
Vs = One g stall speed out of ground effect 𝑠=
2𝐹
VLOF = Lift off speed
VCL = Climb out speed 1
𝐿 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2 𝑆𝐶𝑙
2

1 2 𝐶𝑙 2
𝐷 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆 (𝐶𝐷𝑜 + ∅ )
2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

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Ground Effect LANDING PERFORMANCE

(16 ℎ⁄𝑏)2 Summary of CTOL Landing Rules

∅=
1 + (16 ℎ⁄𝑏)2
MIL-C5011A FAR Part 23 FAR Part 25
ITEM
(Military) (Civil) (Commercial)
𝑉 = 0.7𝑉𝐿𝑂
𝑉𝐴 ≥ 1.2𝑉𝑆(𝐿) 𝑉𝐴 ≥ 1.3𝑉𝑆(𝐿) 𝑉𝐴 ≥ 1.3𝑉𝑆(𝐿)
SPEED
2𝑊 𝑉𝑇𝐷 ≥ 1.2𝑉𝑆(𝐿) 𝑉𝑇𝐷 ≥ 1.15𝑉𝑆(𝐿) 𝑉𝑇𝐷 ≥ 1.15𝑉𝑆(𝐿)
𝑉𝐿𝑂 = 1.2𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 1.2√
𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥
LANDING
FIELD LANDING LANDING
𝑉𝐿𝑂 (𝑊⁄𝑔)
2 DISTANCE
1.44𝑊 2 LNGT. DISTANCE DISTANCE
𝑆𝐿𝑂 = = OVER 50’
2𝐹𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 DEF. OVER 50’ OVER 50’
Divided by 0.6

Total Take-Off Distance

VA = Speed over the 50 ft. obstacle
VTD = Speed at touchdown during landing
VS(L) = Stalling speed in the landing configuration

Landing Phases of Flight

1. Descent
2. Flare
3. Touchdown
4. Decelerating Ground-Run

Take-Off Segments 𝐹 = −[𝐷 + 𝜇𝑟 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]

𝑉𝑆 ≫ 𝑉𝑚𝑐𝑔 ≫ 𝑉𝑚𝑐𝑎 ≫ 𝑉1 ≫ 𝑉𝑅 ≫ 𝑉𝑚𝑢 ≫ 𝑉𝐿𝑂 1.69𝑊 2

𝑆𝐿 = −
𝑔𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 [𝐷 + 𝜇𝑟 (𝑊 − 𝐿)]0.7𝑉𝑇
Distance to Clear an Obstacle
2𝑊
𝑆𝑎 = 𝑅 sin 𝜃 𝑉𝑇 = 1.3𝑉𝑆 = 1.3√
𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥

6.96𝑉𝑆 2
𝑅=
𝑔

ℎ
𝜃 = cos−1 (1 − )
𝑅

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 AERODYNAMICS
Total Landing Distance Banking

𝑉2
tan 𝛽 =
𝑔𝑅
Approach Distance
1
50 − ℎ𝑓 cos 𝛽 =
𝑆𝑎 = 𝐿⁄
tan 𝜃 𝑊

Flare Distance 𝑉2
𝑅=
𝑔√𝑛2 − 1
𝑆𝑓 = 𝑅 sin 𝜃
Minimum Speed in Turns
TURNING FLIGHT
𝑉𝑆
𝑉𝑆′ =
Centripetal Force √cos 𝛽
 The force which causes the body to
accelerate inward in a turn Time for 360° Turn

𝑉2 2𝜋𝑉 2
𝑎 = 𝜔2 𝑅 = 𝑡=
𝑅 𝑔 tan 𝛽

𝑊𝑉 2 Load Factor
𝐶𝐹 = = 𝑊 √𝑛2 − 1
𝑔𝑅
𝐿
𝑛=
NOTE: The centrifugal force of an airplane in a 𝑊
turn is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to the accelerating inward 𝑛 = sec 𝛽
(centripetal) force
𝑉 2
𝑛=( )
𝑉𝑆

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 AERODYNAMICS
𝑘+1
𝐴2 𝑀1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2 2(𝑘−1)
Pull-Up Maneuver Pull-Down Maneuver = [ ]
𝐴1 𝑀2 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2
𝑉∞ 2 𝑉∞ 2
𝑅= 𝑅= 3
𝑔(𝑛 − 1) 𝑔(𝑛 + 1) 𝐴2 𝑀2 𝑀2 2 + 5
= [ ]
𝐴1 𝑀1 𝑀1 2 + 5
𝑔(𝑛 − 1) 𝑔(𝑛 + 1)
𝜔= 𝜔=
𝑉∞ 𝑉∞
SHOCK WAVE
Load Factor Due to Gust  A large-amplitude compression wave,
such as that produced by an explosion,
caused by supersonic motion of a body
𝐾𝑈𝑉𝑚 in motion
𝑛 =1+[ ]
𝑊
575 ( )
𝑠
Reaction from a Shock Wave
1 a) Compression of Gases
1 𝑊 4 𝑊
𝐾= ( ) For < 16 𝑝𝑠𝑓 b) Expansion of Gases
2 𝑆 𝑆

