THE GENUS ANADENANTHERA

IN AMERINDIAN CULTURES

BY

SIRI VON REIS ALTSCHUL, PH .D.

RESEARCH FELLOW

BOTANICAL MUSEUM

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS

1972
 This monograph is dedicated

in

affectionate memory to the late

DANIEL HERBERT EFRON, PH.D., M.D.

1913-1972

cherished friend of the author and of the

Botanical Museum, a true scientist devoted
to the interdisciplinary approach in the
advancement of knowledge.
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Transcription of field notes of the explorer Richard Spru ce fo r June I S, 1855, referring to the
preparat ion and use of niopo snu ff (Anodenonlhera peregrina) in the upper Orinoco of Venezuela
(Guahibo Ind ia ns at Maypu res). Courtesy : Botanic Museu m , Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

I
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTIqN ...... .................... ................. ......................................................... ..... .

BRlEF TAXONOMIC DESCRfPTlON OF ANADENANTHERA................................. .. 5

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....... ....... ...... ............... ....... .............. ........... :................ ......... .. 10

TREATMENT BY CULTURE ........................................................................................ II

Culture Area Caribbean ............................................................................................. 13

Taino Culture ................................ ............................. ..... ...................................... 13

Igneri Culture ................................................. ....................................................... 18

Culture Area Colombian ........... ... ................................................................... ............ 20

Chibcha Culture ............ ............................. .............................. .... ........................ . 20

Tunebo Culture ..................................................... .. ........................ .. .............. ...... 20

Culture Area Caqueta ............... ............. .... .................. .... ...... .... ................... .............. 22

Achagua Culture ....................................................................... ............. ................ 22

Baniwa Culture .......................................................... ............................. .. ............ 23

Betoi Culture ...... ...................... ........... ...... ............ ......... ................... ...... ............ .. 23

Carijona Culture .......................... ... ........... .................. ..... ......... ............................ 24

Guayupe Culture ............................ .............. ...... ................................................... 24

Tucano Culture ..................................................................................................... 25

Tucuna Culture ............................ ....... .. ...................................... .......................... 26

Witoto Culture .......................................................................... ............. .... ........... 26

Culture Area Orinoco ............. ... ......................... ............. ......... __ ......... _......... .. __ ........ 27

Otomac Culture ................................... ....................................................... ........... 27

Shliva Culture ..................... ............ ....... ............ ......... ...... ..................................... 28

Yaruro Culture _................. _......................... ___ .__ ........ _........ ................... ....... .. ... .. . 29

Culture Area Savanna ....... _..... _................ ... _...... __ ........ .. ..... __ ...... ............ _................... 30

Guahibo Culture .... ............................. ...... ......... ..... ..... .......... ...................... ....... ... 30

Puinave Culture _........ _......... ............. ................ _.. ....... ...................... ............. 31

Shiriana Culture .......................... :................... .... ............. ...................................... 32

Culture Area Guiana .... ....................... ..... ........ ........................... ........................... ..... 35

Yecu ana Culture ...... ..... ........................ ,' ,..................... " .. " .. , ...... ..... ............ .. .... . 35

Culture Area Amazon ...................... ... ............ .. .......................................................... 36

Cocama Culture .. ...... 36

Manao Culture .... ............. ....... ............................. ...... ........ .................... ........ ........ 36

Omagua Culture ..... ... ....................... ........................................................... 37

Culture Area Peruvian ..................... ........... ............ , ... ............ ~ ... ..... ............. .............. 38

In ca Culture .. .......... ........... ............................................. ...................... ....... .......... 38

Culture Area Mon taiia ..... ...... ......... .............. ..... ............................. ................. 45

Piro Culture ...... .............. ... .......... .. ...... .................. ....... ......... ............ ...... .. .. . 45

Culture Area Jurua-Purus ..... .... ......................... .... ........... .......................................... 46

Amahuaca Culture ...... ...... .............................. .................... ..... ............................ 46

Cashinawa Culture........................................................... ..... ............... ...... ............. 46

Catukina Culture ........................... .................................... ...... ...... ......................... 46

Chama Culture ............................................................. _.................................... ..... 47

Ipurina Culture ............ .............. .................... ......... ....................... ........................ 47

Mayoruna Culture ............ .............................. ......................................... ...... ......... 48

Mura Culture ....... ................................ .......................................................... ........ 48

 Culture Area Para ........................................ ............................................................. . 52

Maue Culture ................................. ..... ................................................................. . 52

Mundurucu Culture .. ....................... .................. "................................................ . 54

Culture Area Bolivian .... ........ ........................... .... ......... ....... ............................ ..... .... . 55

Chiriguano Culture ...................... ............ .................... :....................................... . 55

Macurap Culture ................................................................................................. .. 56

Paeagua,a Culture .... .................................... ...... ..... .... ............. ............................. . 57

Yabuti Culture ...................................................................................................... 57

Cui tUre Area Chilean ................................................................................................ 59

Araucanian Culture ............................................................................... ... ............ . 59

Atacama Cul ture .... .................. ..... ................... .. ......... ...... ............ ...................... .. 59

Comechingon Cul ture ......................... ............ ... ......... ..... ..................................... . 61

Diaguita Culture ..................................... ............................................................ ... 61

Huarpe Culture ........ ... ............................................. ............ ..................... ........... . 62

Omaguaca Culture ........................................ .... ............ ........................................ 62

Culture Area Chaco ................................................. ,', ........... ,............................... ,.. . 64

Mataco Culture ................................ "........................................................ ... ........ . 64

Vilela Culture ........ ............ .... ......................................... .... ............. ..................... . 64

Culture Area ,,",stern Lowland .......................... ..... ...... ....... .................................. .... . 66

Guarani Culture .................................................................. "............. ,................. . 66

CROSS·CULTURAL CHART ......................................... ......... ..................................... . 71

PHYTOCHEMICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL REVIEW ......................................... 75

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND LITERATURE CITED ........................ ......... ........................... .. 81

COMMON NAMES OF ANADENANTHERA SPP....................................................... .. 95

 INTRODUCTION

.Hay vidas qu e son noch~s elernas, em briagadas de yopo, embalsamadasde sclvas tropicales."(yb arra, 1950)

Among th ose plants with chemical constituents that Lewin (1931) classified as Phantastica and which toda y are
referred to as hallucinogens or psy chotomimeti cs (Hofmann, 1959), we might include two species of the small
leguminous genus Anadenanthera Spegazzini. This genus, formerly considered as section Niopa o f the genus
Piplodenia Bentham . is the probable so urce of the so-caUed narcotics best known as' Cohoba, Vilca and Yopo. 1 ~se
the word 'narcotic' in the classic se nse, to indicate a substance one of whose effects consists o f a benumbing activity
on the central nervous system .

I first became interested in Plpladenia peregrina (L) Bentham in the sp ring of 19 55 and planned an investiga tion
of this species with regard to its distribution and its uses among the Indians of the West Indies and South AAlcric3.
However, I soon recognized that taxonomic work was needed on this and related species_ J. P. M. I3rena n stated in a
letter later in the same year (November 4, 1955) , H_ J rega rd Pipladenia as a co mbination o f the few true species of
•

that genu s, and a rubb is h bin for a large par t of. ..imperfectly known species..." While th e gen us Pip tadenia, like
many of theMimosoideae, is not free from que s\i onsof deHm itation, th ere is agreement that the speCies of secti onNiopa
comprise an especially natural group. On the basis of the data gathered during the CO urse of the taxonomic study,
including eviden ce from mo rphology . anato my and chemistry o f the seed s as well as from geographical distribution,
I cam e to agre e with at least two other botanists (Brenan , 1955; Spegazz ini , 1923) tllat these species are bett er
relegated lo the separate genu sAlladenan th era. UnlikePljuadenia, Anadenonf/Jera is endemic to the New World _11 is
easily distinguished from species o f Piptaden ia by its having, among o ther distinctive characters, capitate, rather than
spica le, inOorescences. The species that fall within Anadellanlhcra, as here int erpreted, number onl y two, each
co mposed of two geographical varieti es. Anadcllanlhera peregn'na (L.) Spcgazzini and A. colubrilla (Veil.) Brenan are
defined in terms of certain sma U, presen t-absent morphological characters which are always mainta ined, even where
the geographical distributions of these species overlap. The tre es o f the species of A nadenanlhera arc so si milar to
one another in gross appearance that it would not have been reasonable to make an ethnobotanical study of
anything less than (he whole genus. Bearing out their gross similarities, (he species of A nadenanthera have been
found to be chemically similar o ne to another with respec t La the psycho tomimeti c constituen ts of their seeds ; these
ar e the part s most commonly used for magico-religious purposes, usually as snuff. The distincti veness of
Anadenan tli era from Piptadenia is emphasized by the fact (hat species tested fro m Piptadenio. have been found to
yield the sam e or related compounds in much smaller amo unts. My work with herbarium specimens and
experimen tation wit h a techn ique for identifying the species by ieanet anatomy tende d rurther to confirm this line
of reaso ning. I was also fortunate to be abl e to sec both species growing under more or less natural co nd jtjons and to
ob tain th e photographs o f them (Altschul , 1964).

TIle taxonom y of A nadenal1lhera, along with speculations as to the history of th e distribution of the species, was
presen ted originally as Pari I of my doctoral th esis and has been published (Altschul , 1964). Part JI o f th e thesis
treat ed the cthn obo tan y of Alladenanthera and is published here. It includ es among ot her data, so me facts whi ch
support the statement in Part 1 of the th esis that man probably introduced Anadenanthera peregrina into the West
Indies. 111is possibility was suggested by the taxonomic study, but it seemed more plausible to me aft er consulting
archaeologicaJ and ethnological sources. Furthermo re, it wou ld not be the only insta nce where a narcotic was carried
widely by man , so me important exam ples being Caapi (Banisteriopsis) and Coca (Eryrhro xylon).

Th e ethnobotanical portion presented here consists of a seri es or se parate Indian culture-areas with information
extract ed from sources in the literature and rrom correspondence with anthropol ogist s and et hnobotan ists who have
had first ·hand experience with the Indians in question. This portion o f the thesis is intended to help establish, on th e
basis of th e known di stribution of the species of Anadellonlhera, th e correctness of reported uses of substances
derived th erefrom. It is important to bear in mind t.hat some remarkably extensive trade routes have
operated from time to time among the Indians of South America. It should be remembered , too. that the
informat ion on th e distribution of the spec ies is limited by the number of specimens - about 200 - examined in the
course of study .
 The cultures of concern here are treated as much as possible in the ethnographic present. In some places, I have
discussed the possible origins of practices associated with the uses of Anadenanthera by the Indians as they were
found at the time of earliest contact with the Europeans, Some of the questions which are raised by this treatment
and whlch ] have tried to answer, where possible, are: What are the indigenous common names associated with
Anodenanrhera substances? To what do they refer-to whlch plant or plants, to WMt part of the plant, to what other
materials, acts or ceremonies? What other bo1anlca1 materials are employed as adulterants? What are the
culture-items associated with the preparation and administration of Anadenanlhera substances? How are these
substances prepared? How are they administered? What are the reputed physical effects, as described by Indian
informants or by outside observers? What are the actual physical effects as found in recent laboratory experiments?
What is the nature of the phytochemistry and pharmacology involved? What is the cultural setting of the practice?
Who, in the tribal community , uses the materials, from the standpoint of the socio-religious structure of a society
and of sexual division? Is the use of Anadenanthera in a particular form associated with cultures at certain stages of
development? What are the historical intercu1tural relationships, if any, of the various peoples who use
Anadenanthera narcotics? Were the uses invented at a single centre and disseminated outward therefrom, or were
they independently discovered in several cuhure-areas? Was man a force in the distribution of Anadenanlhera
species? Were they cultivated? What were the earliest fonns in which A nadenan thera substances were employed - in
chicha, enemas, snuff or in other ways? Why were they used at all? Finally, what does the archaeological evidence
suggest?

My studies of Anadenanthera do not begin to deal with the important relationshlps, both historical and
contemporary, that must exist between Anadenanthera and other tropical New World genera which are also the
source of narcotics or stimulants, such as Banisten'opsis, Datura, Eryfhroxylol1, Mimosa, Nocotiatw, Olmedioperebea
and Virola. A detailed knowledge of the species of these genera is needed to understand fuUy the ethnobotany of
Anadenanthera; but this will have to await studies of broader scope and greater detail. In the course of six years, I
examined nearly four hundred fifty sources and have received some sixty personal communications on the
ethnobotany alone. TIle taxonomic wotk already published should help to bring new clarity to a small group of
plants from a large and difficult subfamily . The ethnobotanical data, being to my knowledge more comprehensive
than any heretofore compiled on the subject, may provide some useful information for workers in the fields of
phytochemistry, pharmacognosy, pharmacology and experimental psychiatry.

J conclude this introduction with a quotation prOviding, as does the line at its beginning, an allusion to Yopo,
It is interesting to note here th e apparent survival of an indigenous tradition in the contemporary, popular literature
of the descendants of the conquerors:

"Caricari, momia decrepita, sali6 penosamente delletargo senil en que vivia sumido, torna unas polvadas del nope
que ie ofreci'a Ponchopire a fin de que entrase en eJ trance adivinatorio y comenzo' a absorberlas pOT la nariz,
primero despacio y progresivamente m'as aprisa, rnientras 1a comunidad y los forasteros 10 contempJaban con
religioso respeto.

"De pronto el vejete eotro en estado convulsivo yen seguida delirante, mascullando paJabras exuanas, las mas de
ell as sin sentido alguno , can las c ual es anunciaba que ya su nahua] 10 llevaba yolanda por los aires sabre graO(~es f)'OS
torrentosos y altisimas sierras y cuando los guainaris Ie oyeron decir que ya veia. alia abajo, la churuata de elias,
sacaTOn del cutumari los despojos mortales y se los pusieron entre las manos tn:!mulas de senectud y de deli rio de
yopo.

"Ya Ponchopire Ie habia expJicado previa mente que se trataba de una muerte misteriosa , de la cual habia sido
victima un radonal que hacia treinta anos regia aquelJa tribu del Arapani, padre de los mestizos que ahora Ie pedian
ahincadamente que les dijese de que hab!. muerto.

"EI visionario provecto, gimiendo como un cn'o, palpa',olfateo y luego apreto contra su pecho aquellas
repugnantes cosas, mientras sus ojos en blanco segu!an por los aires del delirio el vuelo del gavilan de su nahual y al
cabo de un rato de gimoteos y de convulsiones de trance comenzo a baJbucir frases entrecortadas y en su mayor

2
 parte inin1eligibles, que si nada preciso dedan respecto a 10 que se le preguntaba, en cambio parecian expresar una
esperanza mesicinica, pues - haducidas y reconstruidas por Marcos Vargas - anunciaban que en todas partes ya
estaban colmadas las ca1abazas donde se prepara eI curare, porque los rios comenzaban a Correr hacia sus cabeceras y
esto significaba que ya 'ella' venia contra 'el' desde e] fonda de la gran noche sin lunas. Perc la alusidn ' a1 curare fue
sufi ciente para que los mestizos se convencieran de que su padre habla sida envenenado." (Gallegos, D~cima Ed.)

i
 BRIEF TAXONOMIC DESCRIPTION OF

ANADENANTHERA

Taxono mic details and photographs are presented in the syste matic trea tment of th e genus (Altschul, 1964) . Fo r
o ur purposes here th e following descriptio n should be adequate.

A nadenanthera belo ngs to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the Leguminosae. it s representativ es are fea thery-fotiaged,
elegant trees and shrubs of the West Indies and South America . The leaves are bipinnately compound with lea ne ts
.9-8 mm . long. The trunks may be smoo th o r anned with mammillose projections; th e bark may be thin or corky .
The flower heads are up to 20 mm. ill diameter and range from white or greenish white to orange-yellow _The pods
are up to 35 cm. long and up to 3 COl. wide; they are more or less n at and unilocular , dehiscing along o ne suture
o nly, brownish o ut side, co ntaining 8-16 thin , nat orbicular and shiny brown or black seeds J 0-20 mm . in di ameter.
Representatives of this genus are described typically as occupants of savannas, or relatively open areas along rivers
and st rea ms; they are known to grow up to altitudes of at least 2 100 meters. Anadenanthera is endemic to the New
World and possesses capitate inflore scences; by these characters it may be distinguished from Piptadellia, which is
not restricted to the New World and which possesses spicate inflorescences.

Anadenantlzera is compo sed of two known species. Anadenanthera peregrina (L.) Spegazzini has dull , sc urfy to
verrucose pods and anthers which are eglandular in the bud ; the involucre which sub tends the n ower head is found
three-<juarters of the way up from the base of the peduncle. This is the more northern-ranging species and occurs
fro m so uthern Brazil to the Greater Antilles. Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell .) Brenan has nitid , smoo th to
reticulated pods and anthers which are glandular in the bud; the involu cre subtend ing the head lies just below the
knob-like receptacle. This species seems to be limite<l to the southern hemisphere and is found from cent ral Peru to
northern Argentina to northeastern Brazil. Each of these two species may b e divid ed further into two geographical
varieties. Within each species the differences between varieties are relative. Anadenanthera peregrina var.p eregrina
is found in northern Brazil, British Guiana, Colombia, Venezuela and in the West Indies. Anodenanthera peregrina
vaL fa/cata occurs :in southern Brazil and Paraguay~ most parts of this tree are short er and thicker than in the first
variety. Anodenanthera colubrina vaL Cebil is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil , Paraguay and Peru . Anadenonth era
colubrino vaL colubrina occurs in Argentina and southeastern Brazil; it is distinguishable from all other elements in
Anadenanthcra by a tendency for the flowering heads to be arranged in t erminal racemose-panicul ate patterns rather
than in the customary position axillary to the leaves and subtermina1.

The distribution of A nadenan th era appears to be largely natural, except for the probable introduction by man of
A. peregrina into the West Indies.

The trees of the two species are similar in gross appearance. Preliminary chemical analyses of th e seeds of the two
species showe<l them to be very similar with respect to susp ected psychotomimetic
, agen ts. The seeds are the parts
most commonly us ed for magi co-religious purposes by th e Indians of t he New World bot h t oday and in th e past. The
distinctiveness of Anadenonthera from Piptadenia is emphasized by th e fact that species tested from Piptadenia lIave
yielded the same or related compounds in much smaller amount s.

A. A view up through the fea thery-lea ved crown of Anadenan thera peregrina. Boa B. Tree of Anadenanthera peregrina. In savannahs near Boa Vista, Amazonian
Vista, Amazonian Brazil. Brazil.
Photograph : R.E. Schultes. Photograph : R.E. Schultes .
• ANAOENANTH[RA PEREGRINA VAR. PEREGRINA

o ANAOENANTH£RA PEREGRINA 1/ AR. FALCATA

0 ANAOENANTHERA COLUSRINA VA" CESIL

0 ANADENANTHERA COLUBRINA
liAR. COLUBRINA
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8
 70
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9
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

wo uld like to express deep appreciation to teachers and colleagues at Harvard University who encouraged m)
research. Professor Reed C. Rollins guided the Course of my graduate studies and advised me in the organization 0 1
my doctoral thesis. Professor Ri chard A. Howa rd, Professor Paul C. Mangelsdorf, Professor Richard Evans Schultes
Professor Taylor A. Steeves, Dr. Rolla M. Tryon and Professor John H. Welsh generously served on my doctor. '
committee. Professor Schultes' work on New World narcotics inspired the earliest phases of my work 0 11
Anadenanthera and continued to encourage my later researches. Professor John H. Welsh aided in the physiological
. spects of the thesis problem, with regard to the effects of Anadenanthera deriva tives and related compounds upon
the nervous system. Dr. W. J. Clench supplied the correct names for South American gasteropods, as did Dr. R. A
Paynt er, Jr., for several birds in question . Professor G,ordon R. Willey recorrunended illuminating readings iI
archaeology. Professor Evon Z. Vogt helped with ethnological determinations, with linguistics and with the
terminology of cultural anthropology. In particular , I want to thank Professors Rollins and Schultes, Dr. Tryon an d
Professor David H. French , Visiting Professor, for th eir careful scrutiny of my thesis in its final phases.

I am gra teful to the late Dr. C. E. Kobuski and to th e other curators wh o made possible the loan s of herba riun:
materials from the following herbaria: Arnold Arboret um , British Museum of Natural Hist ory; Chicago Natura l
History Mu se um ; Copenhagen Botanical Museum and Herbarium ; Economic Herbarium of Oakes Am es; Gra)
Herbarium ; Kew Herb ariu m ~ Riiksherbarium , Leiden; Missouri Botanical Garden ; New York Botanical Garden
Museum National d'Histoire NatureJie, Paris; Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet, Stockholm; United States National
Herbarium; Utre cht Botanical Museum and Herbarium.

Among my colleagues. I wouJd like to thank Dr . Alexander Grobman for providing data from his own research.
Earl M. Wed row, M.D. , was gracious enough to examine parts of th e thesis related to psychiatry. For their advice and
interest in th e present publication, I want to thank also my Swedish friends and colleagues, Professors Bo Holmsted l
and S. Henry Wassen.

Mrs. LazeDa Schwarten's assistance in th e Gray Herbarium Library and that of Miss Margaret Currier in til(
Peabody Library expedited handling of th e li te rature .

A number of anthropologists, chemists and scholars in related studi es have helped to enlarge my research. The
many letters received on ma tters pertaining to ethnob otany are gratefully acknowl edged. 'would like also to express
my appreciation to Mr. Fred H. Chamberlin for his help in th e preparing of parts of this manuscript.

I am indebted to my parents, Gustav and Tyyne von Reis, for their support of my academic pursuits and to
Arthur G. B. Metcalf for having facilitated in many ways the writing of my thesi s. Finally, I thank my husband.
Arthur, a nd our ch il~ren, Stephen, Charles , Arthur, Jr. , Emily Helen and Serena, for their good·heart edness in
relinquishi ng to scien ce many hou rs which othe rwise they shou ld have spent with me.

Overbrook Farm, Stamford , Co nnecticut , August 197 1 S . v. R. Altschul

10

I
I
 TREATMENT BY CULTURE

In the following portion of this paper, Murdock's Outline of South American Cultures (195 1) has been used as a
basis for the distribution of ethnobotanical data into cultural unit s. Murdock's Outline is founded upon the cultural
divisions used in Steward's Handbook of Sou th American Indians (I 946-50). In the Outline, South America and the
West Indies are divided into cult ure-areas. Each culture-area consists, in turn, of a group of cultures. Each culture is
made up of one Or more tribes. The geographical divisions used in the Outline and in this paper are based on
boundarjes of the Indian cultures rather than upon current political borders of the countries in which they may
occur. The distribution of these cultures is intended to approximate that which existed at the time of early contact
with the Europeans. The ethnographic present is used in presenting the data.

This study treats only those cultures reputed to include, among their traits, the use of substances derived from
Anadenanthera. AU other stimulants, 'narcotics' and so on, have been 0r:rutted, except where directly related to the
subj ect at hand. A second kind of outline (to be distinguished from th e Outline above) has been used for each
cultu re, to permit pertinent data to be broken down into compo nents meaningful from the viewpoints of botany,
ethnology , linguistics and medicine. Where information was meager or where it was evident that species other than
those of Anadenanthera were involved, this outline has been supplanted by a brief discussion. Archaeological
information has been treated in discussion form, too, and has been placed under the culture located in the area
containing the site or sites in question. This does not preclude recognizing that the Indians occupying a particular
area at the time of contact may ha ve been unrelated to earlier peoples hving there. A number of theoretical,
speculative questions have also been discussed under the cultures to which they seemed most pertinent. These relate
to origins of terms, tra its and so on and are most fully dealt with in this treatment under the Caribbean and Peruvian
culture areas.

The organization of the material which follows is such that, while the whole is intended to be a continuing
exposition, each culture can be referred to as a separate entity. The data have been extracted from the literature,
from conversations and from correspondence. They are presented within the outhne of each culture as a composite
of descriptions, without interpretation or time sequence, unJess otherwise indicated. These reports have been left,
where translated, as close to the words of the originals as possible . The sometimes awkward, though Jiteral, word·for­
word phrasing has been maintained in order to facilitate more accu rate interpretation . Variations in capitalization ,
italicization, orthography and diacritic marks will be seen in the text, especially among the vernacular or Indian
names of a given plant species; although these variants may appear as inconsistencies, they represent the attempt to
be faithful everywhere to differing sources.

Each culture is dealt with as a whole. The tribes included under the cultures are not considered separately unless
so treated in a note accompanying the particular cuJture. Not aU categories of the outline have always been
completed, because information was sometimes lacking.

The compilation of data for each cu lture is followed by a list of source s referable to the Bibliography and Literature
Cited at the end of the paper. '

For only a few of the peoples reputed to use Anadenanlhera substa nces can it be said with certainty that such
substances are employed through identification of vo ucher materials obtained from the Indians themselves.
Numerous tribes are suspected of using Or of having used them for snuff and other purposes. In many instances,
reports describe practices commonly associated with the uses of Atll1denanthera. The trees are known to grow
wh ere Ihe people referred to nonnalJy live. However, without positive identifjcation the employment of
Anodenanthera substances must, in such circumstances, be classified, for the time being, as likely but not verified.
The question of the botanical identity of the plants involved has been taken up for each culture in a part of the
outline foUowing the ethnological data. An evaluation has been made even though the data are limited by the
number of specimens available for study and though the number of botanical collections available to the author does
not necessarily represent the frequency of the trees in any given area. The fact that some areas of Sou th America

IJ

i
have not been well expl ored botanically is also a limiting factor. Western Amazonas and some parts of the adjacent
Andes are of particular interest from the standpoint of the species in question. I have seen no specimens of
Anadenanthera from those regions. Yet reports of snuffing and enemas of plant substances are numerous from those
regions.

The following treatment is, I believe, the most comprehensive on the subject. It includes the cultures with which
Al1adenanthero has commonly been associated for medical, magical or religious purposes. It is my hope that respUlL::'O:::S
from other students may add to the data already compiled and clarify aspects still in doubt.

Many literature sources related to the subject of this compilation remain to be examined. 111e bibliographical
citations at the end include some of these sources, a number of which has been published since 1961. A few new
papers have been incorporated into this treatment.

Finally , I must emphasize that I am not an anthropologist and that , therefore, my handling of material in this
discipline may be jmperfect and incomplete. In presenting jt in the form adopted, I tru st that I may act to stimulate
more thorough anthropological research on the drug and its use.

J2

 CULTURE AREA CARl BBEAN

TAINO CULTURE:

TRlBES: Ciguayo and Taino.

LANGUA GE: ATawakan stock.

NAME: Cogioba, Cohaba, Cohoba (Cehobba, Cohoba, Cohiba, Cohobba, Kohobba).

REFERS TO: a tree bearing pods with black, round and very hard seeds; a plant-derived powder, and Ihe act and
ceremony of its usage.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WlTH USE: th e dried and fIn ely ground malerial has
a tawny, cinnamo n color and is laken through a ca ne about a fool long; th e tube is bifurcated at about Iwo·thirds of
its length and is made of th e sa me material as is a rou nded, concave table or di sh, fIn ely wrought of bea utiful,
smooth , bright black wood and used as a container for the powder when it is to be administered.

MANNER OF ADMI NISTRATION : th e bifurcated end of Ihe tube (Iabaco) is applied 10 the nostrils and Ihe
powder inhaled from th e table or dish .

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: the person, who is sea ted with his head leaning to one side and his arms around his knees,
becomes at rust unconscious from the dose , then wakens and, with his face turn ed toward the ceiling . speaks
uni ntelligibly; the Indian s say that th e house in which the powder is taken th en appears to be upside down and th ey
themselves seem to be walking on air. (Hofmann reported in 1959, p. 246, his reac tion LSD·25, a compound relat ed
to sub stances found in the seeds of Anadenanlhera: " . .. at times the floor seemed to bend and the walls to
undulate . . .I fel t as if [ were ou t of my body .. .M y ego seemed suspended somewhere in space, ..."). Hallu cinations
or dreams acco mpany the epi sode.

CULTURAL SIGN IFICANCE: for divinatory purposes of tribal importance and for medical magic as a purifier
and to discover th e cause of illness. The powder is taken to communicate with id ols (cemis) on whose heads the dish
is kept and which are maintained in special houses by the caciques or chiefs .

USED BY: caciques or chiefs (shama ns).

SOURCES: de las Casas, 1909 ed .; Columbus in Bourne, 1906; Oviedo y Valdes , 185 1 ed.; Pane in Bourne,
1906. The accounts of these fo ur authors are used here ex clusively as a basis for the outline above because th ey are
the ear1iest eye- witness records of a cu lture which deteriorated rapidly after contact with Europea ns.

BOTANIC AL IDENTITY : I have examined speCimens of Anadenall thera peregrina var. peregrina from th e West
Indies fro m (so uth to north) Trinidad, Tobago , Grenada, Puerto Rico and Hispaniola . Underwood & Griggs 771 is
labelled Cojobilla, an indication that the term is shU applied in Puerto Rico, here in lh e Spa nish diminutive, to trus
species. Safford (I 9 16a) was, however, the fIrst to point ou t that Urban (I 905) had given C%ba or Cojobo as t he
com mon name on Hispaniola for A . peregrina. The common name today is given for Puerto Rico as Cojoba,
Co/ bbana, C%billo and Cojobo (Brill on & Wilso n, 1923 , 1924 ; Perkins, 1907); for Hispaniola as Cojoba (Barker &
Dardeau , 1930). It is interesti ng that neither Linnaeus' original descri ptio n of the species ( 1753) as Mimosa peregrina
nor Urban 's publication gives any hint as to the use of the tree for snuff or narcotic purposes. I explain these
omissions by a quotation from a letter of Walte r H. Hodge (June 16, 1955):

" . ..the original inhabitants of th e larger West Indian Islands disappeared very rapidly aft er the Span ish conquest.
Such few pure Indians as remained were engu lfed by th e impo rtation of Africans who interbred freely presumably

l3

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 with them . Because of this many, if not aU, of the old plant uses of th e Greater Antilles were forgotten and
disappeared. The only native aborigines in th e West Indies at this time are the very few, almost a handful, of island
Caribs who live on Dominica. In investigations made on the ethnobotany of these remaining Indians I have never
found any present day use o r previous history of the use of Piptadenia by the Caribs.

"My guess would be that if this species was used in the Great er Antilles at the tim e of the discovery, then its use
was probably pretty well distributed through the Lesser Antilles as well since most of the aboriginal inhabitants of
the larger islands, at least as far west as Hispaniola, came, it is believed, from the South America n mainland by way
of the Lesser Antilles. 'This was certainly tru e, at least, of the Arawak who inhab ited Hispaniola at the time of the
Conquest and the Caribs who were the chief occupants of the Less Antillean chain ."

If the old uses of Anadena"thera peregrina var. peregrina were to be looked for today in the West Indies at all, the
only place where they might ye t exist would be in Haiti, among the mountain peopie who still practice a kind of
bla ck magic, strongly African in nature. Larimer Mellon, Jr., who operates a hospital in the back country of Haiti,
wrote (in a letter, September 29, 19 56) that many of th e local people use snuff but that he did not know what it
was made of nor had he heard the word Cohoba used.

Not much is known as to when the Antilles were firSt popUlated by man. The possibility that Anadenanthera
peregrina var. peregrina was introduced by man into the West Indies is supported to some extent by what
information is available as to the peoples who came to occupy these island s. It is believed that the Indians who
settled in th e Antilles and who lived ther e at the time of the discove ry cam e from the northern coast of South
America. Pictograp hy , philology, tech nology and religion, as shown by their ceremo nies and beliefs, indicate th at
this is so, and that these peoples advanced northwards through the Antilles gradually, island by island (Fewkes,
1903). The fact that representatives of A. peregni111 vaL peregrina occur no farther west in the Greater Antilles than
Hispaniola implies a distribution which at first seems arbitrary but which, in fact , correlates with the extent of the
culture of the Taino in the Caribbean area at the time of the discovery.

Of the three main groups of peoples inhabiting the West Indies in 1492 , the Ciboney occupied the western
extremities of Cuba and Haiti (Gower, 1927). These lodians were mostly cave-<lwelierS, with a simple economy
based on manioc (Manihor sp.) and seafood. The culture of the Ciboney represents the most primitive of three
overlapping epochs distin guishable in the West Indies, and thei r shell heaps are fo und from Trinidad to Cuba
(Fewkes, 19 15). These peoples probably did not use A nadenanthe,a peregrina as a narcotic.

A second group of peoples was the Arawak, who lived in the Greater Antilles and included the Taino of
Hispaniola , th e Igneri of Trinidad, the Boriqueno of Puerto Rico and the Lucay of the Ballamas (Murdock, 1951).
(Murdock has included the Ciboney in this group , as the Sub-Taino of Cuba and Jamai ca). The term 'Island Arawak'
is used by Murdock (1951) to distinguish aU these peoples from the Arawak of the mainland . The Arawak of the
mainland may rep resent a prototype from which the Island Arawak develop ed a different culture, resembling it only
in gene ral customs and language. The Island Arawak were characterized by having an organized reHgion and a higll
grade of polished stone work (Gower, 1927). The Isla nd Arawi'k peoples represent the second cultural epoch
distinguishable in the West indies: that of agriculturists. TIils culture existed at one time on many of the islands of
the Antilles but was surviving at the time of discovery only on (Cuba,) Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, (Jamaica,) and the
Bahamas. The most populous islands were Hispaniola and Puerto Rico (Fewkes, 19 15).1 have examined specimens
of Anadenanthera peregrina var. peregrina from Hispa niola, Puerto Rico , Grenada, Tobago and Trinidad. Botanical
collections do not necessarily reflect the population size of a given species in any area ; but it may be significant that
I have exa mined from the West Indies specimens of A. peregrina var. peregrino as follows: Hispaniola (Haiti and the
Domini can Republi c): 14 numb ers (no coUecto r, Delesse rt Herbarium 33454; Allard 13900; Buch 839; Ekmon
H223 7, H2262, H3494, HI0460, HJ 2624, HJ4278; Fuertes 1561; Holdridge 1069; Leonard 75410, 8472,9050;
Valeur 423). Puert o Rico: twentY-<lne numbers (Britton 27 or 124; Britton & Britton 8970, 8986, 9856, 9979,
10074; Britton & Britton & Brown 6338; Britton & Hess 2697; Cowell 630; Heller 6329; Orero 418; Sargent s. n.,
369; Simenis 738, J I 17, 2082, 3396, 5327 or 5317, 6706; Stevenson 175 6; Undenvood & Griggs 771). Grenada:

14

 three numbers (Beard 164; Broadway s. n ., 1750). Tobago: one number (Broadway 3809). Trinidad : three numbers
(Broadway 9258; no collector , 1. D. Smith Herbarium 1004 ; no collector, Trinidad Botanical Garden 3675).
Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Trinid ad are the larger islands on which A. p eregrina var. peregrina is represented. One
might , th erefore, expect relatively more specimens from those places. It is also tru e that these island s were
comparatively highly populated by Ind ians at th e time of the discovery. If introduced by Ihem, these trees might be
expected to be found ra the r frequently th ere, even today.

Perhaps of greater significance is the fac t that, among the specimens exa mined , A nadenan thero peregrina was nol
represented from the other isla nds, including those of Ihe Lesser Antilles. The species is believed to occur there but
may well be rare. The possible im portance of this circumstance lies in the fact that the third group of peoples
inhabiting the West Indies at the time o f th e discovery was the Carib . These nomadic, war~like Indians appear to have
ove rrun the Lesser Antilles up to th e eastern end of Puerto Rico, except for th e islands of Tobago and Trinidad
(Fewkes, 1903, 19 15), which were probably too large for them to conqu er (Fewkes, 19 14a). The Carib represent the
third cultural epoc h found in the West Indies (Fewkes, 19 15). It seems doubtful to me that the Carib eve r used A.
peregrina as a na rco tic. Loven (1 935 ) stated that the forked tubes of the Taino neve r were employed by the Island
Carib, who did not snuff any powders. I ha ve seen no reports which in dicate otherwise. Hodge's Jetter (June
16 , 1955) tends to co nfirm that thi s is also truc today for the remaining Carib . Finally, the reason for the Carib's not
employing Anadenonth era narcotics ma y be found in their origins. Cru xent (I 9S 1) has described the surprising
existence in Venezuela of multi·legged, Panamanian'inspired pottery which appeare d shortl y before the lime of
discovery . This Ist hmian tradition, he says, belongs to a high cultural level and sjgnifies the arrival of conquering and
colonizing groups from Central America so metime between 1300 and 1700 AD. The sit es at whi ch Ihe pottery was
found correspond not only in chronology and typology but also in geo graph ical distribution with the Indians thaI
are "poorly termed Carib " by the chroniclers. If Cruxent's explanation is correct, then the reason for the Carib's not
using A nodenallthera snuff is clear : they were not familiar with it. The genus is not represented in Central America
nOr in western Colombia. Nor is there information suggesting that such materials were ever traded into those regions.

Relative t o the problem of the derivation of the Carib is the fact th at th e language of the Island Carib diffe rs
from that of th e mainland Carib. Fewkes (i 9 14b) stated that it was not known whether the two languages had
differentiated before or after the Island Carib had left the mainland; that , although th e Gu iana Carib are sometimes
thought to be derived from those of the islands, the Island Carib are probably of independent origin ; and that the
linguistic similarities between the two Ca rib groups were due to ancestral factor s. Whatever more recent findings may
indicate, it is possibly of interest to ethnologists and archaeologists that, regarding cultural relationships, nowhere,
not even in Brit ish Guiana, where Anodenanthera peregrina var. peregrina is naturally represented, is the use of the
narcotic reported among th e Carib . Legend s of the Arawak and Carib of the mainland insist that tobaceo came from
the Antilles, and it is believed that tobacco was secondarily disseminated from th ere into northeastern South America
(Brett, 1879 ; Radin , 1942). Anodenan/hera peregrina apparently was not introduced into north eastern South
Ameri ca from the isla nd s and not used at all there by the Arawak or Carib. Loven (1 935) stated that th e true
Arawak of the coast of G uiana were never acquainted with the takin g o f an y kind of snuff through the fo rked reed
as used by the Taino, and the Cohoba ceremony did not exist among the true ~raw ak .

It may be pertin en t to discuss in greater detail some of the reports concerning the use of A nadenanthera peregrina
and to raise a fcw questions a bout archaeological artifacts, linguist ics and myth ology . Safford (l 9 16a) fir st identified
the snuff of the ancient Taino as from the plant now known as A. peregrina var.peregnOna. l agree that this species
probably was used, but I cannot agree entirely wi th his interpretation of the statements of the chroniclers. Safford
asserted that in the earl y descriptions of Cohoba snuff there is noth ing to indi ca te the nature of the plant producing
it and that Oviedo y Va ld ~s confused it wit h tobaceo. In a second article (1 9 l6b), he infers that Oviedo y Valdes
incorrectly stated tha t the substance was ign ited and its smoke inhaled through th e bifurcated tube. Safford says
furth er that the physiological effects could not have been caused by tobacco.

First , Safford appears to have overlooked a small passage in Oviedo y Valdes (1851 ed., Torno Prime ro, p. 347)
e
which ind icates the nature of the plant , Cohoba: among va rious trees, some "...lIevan unas arvejaso havas negras redon­
das edurissimas eno para comerlas hombre ni alguna animal. Eaqueste cohoba Jleva unas arvejasque lasvaynas sonde un

15

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/
 palmo e mas e menos ]uengas, can unas lemejuelas par fructo que no son de comer. e la madera es muy buena e
recia ."(The wood of AIlLIdenal1lhera is, incidentally, well known throughout the West Indies and South America as
th~ source of a strong and excellent timber for carpentry, civil construction, etc.). TItis passage and its separation, in
the text, flOm the passage in which Oviedo deseribes the absorption of the smoke of planl materials through various
tubes suggest that the chronicler may not have been aware of the narcotic uses of the tree, Cohoba. It seems
probable Ihal the Indians would not have informed him of its magical importance, an assumption supported by the
lack of botanical identifications of the SOUrce of Cohoba by any of the chroniclers, although the identity may be
implicit in Pane's account discussed later.

Oviedo's description of the inhaling of smoke from burning tobacco leaves through tubes ought to be aecepted, J
think, as it is related. Oviedo y Valdes stated that the plant used was a cultivated herb with short, broad, thick, downy
leaves, and that even the Christians, as weIl as the negroes, had begun to use it. Unlike the Cohoba ceremony, this
smok ing appears to have been an activity in general of the Taino males.

As for th e physiological effects of tobacco, it seems possible that strong smoke in large doses might overcome
participants, particularly after wine, as Oviedo y Valdes indicated was sometimes the circumstance. Furthermore, the
part possibly played by psychological suggestion ought not be overlooked.

Probably both AnadellLInthera and tobacco were used by the Taino , the former being associated more strictly
with cemi worship and shamanistic curing, the latter tending perhaps to be somewhat mOre secular in employment
(Roumain, 1942). That tobaeco is cultivated and available easily to the population would encourage general use . The
more highly narcotic and less easily obtained fruits of the Cohoba tree might have been Iimiled in use 10 Ille elile. I
believe that the Taino sometimes may have burned Anadenanthera materials with lobaceo and inhaled Ihe smoke of
the two substances together. The practiee of inhaling the smoke of th e burning seeds of whal may weU be species of
Anadenanlhera is reported for some Indians of British Guiana (see und er Mura) and for Indians of Chile or Gran
Chaco (see under Atacama).

Ramon Pane (in Bourne, 1906) speaks of Cogioba, as well as of an herb called gueio, which he describes as having
leaves like basil, thi ck and broad , whose juice is used in divination . In one of the origin myths of the Taino, Pane
mentionsaguanguaio full of Cogioba. I would deduce from this that Ihe guanguaio (conlainer of some sor t?) may have
been used originally to hold tobacco, a guan-guaio (~guan-gueio'), and later come to be employed as a container for
Anadellallthera snuff. If this be correct, it might suggest that the Taino had been acquainled with tobacco earlier
than with Allodenanthera peregrina.

Wilhout recognizing ii, Pane may have indicated the identity of Cohoba in a mylh concerning how the Indians
make their cemis or idols: a tree in the forest speaks to a passing Indian and asks him to carve the tree into an idol
and to make Cohoba for it so that the spirit which resides in the tree and speaks from it may tell him important
things. Trees were important in the religion of the Taino, and it would be reasonable to interpret the tree referred to
above as Anodenanthera peregrina var.peregrina, in which case the Taino might be 'enthusiasts' partaking of the god
himself in ord er to commune with him.