2.67 𝑊 Type of Waves

𝐾 = 1.33 − 3 For > 16 𝑝𝑠𝑓 a) Shock Waves/Compression Waves
𝑆
𝑊 4 1. Normal Shock Wave
( )
𝑆
2. Oblique Shock Wave
b) Expansion Waves
SUPERSONIC AERODYNAMICS
MACH LINE, ANGLE AND NUMBER
4∝
𝐶𝑙 =
√𝑀∞ 2 − 1

4 ∝2
𝐶𝐷 =
√𝑀∞ 2 − 1

ONE DIMENSIONAL FLOW

𝑘 2𝑘
𝑃2 𝜌2 𝑘 𝑇2 𝑘−1 𝑉𝑎 𝑘−1
=( ) =( ) = ( 2)
𝑃1 𝜌1 𝑇1 𝑉𝑎1
Mach Line
𝑘  The line of disturbance created along
(𝑘 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 𝑘−1
=[ ] the envelope of individual wavelets
(𝑘 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2  The line so drawn to evaluate the
geometric condition of a supersonic
pattern

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Mach Angle Velocity Ratio
 The angle which the Mach line makes
with the free-stream direction 𝑉2 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 𝑀1 2 + 5
= =
𝑉1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀1 2 6𝑀1 2
𝑉𝑎 1
sin 𝜇 = =
𝑉 𝑀 Density Ratio

√𝑀2 − 1 𝜌2 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀1 2 6𝑀1 2

cos 𝜇 = = =
𝑀 𝜌1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 𝑀1 2 + 5
1
tan 𝜇 = Pressure Ratio
√𝑀2 − 1

NORMAL SHOCK WAVE 𝑃2 2𝑘𝑀1 2 − (𝑘 − 1) 7𝑀1 2 − 1

= =
 Formed by blunt bodies 𝑃1 𝑘+1 6

Examples of Normal Shocks Temperature Ratio

a) Flow Over a Blunt Body
b) Over expanded Flow Through a Nozzle 𝑇2 [2𝑘𝑀1 2 − (𝑘 − 1)][(𝑘 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2]
=
𝑇1 (𝑘 + 1)2 𝑀1 2

𝑇2 (7𝑀1 2 − 1)(𝑀1 2 + 5) 𝑃2 𝜌1
= = ∙
𝑇1 36𝑀1 2 𝑃1 𝜌2

Stagnation Pressure

𝑘
3.5
𝑃𝑜1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 𝑘−1 𝑀1 2 + 5
=[ ] =( )
𝑃1 2 5
𝑉1 > 𝑉2 𝑀1 > 𝑀2 < 1
𝑃1 < 𝑃2 𝑃𝑜1 > 𝑃𝑜 2 𝑃𝑜1 𝜌𝑜 𝑘
𝑇1 < 𝑇2 𝑇𝑜1 = 𝑇𝑜1 = ( 1)
𝑃1 𝜌1
𝜌1 < 𝜌2
𝑘
3.5
Mach Number 𝑃𝑜2 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2 𝑘−1 𝑀2 2 + 5
=[ ] =( )
𝑃2 2 5
1 1
(𝑘 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 2 𝑀1 2 + 5 2
𝑀2 = [ ] =( ) 𝑃𝑜2 𝜌𝑜 𝑘
2𝑘𝑀1 2 − (𝑘 − 1) 7𝑀1 2 − 1 = ( 2)
𝑃2 𝜌2

2.5 3.5
𝑃𝑜 2 6 6𝑀1 2
=[ ] [ ]
𝑃𝑜 1 7𝑀1 2 − 1 𝑀1 2 + 5

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 AERODYNAMICS
OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVE After the OSW
 A function of deflecting angles
 Occurs when a supersonic flow is 𝑉𝑁2 = 𝑉2 sin(𝜃𝑊 − 𝜃)
“turned into itself’
𝑀𝑁2 = 𝑀2 sin(𝜃𝑊 − 𝜃)

Pressure Ratio

𝑃2 2𝑘𝑀1 2 sin2 𝜃𝑊 − (𝑘 − 1)
=
𝑃1 𝑘+1

𝑃2 7𝑀1 2 sin2 𝜃𝑊 − 1
=
𝑃1 6

Density Ratio

𝜃𝑊 = 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃 = 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜌2 (𝑘 + 1)𝑀1 2 sin2 𝜃𝑊