Among Ihe most puzzling archaeological materials found in the West Indies are the elbow-stones, stone collars and
Imee-pointed idols, as they are variously called, endemic to Puerto Rico, Hispaniola and possibly to eastern Cuba
(Fewkes, 19 13) . These polished stone objects are superior to any found in the usser Antilles (Fewkes, 19 12-13).
Fewkes Slated (1913) that earlier investigators recognized that the 'shoulder ridge' of the stone collars fainlly
resembled the lashing of the two ends of a hoop; Joyce had suggested that the Antillean stone collar was a copy of
an archaic cemi made of tree branches bent into a hoop and fastened at their ends, and he first associated the stone
collars with tree worship. As Fewkes has said, both the stone collars and elbow stones were used probably for
similar ceremonial purposes, being regarded as idols, the figure s carved on them representing cemis or spirits. TIle
spirit represented by the faces on the elbow stones is believed to be a bark- or tree-spirit. He (1913) stated that the
spirit was called yucayu and that it was thought possibly to cause manioc to germinate and increase . I suggest the
possibility that this spirit might alternatively be that of the Cohoba tree.

16

I
(
 Ernst (1889) intimated that the word Cohoba may be of Guarani origin, from cui (powder); CU)'I; (to eat, abso rb);
cui·guabo or cuyubo (eat ing, absorbing): the act of taking the powd er. The word taboca or tabaco (reed) is also
Guarani and came to be applied to any tube used for absorbing materials through the nose (Oviedo y Valdes, 185 1
ed.). How the Guarani language could have gotten into the Antilles is difficult to explain. Ernst (1889) said th at
some tribes of northern Haiti referred (0 by de las Casas were supposed to have spoken a language or languages
totally different from the rest of the island; th ere is some eviden ce that their speech was derived from Gu arani. One
of the tribes was that of the Ciguayo , who, according to Ernst, mu st have been acquainted with some exciting
powder; th ey used tabocas. It is interesting that the word CUTUpa, which may be closely related to the Guarani roots
given by Ernst, appears in various forms referring to intoxicating snuffs Or enemas among the Tupi-Guarani-speaking
peoples of th e Cocama , Omagua, Ch iriguano and Guarani cultures. The same word . referring to similar practices, also
is found among the Dlomac, Saliva, Yaruro and Guahibo c ultures, whom Murdock has described as speaking
independent or isolated langu age-stocks. It may be significant that a linguist ic dassification suggested by Greenberg
& McQuown (1960) claims th e languages of th e Otomac, Sa liva and Guahibo to be closely related to Tupi ·Guarani
(see map. p. 67 ).

Ortiz (J 947) has proposed that there may be mOre than a chance simila rity between the word Coh oba of
Hispaniola and the word cobo, which meant anciently on Hispaniola, and still means today in Cuba. "snail".
According to Ortiz , there is an abund ance of the large marine snails, Srrombus gigas L, in the Antilles: th at on man y
of the isl ands th ey were th e only hard material ava ilable for utensil s may be responsible for th ei r becoming one of
th e basic charac teristics o f (he arch aic cultures establishe d there, Ortiz maintains that powdered shells were mixed
with tobacco and smoked in the magic ceremonies of Cohoba. (\\11ere he got his informatio n I cannot say but, like
many of the writers on the subject , he is probably mistaken in att ributing unqu estio nably th e botanical substance to
tobacco and in sayi ng tha t it was smoked in th e Cohoba ce remony). Ortiz asks wheth er the Indians ground the shells
to partake of a supe rnatural power presumed to reside in the soai) shell and whether the cobo might not have been
an ancient vessel for the rite s of Cohoba.
It is tru e that the cabo does playa part in th e o rigin myths of th e Taino, as related by Ramon Pane (in Bourne,
1906), and may well have been regard ed as end owed with special powerS; b ut the taking of Cohoba snuff is
described as entirely unrelated to the snail, suggesting that, if, as Ortiz be li eved, the word Cohoba was derived from
the word cabo, the derivation must have tak en place at a time beyond the folk-memory o f th e Taino ofPane's time.
It does not seem wholly unlikely to me that lhe word used by Pane, Cog;oba, for the practice of taking
(Anadenanth era) snuff may be related to cobo, as Ortiz implies: however, J believe th at Cogioba or Cohoba might
bet ter be explained as a combination of the Guarani (Cu rupa as tran sformed int o) Cuyu bo and Ul e word cobo, This
would impl y a meeting of the culture of the Ciguayo or other Guarani·speaking tribes of Ernst (1 889) with that of
th e more primitive Ciboney. The Ciboney did not know of Anadenanthera materials bul may well have taken SOme
kind of snuff stored in snail shells and could have contributed other elements, as well, to the snuff-takin g customs of
the peoples of Hisp aniola.

Among art icles which have not been well expla ined from the Taino arc the se t-up idols, which are no t
found among any of their closest relatives on the mainland to the south. These idols have been attributed to Mayan
influence from the west, as has, so metimes, (he Tain o's smoking of cigars. Th e Taino use of tobacco in a profane
mann er is certainl y no t derived from practices found on the mainland at the time of discovery; toba cco smoking was
there a rit ual clement in tr ea ting the sick. TIle uttering of oracles amon g (he Taino is intimately conne ct ed with the
cemi idol s in situatjons where the snuff was placed on th e circular disk surmo unting and made in one piece with the
id ol's head (Loven, 1935) .

Another puzzling quest ion is the simil arity o f the West Indian word caoba, for Swietenia Mahogam' L., to
Cohoba, which Loven ( 1935), in fact, spells Caoba. Was there o riginally some con fusion, among the S paniards, of
the cere mony of Cohoba, or Caoba, with the wooden apparati employed in its performance? Is there any connection
between this ceremony and caoba, S. Mahogani ? In Pane's account o f th e origin myth s of the Taino, th ere is also a
tre e ment ioned called lobi, l obo, lobo or Hobo, which was sa id t o be known otherwise as Mirobalans; 'Bachiller y
Morales (1 883 ed.) said that a tree of that name still grew and its fruit was still in use in Santo Domingo. Did the
words ori gi naUy refer to Anadenanthera peregrina, like Yopo, the term used for Anadenallthera snuff by so me

17

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 Orinoco Indians. The word lobi (or variants of it) is used in a narrative on the origin of the Ind ians of Hispaniola, as
relat ed by the Taino to Pane; the men ancestral to the Taino were said to have been going off to fish when they were
taken by the sun and transformed into trees called lobi.

Loven (1935) has referred to the similarity between the Caoha-meetings of the Taino and the mirrayes of the
Achagua to the south on the mainland who use Yopo snuff in the same way as the Taino did Cohoba, orCaoba. He
added that the Caoba ceremony belongs to a culture·complex which was not part of the true Arawak culture of the
continent. It was characterized by intoxication from inhaling snuff through a forked tube and originated in the
western Orinoco region , where the Achagua practiced a ceremony of that kind . The fo rked tubes of the Taino
differed from aU those of South America in that they were not made of bones ; there were none suitable on
Hispaniola. Loven believed that the forked tubes of the Taino, as well as their method of application, were imported,
via Trinidad, from the western Orinoco and northwestern Amazonas, after the Taino had settled the Antilles. This
interpretation was based on Loven's belief that tobacco, not Anadenalllhera materals, was used. Substituting one for
the o ther, however, need not upset the theory for th e derivation of the other culture-elements mentioned. On the
basis of th e research done for tms paper, it is reasonable to state that, whatever part tobacco may have played in the
snuffs of these Indians, Anadenan!hera peregrina was used probably by both the Taino and the Achagua, as well as
by other Orinoco Indians (see below).

IGNERI CULTURE:

. TRJBES: Igneri

LANGUAGE: Arawakan stock.

TIle only material from about the time of contact is an excerpt from an ltistoricaJ document written in verse
about the Trinidad Indians by de Castellanos (1852 ed., Torno Cuatro, p. 93):

"Libres estan de la pomposa ropa

Y de cubiertas duras el acero,

Do quiera que mireis alii se topa

Macato, chicha. vino mas grosero:

Uno toma tabaco y otro yopa

Para poder saber 10 venidero;
Estaban plazas, calles y caminos
Uenos de hechiceros y adevinos."

Apparently, both tobacco and Anadenan/hera peregrina were known and used . Loven (1935) indicated that tobacco
was used in powder form and that snuff·taking for ritualistic purposes was common. He also believed that tobacco
snuff was the most ancient ind igenous snuff powder used on Trinida~, even though both tobacco and Yopo powder
were used .

Among the specimens of Anadenanthera peregrina vaL peregrino examined from Trinidad was Broadway 9258,
labelled Savannah Yoke (Could the last epithet be confused with Ya-kee, Vu-ola spp., as found in Schultes, 1954?);
the notation also indicated that the trce was only "perhaps native". MarShaU (1930) and Williams (1931) both
describe tms species as doubtfully indigenous, and Beard (1946) does nol include it in a list of trees native to
Trinidad .

According to Fewkes (l914a), the archaeological materials from Trinidad have greater affinity with the pottery of
South America than with that of the northern islands of th e Antilles. The Trinidad materials are similar to those of
the Arawak on the Orinoco. The natives of Trinidad were probably most closely related to the Warrau (Guarano) of
the Orinoco delta. TIle Trinidad culture was a localited development from South America belonging to the same

18

i
 general insular culture or cultures found in the Antilles from Trinidad to Cuba and the Bahamas. This culture
persisted on Trinidad and the larger island s probably because the Carib (see Taino) could not conquer them (Fewkes,
1914a).

In attempting to understa nd the significance of the snuffing of Anadenanthera materials in the West lndies or
elsewhere, it is helpful to know whatever is possible of the history of its users. The Carib having been removed from
consideration, only the Ciboney and the Island Arawak remain to be considered.

Fewkes (1903) has said that the West Indians were probably most closely related to the WaITau (Guarano) now
inhabiting the Orinoco delta. The Wanau culture is considered in Murdock's Outline (1951) with the Orinoco
cultures, among whom the Otomac, Saliva and Yaruro apparently employ Anadenanthera snuff; I have no
information on the Wanau , but it would seem likely that they might use it, too . The three cultures mentioned all
utilize A. peregrina as snuff, and aU three have tw o words for it: Cumba (Curupa, Curuva) and Niopo (Yopo, Yupa,
etc.). In early times, according to Fewkes, numer ous sedentary peoples who had developed a high degree of culture
and were disfinctly related in language, customs and religion, lived a fluviat ile life along the banks of the Orinoco
(befo re they were driven out by th e Carib).

Mor e recently, Cruxent (1951) stated that pottery found at the si te of Barrancas, Venezuela, at the delta of the
Orinoco is associated with a culture which also existed to some extent in the Antilles (as well as in Amazonia and in
the Andes of Ecuador and Peru, as shown by the appearance of Barrancold motifs in these areas). 11tis culture seems
to have moved northward across the Antilles, being transformed in the process.

Cruxent also mentioned a cultural movement which is responsible for a ceramic material known as Valencia Red,
which is not as fine art as the earlier Barrancas and not derived from, though it develops on top of, the Barrancoid
horizon. This second cultural movement appears 10 have travelled northwards in the same direction as the first and
may have been Arawak , but very little is known about it. (Both this cultural movement and the earlier one described
preceded the tradition in Venezuela which Cruxent attributes to the 'Carib' or Isthmian from Panama).

Cruxent suggested tha t there may have been a cultural connection between the Peruvian highlands and the
cultures of Brazil, Venezuela and the Antilles at a time perhaps contemporaneous with Chavin civilization in Peru
(about 1000 - 500 B. C, according to Gordon R. Willey, in lectures). He further suggested that the Venezuelan cultures
may have been connected by several routes to Peru : a) descent of the Amazon, followed by movement up th e Rio
Negro to the Orinoco; b) from northern Peru to Ecu ador to Colombia to Venezuel a; cj descent of th e Amazon to its
mouth and up the coast. Of these possibilities, Cruxent believes the first two to be the more probable, with a)
leading to Barrancas an d b) leading 10 a si te known as La Cabrera, also in Venezuela. Both sites exhibit cultures of
And ean characteristics and belong to the first cultural current into the Antilles described above. Whether Or not the
bearers of these cultures could have been Ihe introducers of Anadenanthera peregrina into the West Indies can only
be guessed. The data compiled on the following pages for uses of A. peregrina among the Indians of South America
suggest that. if any of the se peoples used Anadellantlzera substances, it might have been those associated with route
a). Anodenan t/u!ra is not represented in northern Peru, Ecuador nor western Colombia; nor is it found at the mouth
of the AmJ zo n and up the coast, either in a wild state or cultivated.

19

I
 CULTURE AREA COLOMBIAN

CRIBCRA CULTURE: the most advanced culture in aboriginal Colombia.

TRlBES: Chibcha Or Muisca nation.

LANGUAGE: Chibchan stock.

NAME: Yopa.

REFERS TO: leaves or powdered leaves.

METHOD OF PREP ARATIO N AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: th e Indian carries a calabash containing
the powder and leaves, a piece of mirror mounted on a smaU stick, a little brush , and a highly painted bone split
obliqu ely in half to function as a spoon.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATIO N: the bone is used to fling the powdcr into the nostrils; the mirror is employed
to reflect the fl ow of nasal discharge down the upper lip, which is kept shaved for the purpose; the brush is used to
wipe away the discharge, the extra powder on the face , and to comb the hair afterwards.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: nasal discharge .

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: divinatory , a discharge which runs straight down the lip signifying good; one which

runs crookedly , portending the opposite.

USED BY: mohancs; widely used.

SOURCES: Cooper in Steward , 1949; Simon in Restrepo, 1895; Usca tegui in a letter, October 26 , 1956.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: this region is west of the general distribution of Alwdenanthcra in northern South
America; furthermore , the snuff above reportedly was made from leaves, rather than seeds; finaUy, the Andean
Chibcha do not use A nadenanthcra materials today. The possibility that some of the Chibcha may use
Allodenanfhera snuff at the present time is, however>suggested by the fact that their neighbors, the Tunebo, have
acquired the habit and that specimens of A. peregrino var. peregrina from Colombia are named Yoro or Yoto
(Overton 0·56-79, 0-56-8/).

TUNEBO CULTURE: peripheral to Chibcha culture proper.

TRlI3ES : Guane, Lache, Morcote, Tecua and Tunebo (Tama).

LANGUAGE: Chibchan st ock.

NAM E: Akua, Yopo.

REFERS TO : strong alkaline powder.

METHOD OF PREPARA nON A,"lD ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: the mat erial is toasted and ground. It is
absorbed from a special wooden tray be means of the tarsus of the birdspajuil or pauji/ (Crax albert; Fraser or Mitu
romen/osa Spix) , Or an hoceD (currasow) bone. The magic powder is kept in the beak of a cientaro or tucim

20

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/

 (RomphaSfos swain soni Gould or Aulacorhynchus prasil1lis Gould or other species). This beak is closed with a piece
of cotto n and hung from a cross-belt by means of a liana.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: a little powder is flung into the wooden plate, and each person inhales some
of it with the aid of the bone employed as a tube.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: protection against the cold of the mountains; highly stimulating in small doses and
powerfully narcotic in larger amounts.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE : hygienic. The use of Yopo formerly was common to the whole male population
but today is disappearing due to the prohibitions of missionaries and due to the great distances which must be
traversed in order to obtain the source material. Actually, it is the kareko or medicine man , who uses A kUa (Yopo)
today among the Tunebo. who are rapidly becoming extinct, numbering perhaps fewer than five thousand
persons in a mostly mountainous area.

USED BY: men only , shamans.

SOURCES: Cooper in Steward, 1949; Rocheraux, 1919; Uscitegui, 1959 and in a letter, no date but
written in lanuary , 1961.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: this region is west of the general distribution of AlwderuJnr hera in northern South
America as represented by specimens examined ; but Uscategui (1959) maintains that the Tunebo, who have
wandered around from southern Venezuela to northwestern Colombia, do use snuff mad e of Anadenanthera
materials today and that th ey acquired it probabl y from their Arawak neighbors in Venezuela and Colombia .
According to my information, the Arawak peoples referred to mu st be either th e Achagua, who use A nadenanthera
snuff, or the Guayupe, for whom the botanical sources are as yet unce rtain . (The Baniwa appear to use only Virola
substances). Botanical specimens of A nadenanthera peregrina vaL peregrina from Colombia bear the common names
Yopo and YOlO (See Chibcha). Uscategui repo rts (in the letter cited above) that voucher specimens of this species
obtained from the Tunebo themselves are at the Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, in Bogota.

21

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 CULTURE AR EA CAQUETA

ACHAGUA CULTURE:

TRIBES: Achagua, Caberre (Cabre), Cocairna and PiapoCQ.

LANGUAGE : Arawakan stock.

NAME:Niopa, Yopa, Yopo, Yuuba.

REFERS TO: snuff powd er; botanical source of powder.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: the small fruit s 9r seeds of certain trees
are toasted and pulverized; or some kind of leaf is utilized to make the powder, which looks like ground coffee . Two
crossed bird bones are used for absorption or a bifurcated tube made ofJeg bones of various herons.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: two persons simultaneously blow snuff into each other's nostrils with the
crossed bird bones; or the powder is inhaled in a one·man operation through the bifurcated tube.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: violently "]toxicat ing; in a moment the perso n is deprived of reaso n; then mucous runs
from the ·nose. With repeated successive doses, the lndians shout crazily, shake, make hideous gestures. Anger may
be aroused.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: divinatory and an excitant to battle. When the Indians wish to know the outcome
of an undertaking, they get together and take Yopa; if the right nostril runs, success is indicated; if the left, failure; if
both - which is usual - nothing is indicated, and the snuffing must go on all day if necessary, until the Indians get
an answer. As an excitant, Yopa makes the Achagua , who are cowardly by nature, fearless in battle.

USED BY: shamans, but not monopolized by them.

SOURCES: Alvarado, 1945; Cooper in Steward, 1949; Hernandez de Alba in Steward, 1948; Reichel·Dolmatoff,
1943-44; Riv ero, 1883 ed.; Uscategui, 1959; Wurdack, 1958.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: the region occupied by the Achagua culture falls, in part at least , within the general
distribution of Alladenanlhera peregrina var. peregrina. Wurdack (1958) reports that snuff made from it is used
toda y by the Pia poco.

NOTE: the Guayabero tribe is reported by Uscategui (1959) to use or to have been acquainted with Yopo made
from the toasted and pulverized seeds of Anadenanlhera peregrina var , peregrina, especially for purposes of magic.
TIle tribe is located within the Achagua region as here considered. TIle language has not yet been classified.

NOTE: the Amarizano tribe in D'Orbigny (J 866) is not included " ] Murdoek's Ouliine (I 951), but the
Amarizano are given in Steward's Handbook (1946·50) as belonging to the Achagua culture. D'Orbigny reported
that th e Amarizano (as well as the Otomac) entertained a bizarre and deadly passion for the powder of Niopo, whieh
carne from a species of ft1imoso. (AfUldenanthera peregrina var. peregrina was placed originally in that genus). He
stated that, wh en the grains began to tum black, the Indians kneaded them into a paste and mixed them with
manioc flour and with lime from fired snail shells. The paste is hardened into small cakes over a lively fire. The
Indians take the powder with pleasure anywhere and everywhere. It is placed on a plate five o r six inches long held
with one hand, while the ot~er applies to the nostrils the forked end of a bone tube of agal/inalo (turkey buzzard),
through which the Indian inhales the powder.

22

 BANIWA CULTURE:

TRlBES: Arckana, Avane, Baniwa, Bare, Carutana , Catapolitani, Caua, Huhuteni, Ipeca, Maipure, Siusi and
Tanana.

LANG UAGE: Arawakan stock .

NM1E: N apa, Yapa.

REFERS TO: bark exudate.

METHOD OF PREPARATlON AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: bifurcated tube prepared from the leg

bone of various herons.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRA TlON: absorbed as snuff in a one·man operation.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: se mi·n arco tizing, hallucinogenic.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: curat ive in a magi cal sense as part of a method for dispelling sickness cau sed by

witchcraft. /

USED BY: shamans only .

SOURCES: Alvarado, 1945; Schultes in conversa tion, 1960; Uscate gui, 1959; Wurdack, 1958 .

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: th e Baniwa appear to live margina l to the area of general distribution of
Anadenanthera in northern So uth America; no specimens are known to me from their culture region. Uscategui and
Wurdack state that the snuff is made from Virola substan ces; Schultes reports in conversation that these people
would know of both Alladellallihera and Virala spp. today but that they probably use only Virala, which is
employed , unlike Anadellalllhera, only by shamans.

NOTE: Murdock's Out/ille (l951) does not mention the Kuripako tribe, which is found, today at least, on the Rio
Guainia, an extension of the Ri o Negro, in Colombia. These Indians speak Arawakan, as do the Baniwa, and fall
within the region Murdock designated as that of the Baniwa. The Kuripako use Virola bark exudate to ma ke a snuff
called Yatoo or Yo-to (or Paricd). This snuff is restricted in use to sh amans and is inhaJed in a one-man operation
through a bifurcated tube prepared from the leg bones of various herons. Wurdack maintains that materials of
Anadenanthera are not used _Schultes has seen Virola powder prepared by the Kuripako.

SOURCES: Schultes, 19 54 and in conversation, 1960; Uscategui, 1959 ; Wurdack, 1958.

BET01 CULTURE:

TRIBES: Airico , Betoi, Jirar a (Girara), Lucalia and Situra (Ciluja) .

LANGUAG E: Chibchan stock.

NM1E: Yapa, Yapa.

REFERS TO : powder.

23

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(
 MANNE R OF ADMINISTRA nON: th e powder is blown over the body; it is probably also self·admi nistered.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANC E: divinatory and for magical cures.

USED BY : shamans.

SOURCES: Cooper in Steward , 1949; Hernand ez de Alba in Steward, 1948; Rivero, 1883 ed.; Steward in
Steward , 1948.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: this region is just west of th e general distribution of A nadenanthera in northern South
America . Schult es suggested in conversation (1960) thatAnadenal11hera materials may well be obtained by the Beloi
Indians through trade, if th ey do n ot manufacture the snuff themselves from local trees.

CARUaNA CULTURE:

TRlBES; Carijona, or Umaua .

LANGUAGE: Carib an stock.

·NAME: Niopo.

RE FERS TO : white snuff or tobacco.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOC IATED WITH USE: possibly a pipe.

MANNER OF ADMINI STRATION: inhaled or smoked.

PHYS ICAL EFFECTS: ste rnu tatory and laxative.

CULTURA L SIGNI FICANCE: religious; associated with annual expiatory feasts.

USED BY: men of th e tribe .

SOURCES: Saint-Cricq , 1873·74 ed.; Schultes, 1954; \Vhiffen, 1915.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY ; probably not mad e from A ruufenanthera because this region is outside th e distribution

of the species. Furthermore, the powder referred to here is white. People who speak Ca rib an languages are not known
to use Anadenanlhera, and such materials are usually not associated with pipes.

GUAYUPE CULTURE:

TRlBES: Choqu e, Eperigua, Guayupe (Guaypi) and Sae.

LANGUAGE: Arawakan.

NAME: Yapa, Yapo.

REFERS TO: seed or pip of a tree.

24

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I
 METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: a broad-leaved, pubescent lobacco
appears to be employed with it, or used alone; possibly , the tree material is not used at all.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: inhaled as smoke, through the mouth or nose to th e point of

unconsciousness.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: int oxication and loss of judgement; uncon sciousness accompanied by dreams.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: divinatory.

US ED BY: people in a group , probably in a ge neral ceremony.

SOURCES: Aguado, 1906 ; Reichel·Dollllatoff, 194344 ; Schultes in co nversatio n, 19 60.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: this region is west of the distribution of Anadenanthera in northern South America. I
have been unable to lo ca te any other information on the practices of these Indians than th e 300ve data extracted
from an ea rl y missionary report in Aguado.

TUCANO CULTURE:

TRlBES: Arapaso, Bara, (Barasana, according to Schultes in conversation). Buhagana, Carapana , Cubea, Cueretu ,
Desana, Hobacana, Macuna ,Pamoa (Tatuya), Piralapuyo , Tucano, Tuyuca , Uaiana, Uasona, Yahuna and Ya pua (Japua).

LANGUAG E: Tucanoan or Betoyan stock.

The genus Anadenanthera is not, to my knowledge, represented in this region. Schultes, as well as Usca tegui,
indicate that the snuff used by th e Tucano, called by them Pa-ree-kil, is derived from Virola.

SOURCES: Allen, 1947; Reichel-Dolmatoff, 194344; Schultes, 1954; Usca tegui, 1959; Whiffen 1915.

NOTE: th e Barasana tribe is not mentioned in Murd ock 's GUllille (1951). Usdtegui has located it within the
Tucano culture region; he also indicates that the Barasana speak the Tucanoan language. Virolo snuff is used by this
tribe. (Schultes report s in conve rsation that the Barasana live on the Rio Piraparana and that their lan guage is only a
dialect of the Ma cuna)_

SOURCES: Schult es, 1954 ; Uscategui , 1959.

NOTE: the Taiwano tribe, also , lies within the Tucano cultu re region and speaks a Tucanoan language , al[hough it
is not referred to in Murd ock's Ou tline (1 95 1). Virolo snuff is em ployed. Uscategui claims that the Taiwano are Or
were formerly acquainted with Yop o, especially for magical purposes. I doubt that this is so, unless Yopo made from
Anadena1l1hera were obtained by trade, as A nadenomliera does not grow in the region of the Tucano.
Perhaps Yopo refers, among the Taiwano , as apparently among some peoples, to substances other than those derived
from Anadenanthera trees. (Schultes has indicated in conversation that he has similar doubts; he has been with the
Taiwano and sugges ts that their Yopo might be toba eco).

SOURCES: Schultes, 1954; Usdtegui, 1959.

Loven (1935) stated that coca-snuff is used in the Cayad-Uaupes territory, where it is preserved in snail sheUs
and absorbed through reeds in to the nose. He suspected that often where so-call ed Yopo powder is used the powder
ma y actually be coca. This would account for the sometimes reportedly mild effects, whlch are not associated with
Anadenonrhera materials. Schultes, however, in conversation doubts Loven's statement. The only area where

25

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 Schultes has seen coca snuffed - and has done it himself - is amongst the Arawak tribe , Yukuna. on the ruo
Miritiparana, an affluent of the Rio Caqueta, jn Colombia.

TUCUNA CULTURE:

TRlBES: anly the Tucuna (Ticuna).

LANGUAGE: an isolated stack. (Arawak,according ta Uscategui).

The genus Anadenonthera is not known , it seems , from this region; their Parica snuff is made probably from
Virola , tobacco or some other plant.

SOURCES: Allen, 1947 ; Bates, 1892; Nimuendaju, 1952; Orton, 1870; Reichel-D olmataff, 194 3-44; Schultes,
1954 ; Spruce , 1908; Tessman, 1930; Uscategui, 1959.

I
WlTOTO CULTURE:

TRlBES: Andoke, Bora (Miranya), Caeruna, Meunane, Nanoya, Ocaina, OrejoD, Resigero and Witoto (Vitota).

LANGUAGE: Witotan stock.

Anadenonthera is not represente'd in this region to the best of my knowledge . The snuff used by the Witoto is
white and is not described as especially stimulating. Orton and Schultes have suggested that it is tobacco snuff.
Recently in conversation, Schultes has asked whether or not the snuff perhaps may be a greyish mixture of coca and
ashes.

SOURCES: Allen, 1947; Crevaux, 1882; Orlon, 1870 ; Schultes, 1954; Steward in Steward , 1948; Whiffen, 191 5.

26

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 CULTURE AREA ORINOCO

OTOMAC CULTURE: river people but also int ensive agriculturists.

TRIBES: Otomac, Pao and Saruro.

LANGUAGE : isolated Otomacan stock.

NAME : Cwu ba, Curopa, Cumva, Niopo, iVope, iVopo, Yopo, Yupa.

REFERS TO: powder as used by the Indians after final preparation; powder derived fro m plant so urce; the tree
itself.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEM S ASSOCIATED WITH USE: the pods of a mimosaceous plant are
gathered, broken into pieces, moistened and fermented; the softened seeds, turning black, are kneaded into a paste,
mixed with equal quantities of lime or with cassava flour and lime. (The limd is obtained by firing the shells oflarge
snails whi ch the Indians eat and which th ey collec t on river flood-banks). Perhaps-another ingredient is added, as
Gumilla sta ted that the intoxication and fury are caused by something added to the mixture by th e devil. The paste
is placed on a wooden grid over a brisk fire and hard ened into small loa ves. The t rees fro m which the seeds are
obtained do not grow in all the areas where the Otomac live; hence, some of these Indians trade snails and other
articles for the. loaves from other Otomac who manufacture enough both for their own uses and those" of their
neighbors. Al so , th e Otomac on the left bank of the Orinoco supply the Yaruro with snail shells in return for Yopo.
When used, th e individual loaf is fmely pul verized , and the powder, which smells like strong tobacco, is placed on a
dish 5-6 inche s wide which has a handle . A forked, 7 inch long bird bone, probably from a large plover or gallin(l2o
(turkey buzzard), is employed in administration.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: the Indian holds the dish in his right hand while inhaling the powder into his
nostrils through the two extremities of the bone tub e. It is reported also that the fumes of the powder are inhaled or
that the powder is sprinkled in the eyes and ears .

PHY SICAL EFFECTS: intoxication , deprivati on of reason, infuriation, but first a seizu re of violent sneezing. The
Indians take enough of th e snuff to produce intoxica tio n which lasts some hours, during which they often injure
themselves and ot hers by their violence. A sense o f languor sets in later, persisting some da ys.

CULTURAL SIG NIFICANCE: preparator}' to battle, especiall y again st the Ca rib , th e snuff has been used to
incite blood ·thirstiness; but it is also employed as a common vice,taken anywhere or any time at pleasure. Another of
its uses is for divination and sacred invocation. The Indians are said to believe the y ca nnot take the powder without
th e bird bone , all hough Gumilla referred to th e use of the fingers for snuffing.

USED I3Y : men of the tribe as well as shaman s and mohanes.

SOURCES : Alvarado, 1945; Bueno, 1933 ed. ; Cooper in Steward, 1949 ; D'Orbigny, 1866; Gilij, 1780-84;
Grani er·Doyeux , J 956; Gumilla, 1745 ed.; Humb oldt , J852-53 ed.; Kirchhoff in Sleward , 1948; Reichel·Dolmatoff,
19 4344 ; Rive ro, )883 ed.; Safford , 1916a; Schomburgk, 184 1 ed.; Southey, 18 19; Wurd ack, 19 58 .

BOTANICAL IDENTITY : AnadeJlal/lhera peregrilla var. peregrina is probabl y used (perhaps with other
mat erials), as it is found in thi s general region , where it is known as Yopo and Cojoba (or Cajoba, Coabo,),
according to he rbarium label s(Arisleguieta 1612; Pillier 8380; L. IVilliams Jl 965, 12327, 12651; Wurdack & Guppy
115, 194; Wurdack & Monachillo 41117: aU from Ven ezuela). Schomburgk (I 84 1 ed .) believed the powder of the
Otomac to be made from Acacia Niopo, which is a synonym of A nadenan thera peregrina va r. peregrina. Humboldt
(1842-53 ed.) said that Acacia Niopo was identical with Curupa, referring to the work ofGUij (1780-84).

27

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SALIVA CULTURE: river people who also cult.ivate.

TRIBES: Ature, Macu, Piaroa and Saliva.

LANGUAGE : independent Saliva st.ock.

NAME: Cumba, Niopo, Napa, Yopa, Yopo , Yu ,,', Yupa.

REFERS TO : the final product; the pulverized plant substance; the plan t itself.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIAT ED WITH USE : during th e dry months of January and
February, horde s of Piaroa roam th e savannas in search of the lo ng pods . The seeds are removed, moi stened, ground
int.o a fine paste and roasted. The bark of a lecylhidaceous (ree ca ll ed coco de mono is burned and the ashes are
add ed to the pulverized seeds. The vegetative part s of an unide\'tified shrub appear als o 10 be included. The pjaroa
sometimes ob tain Yopo from the Guahibo in return for curare. Accordin g to Gheerbrant, Niopo is the produ ct of
the slow burnin g of a small bun ch of hangjng herbs which fo rms a long white ash; the ash is subj ec ted to fire, treated
with water and mixed with many ot her substances, formin g a deep brown mi xture . When desired , a small quantity of
the hardened substance is pounded in a mort ar or on a small board or in a wo ode n dish with raised edges. The
cinnam on-brown powder is snuffed through the bifurcated leg bone from various herons Or other long-shanked birds.
The appara tu s for snuff-taking is called nioe niabaca. The instrument has also been desc rib ed as comprising severa]
parts, in which case the upper tubes are joined with thread whi ch is covered with resin from the peraman tree
(Sympitonia sp .); the upper end s are tipped with perfo rated knobs which are usually palm fruit s. Between uses, a
pair of stiff feath ers is inserted in the tubes to keep them clean.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRAnON: the Piaroa holds the dish in his right hand and puts the knobs of the upper
tub es to his nostrils, whil e constantly moving the lower end of th e instrument over th e dish, at the same time
inhali ng th e powder. The operation takes Jess than a minute.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: violent sneezin g is the immediate reaction, even amo ng those long accustomed to using
the powder. The eyes become bloodshot ; and a type o f hypnotic, stupefied o r intoxicated state endures a fe w
minutes, followed by a soothing innuen ce, which lasts longer. Gheerbrant ha s said that the Piaroa go temporarily,
but not se rious1y ~ insane .

CULTU RAL SIGNIFICANC E: divinatory, for sa cred invocation , excitatory to war and as a vice. Gheerbrant
stated that th e ritual of making Niopo goes on all night in a semi-dark hutl O feet across and h ousing aU the sacred
objects of the Piaroa , who are unu sua ll y devout, he said . eve n for Indians; several men squat silently while the
hanging herbs burn and the snuff is made and employed. This procedure is und ertaken during the month of
celebrat ions and is tab oo for women , wh o are not allowed in the hut under penalty of death .

US ED BY : shamans, men o f the tribe, elders. It is also in general use today among the males o f some groups , who
are avid Yopo·jnhaJers.

SOURCES: Alvarado, 1945: Cooper in Steward, 1949; Cruxen t, 1947 ; Fabo, 1919-20; Gheerbrant, 1954 ;
Gumilla, 1745 ed.; Bassett Maguire in a letter , Oclober 28, 1955; Reichel.oolmatoff, 194344; Rivero, 1883 ed.;
Tercero Conferencia ... , 1945; Uscalegui, 1959; Williams, 1945b; Wurdack , 1958.

BOTAN ICAL IDENTITY: Anadenanlhera peregrilla var. peregrilla is used at least as one of the ingredients of
Saliva snuff. The late Heber W. Youngken, Sr., of the Massachusett s College of Phannacy identified
Anadenanthera seeds in a sample of &fluff which he obtained from Maguire who also suspected that this
ge nu s is involved. A Venezuelan specimen o f A. peregrina vaT. p eregrina (Wurdack & Monachino 41117) which I
examined was labelled Yopo , and iis seeds were said to be th e source of a narcotic snuff of the Piaroa. Johannes
Wilbert rea ffjrmed in a letter (January 10, 1961) that the Piaroa use a sn uff called Yopo. William H. Phelps stated (in

28
 a letter , December 27 , 195 5) that he had seen Yapa being taken in Venezuela o n the Cuao River, not far from
Puerto Ayacucho , which is in the general area of the Siliva. The quotation from Gallegos' Canairna concerning Yopo
in the Introduction is beUeved to refer to the Piaroa.

YARURO CULTURE: mostly fi shers and hunters of river animals.

TRIBES: only the Yaruro , which mea ns " snail".

LANGUAGE: an isolated linguistic sto ck.

NAM E: Cumba, Nopa, Yopo.

REFERS TO : powder.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOC IATED WITH USE: th e powder is derived from the fruit of a
tree and is kept in a snail shell which is found on river ll0.od·banks and which the Yaruro obtain from the Otomac of
lhe le ft bank of the Orinoco in return for Yapo. The powder is inhaled through two small tu bes mad e from the
bones of a gallinazo (turkey buzzard).

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: snuffed .

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: a grayish mucou s flows from the nostrils.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: for sacred invocation , for incitement to battle and al so used as a vice.

USED BY: pro ba bly th e shamans and other men, as among the O toma c, S:iliva and Guahibo , as implied by the
reports.

SOURCES: Al vara do, 1945; Bueno, 1933 ed. ; Coope r in Steward , 1949; Crevaux , 1883; Granier·Doyeux, 1953
and in a letter, February 20,1961; Rivero, 1857.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: th e region occupied by the Yaruro lies within th e area o f general di stribution of
representatives of Anadenal1fhera. What evidence exists does not suggest that the snufr can be made from
anything else.

29

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 CULTURE ARE A SAVANN A

GUAHlBO CULTURE : no agriculture; hunting and gathering only.

TRI BES : Chiri coa and Guahibo.

LANGUAGE : Guahibo stock.

NAME: Dopa, Niapa, Napo, Yopa, Yopa (and also Curuba, Parica, Parica and Yupa).

REFERS TO: snuff powder~ the cake form in wh ich it is sometimes stored ; the plant source.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WlTH USE: the fruits are gathered by wandering
Indians in savanna co untry. The seeds are roasted and th en powdered on a wooden platter shaped like a watch-glass.
abou t 9 by 8 inches, with a broad thin hand le whi ch isgrasped in th e left hand, while th e fingers of the right hold
the small spa tula or pes tl e of the hard wood of pala de area (recarna ·sp.) which is used to crush the seeds. The
resultant powder is used as is o r is stored ; or j( ma y be mixed wit h lime of calci ned snail shells, then used or stored.
More complicated methods of preparation in volve grinding the seeds , mixing them with pulverized snail shells and
with cassava flour; so me claim that plant.ain meal is preferable to cassava, and oth ers that oil extracted from the
snails ser~es equaU y well. In any eve nt , the mixture is then baked into smaU cakes which are stored and later, as
desired, pulveriz.ed. The powder grou nd fro m cakes is reddish brown ; that obta ined by the simpler methods is ve ry
fine, blackish brown, like grou nd coffee, resembli ng snuffing tobacco in color and odor.

If th e snuff is stored as powde r, it is carried around in a jaguar leg bo ne closed at o ne end with black wax or pitch
and at the other end with a madma bark cor k and adorned with feathers. The container hangs around th e neck, and
fr om it are su spe nd ed a few odoriferous rhizomes of a sedge (Kyllinga sp .). Caapi (BaniSleriapsis spp.) may also hang
from th e neck. TIle snuff ma y also be carried in a large snail shell, as the only pro vision on lo ng journeys. Somet imes
baked clay vessel s or small. spherical calabashes are used as co nt aine rs.

When the drug is employed by a shaman for curing, the instruments fo r taking Yopo are co ntained in a
rectangular pou ch o f jaguar skin wJuch hangs from th e sho ulder and also contains rock crystals, fibres or hairs, and
stones; face pa int ing is essential, and caapi is chewed while large quantities of Yopo are absorbed . Other items
associated with magical cures are necklaces and maracas. To determine th e cause of death, Yopo is taken aft er three
day s' fasting and vigil ; plu med maracas and taJismans are emplo yed, and th e source of evil is ex tracted from the
cad ave r.

At the begi nn ing o f the dry season, or summer, th e Indians may bu rn the bones of the year's dead , fl ing the ash es
into the air, into water and over the ir houses. During the ceremony, a drink caUedyaraque is imbibed, co mposed of
burned cassava. a strong chicha and Yopo.

The snuff may be taken through a special instru ment caBed a siripo , whic h is a bifurcat ed tu be made of the leg
bones of various herons or oth er long-shan ked birds. The bo nes are put together in the form of a Y or tuning fork .
whose single end is placed in a clay vessel. calabash, snuff·box of jaguar bone or just in the palm of the hand, to
absorb the powder. The upper tubes are tipped each with a small black perforated knob wh ich is a palm endocarp
and are united by wax to th e lower bone .

If th e sn uff powder must be ground from a small cake , the cake is pulverized on a special oval woode n plate with
elevated edges wluch is about 4~ inches long and 3 ~ wide with a broad handl e. The pest le is mad e of two acuminate
blocks joined at th eir points and is about 2 inches long. The instrument for inhaling is bifurcated and made of th e
bo nes of a long·shanked wadin g biJd ;a t the level of bifurcation. it is reenforced with waxed cord; the inferior end is
bevelled, and th e sup erior ex tr emities each have a small, perforated. ba ll-like fruit. A bird plu me is used to keep the
tub es clea n . The whole appa ratus is carried in a small basket of wove n palm leaves .

30
 MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: the upper branches of the tubes, bearing the small fruits, are inserted in or
placed against the nostrils to breathe in the powder from the clay vessel, calabash, snuff-box of jaguar bone or from
the palm of (he hand. A strip of caapi torn from the neck is sometimes chewed as the Yopo is being made from
seeds and inhaled.

Where the snuff must be ground from cakes, the lower end of (he instrument is placed on the special wooden
plate on which the cake is ground.

Yopo may be imbibed in th e drink called yaraque.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: the Guahibo use Yopo exeessively and are never without it. The effects are narcotizing to
the novice or even to one used to it when taken in sufficient quantity_ As tak en in everyday life, the irritating
powder first causes sneezing and an abundant now of mu.c.ous from the nose; an intoxication or stupefaction
follows , lasting, howeve r. only a few rrtinutes and followed by a soothing influenee which is of greater duration . The
Spanish·speaking non -Indians have coined th e word 'e nllopado' for the drunken and evidently happy state in whi eh
the Indians find themselves. As commonly used, with a ehew of caapi, Yopo not only produces a feeling of well
being but reduces hunger, thirst and fatigue. It therefore is used on long exc ursions to augment physical endurance,
much as coca is used in the Andean regions. When employed for magical purposes, Yopo is absorbed in great
quantities, with caapi and is accompanied by a tremendous intoxication, spasms and delirium, foll owed by a
lethargic sleep ftlJed with pleasant dreams or visions.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: Yopo is a common vice, serving both for pleasure and stamina; it is also of great
importance in magic and is always taken before and during the celebration of rites, including divination and sacred
invocation ; the powder is also used as an excitant preparatory to war. It is drunk in yaraque at the annual cremation
of the dead, which is followed by the celebration of marriages.

As the Guahib o do not know how to prepare curare, they obtain it from the Piaroa in exchange for Yopo .

USED BY: men of the tribe and shamans.

SOURCES: Alvarado, 1945; Cooper in Steward, 1949; Daniel, 1953; Dugand, 1946; Fabo, 1919-20;
Granier-Doyeux, 1956; Kirchhoff in Steward , 1948; Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1943-44; Rivero, 1883 ed.; Roth,1924;
Schomburg)(, 184 1 ed.; Sc hultes, 19 54; Spruce , 1908 ; Usdtegui, 1959; Wurdack, 1958.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: Anadenanthero peregrina var. peregrina no doubt is and/or has been used by the
Guahibo. who live within the area of general distribution of that tree in northern South America . A specimen
examined from Colombia (Overton 9-56-79) was labelled Yopo, and its seeds were said to be used in the preparation
of Yopo snuff by the Guahibo Indians. In all the literary sources examined, A. peregrina was the only species
referred to as the Source of Yopo among these Indians.

NOTE : although the Sikuani tribe is not mentioned in Murdo ck's Outline (1951), the lo ca ti o n assigned it by
Usc:itegui fall s within the Guahibo culture region; Uscategui also gives their language as that of the Guahibo. The
Sikuani make or used to make Yopo especially for magical purposes; their particular brand of Yopo prepared from
toasted and pulverized Anadenanthcra seeds, was a most desired trade item by the neighboring Piaroa, who sold
curare to these Guahibo in return for the snuff.