=
𝜌1 (𝐾 − 1)𝑀1 2 sin2 𝜃𝑊 + 2

𝜌2 6𝑀1 2 sin2 𝜃𝑊 tan 𝜃𝑊

= 2 =
𝜌1 𝑀1 sin 𝜃𝑊 + 5 tan(𝜃𝑊 − 𝜃)
2

Temperature Ratio

𝑇2 [7𝑀1 2 sin2 𝜃𝑊 − 1](𝑀1 2 sin2 𝜃𝑊 + 5)

=
𝑇1 36𝑀1 2 sin2 𝜃𝑊

𝑇2 𝑃2 𝜌1
= ∙
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝜌2
𝑉1 > 𝑉2 𝑀1 > 𝑀2
𝑃1 < 𝑃2 𝑃𝑜1 > 𝑃𝑜 2 Normal Component of 𝑴𝟐
𝑇1 < 𝑇2 𝑇𝑜1 = 𝑇𝑜1
1
𝜌1 < 𝜌2
(𝑘 − 1)𝑀1 2 sin2 𝜃𝑊 + 2 2
𝑀𝑁2 = [ ]
Before the OSW 2𝑘𝑀1 2 sin2 𝜃𝑊 − (𝑘 − 1)

1
𝑉𝑁1 = 𝑉1 sin 𝜃𝑊 𝑀1 2 sin2 𝜃𝑊 + 5 2
𝑀𝑁2 = ( )
7𝑀1 2 sin2 𝜃𝑊 − 1
𝑀𝑁1 = 𝑀1 sin 𝜃𝑊

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Mach Number after OSW 𝑘
𝑃𝑜2 𝜌𝑜 𝑘 𝑇𝑜 𝑘−1
= ( 2) = ( 2)
𝑃2 𝜌2 𝑇2
𝑀𝑁2
𝑀2 =
sin(𝜃𝑊 − 𝜃)
PRANDTL-MEYER EXPANSION WAVE
 Occurs When a supersonic flow is
Wave Angle
“turned away from itself’
1
𝑃 2
(𝑘 + 1) ( 2 ) + 1
𝑃1
𝜃𝑊 = sin−1 [ ]
2𝑘𝑀1 2

1
𝑃 2
6 ( 2) + 1
𝑃1
𝜃𝑊 = sin−1 [ ]
7𝑀1 2

Deflection Angle
𝑉1 < 𝑉2 𝑀1 < 𝑀2
𝑃1 > 𝑃2 𝑃𝑜1 = 𝑃𝑜 2
𝑀1 2 sin2 𝜃𝑊 − 1
= tan−1 [2 cot 𝜃𝑊 ( )] 𝑇1 > 𝑇2 𝑇𝑜1 = 𝑇𝑜1
𝑘𝑀1 2 + 𝑀1 2 cos 2𝜃𝑊 + 2 𝜌1 > 𝜌2

Velocity Ratio

𝑉2 cos 𝜃𝑊
=
𝑉1 cos(𝜃𝑊 − 𝜃)

Total Upstream Pressure Ratio

𝑘
𝑃𝑜1 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀1 2 + 2 𝑘−1
=[ ]
𝑃1 2

𝑘
𝑃𝑜1 𝜌𝑜 𝑘 𝑇𝑜 𝑘−1 1 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑁 𝑀𝑁1
= ( 1) = ( 1) sin 𝜇1 = = 1= 1=
𝑃1 𝜌1 𝑇1 𝑀1 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑀1

1 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑁 𝑀𝑁2
Total Downstream Pressure Ratio sin 𝜇2 = = 2= 2=
𝑀2 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑀2
𝑘
𝑃𝑜2 (𝑘 − 1)𝑀2 2 + 2 𝑘−1 𝑓(𝜇) = √6 tan−1(√6 tan 𝜇) − 𝜇
=[ ]
𝑃2 2
[𝑓(𝜇2 )] = (𝑓(𝜇1 )) − 𝜃

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 AERODYNAMICS
𝑇2 𝑀1 2 + 5
=
𝑇1 𝑀2 2 + 5

𝑉𝑇1 𝑀𝑇1
cos 𝜇1 = =
𝑉1 𝑀1

𝑉𝑇2 𝑀𝑇2
cos 𝜇2 = =
𝑉2 𝑀2

3.5
𝑃2 𝑀1 2 + 5
=( 2 )
𝑃1 𝑀2 + 5

2.5
𝜌2 𝑀1 2 + 5
=( 2 )
𝜌1 𝑀2 + 5

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