SOURCES: Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1943-44; Uscategui, 1959.

NOTE: the Kuiva and Amorua tribes, not included in Murdock (1951), are located in the Guahibo culture region,
too ; they speak the Guahibo language as well. Both these tribes use Or were formerly acquainted with Yopo for
purposes of magic ; the snuff was prepared as above.

SOURCES: Uscitegui, 1959.

3]

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i
PUINA VE CULTURE: agricultural only where influenced by hawakan neighbors.

TRlBES: related ones which are known coUectively as Pujnave, Guaipunavo OJ Macu. (The last name has been
appJied (0 various other tribes as well).

LANGUAGE: Puinavean stock.

NAME: Noopa (also Yopo).

REFERS TO: snuff made from seeds of a legume .

METH OD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: the seeds are toasted and pulverized ; leg
bones of various hero ns are used for administration .

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: the powde r is inhaled through the bones.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: magical.

SOURCES: Schultes, 1954 ; Uscategui, 1959; Wurdack, 1958.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: Anodellallihera peregrina var. peregrina is e-identIy known to the Puinave, who are
familiar with Venezuela n Yopo and distinguish it from Virola snuff, whieh th ey caU Yakee or Yo -kee (Schultes,
1954). I have examined material of A. peregrina var. peregrina from a region adjacent to that of the Puinave; and
Wurdack (1958) reports that Schultes has person,1 knowledge of the use of the species by this people .

Usdtegu i (1959) has given a general description of the Anadenanlhera-derive d Yopa snuff of the Colombian
Indians. I wo uld like to review it here with reference to the cultures (OJ which the present stud y more or less has
confirmed Anodellonlhera uses (the Achagua, Betoj?, Chibcha?, Guahibo, Puinave and Tunebo) : the powder is made
from the seeds, which are roasted over a fire and ground in a wooden mortar with a pestle. It is kept in a case made
of the leg bone of a jaguar, partly closed with wax and adorned with feathers . Sometimes an alkaline material is
added. The powder, which looks like ground coffee, is snuffed with a variety of instrumen ts, the most generally used
of which is a Y ·shaped tube of bird bones soldered together with pitch and ending in two hollowed palm-nuts . The
nuts are held to the nostrils and the powder inhaled from the palm of the hand. Another instrument is the long
V-shaped tu be, one leg of which is inserted into a noslr il, the other into the mouth, so that the pe rson may snuff
himself. Other types of sn urDng tubes include some of bone and some of small bamboo-like grasses. A primitive type
is mad e of a palm leaf. The snuff is normally taken only by men, except among the mOre acculturated peoples. 11,e
foregoing data may rdl in the gaps of some of the culture outlines, in which only data penaining specifically 10 the
culture or one or more of its tribes was included .

SHIRIANA CULTURE: forest nomads without agriculture.

TRIBES: Gualmibo , Shirian' and \Vaica .

LANGUA GE: an isolated stock .

NAME: Yopa (and Eblmii, Ebena, Yacaallo).

REFERS TO: snuff, the plant source.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: the Indians grow the ingredients of
Yopo,· variou s kinds of Yopo of distinct strengths are prepared from leaves, bark and ashes of bark, and/or seeds of a

32

legum e . The snuff caUed Ebiinii OCC ur S in at least three different strength s in differing 10caJiti es; o ne of th e weaker
kind s is derived from a tr ee bark and a small plant which grows in agricultural clearings. TIle snuff ca lled Yocoana.
grey-brown in coJor, is made mainly from (he ashes of th e bark of a wild tree, and from a plant called masho hara,
a species o f Justicia. Th e powde r is take n by means of a single reed or bamboo tub e about 20 inches Jo ng.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRA n ON: a tw o- man operation in which the recipient fill s th e par t o f the tub e that will
go in his partner's mouth with th e amount o f snuff h e want s to absorb. Th e o the r end of th e tube goes int!) one
nostril . A strong blow forces the powder up the nose. Both partne rs receive and blow th e snuff. Yopo-taking during
the pijiguao (Guiliclma speciosa) festival invol ves a sitting posture excl usive in South America to the Shiriana and ,
among them, to thi s festi va l; the two pa rtner s, each from a differen t village, sit opposite and ver y close to one
ano ther with their legs extend ed openly aro und th e body of the opposite partner. About two dozen pairs like thi s
arc engaged in snuff-taking simulta neously .

PHYSICAL EFFECTS : when take n o n an every day basis, Yopo absorbed in the aft ernoo n to induce
communication with spirits causes some recipients , b eca use of repea ted inhal ation, to walk around inebriated; the
effects last about two hours. exce pt in the instance of a few enthusiasts who take large amounts and remain und er
th e effe cts until evening eac h day . \Vh en employed for divin at io n, th e effects arc apparentl y hallucinogenic. Yopo
intox ication is similar to that of alcohol , but the results wear off more quickJy. It en larges the pupil to the point
where the iris ma y no lo nger be see n . Durin g the pijiguao festival. under (he inOuence o f Yopo the men swing their
weapo ns wildl y, slap each o ther , do deep kn ee bends, crawl , roll o n the ground. twi sti ng and turning , perspiring and
foamin g at the mouth. 1lley are una ble to get up or to res ist what is wanted of them , and they arc soon exhaus ted.
I
CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: Yopo is impo rt ant to religion and witchcraft and everyday life, as well . In
shama ni sm, it is used to locate the cause of illness and to establish co ntact with the hekula, spirits of rocks and
waterfalls, in o rder to ind uce th em to brin g mishap an d sickn ess to the enemies of th e village . Yopo is associated
with the annual harvest festival o f the pijlguao palm in January Or February , when neighboring villages visit one
anoth er for several day s and share the fruits. Mock battles are ~aged among the men and boys amid jubilance and
singi-n g: and the Yopo-taking described above OCCurs. 1lle women drag away those who beco me unconscious. This
fe st ival is thought to have fertilit y rite origins, as do similar ce remonies amo ng the Arawak and Tucano .

USED BY : males , both boys and men , alth o ugh th ere arc a few abstainers. Shamans use Yopo, but shamani sm is
pract iced by most o f the men of th e tribe.

SO URCES: Barker , 1953 ; Dupouy , 1953; Schultes in conve rsatio n , 1960; Wurda ck . 1958; Zerries, 1954 , 1955a,
1955 b and in a letter. April lO, 1957 .

BOTANICAL IDENTITY : this region is possibly outside the distribution o f 4nadenonll/ero, being on th e fringe of
the no rthwe st Amazon area where the genus is not represent ed and where it probably is not uscd . 1llere appear to be
\'arious substances employed in Shiriana snuff. Zenies (1954) has sa id thai Allodananfhera seeds appear to be used .
because t he snuff is grey-brow n and not the brow n o f Virolo snuff, but Schult es (in conversa tio n, (960) believes that
the Shiriana probabl y do no t use AlladenallIiJera ma terial s as a major source. The fac t th at bark is, so mclimes at
least , involved in snuff-making suggest s th at Viro/a so urces mjght be used . On the o ther hand , trees of A. peregrina
....aL peregrina ha ve been examined from an adja ce nt region to the east o f the Shiriana; and their not too distant
neighbors ( 0 thc north , the Yccuana, U now appears, do usc A nadenanthera snufLl f A . peregrina var. peregn·na is
employed by th e Shiriana today, it may be one of a gro up o f sn uff sources which are used, each perhaps for a
purpose o f different cultural signifi cance and each of a different histo rical origin. A detailed study of this a5pect o f
the Shiriana is needed be cause of the apparent elaborateness of th e preparations and uses of their snuffs. Such a
stu dy wo ul d shed ligh t on th e ide ntitie s of th e sou rce botanical mat erials. It would also help to unrav el the history
o f snuffin g in a critical region , bordering on northwest Amazonas, which seems 10 mark th e dividing line between
AnadenalIlhera and Virola snufllng among South Am erican Indians.

33
 In a letter (January la, 1961), Johannes Wilbert informed me lhat he saw the Guaharibo u,e a ,nuffwhich they
make from the young leaves of a palm-like plant. They dry the leaves and powder them before they consume the
residue as a stimulant during the feast of burning the bones of a defunct member of the tribe, very much in the same
way as Zerries (l9SSb) describes the snuffing among the Waica . The word which Wilbert uses for the snuff of both
these tribes is Yopo.

Ghillean T. Prance has st ated (in a letter, 1970) that the Waica Indians whom he has been amongst appear nOl to
use Anadenanthera but, rather, Virola.

Schulles & Homstedt (1968) di scussed in detail problems in identifying the narcotic plants of these peoples. They
report that Seitz photographed and coHeeled specimens of Arwdenanlhera peregrilUl from Waica country; the tree
must have been introduced and is being cultivated today - for what purposes? - by th e Rio Marauia Waica.

34

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(
 CULTURE AREA GUlANA

YECUANA CULTURE: sCl((ered se ttlement s in deep foresl.

TRIBES: Arebalo, Arigua, Cunuana, Curasicana, Decuana, lliuTuana, Makaritarc, Mayoncons, Panare,
Quiriquiripa, Taparito, WaIuwadu . Wociare, Yab arana and Yecuana.

LANGUAGE: Cariban sto ck.

NAME : Hakudufha, Acu;a.

REFERS TO: snu ff.

METH ODS OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED 1'.1TH USE: the bark of a tree is pounded and
boiled in a sm all earthenwa re POI until all the wa ler has evaporated and a sediment remains at the bott om of (h e pot;
this sediment is toa sted in the POI over a slight fire and lhen is powdered finely with th e blade of a knife. A Teed
(kurauijor bifurcaled tube made from the leg bones of"arjous herons is used for inhaling.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION : a little powder is blown through the reed inlo the air; next, the person sn uffs
wi th the same reed some powd er into each of his nostriJs, successively. The bifurcated tube is al so reponedly used in
a one-man operation .

PHYSICAL EFUECTS : stro ngly stimulating, for immediately the re cipient begins singing and yelling wildly, at th e
same time that the upper part of his body pitches backwards and forwards.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: magicaU y curative .

USED BY: restricted to shaman s even today.

SO URCES : Koch-Grunberg. t923 ; Schu ltes. 1954; Wurdack, 1958.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY : Anodenanrhera peregn"no \'ar. pcrcgn"na is represented from this region among the
specimens which I examined , and it would appear from the literature that the Yeeuana arc familiar with snuffs from
both Alladcllal!lilcra and Virola" The above information refers probably for the most part to the ut ilizati on of
Virola, while Wurdack (1953) said that Yopo powder made from Alladellanrhera is Cllled Acuja by the Yecuana and
is take n with (he bifurcated tube. Schulles & Holmstedt (1968) have suggested that perhaps the bark, as well as
seeds, of Anodellomhera ma y be employed in making Haklldllfha"

35

I
 CULTURE AREA AMAZON

COCAMA CULTURE: along the large rivers.

TRlBES : Cocama (Ucayali) with a branch called Cocamilla.

LANGUAGE: Tup;·Guaranl.

NAME : Cump6.

REFERS TO: plant source .

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND JTEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: the leaves are powdered and taken
through Y·shaped tubes, or the material is administered with small syringes as c1 ysters.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: the snuff is blown into the no strils through th e tub e described, and the
clyster is injected anall y.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: greatly therapeutic; also provoking agreeable vis io ns.

SOURCES: La Condamine,1 778 ed.; Metraux in St eward, 1948 ; Vcigl, 1785.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY : Anade1lanlhera is not known from this region, whi ch lies closer to the range of A.
colubrina in th e Peruvian vall eys than it does to the more northeast erly distributed A. peregrina. It is doubtful that
the material would be traded over such a distance as would be required, as no ne of the neighbors of the Cocama
appear to use Anadenanthera snuff. That the lea ves of the plant are reportedly employed also suggests that it may
not be a species o f Anadenanthera which is employed here.

MANAO CULTURE:

TRJBES : Cayuishaua, Juri, Manao, Pase and Uai num •.

LANGU AGE: Arawakan .

NAM E: Parica.

REF ERS TO: a powder.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: the powder is blown into the nose or tak en as a clyster.

SOURCES: Metrau x in Steward, 1943; Ducke, 1939.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: Anadel/a1llhera is not represe nted amon g the specimens examined from this regio n.
Ducke (I 939) stated that , alth ougll Martiu s and other writers a ttribut ed to A. peregrina var. peregri1la the source of
the Pan'ca snuff of certain Amazonian Indians, he himsel f obtained information from natives in two localities in the
upper Rio Negro to the effec t that Parica powder comes from th e leaves of Virola spp. Schultes (1954) said that in
12 yea rs devoted to the flora of the northwest Amazon he had never seen A. peregrirw either cultivated or wild in
the area. This infonnation suggests it is not likely that the Manao use Anadenanthera unless they o btain it from
down stream along the Amazon, from the region of the Mura , for instance.

36

I
 OMAGUA CULTURE: riverside agriculture for hundreds of miles along the Amazon River.

TRl BES: Omagua (Agua , Co mpeb a, Umaua),jusl one .

LANGUAGE: Tupi·Guaran; stock.

NAME : Curupa, Curupa (and Parica, Yopa).

REFERS TO: the plant source (and the snuff).

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: the leaves of Curupa are powdered for
snuff; a purgative is also made from the plant. The snuff called Parica is su pposed to be made from the seeds. Curupa
snuff is stored in pot s in the houses of the Omagua, and it is inhaled ttuough a Y·shaped tub e of canes or reeds. The
purgative mad e from Curupa is administered as a clyster by small rubber syringes (cahuchu), each of which is formed
like a hollowed-out pear , pierced at one end by a wooden tube. The Indians paint themselves and carry their
weapon s in connection with the taking of this enema.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: the snuff is inhaled with the forked end of the instrument in the nostrils. The
clyster is administered mutually, at a gathering of people.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: the immediate effects of Curupa snuffing are viol ent inspiration and grimacing.
Supposedly t}lerapeutic and evoking agreeable visions, Curopa deprives the Indians of their senses and allows them to
carry out any deed without compunction. The powder of Pan"cCI puts them in a trance. When used in a clyster.
Oirupa is hallucinogenic, producing pleasant and st range visions; it is also purgative and intoxicates for a period of
24 hours; it ma y be Significant to the effects that the enema is taken before an important meal (be fore which the
Ind ia ns ma y have fasted).

CULTURAL SIGNIFI CANCE: magical power of a divinatory nature is ascribed to Curupa snuff. The enema is
taken en masse by the participants at festive gatherings at which the host never fail s to present , out of courtesy, a
syringe to each of his guests; this enema js administered before meals of ceremony, and it is mu ch used.

USED BY: members of the tribe (pro bably only males, since that is customar y and since women and children are
not mentioned).

SOURCES: Fritz, 1922 ed .; La Condamine, 1778 ed.; Martius, 1867; Metraux in Steward , 1948 ; Nordenskiold,
1930; Ortega Ricaurte, 1941; Orton , 1870: Reichel·Dolmatoff, 1943-44; Rivero, 1883 ed.; Safford , 1916a ; Schultes,
19 54; Southey, 18 19 ; Spix & Martius in Metraux, 1928 ; Veigl, 178 5.

BOTANICAL IDE NTITY: Anadenanthera species have never, to my knol\'ledge, been described , nor their
represen tatives collected, from anywhere near where the Omagua live, in western Ama20nas and northeast Peru.
Martius (1867) attributed the so urce of the Pan'eli snuff of the Peruvian Omagua to a species of Anadenanthera; and
Metrau x (in Steward, 1948) has aseribed the source of th e Curupa and enemas of the Omagua (and Cocama) of the
upper Amazon to the same genus. However, I cannot substantiate their reports. As mentioned earlier (see Manao),
Schultes (1954) never encountered the genus during many years in northwest Amazonas.

37

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(
 CULTURE AREA PERINIAN

IN CA CULTURE:

TRlBES: many.

LANGUAGE: Quechuan stock.

NAME : Hui/ca , Huillca, Tara Huillca, Vi/co, Vi/cas, ViI/co, Wi/'ka, Wil/ko.

REFERS TO: the tree Or plant source ; fruits or seeds; m e dj ci ne ~ a common purge .

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: the seeds or their juice may be mixed
with chicha, or boiled to make a tea, or mixed, two or three, with the rOol of Polypodium ; the seeds may be cooked
and placed in honey. or six seeds ground and mixed with a tiquid .

MANNER OF ADMINI ST RA TION : as a drink or enema; a monthly enema.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: intoxicating, haUu cinogenic , purgative, dispelling phlegm and chole r without pain or
nau sea , and said to be good ror people lired by wo rk . The liquid with six seeds, half or which is drunk and hair or
which is used as an enema. is believed (0 result in strength to fight and fa augment heaHh . It is also said to aid in
ex tending the lire span 10 200 years, during which one supposedly ma y indulge himse lr in th e pl easures or eating
with lnJpunity. The purge which includes Polypodium is taken (or digestive ailments. The chicha beverage cures
fevers, c!imaras de sangre and mal del mIle, acting as a laxative and evacuati ng choler by inducing vomiting; it also is
though t to cure melancholia , The honeyed liquid, when drunk, clears the chest, stimulates urination and is said to
make women fecund,

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE : divinatory and medicinal; shamans, probably in the way o r amateur diviners and
fortune-tellers, speak wi th the devil by drinking the juice of th e seeds in tea, accompanied by ceremonies and
SJcrHiccs , Divmation being a large p~r{ o f Inca medicine, di~gnoses are made magically and secre! \y by intoxication
with Vilca juice,

USED BY : shamans, old women ; men and boys trade it.

SOURCES: Acosta , 1584 ; Cobo, 1890·93 ed.; D'Harcourt, 1939; Falcon, 1946 ed.; Fornee, 1885 ed.; Garcilaso
de la Vega, 1688 ed., 1941-44 ed .; Gom.alez Holguin, 1607 ; Herrera, 193 4, 1940; LaSlres, 1951; Polo de Ondcgardo,
19 16ed.; Poma de Ayala, 193 6 ed.; Rowe in Steward, 1946;Sarrord, 1916a; Sainl-Cricq, 187 3·74 ed.;SanIaCruz
I'achaculi, 1927 ed.; Vazque z de Espinosa, 1942 ed.; Yacovl e ff & Herrera, 1935.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY : although other substances may have passed under the same name, it is likely Ihat
Anadenanlhera colubn'na var, Cebi/ was the main source of the Vi/ca' o f the Inca and their neighbors at the time of
(h e co nq uest. I have examined specimens of th at species fr o m Peru , or whi ch one (Weberbauer 6505) was labelled
Vilea; it came from fh e ancientl y settled deparlmenl of Huancavelica , called Hu ancavi lca in the Indian language ,
Sarrord (1916a) said (hat the source or Huillca was identified when specimens were secu red in 191 5 rrom an Indian
Jrug vender in southern Peru. Herrera reported (1940) that the seeds are a narcoti c-ca th artic element in the
indigenous Peruvian pharmacopoeia,

Narcotics, according to Rowe (in Steward, 1946), were no t important 10 Inca culture, the civi.lization encountered
lly th e Spaniards and with whi ch their early writings about Peru are chiefly concemed~ the strongest substances used
wrre coca, tobacco and Vilca. Tobacco was employed medicinally (Mason, 1922-24). Garcilaso de la Vega (1688 ed.)
,[;,jed that the Peruvians did not know anything more about curing than bloodletting , purging with Vz1ca, and the
(:ok,n g or tobacco sn uff. Fornee (1 885 ed.) added that chicha, Vilca and tobacco were the main cu ratives or the
Indians at the time of the conquest. Medicine, according to Lavo reria (1902) , was based primarily on the trealment

38
of sy mpto ms, co mmon among which were intestinal u psets such as diarrhea. Tschudi (in Santesson & Wassen, 1936)
travelled in Peru in the 19th Century; he stated that Wil'ka, to the Aymara and Quechua speaking Indians, was a
plant which, though utilized mostly as a laxative, se rved also to locate stolen property .

Th e origin of the term Vilca and it s varia nt s is of great interest, as many forms of it , compo unded with other
words, appear in the literature of the conquest and in later writings. The following list, in which I have standardized
th e spellings into Spanish forms, is a sa mpJing taken mainly from descriptive narratives of some of the better known
early chroniclers of Peru:

Chumbivilcas: a people (Cabo , 1890·93 ed.; Garcilaso de la Vega, 1688 ed., 194 1-44 ed .).

HuaclIVilca: 'sacred idol' (Lastres, 194 1).

HuaclIVilcacona orcona: 'Sacred go ds o f th e cliffs or pea ks' (Last res, 1941) .

Huonca Vi/co, Huoncavilca (the mod ern Huonc([1)elicaj, Marca Vi/co, Morcavi/ca o r Maricavifca:one of the three tribes
of the Huanca (Cieza de Leo n, 1864 ed .)~ a nation; a province; one of the three provinces into which the
conq uering In ca separated th e Hu anca naHon; a province near Tumbiz on the seacoast, to be di stinguished from
the far inland Huanca Vi/co id entic ally named by the Spaniards and comprising th e ancient province ofHuanca
(Garcilaso de la Vega, 1688 ed., 19 41-44 ed.); 'original or principal cliff or rock'; a place (Last res, 1941); one of
the three provinces into which the In ca Pa chac ut ec divided the land of the Hu anca (Means, 1931).

Huarivilca: a temple in the VaUey of Xauxa where the Huanca lived (Cieza de Leon, 1864 ed.); a fountain from
whi ch a man and woman came fo rth whose progeny was the Huanca , who built a comme mo ra tive temple on the
si te (Means, 1931).

Pativilca: a vaUey with a grim fortress, which the Inca conqu ered (Means, 19 3 1).

Surivilca: 'ost rich (ostrich·like bird) chier (Last res, 1941) .

Vilco or Vileas: a province with temples and palaces (Cie", de Ledn, 1864 ed.); a province whose fortresses, palaces
a nd te mples were built centuries before the Inca monarchy and were much superior in art and grandeur to those
which the In ca constructed in emulation thereof; a sierra; a town through whi ch ran th e two royal roads of the
Inca ; a village; one of the two name s (the ot her is Guaca) by which the Indians ca ll ed their sacred gods and
which was used in a general way to refer t o any sacred place of adoration such as temp les, tombs, etc. (Cobo,
1890·93 ed.); a purgative fruit CD'Harcourt, 1939); 'eminent, grand, great, sacred'; a river; one of the natio ns of
Cha nca, all of which claimed desce nt from different and distant original s. Th ese nations conquered many
provinces on the way to the country of Antahuaylla which they subdued by force , expell ing the ancient
inhabitants and afterwards gaining much land from the Que~hua. The famous achieveme nt s of the Vi/ca, in
particular, made the Inca Roca dec ide to conquer the Chanca in return . His Subjugations included that o r-me
VU ca. Later, the Chanca rebelled, incl uding th e Vi/co , causjng the Inc3 some concern. Howeve r. the Quechua,
who were the nearest neighbors of the Vi/co and bore an ancient hatred fo r th em , helped put down the
revolution. The Inca, too, rega rd ed the Chanca with disgust , especiall y for what wa s termed their ancient
abominations, and th eir detestable sacrifi ces of me n, women and dtildren , with other inhuman and unnatural
actio ns (Garcllaso dc la Vega , 1688 ed., 194 1-44 ed .): an enema made from a t ree whose fruit, like that of
Lupinus spp. , is purga ti ve; the tree just mentioned (Gonzalez Holguin , 1607); 'idol' (Gonza lez Holguin, 1607;
Mossi, 1860); 's un, principal' (Last res, 1941).

Vilea or Vilcay: grandson(s) or grandaughter(s) (Gollzalez Holguln,1607; Mossi, 18 57, 1860).

Vi/co Pampa, Vilcapampa or Vileabamba: a province where there is a templ e t o the su n, and to which the Inca
retrea ted (Cobo, 1890-93 ed.); a place which is o r is in a wild, mountainous region with grea t rivers that empty

39

,/

 into the River of Plate (Garcilaso de la Vega, 1688 ed., 1941-44 ed.); part of the Urubamba Valley, which was
part of the Chanca Confederacy region, where the Inca later built Machu Picchu (Means, 1931).

Vilea rOnco: small baskets filled with coca which were th.rown into the fire at sacrifices of animals, as part of the
ceremony, at Cuzco (Gonzalez Holguin, 1607).

Vi1ca Tarvi or Vilcatauri: an enema, of which three pairs were taken monthly by the Indians; 'sacred Or principal'
'Lupinus' (Lastres, 1941); although Vilea referS to Anadenonlhera and Tarvi to Lupinus spp., the combination of
the two words has come to mean just 'Lupinus' (Lastres, 1951).

Vilea-Cama: 'doctor·surgeon' (Vel.sco, 1840 ed .).

Vilea·cocha: a lake which passes into Vilea·Mayo (Saint-Cricq, 1873·74 ed.).

Vilca·Mayo or Vilea·mayu: a valley called the Paradise of Peru, which was a favorite residence of the Inca (Cieza de
Leon, 1864 cd.); a river which flows into Urubamba (Saint-Cricq, 1873·74 ed.).

Vileaeamayos: deputies which the Inca ruler maintained in charge of subjugated districts and tribute therefrom
(Cobo, 1890·93 ed .).

Vilcachima: 'enema' (Lastres, 195 I).

Vilcachina: small stick introduced into the anus to clean the rectum, commonly used in the CUleo area (Lashes .
19511

Vileaeonga: a peak Or hill (Cobo, 1890·93 ed.).

Vileana: 'clyster' (Gonzalez Holguin, 1607; Lavorerla, 1902; Mossi, 1860); 'syringe' (Mossi, 1860).

Vilealli: 'to reject a purge' (D'H.rcourt, 1939); ' to give an enema or to inject' (Gonzalez Holguin, 1607); 'to inject'
(Mossi , 1860); the act of applying a clyster (Lavorerla, 1902).

Vilcanola Or Vi/callula: a sierra (Cobo, 1890·93 ed.); a peak permanently snow·covered and visible from Cuzco
balconies and 50 named because it was greatly admired as a wonderful or sacred thing; a desert outside Cuzco
(Gardlaso de la Vega, 1688 ed., 1941-44 ed.).

Vi/caparu: 'yellow maize' (Gonzalez Holguin, 1607). However, Alexander Grobman indicated in conversation (1961)
that Vilcaparu, as he knows H, is a brown and blue race of Zea Mays L. from the Valley of Cochabamba in
Bolivia.
,
Vilcas, Vi/cas Huam!lf1 or Vilcashuaman: a junction point of the two main highways of the Inca, who built their
roads to commemorate their conquests; the place was regarded as the geographical centre of the Inca Empire and
has some Inca edifices although there is at least one pre·Inca construction (Means, 1931).

Villac: 'priest, informer' (Last res, 1951).

Vilques: large earthenware jugs of gold and silver with which the Indians toasted their dead , after which the ehicha
contained in them was poured out over a round stone they had for an idol in the middle of a plaza (Cobo,
1890·93 ed.).

Yupa: this word pertained to the value or valuableness of a thing (Gonzalez Holguin, 1607). It is included here
because the same word is the name for snuff of the Otomac, Saliva and Guahibo!

40

I
I
 Among the ancient inns (tambos) still extant in Cabo's time was that at Vilcas, which was described as among the
roomiest and finest by Cabo (1890-93 ed.).

TIle Christians commanded, among other things, that the Peruvians stop worshipping the sun, moon, and so on,
". _ .ni tcngays villcas, ni guacas, ni figura de hombre, ..." (Acosta, 1584, folio 104). It is worth noting that villeas
heads the list of objects forbidden to the Indians by the Spanish Christians.

TIle word Vilca, as spelled by the Spanish, or Huillka, which is closer to the Quechua term, scems to have been
associated, among the Inca at the time of the conquest, with a common medicinc whose divinatory aspects were of
relatively minor importance. Vilca materials were employed at an amateur level not associated with the priesthood
nor with rites of great significance. What is very interesting, in reading the early chronicles, is that, at the same
time that Vilca is mentioned in the medicinal sense, the same word, or root, appears alone or incorporated in other
words in very different contexts, as demonstrated in the list above. There seems to have been no consciousness on
the part of the Inca (as their beliefs and words are related by the writers of the period) of any inter-relationshlps
among all these words. Such a circumstance might be interpreted as indicating the antiquity of the word Vilca, as
well as the materials and meanings associated with it. This possibility may be strengthened by the fact that, in the
other than medicinal contexts in which the word appears above, Vilca is consistently associated with things which
are sacred, principal, first, original, and with the people of that name. The people named Vi/ca had a more primitive
culture than the Inca; thcy had descended upon and conquered many of the Ql1echua-speaking peoples prior to the
rise of the Inca as they were found at the time of conquest. I believc that the origin of the word Vi/ca and its uses
may be found in the history of the people of (hat name, who were united with other tribes of diverse origins in a
protective political union, called the Chanca Confederacy, against the rising power of the Inca.

An Inca version 9f the origin of the mcdicinal Vilca was given by Santa Cruz Pachacuti (1927 ed.) the young Inca,
Yupal1gui, was on.his way to fight the Hancoallo and the Chanca when, on the Aporima road he met his enemies
above the river. Here the Chanca felled a captain of Yupangui namcd Villcaqu;re by hurling rocks down at him. The
captain said to the young ruler, "Is it possible that, without a struggle, 1 must die without having left any fruits? And
Villcaquire then asked that he be buried where he lay dying and that his body be interred in the trunk of a nearby
tree. This tree, he then foretold, would produce seeds that would become a medicine called Villca, which would
dispel all bad humors and choler. (This stOJY also appears, in a shorter form, in Yacovleff & Herrera, 1935). (I have
examined Anadenanthera colubrina var. Cebil! West 3679, 3845[ from the Departamento de Apurimac).

My own feeling is that thc story may be of relatively recent folk-origin in the Inca tradition. It may represent the
adoption by the Inca of a material and practice belonging originaDy to a more primitive people. The setting seems
too modern for the early origin which the other data (referred to on the foregoing pages) imply for the use of Vilca.
This account could be described as a substitute-myth Of, to use psychoanalytical terminology, a folk screen-memory,
which hides the real origin of the culture-element and suggests that the particular invention was made by the people
who tell the story. The captain appears to be identified with the Inca tradition by being with the Inca ruler, but
the captain's name is Villca, which appears to be a very old word. The presence of the Chanca may hint at the real origin of
the material in question, that Vilca was made known to the Inca at the time of cplture contact with the nations of
the Chanca Confederacy, among whom were the people named Vilca. Also, the primitiveness of the story itself-a
man's becoming a seed-might be said to be more easily identified with a culture less advanced than that of the Inca.
It resembles the stage of cultural development associated with the Cohoba myths of ,the Taino, as well as with the
tree worship of the Diaguita (which see) and the animistic concepts of the Mataco (which see) and Vilela (which see)
with regard to the taking of Cebil powder. The stones play an interesting part in the myth, too, as certain stones
were used as idols in Peru in connection with the toasting of the dead with chicha (containing Vilca seeds?), as stated
earlier. The stone cemis of the Taino have been suggested as being possibly related to tree worship and Cohoba
ceremonies, which are in turn part of ancestor-worship. Stones were also associated with ancestor- and tree-worship
among the Diaguita (which see). Vi/ka is a family name of Quechua or CaJchaqui origin, in Salta today (see
Diaguita). Finally, the round stones associated with worship of the dead in Peru mayor may not be
related to the use of Vl1ca. TIle onJy other peoples known to me for whom idols are a culture-item and who also are

41

I
 believed to use or to have used Anadenanthera materials for intoxicating effects are the Island Arawak of the West
Indies and the Omaguaca (which see) of northern Argentina. The finest archaeological remains of the Omaguaca
include some carved wooden and stone idols, as well as tubes and tablets of hard wood. I do not mean to suggest by
tills enumeration of characteristics found in several cultures that there is any special hi storical relationship among
them. Similar traits found on the periphery of a centre of cultural dissemination are sometimes thought to indicate
great age and a common origin. I suggest only that the form of use of Anadenanthera mat erials and its relationship
to other el ements of a culture may be determined largely by th e stage of development of that culture, subj ect to
mstorical factors.

According to D'Harcourt (1939), one of the mo st promincnt diseases in ancient Peru was 10 venuga, or La
maladie du Carrion, which wa s manifested by the body's becoming covered with wart-like knobs . This illness , now
known to be caused by a parasite, is contracted only in certain va lleys between 1000 and 3000m. altitude.
Anadenanthera colubrina vaL Cebil grows in Peru in river valleys at altitudes up to 2 100 m. There is no evidence,
according to David H. French (in conversation, 196]) for the general use of a formalized Doctrine of Signatures
concept among Indians of the New World. However, the coincidence of the wartiness of Anadenanthera bark with
the symptoms of La verruga, plus the similar distributions of th e trees and the disease, are mentioned in passing. The
use of Anadenanthera bark derivatives in folk -medkiue is di scussed under the section on phytochemical and
pharmacological studies.

TIle word Algarobo appears on one specimen of Anadenanrhera colubrina VaL Cebit from Peru (HIes, 3679 from
the ' Departa mento de Apurimac). Saint-Cricq (1 873.74 ed.) stat ed that Vilca is a tree of the legume family and is
known in th e Argentine provinces as Algaroba. He maintained that it is rare in Peru, found only on the Pacific coast
in hpt valleys. On the other hand, Vazquez de Espinosa (1942 ed.) indicated that the Indians distinguished between
Vilca and the tree or tree s called Alga"oba. In thi s matter, Saint-Cricq probabl y was confused, because Cevil and its
variants is the usual name applied to Anadenanthera colubrina vaL Cebil and because this tree is not found on the
coast of Peru . In all the literature that I have seen, th e word Algarobo, or variants of it, has been associated withA.
colubn"na perhaps only in these two instances. TIle word does not appear to be of Indian derivation but , rather ,
Spanish. Most likely, it has been applied to various leguminous 'plants since the time of early contact. (See also
Diaguita).

The word Cora has caused some confusion in th e interpretation of tobacco and Anadenallthera materials. Cabo
(1890·93 ed.), who mentioned both Vi/co and Cora, stated that Cora was the word of the Peruvian Indians for the
root of their wild tobacco. It was, he said, much used for sickness. For detention of urine , two garbanzos (the sizc of
chick peas?) of it s powder were mixed in a drink with hot water and taken while fasting for three or four days. The
powdered root was also taken in moderate quantities through th e nostrils for headache and to clear the vision (Cobo,
1890·93 ed.), Uhle (]893) believed that the word 'root' was a mistake and that Cora is the same as Curopa, or
Niopo, powder. He stated that probably both tobacco and Curopa, or Cora, powders werc known in ancient Peru
and that the former milder powder was prevalent in Peru , whll e the latter was chosen by the "wild" tribes of eastern
South America . He said that he could see no other ex planation for the great range. from north to south along the
Andes, of the word Curupa.

It is possible, I believe, that Cora may ha ve been made from A nadenanthera colubrino vaL Cebil. The use of a
powder which was taken, like Cora, to clear the vision is fo und also among the Piro (which see) and the Catukina
(which see). Among the Piro , tms powder appears to ha ve been Anaderwmhera.<Jerived , but , unfortunately, I do not
know the name of the powder. Among the Catukina , the powder is called Parica and is doubtfull y derived from
Arwdenanrhera. Uhle (1898), in the same article mentioned Khuru, or Q'uro , a plant employed as a sedative in Peru
against rheumatism, wmch he believed to be the samc as Curupa. Devoto & Rothkugel (1942) stated, without
reference to Uhl e's paper, that the word Curni or KurU in the Quechua or Araucanian language means <dark black',
which is one way to describe the seeds of Anadenanthera. If Coro did refer to Anadenanthera materials, then one
wouJd have to ask why two words were used for the same substance. The fact that the Peruvian rughlands were
occupied by diverse groups of peoples might account for these circumstances.l hesitate to take a strong stand On the
identity of Cora one way or other , because I feel that the evidence here is insufflcient.

42

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 \Vhile Cora has someti mes been identified with tobacco. the word Saire or Sayri (Garcil aso de la Vega, 1688 ed.),
generally is agreed to have Tererreo 10 that piant among the Inca. S;;"~-Was the name of the last reigning Inca, and
the planl , called Topa saire ('Royal Tobacco'), evidently was regarded with some pride by Ihe rulers. The u se o f tile
name o f tobacco in th e name ot royally and the adding o f a royal pref", to the epithet o f the plant itself strengthens
the suggestion made earlier th at Vilca was not closely nor importantly associated with Incaic tradition; it was among
the predecessors o f the Inca that Anadenanthera ma y have played a sacred role. Anadenanthera substances were
relatively unimportant, as were many other narcotics, to the Inca. Whether this circumstance was due to the Inca
personalit y or to the relatively advanced cultural level of the Inca among peoples of South America, probably cannot
be determ ined. It is also possible that the Inca may have corne originally from a region where Anadenanthera trees
were unknown, such as coastal Peru , northern Peru , Ecuador, western Colombia or parts of Amazonas;
Anadenanlhera substa nces then would not have been included in important phases of Inca tradition,

As for the recent uses of A nadenanthera co/ubrina, the Quechua Indians and mestizos (or Mojos, in northwest
Bolivia) practice the burial of various articles under houses in the process of construction for magical protection, At
Ihe market in La Paz, these goods may be purchased fo r the purpose: small pOlS for chicha, still-bo rn llamas , llama
grease, bundles filled with mica, glass beads, antimony seeds of A. colubn'na and Ormosia spp ., and small figures cast
J

in tin o r pew ler which are made by th e Indi ans from the district of Ih e Oruro mines (NordenskiiiJd, 1907;Pardal,
1937).

Ar chaeological materials from Peru indicate that ene mas were used at Ihe time of Chimu cultu re (800·1500 A.D.,
after Will ey, in le ctures). A vase exists which shows three people engaged in the admini slra tion of a clyster, the
material being blown in by the mouth through a curved tube (Velez·LOpez, 19 30) Or a straighl tube (Heizer, 1944).
The Chim" culiCre, however, was devel oped by small groups of Indians from th e no rth who settled on the coast of
Peru, where Anadenoflthera Irees do not OCCur and therefo re probably were not used (Means, 19 3 1). Nordenskiold
discovered two enema syringes with skin bladders in a man's grave in the Ollachea Valley in eastern Peru
(Nor denski6 ld, 1930). A Quechua In dia n thereupo n informed Nordenskiold Ihat his tribe had always used sy ringes
like Ihesc (vo n Ro sen, 1924). Heizer (1944) said tha t evidence suggests that the enema was more impo rtanl and
mOre widely used in ancient Peru than in recent times, Even by the 16th Century , their use was declining.

The site of Vil cas, or Vilcaslluamcm, in the Andes is considered critical to the study of ea rly contacts between
highJand and coasta l cultures. It contains one building which is pre-Inca. The site is believed to be contemporary
wilh Tiahuanaco I of the mountain cultures (M eans , 1931 ). Willey suggested (before 1961) in lectures tlIat early
Tiahuanaco was abo ut 500 B.C.

The inland mou ntain cultu res which arose in Peru are thought by some to have been developed entirely by tribes
who arrived from the north via in te r-Andean plateaus and Amazonia (M eans, 1931) . The origins of th ese tribes are
really no t known with certainty and may weH be diverse. In connection with resea rch for thi s paper> I have
wondered whether there might be some relation between the Chanca of Peru and the Chango tribe of the now nearly
extinct Alacama (which see) to the south. The Cha ngo archaeological materifls, discussed later, include artifacts
from northern Chile whi ch could be interpreted as having been used for either snuffing or enemas, possibly involving
AnaderUlIllhera substances. The oldest such artifacts are bone tubes whkh precede the construction of the classic
Tiahuanaco 11 monumenls to the north near Lake Titacaca in Bolivia (0 . 500 A.D ., according to Will ey, in le ctures).
Vi/ca has been reported as a word used at the time of early contact in th e Atacama region. AnadenatJthera colubrina
var. Cebil is kn own tlIere toda y as Cevil. The vague possibility that the Chanea of Peru , who included the people
na.med Vilca, may have come from th e Atacama region to the south might be worth investigat ing,

A Y -shaped sn uff lUb e made of the engraved leg bo ne o f a young llama-like animal was foun d al the si te of
Tiahu anaco I by Uhl e (i 898). 111is tu be was later recognized as belonging to the Alacame na civilizalion derived from
tha I of the ciassic Tiahuanaco , eve n though found at the site of tlIe last civilizalion (Uhl e, 19 15).

Finall y, the monuments of Tiahuanaco II include the famo us mo nolithic structure of what is believed to be a
crea tor-god , the 'weeping' Viracocha (Mason , 1957 ; Means, ] 931). This monument is one of the archaeological

43

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 wonders of America, yet no one knows why the deity is represented with seemingly tear-streaked cheeks. What might
be interpreted as grief could have been intended 10 depict an immediate reaction to a stimulant or narcotic associated
intimately with th e worship of and communication with the god. An irritating snuff or inhalation of burning
materials could ea sil y cause such a response. It is very htt ere sting that the word Hi/ca meant one-eyed person to
some Indians of Chile (see Atacama). The word appears to be close to Hui/ca, the Indian spelling for Vilea.
Archaeologists generally seem to be agreed upon the existence of historical affinities between the ancient
civilizations of southern Peru and Boliyja , and tho se of northern Chile and Argentina . One may wonder, too,
whether there might be some close historical relationships among groups of lndians where words associated with
ideas of sight, hallucination and divinity are similar over relatively laIge geographical distances.

While it is quit e certain that Anadenanthera materials have been used by the Indians of Peru, it is also apparent
that the variety of uses and their historical origins, as pert aining to particular cultural groups, have yet to be studied
in large measure.

Since 1961, new thoughts have arisen as to archaeological dating (Willey in a letter, December 3, 1966).
Consequently, the cultural chronology used here may be becoming obsolete. As the time seq uences of culture
history in the New World continue to be better understood , a more coherent picture of the origin and dissemination
of drug plants , induding Anadenanrhera, should emerge .

For a more recent treatment of Peruvian Anadananthera by the author, see HVilca and its usc" {1967}.

44

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 CULTURE AREA MONTANA

PIRO CULTURE:

TRIBES : Chontaquiro, Machiguenga and Piro (Simirin ch).

LANGUAGE : Arawakan stock.

REFERS TO: seeds of a legume.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: the seeds are pulverized, roasted. The
snuffing apparatus is a V -shaped instrument made of two leg bones of a heron. The end of one bone is decorated so
as to be distingu ishabJe from the other. Both large and small instruments are used .

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: the snuff is placed in the decorated end through which an assistant blows the
powder with a sharp puff into a nostril of the recipient. Sometimes the arms of the V are so short that one end may
be placed in the mouth and the other in a nost ril , permitting the recipient to do his own administering. The seed s are
also reported to be eaten.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: narcotic and stimulant; also increases alertness and clears the visio n.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: th e use ofV·shaped snuffing tubes for tobacco is found apparently among various

tribes of eastern Peru; but, to myknowledge , the use of such tubes for AnadcfU1nthera snuff, as well as the eating of
the seeds of that genus, is attributed only to the Piro, who snuff tobacco , too. The putative Anadenanthera
substances seem to playa cultural rol e among the Piro which might be described as that of a common stimulant.

USED BY : hunters, who also administer it to their dogs to increase their perceptiveness, too.

SOURCES: Farabee, 1922 ; Steward & Metraux in Steward, 1948 .

BOTANICAL IDENTITY : I have examined specimens of Anadenanthera colubrina vaT. Cebil from the margin of

the small Piro culture area; the trees are probably used by these Indians as the source of a narcoti c.

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 CULTURE AREA JURuA·PURUS

AMAHUACA CULTURE:

TRIBES: Am ah uaca, Capenawa, Comobo, Maspo, Mochobo, Nianagua, Nocoman, Pichobo, Puyumanawa, Rema,
Ruanagua and Soboyo.

LANGUAGE: Panoan.

Zerries stated in 1955(b) that, in the Jurua -PurUs region, both tobacco and Yopo powder are used by many tribes,
particularly the Panoan and Cashinawa. By "Panoan", I assume that he meant the AmallUaca, Chama and Mayoruna,
all of whom speak a Panoan language, according to Murdock (! 951). Reichel-Dolmatoff (1943-44) maintained that
instruments for inhaling narcotics of identical or similar form to those of the Guahibo are known among the
Amahuaca of northeast Peru. However, he did not indicate whether or not the narcotics used by the Amahuaca were
identical with those of the Guahibo. The Amahuaca tribe was included among the Panoan tribes of eastern Peru
who, accordin g to Steward & Metraux (in Steward, 1948), smoke tobacco in pipes or cigars, drink it in a beverage or
inhale it as snuff through tubes. Among these tribes, tobacco powder is taken through a V-tube , one end of which is
in serted in the nose while an assistant blows through the other end . I have examined no specimens of Anadenanrhera
from eastern Peru.

CASHINAWA CULTURE:

TRIBES : Ararawa (Arara), Canamari, Cashinawa, Catukina, Contanawa, Curina, Cuyanawa, Espino, Marinaw3,
Nawa, Nucuini, Pacanawa, Sacuya, Saninawa, Shanindawa, Shipinawa, Taminawa, Tushinawa, Yauavo and Yura.
LANGUAGE : Panoan stock .

. Although Zerries (1955b) indicated that the Panoan tribes of the Jurua·Purus region use both tobaceo and Yopo
powder (see Amahuaca) , I hav~ not encountered any specimens of Anadeflllnthera from the Cashinawa region, which
lies in the southern part of western Amazonas where the species are not known to occur.

CATUKfNA CULTURE:

TRJI3ES: Bendiapa , Burue, Canamari, Catawishi, Catukina, Catukino, Mangeroma (Tucan-Dyapa), Parawa and
Tawari.

LANGUAGE: the independent Catukinan stock.

NAME: Parica.

REFERS TO : material taken as snuff or enema .

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: the powder is taken through a bent tube
made of a bird shank bone cut in two and the pieces jOined by wrapping at an angle. For an enema, a clyster pipe is
made on the same principle, from the long shank bone of the tuyuyu (Mycleria americana L.).

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION : a portion of snuff is put into the V-shaped snuff tube and blown with great
force from the mouth into a nostril of th e same person.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS : the snuff is a narcotic stimulant, speedily inducing a sort of intoxication resembhng in its
symptoms that produced by the fungus Amanita muscaria (L.) PeTS. ex Fr. Taken as an enema,Pariciz acts as (I. pUlge,
more or less violently. according to the dose; a small injection is said to clear the vision and render one more alert.

46

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 CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: the Catawishi use Parica snuff as do the Mura and other peoples of the Amazon,
who call it by the same name. Prior to a hunt, a Catawishi Indian will take a small anal injection and administer~
another to his dog, to enhance both their perceptive faculties.

USED BY: hunters, and probably other men of th e tribe.

SOURCES: Spruce, 1908.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: Anadenantlzera is not known from this region, and Spruce's account (1908), on which
the above information is based, was taken from a story told him by a Brazilian trader who had visited the Catawishi
and obtained from them a snuffing apparatus. However, the Mura, who adjoin the Catukina downstream, probably
useAnadc/wnt"era substances, and it seems possible, though not likely , that the Catukina may also employ them.

CHAMA CULTURE :

TRlBES: Carabacho , Cashibo, Conibo , Sensi, Setebo and Shipibo.

LANGUAGE : Panoan stock.

Zerries' statement (1955b) that the tribe s of the lurua ·Punis region use Yopo powder (as well as tobacco) is
strengthened with regard to th e Chama by the fact that at least one specimen of A nndenatllhera colubrino var. Cebil
which I exa mined has been co Uected on the southwest border of the Chama culture region. Rei chel·Dolmatoff
(1943-44) indicated that instruments for inhaling narcotics of identical or similar form to those of the Guahiboare
known among the Chama. The sorcerers or yubues of the Conibo were said by Saint-Cricq (1873·74 ed.) to hold
secret conferences with their patron, Yurima, by means of a lethargy induced by some narcotic. The same author
described the Conibo male as carrying a trag containing snuff apparati used for powder made from gTeen tobacco.
When th e Conibo has a cold, he, like the Anti and ChontaquiTO, has a comrade blow th e tobacco powder through a
tube into his nose; his eyes bulge almost outside his head, he blows, snuffs and sneezes and then puts back his
malerial s, exhibiting satisfaction. I do not know whether or not the bulging of the eyes referred to above is usual among
reactions to tobacco snuff. Steward & Metraux (in Steward, 1948) stated, as mentioned earlier (see Amahuaca ),
that the Panoan tribes of eastern Peru smoke tob acco in pipes or cigars, drink it in a beverage or inhale it as snuff
through tubes. Tobacco powder is taken through a V~tube,one end of which is inserted in the nose while an assistant
blows through th e other end .

IPURI NA CULTURE: primarily fishers, with some agriculture.

TRlBES: Canamari, Casharari , Catiana, Cujigeneri, Cuniba, Ipurina (Kangiti) and M~nitene ri .

LANGUAGE : Arawakan stock.

NAME : Carica, Parica.

REFERS TO: lea ves said to contain some nicotine .

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE : the leaves are powdered and stored in a
snuff box which is usually a small snail shell (pomacea spp.) furnished with a cockle shell and a small pouring tube.
Parica is also taken in honey-like liquid form as a clyster, administered with a smaU ru bbeTsyringe and the shin bone
ofjacamy.

MANNE R OF ADMINISTRATION: snuffed and used as an enema.

47

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 PHYSICAL EFFECTS: the clyster brings about narcotizatio n as if by opiates; in five ruinutes after administration
contorted movements, delirium and hallucinations of marvellous scenes or bloody battles are produced. A crisis is
reached with.in fifteen to twenty minutes, after which the person awakens and is himself again .

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: Parica enemas are taken during a festival for the purpose of divination; it seems
that all the old men take enemas at that time; but it is the interpretation of the shaman, after analyzing the reports
of the revelation s which have appeared to the other Indians, which is of importance. As all the elders are addicted to
this narcotic, they are never without a portion of the intoxicant nor clyster'equiprnent , so that they may partake of
it whenever they so desire.

USED BY: old men and shamans.

SOURCES: Metraux in Steward, 1948; Maso, 1919.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: the region occupied by the Ipurina is outside the general distribution of
Anadenanlhera, and th e descriptions available do not give much indication as to the nature of the plant source. The
Ipurina use tobacco snuff (Metraux in Steward, 194 8).

MAYOR UNA CULTURE: •

TRIBES : Mayoruna.

LANGUAGE: Panoan.

Occupying a region in the northeast of Peru and southwest Amazonas, the Mayoruna are outside the geographic
distribution of Anadenanthera. They arc included here only because of Zerries' sta1ement that in the lurua-Pun.is
region both tobacco and Yopo powder are used by many tribes , including the Panoan groups.
/

MURA CULTURE: primarily a river people.

TRIBES: Mura and Piraha.

LANGUAGE: isolated Muran stock.

ADDITIONAL TRIBE : Malanawi.

LANGUAGE : affiliations unknown.

NAM E: Parica, Parica.

REFERS TO: substance made from the Parica tree (Parica or Parica-u_a) taken as snuff powder or dissolved in
cold water as a clyster, in a paste or in cigarcl.tes~ a festival of the same name.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: the seeds or fruits or "lobes"
(Saint-Cricq, 1873-74 ed., Vol. 4, pp . 453-55) are dried in the sun, roasted, bruised and pounded in mortars by old
women to a fLfle. odorous powder wh.ich is kept in a large bamboo tube. from which doses are measured v.rith a
caimim tooth. TIle snuff is taken by means of an instrument like that used by the Anti and their neighbors (which I
interpre1 to mean a V~shaped bone tube) ; the instrument is also described as a raboca, a hollow cane or reed or a
tub e about I foot long made of bamboo , or a long tapir bone or a bird bone. The liquid form or infusion is
contained in a vat or large kettle; a syringe made from the latex of Hl?Vea spp. in the shape of a pear with a rush tube
at one end is employed for administering the enema. Apparently, the liquid form is made from the powder at the
time of use.
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 MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: the old women fUl the tubes with snuff powder and pass them to the dancing
men; the men then stand in pairs, whiIe one partner blows snuff with great force first into one and then the other
nostril o f his partner, who then does the same for him. TIle ol d women also pass syringes to the dancers; in the
middle of a dance, one of the participants will insert the beak of a syringe which has been handed to him into hi s
companion , making all th e liquid contain ed in it disappear. It is also said that the enema syringe may be passed'
around a circle of seated men, being refilled for each person from a vat in the cent re.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS; the snuff reportedly indu ces a state of ferocious intoxication and exultation accompanied
by auditory haJlucinations, a condition o f feverish and sometimes murderous activit y which ends with prostration,
unconsciousness or even death. Pan'co snuff ma y be taken during and after the consumption of fermented beverages
(caysuma and cashin', made from fruits and manioc) or rum (cashaca). The first effect is that of inducing the men to
become exceeding1y talkative, to sing, shout and wildJy to leap abdut ; this is followed by a stupor, from which more
drinking is needed to rouse them, unless they have suffocated from the powder wh ile dancing. TIle physical effects
of the enema are weaker th an those of th e snuff, though similar; and both are described as eqnally horrible. The men
dance and threaten each other with their weapons. Their stomachs become distended like drums and are said
sometimes to burst; those who manage (0 disburden themselves can continue in the same state for 24 hours .

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: great emphasis is placed on Parica, the tree source of which is regarded as the place
into which de parted souls transmigrate and has, therefore, supernatural power. Parico is considered as a means of
purifica tion and an antidote to evil. It is especially important to feasts, su ch as puberty initiations of young men and
harvest celebrations. It is used in the annual festivals called parone, parasse Or quarenJena. When the seeds are ripc
and the snu ff-making seaso n arrives, the men assemble and nog each other in pairs for ab out 8 days, during which
they consume alcoholic drinks and take Parica as snuff and in enemas in a special house ; this annual feast of the
Pan·ca lasts 16 days and is accompanied by the male dances and violent activity.

USE D BY: men and boys , although the old women prepare the substan ces and serve them to the men.

SOURCES: Barbosa Rodrigoes, 1875; Bates, 1892; Ernst , 1889; Gillin in Steward, 1948; Karsten, 1926;
Nimuendaju in Steward, 1948; Ribeiro de Sa mpaio, 1825: Sa fford , 191 6a; Saint-Cricq, 1873·74 ed. ; Sout hey, 181 9.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: I have examined two specimens of Anadenontliera peregrinl1 var. peregrilla from th e
Mura culture region, on e of wh ich was labelled Parica and was said to be cultivate d (KrukofFs Expedition 10 Ihe
Brazilwn A mazo nw, the Basin of Ihe Rio Madeira, 6046). Although Ducke said in a letter (September 25 , 1955) that
he had never encountered A. pcregrin; cultivated by the Indians , Spruce (1908) reported that he had seen the
species planted at Santarem, near the junction of the Rio Tapajoz and the Amazon (which is in the Maue culture
region , downstream from the Mura). l have examined SpnJce 1786, from the Amazon - Rio Negro district, as well as
an unnumbered specimen of his from the vicinity of Santarem which, though it lacked Oowers, seems certainly to
represent A. peregrina var. peregrina. Ducke stated (in the letter cited above) thaI trees of A. peregrina vaL
peregrina are common in th e Amazon country but only in savan na areas.

As for the common names of the tree , I have examined specimens labeJled Pa6ca (see under Maue) which were
collected by Ducke, who also stated (1939) that Parica is One of the names by which Anadenanthera peregrina var.
peregrina is kn own in Para. Spruce (1908) used the words Pan·ca (and Niopo) for A. peregrina var. peregrilla. Schultes
(1954) has said that it is quite definite that Parica in most part of the lower Amazon does refer to ce rtain trees of
the LeguminoSfle (although in northwest Amazonas it refers to Virola spp.). Among the plants to which the term
Pan·ca has been applied are species of Pipladenia, AcaCia, Pilhecellobium, Schizo1obium, Aeschynomene.
Stryp hnodendron (Le COinte, 1945); Parkia (Ducke, 1949; Sampaio, 1934); EllleroloNum (Sampaio, 1934). These
genera all belong to the LeguminoSfle. Ribeiro de Sam paio (1825) mentioned a place called Pariealiba, meaning a
localit y where Parica trees are abundant.

Is A nadenanthera peregrinavar. peregrina usee as a snuff or enema source by the Indians of this area? Ducke (in
his letter, 1955) stated that he, like Schultes, had never found this species employed for snuff by Amazon

49

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 Indi ans, that only species of Virala had been found with this use. Bates (1892) believed that Parica was made
probably from a species of Inga. And Spruce ( 1908) reported that he had not actually seen snuff prepared in the
Amazon. However, Schultes (1954) stressed the fact that we are not at all sure that Parica does nat refer, at least in
some parts of the Amazon Valley , to snu ff made with the seeds of Anfldananthera or a related genus. Fi nally, Robert
Schomburg)< (1841 ed.) stat ed that certain Indians along the Amazon River and the Rio Negro, as well as the
Uaupes, Purus, etc., used the seeds of Parica trees, which he said were a species of Mimosa. (1t must be remembered,
however, that Rob ert Schomburg)< never had been in the RiDs vaupes, Am azon, Pu ru s, or Negro areas; some of his
information was probably hearsay). These Indians were SOld to use the Parica seeds in the same way as did the
Otomac and Gualubo the seeds of Acacia Niapa: they were rubbed to a powder and the fumes inhaled, or
the powder was sprinkled in the eyes, nose and ears, to produce a frenzy lasting some h OUTS, during which the Indians
were masters of neither themselves nor their passions; a sense of gene ral langu or was said to set in later, lasting severa!
days . In the same na rrative, Schomburgk also referred to theParica trees' being numerous in savannas and trimming
the shores of the Rio Branco or one of its tribu tari es. In 1840, Bentham pubhshed Mimosa ' acaciaides, based on
Robert Schamburgk 852 (fruiting) and 866 (flowering). This species was said to be foun d in woods, skir1ing
savannas in British Guiana and also along the Rio Branco, where it was ca lled Black Pan·ca and Pan·caranw,· the bark
was used for tanning and to cure internal bleeding; some tribes were purported to intoxicate themselves with fumes
of the burning seeds. I have examined Schomburg)<'s material and have found that boU> Acacia Niopa (H umboldt &
fionpiand ex Willdenow) Humb oldt and Mimosa? acacioides Bentham are synonyms of Anadcnanthera peregrina vaL
peregrilU1.

Robert Schomburg)<'s bro ther, Richard , also an explorer, mentioned ( 1922 ed.) that A nadenanthera peregrina var.
peregrina was utilized by the Indians of British Guiana in the same way as described abo ve and wi lh the same
commo n name. 1 have not been able to identify the Indians, Another reference to the use of Pan·ca snuff from this
species among the Indians of British Gu iana (as well as the region north o f the Rio Negr o, in Brazil) refers to the
aborigines only as Paravilhanos; Schultes in conversation (I960) stated that this is a loose term from a report o f
Martius (1867) based wholl y on hearsay .

According to Devoto & Rothkugel (1942), Ra or Na means "similar" in GuaranI. The fact thai Alladennnthera
p eregn·na vaL peregrina it'call ed Pariccuama and Black Parica in British Guiana suggests th at this plant is not regarded
as th e genuine or real Parica, as has already been suggested. I have seen the name also gjven sometimes asPan·caranG,
which means "faIse pa rica". Gillin (in Stewa rd , 1948) stated thai th e use of Parica in snuff, paste or cigarettes
appears to be one of several western traits which had barely reached the fring e of the Guiana area at the (ime of Our
earliest knowledge . He referred to its employ ment by the Mura, Maue and the Parima River tribes but did not give
the botanical identity. The Parima River tribes are not listed in Murdo ck (1951), but, accord ing to Zerries (I 95 5b),
they are connected with the Waica (see Shiriana) who, to my knowledge, do not use any materials under the name of
Parica. I have examined from the Guianas only two specimens of A. peregrina, and they were from
southwes t British Guiana. I have not encountered any references other than the brief information given above as to
the employment of possibly Anadenanthera-derived substances by any peoples of the Guianas.

Wit hout indicating th e exact people or location , d'Evreux (1864 ed.) stated that the shamans of northern Brazil
have Parica as their most powerful "persuasion"; in a fo otnote , Denis added that the Parica, or herbe aux sorciers,
was chewed and made into an ointment or unguent with which the shamans practiced their unctions. The
description does not so und as though Anadenallthera materials were utiliLed. Spruce (1908) stated that the
equipment of the medicine-men of the region lying adjace nt to th e upper Rio Negro and Orinoco and extending
Ulence westward to the Andes was chiefly the foUowing: the maraca or rattle; lobacco juice and smoke; Niopo (or
Parica), powdered seeds in snuff; Caapi (or Ayahuasca) stems in infusion (Banisteriapsis spp.). He add ed that Niopa
was the chief med icine of the shamans on th e affluents of the Amazon and that , to his knowledge, none of these
plants was taken in conjunction with any other . The region north of the Amazon River and into the Guianas is in
need of ethn obotanicaJ study wi th rega rd to t he real identities of the materials referred to in the various reports
cited above . This region has been one of apparently large-scale communication between peoples north and south of
it and could have been a center for dissemination of numerous botanical species. 1 do not believe that
Anl1denanthera peregrina, however, was ~mong these. I am aware of two instances of the tree's being cultivated in

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 Ama2.onas; but, if Ducke reported that he had never, in all his studies of the Ama2.on Dora, seen it planted and that it
was , furthermore, common only to the savanna areas of the region, I think that his word ought to be accepted as
indicating the overaU pict ure. I would guess that, if the Mura do use A. peregrina substances, they must
obtain them from patches of savanna amid the rain·forest. Ducke, who had the greatest field knowledge of the
Amazonian Dora , especially the legumes, had collected A. peregrina var. peregrina and labelled it Paricil. It is,
therefor e, puzzling that he did not draw attention to the fact that the same word is used for the snuff of the Mura
and their neighborS, the Maue and Mundurucu (see next), nor speak of the identity of tliat snuff.

Finally , in co nversation with Dr. Souy, a Japanese physician from Brazil, I learned that the caboc/os (a Portuguese
word for half·breeds Or mestizos), between 6bidos and Manaos along the Ama2.on River (which includes the culture
regions of the Mura, Maue and Mundurucu) , employ a su bstance called Panca which they obtain from Indians
upstream. It is cultivated and used as snuff. TIle caboclos are said to be on close terms wHh the Japanese
shop-owners who sell jute and, although they do not utilize it themselves, will buy Parica. The powder, whose use
the Brazilian governmen t su pposedly prohibits by law, is described as "grass" Or "little leaves" (Souy in
conversation, around 1956). A handful of the minute leaOets of Anadenanthera peregrina var. peregrina might look
like a gra ssy substance ; but , if it is obtained from upstream, its Source must be looked for among the plants of
western Amazonas, where Anadenanthera is not known to OCCllI. Koch-Grlinberg (in Schultes, 195 4) did, however,
report a narcotic snuff from the northwest Amazon to be derived from a legume, Schultes recently in conversation
inquired whether or not the "grass" or "little leaves" could be Justicia of the Acanllwceae. as J, pectoralis Jacquin
var. stenophylla Leona rd bears little leaves and is added to Virola snuff by some Waild . Indians. According to
Holmstedt in conversation, this plant may contain N,N·dimethyltryptamine,

Whatever other - and they may be numerous - plant substances are used in the snuffs and enemas of the Mura, it
seems likel y that Anadenanthera peregn'na var. peregrilltI may be included in their pharmacopoeia. The reports
suggest that this is possible; the species occurs in the Mura culture region; and, even though rarely , the trees are
cuhivated there,
/

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 CULTURE AREA PARA

MAUE CULTURE:

TRIBES: Andira, Apanto, Arapium , Maragua, Maue and Tupinambarana .

LANGUAGE: Tupi-Guarani stock.

NAME: Parica, Parica.

REFERS TO: substance deril'ed from seeds or fruits of a tree , or from th e seeds plus other botanical materials:
the tree; the complete apparatus for snuff-taking.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: the seeds are roasted and finely
pulverized in a carefuUy made shallow basin of red wood; the powder is dried on a flat piece of wood or
hard material. Parica may also be composed of these seeds plus the ashes of a vine, and the leaves of a species of the
menispermaceous Abuta Aubl. (or Coccu{us DC) . Parica is stored as pieces of hard paste kept in a shell until
required, when a small quantity is dried, pulverized in a mortar or nat shell and the powder spread out with a brush
made of tamandua bandeira. Another version hold s that the dried frl!)ts of the tree, Parica, are reduced to a powder
by being crushed within a half of what appears to be the fruit case of a lecythidaceous tree (the case bemg referred to
as a ma;anon) which serves as a mortar (indua); the brush (Iapixalla), made from the silky extremes of the tail of the
tamandua, is used to d ean the mortar and to sp read the Parica in the concavity (Parica-redondo) of a wooden tablet
or table (suican).- the u.ble bears the figure of th e owne r's totem animal inlaid with mother-of-pearl of conch (ilaa).
If the Parica is to be stored, a snail (iapuruxita) shell is used which is called a Parica-reru or Parica-container; a
fragment of snail shell of th e same species is used to st op the mouth, sealed with resin of amany. To empty the
contents onto a table, the top of the spiral is opened and the material pou red into a small gourd. For inhaling. the
quills of the royal eagle (ga vwu real), vultures or herons may be employed, or two long tubular bones, joined in
V-form or side by side, securee} with cOllon thread. A tube (taboca) made of the long bone of the lapir is also
utilized. A banana leaf is sometimes used. The (wo wing bones of ruyuyus, maguarys or ayayas may be joIned, the
marrow having been removed, one to the other in paralJeJ f(lshion with fine cotton thread ; small ribs of paxiuba palm
are intenposed to adjust the positior of the bones. Twu coquillas of the ju -hui palm are glued to the superior
extremities. Parica is also taken in enemas and ciga rettes.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: the snuff powder is violently inllaled into the nostrils through the tubes from
the tablet, on which the desired amount of Parica has been spread out evenly with the brush, whjch looks like or is
called a catrabuja. TI,e person takes hold of the handle end of the tablet with his left hand and the tubes in the
other, placing the superior extremities to his nostrils and the lower ones on the tablet; he inhales through both tubes
at once. Reciprocal administration by two persons has also been described .
•
PHYSICAL EFFECTS: the eyes bulge, the mouth contracts, the lips tremble, and the recipient is o bliged to sit
down, intoxicated for about five minutes; he then becomes gayer and is refreshed . Parica snuff relieves fatigue and
prevents fevers and disease . As used in the ceremonies described below and combined with wine, Parica produces
violent reactions with occasional death s from su ffocation and, commonly, unconsciousness.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: Parica snuff is taken frequently and in an everyday fashion as a common
amelioranL The Indians are willing to part with the snuff apparalus when it is desired by strangers, which indicates
that there is apparently little or no sacredness associated with snuffi ng. This lOa y be a recent attitude; for Parica has
also been described as part of an imp ortant tribal ceremony, in the great bauhanaes ·which take place in a large house
cailed the house of Parica_ The ceremony begins with a reciprocal Oageilation and eontinues eight da ys, during
which the men b",t each other while the old women prepare Pan·ca. The women also prepare wine from the fruits of
the beju. The drunkenness is maintained throughout the festival by repeated doses of Parica and wine.

52

I
(
 USED BY: men in ceremonies; but it is aJso said to be given to children on an everyday basis, so that it may be in
general usage.

SOURCES: Bates, I E92; Ernst, 1889 ; Gillin in Steward, 1948; Hernd on & Gibbon, 1853; Martius in Ernst, 1889;
Metrau x, 1928 ; Nimuendaju in Steward, 1948; Ratzel, 1894 ed.; Rodrigues Ferreira in Serrano, 1941 ; Schultes,
1954 ; Spix & Martiu" 1824 ed.; Spmce, 1908.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: I have not examined any specimens of Anndenanthera from the region of the Maue
culture, but trees have been found in that general area. Ducke (16519,16581,20186) collected and identified some
of them asA. peregrina VaL peregrina and gave their common name as Pan·ca. I would expect that this species is used
by the Maue, along with other plants including Dlmedioperebea scierophylla Du cke, said to be a traditional snuff
source of the neighboring Mundurucu.

The origin of the term Parica is ullknown to me. Devoto & Rothkugel (1942) have given a list ofGuaran; plant
names with the meanings of various roots in that language. In Guarani, Parica could be broken down into the
following constituents: Pa (all , every thing) or Pard (a fowl ovary),1 (water), Ca, Coa, Cad (herb, medicinal plant). I
hesitate to speCUlate on this matter, but it may be significant that the word Parica is reported on.ly for plants from
the area or the Amazon and its tributaries. Therefore, it may not be as old as the widespread teIlTl Curopa and jts
variants; and it may well have been applied, originally at least, only to certain plants found exclusively in the
Amazon region , perhaps species of Viro/a. The word Parica could have become, subsequently, a term generally
applied to snuffs or enemas or to their SOurce piants.

The wooden tablets employed today by the Maue are similar to those of wood and stone found at archaeological
sites in Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile; the sim.ilaritjes are not only in proportion and form. but also in ornamentation
of the handle, which is like many from the Ata cama culture region of Argentina and Chile (which see). The Maue
tablets may have been derived from tablets used in the highlands o f Bolivia aft er the classic period of Tiahuanaco.
(During the classic period , the Tiahuana90 tablets were of stone and were without handles). The Maue tablets also
couJd have been derived from those once utilized in northern Argentina and Chile. (The Atacamena tablets are of
slone and wood and include many with handles; these tablets are presumed to be derived from those of the classic
Tiahuanaco civilization) (Uhle, 1915). The earliest known tablets of the Maue are evidently nol very differe", from
those of recent use; they are described by Serrano (1941) as being re cta ngular, with a hollowed depository , and as
having either a zoo- or anthropomorphic handle or just a spatular appendix. These tablets suggest the possibility of
an ancient relationship between the fo,'ebears of the Maue and those of the Indians of Bolivia and/or northern
Argent ina and Chil e.

There is also evidence of a probably less ancient commerce in Amazonas, Para and Matto Grosso wltich was
engaged in by Indians of the Amazon Rjver. According to Porto Seguro (in Schult es, 1955), the Maue. Mundurucu
and perhaps others maintained a kind of traffic with Quechua-speaking Indians; this trade , incidentaJly, expanded
enormously when the Europeans arrived. Schultes (1955) has elaborated on lIie su bject ;guarallo, a caffeine-bearing
stimulant made from Paullinia and produced in the limited region of the Mundurucu and Maue, had been trad ed
since remote times all the way to the places known today as Diamantina and Cuyaba in Matto Grosso; the route was
a.imost unbelievably long and difficult: all the way down the Rio Tapajoz, and then ove rland to th e Rio Paraguay.

It may be worth noting that there is a Rio de Curupatuba about 40 leagues from the moulh of the Rio Tapajoz
(Acuna, 1891 ed.). There is also a place called Curupachi at the junction of the Rio Tapajoz with thc Rios Juruena
and sao Manoel in Matto Grosso, along the genera] route referred to abo ve. TIle word europa is apparently not used,
today at least, by the Indians of the lower Amaron Vall ey as a name for plant substances; bU1 it is one of the words
(spelled variously) employed for such stuffs by the Otomac, Saliva, Yaruro, Guahibo, Cocama, Omagua, Chiriguano
and GuaranI. The wide geographical distribution of this term could imply, as suggested earlier. that it is one of the
older words for plant stimulants in South America. Alternatively, or in addition, the Indians who first used the word
may have migrated in many directions relatively recen1ly . This is, 1 believe, commonly thought to be true of the

53

I
 Tupi-Guarani speaking peoples. The fact that the Chiriguano and Guarani, who are located on either side of the
southern terminus of the early trade route of the Amazon Indians, refer to Anadenanthera today as Kurupm and
Kurupd, respectively, is indeed thought·provoking (see Chiriguano and Guarani).

MUNDURUCU CULTURE:

TRIBES: one, the Mundurucu.

LANGUAGE: Tupi-Guarani stock.

NAME: Parica, Parica.

REFERS TO: snuff from the seeds of a legume or other plant source.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: elegant wooden slabs, which these
Indians have in common with those of southwestern South America, are used to grind the snuff.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: the Mundurucu borrowed the habit of Parica snuffing from their neighbor>, the
Mura and·Maue.

SOURCES: Martius, I M7; Mantell, 1926; Nordenskibld, 1931; Schultes, 1954.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: AnadeJwnthera peregrina vaL peregrina is represented from the border of the region of
the Mundurucu culture as well as from the areas northeast and west of that culture. The common name on
herbarium specimens is Paricd (see Ma",'). Von Martius (lM7) stated that the seeds of this species were used for
Parica by the Mundurucu for snuff. However, Ricardo de L. Froes said in a letter (February 2, 1957) that the seeds
of Olmedioperebea scierophylla( which is a gigantic forest tree with a fleshy fruit, used to be taken, traditionally at
least, by the Mundurucu. More recently, Schultes (1963,1970) reported that a psychotomimetic snuff known in
Portuguese only as rape dos indios has been discovered in the central part of the Braillian Amazon, along the upper
Rio XingU; his source of information was the late George A. Black, who informed him that the snuff was derived
from the fruit of O. scierophylla. It may be that, as has been suggested for other peoples, several plants are utili~ed
for making snuffs also by the Mu.nduructi.

54

I
 CULTURE AREA BOLIVIAN

CHIRIGUANO CULTURE:

TRIBES: Chiriguano nation.

LANGU AGE : one of Tupi·Guarani stock.

NAME: Kurupa~ Kurupairal.

REFERS TO: botanical source.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: tbe tannin contained in the bark of
Kurupai. and the pressed or crushed leaves of Kurnpalra'i are employed.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: the tannin is used to hasten healing of wounds, and the leaves are used as a
lenitive compress on tumors.

SOURCES: Metraux, 1930.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: I hav e not examined specimens from thi s area, but Anadenallihera colubrilw is
represented north, east and south of here. The nearest specimens come from northern Argentina, where . according
to the labels, the common nam e is 0?bil, Cevil or a variant (see Comecbingon) . Metraux (1930) gave Petil Seb il as
synonymous with Kurupainu; and specimens of A . colubrina var. Cebil which I bave seen from north of the
Chirigua.no, but still in Bolivia , are labelled Curupa" or Curupau, followed by Spanish epi thets (Steinbach 6657,
7226). Fiebrig (1932), Devoto & Rothkugel (1942) and Lindman (see Guarani) have all indicated that Kurupa~ and
variants of it are names for A. colu bn"w in Guarani. Devoto & Rothkugel suggested that QJropay may be derived
from one of two Guarani combinatio",: I) Cuni (grain, seed) Po (all , everything) III or Y (resin), because A.
co/ubrilla vaL Cebi/ was one of the earliest tannin sources; 2) Cuni (ibid.) Payor Paye (witch-doctor), because the
toxic seeds are valued by shamans. A combination which these authors did not suggest, but whose components are
found in their list of Guarani terms, might be: Cu (tongue, langu age) Rupo (bcd, with reference to that of the Infant
Jesus) A (fruit) ; a pre-Christian interpretation of the word might then be 'fruit of the holy language', a source of
communion with spirits. As will be remembered, Ernst (1889) suggested the derivation of the Taino word Cohoba
from Guarani stock (under Taino). It may as well be included here that Storni (1944) has interpreted Cuni to mean
"itch" or "wart"; the word has been applied to Pipladenia rigido in some parts of South America, because the bark
of that species is irri tat ing. According to Devoto & Rothkugel, (1942), the root Curni or Kuni in Quechua or
Araucanian languages means «dark black", which is one way of describing the seeds of Anadenanthera. Whatever the
original meanin g of Kurupal, the facts at hand suggest that the materials reportedly used by the Chiriguano come
probably from Anadenanthera colubrina vaL Cebil. Some of the specimens which 1 examined from Paraguay
appeared to be especiall y bush-like and small; they may be the Petit SCbi/or 'Kurupalrac It will be recalled that
Devoto & Rothkugel (1942) give Ra as a suffix in Guarani , meaning "similar to".

Chiriguano means "d irt people" and is a Quechua nam e given to these Indians by the Inca , who did not regard
them very highly (von Rosen, 1924). The Chiriguano were influenced by Inca culture to some degree. In partic ular,
the Chiriguano borrowed a curative enema and the corresponding instrument from their Andean neighbors. According
to Metraux (1930), the practice and instrument came to the ChirigtLano via Indians of northwestern Argentina, a
theory based on archae~logical tubes from that region. A traveller named Mingo appears to have recorde'd the use of
cura tive enemas among the Chiriguano as late as the 18th Century. Metraux stated that. aside from the borrowed
enema of the Chiriguano, no Tupi tribe, except the Omagua or the upper Amazon, has empl oyed enemas for
treatment of the sick. The information which I have on the Omagua suggests that not even their enemas are curative
in intent. The Omagua enemas are administered primarily at large feasts and for intoxications (and they probably do
not include Anadenanthero materials). The Cocama, neighbors of the Omagua, take enemas of eurupa (again,

55

 probably not Arwdenanthera-derived); these enemas are therapeutic and v:ision·inducing but are not described as
being given specifically for curative purposes. The only peoples with whom my research has been concerned who use
or did use enemas mainly for medicinal purposes appear to be the Quechua-speaking Indians of southern Peru
(Nordenskiold , 1930); these Indians are believed to have employed Anodellf1nthera in their enema decoctions. On
the other hand the Chiriguano enema was made of urine and salt and was administered by means of a unique
sy ringe: a small reed was stuck in one end of a calabash which also had a hole at the other end, through which the
administrant could blow the liquid into the recipient (Heizer, 1944). The attempt to interpret one culture of
Tupi~u arani speaking people relat ive to anoth er is not easy. As Nordenski6Id (1930) said , these peoples have
migra ted since the time of the discovery more than any other groups and ha~e few culture elements in common
toda y. v.,~lether or not the enemas of the Chiriguano could be connected in any way with the present putative uses
of Anadenan th era materials for that na tion is a matter for speculation, at least on the basis of the data here
assembled.

MACURAP CULTURE:

TRlBES: Amn iapa, Arua, Guarategaja, Ma cu rap and Wayoro.

LANGUAGE: Tup;-Gu arani stock.

REFERS TO: a powd ered mixture, made of tobacco and other stro ng products .

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE : a long tube and a table.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: tile chief shaman , or sorcerer, blows a certain quantity of the powder
through the tube into th e noses of the recipien ts who are seated arou nd the table.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: the participa nts fall into a trance and speak to spirit s.

CULTURAL SIGNlFICANCE: the administration of this powder takes place durin g the seventh da y of a ritual
celebration dedicated to the invocation of good spirits. On this day. the ancestral spirits visit the maloca or great
house in which the whole village lives. The final preparations are solemn and worthy of the respect held for the
awaited guests. The initiated men, those who have been instructed in magic, sit down around th e improvised table
and receive the powder. While the recipients react as desCribed , the old sorcerer leaps into the air with the cry of a
jaguar and arrives outside the house, where ille same cerem ony is repeated out of doors, so that the magic
Ca O extend to the adjacent field s, paths, rivers, etc. Tllis done, all turn toward the sun, and the Sorcerer engages in a
series of energe tic physical exercises to attract the good spirits and to remove any evil ones from the vicinity. a
performance which takes three houTS. After that, comes a part of the ritual in which a long red parrot-plume is made
to stand on end and to sway like a pendulum, these movements being dependent upon the power of the particular
sorcerer. He and th e tribal chief then return to the part of the mploca used for sacred purposes and ,
som ehow inspired , trace on a palm mat with their hands a sy mmetrical design which th ey then copy with a red
pimento. The sorcerer takes a dou ble cane about a foot long and crouches by the table. All the initiated gather
around, and, while they hold their breaths, the sorcerer puts one extremity of the double cane into his nostrils,
pressing the other end on the surface of the table in long and circular movements. At the same time , a weird piercing
melody is heard, which impresses the initiates as the voice of the spirits. The rites terminate here, and after a bath
the initiates prepare to receive their ancestors' spirits, placing pots of 'crucha' and various foods on the palm mat alter.
The ancestors visit their descendants in the maloca during that evening, whose passage is accompanied by the sound
of someone grating against the mat, cries of the women and children, chants, and so on.

USED BY : only by shamans and initiated males.

SOURCES: Sekelj , 1955.

56

I
 BOTANIC AL IDENTITY: although I have not examined herbarium specimens from thi s region, Frans Caspar sent
me a sam ple of Anadenanthera seeds (probably A. colubri/UI var. Ceqil) used by the Yabuti, who nearly surround the
small region of the Macurap (sec YabuLi). Burkart (195 2) stated that Anodenanthera mat erials are still used as
exci tan ts by the Indians of Mat to Grosso along the Rio Guapore. Levi·Strauss (in Steward, 1948) said that the tribes
(no names given) On the right bank of the Rio Guapo,,! employ a narcotic snuff of cru shed Angico, tobacco leaves
and the ashes of a bark; the material is carefully prepared in small mortars, with mixing brushes and pestles, and is
kept in bamboo tubes until used by shamans at fea sts or for cu ring. When employed in curing, the snuff is blown
into Ille pat ient's nose thr ough one or more tube s that terminate in a hoUow nut shaped like a bird's head. Although
Sampaio (1934) said that Angico is the comm on name also for species of Cassin, Enterolobium, Parha and
Pip tad en in, it would not be surprising if one of the materials referred to here were derived from Anadenanthera
colubrino vaT. Cebil. Frans Caspar (in a lett er, September 7,1956) stated that the seeds that he sent were fTOm a tree
called Angico by many writers. Ducke (1 939) said tha t Angico is a conunon name among some colonists for
Anadenanthera peregrina, A. colubrina va r. Cebil and A . colubrino. var. colubrina. 1 have examined specimens of
both species of Anadenanthera and each of their varieties bearing that name or variants thereof, all from Brazil. The
spe cimens are mostly fr om th e coastal states, as one might expect, since Angico apparently is a name used by
settlers rath e r than by Ind ians: CapucllO 413; Duarte 3053: Duson 11 253; Foster 2846; Hoehne 1030; Kuhlmann
3226; Lofgren 955; Macedo 521, 1265, 1988: Mexia 4492, 5225; Oliveira s. n., 1949, Para; Pickel 2292, 3184;
Wanning s. n. , ) o rNov. 65, Lagoa San ta.

PACAGUARA CULTURE:

TRlBES: Capuibo, Caripuna , Chacobo, Ja caria, Pacaguara and Sinabo.

LANGUAGE : Panoan stock.

NAME: Parica.

METHOD OF PREPARA nON AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: Panca is prepared as a clyster , which is
taken with a rubber syringe provided vlith a bone tube.

MAN NER OF ADMINISTRA nON: the Caripuna administer the enemas one to another.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: a state of trance is induced .

SOURCES: Burkart , 1952; Metraux in Steward , 1948.

BOT ANI CAL IDENTITY: although Metraux (in Steward, 1948) has attributed the source of Parica here to
Alladenanihera, the genus is not represented among the specimens which I examined for this general area. Burkhart
(1952) reported that the Indians of Matto Grosso along th e Rio Guapore, into which region the northe ast part of the
Pacaguara cul ture·area extends. st ill take Anadenanlhera as an excitant.

YABUTi CULTURE:

TRlBES: Ari cap u, Aruashi , Cabishinana, Canoa, Huari (Massaca), Kepikiriwat , Mure , Palmella, Purubora,
Sanamaica, Tupari and Yabut; (Japuti).

LANGUAGE: of unknown affiliation and possibly diverse.

NAME: Aimpii (in German pronun cia tion).

REFERS TO: botanical material used in snu fr.

57

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 METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: the seeds (Aimpii-kidJ of the tree
(A impii-kobJ are mixed with Aimpii-nyang (ashes of the bark of an unid entified tree that are also added to tobacco
snuff).

MANN ER OF ADMINISTRATION: snuffed_

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: u sed ce remonially, by the Tupari . Seve ral neighboring tribes have similar names
for the ma terials cited here_

SOURCES: Caspar in a Ielter, September 7,1956.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: as mentioned under Macurap, Caspar senl me samples of the seeds called Aimpii-kid
which were determined as belonging probably to Anadenanth era COlubrina va T. Cebil. Caspar related that
the tree was said to grow in savannas and is called A ngico by many writers. Although I have examined no other
malerials of Anadenanthera fr om this region , I believe that it musl be accepted, on the basis of the seeds wi th
Caspar's information, that at least some of the substances included in the snuff of the Yabuti are derived from
Anadenanthera colubrina vaT. Cebil. (Fo r a fuller discussion, see Macurap). More information on Yabutf snuff is
available in Caspar's book, Tupari (I 952, 19 56 ed.).

58

 CULTURAL AREA CHILEAN

ARAUCANIAN CULTURE:

TRIBES: num ero us: Pehuenche of th e Andean highlands, and (from north to south) the Picunche, Mapuche ,
Huilli che and Chilo te of the Chilean coast.

LANGU AGE: Araucanian stock.

The region of the Araueanians is sou th of th e distribution of Anadenanthera. Nevertheless, it may be noteworthy
that the Araucanians have a flu te known as a piviilca (Medina, 1882); the instrument is essentialJy the same in
concept as the snuffing lube or enema tube. One might won der at this point whether th e pivillca could be rela ted to
the bird whistle symbolism with which putative Alladanal1lhera powders are associated among the Malaca (which
see).

The Araucanians have persisted in the custom of making a mixture of toba ceo plus the leaves or bark of certain
trees or bushes; according to Oyarzun (1910), sueh a practice may indicate that in former limes they had to use
only native plants with properties simila r to those of Nico tiana , which was introdu ced at a later date. Tobacco
appears to ha ve been in use here at least as early as the tim e of the conquest. Just what the precursors of tobacco
might have been among the Araucanians is a fascinating enigma .

ATACAMA CULTURE:

TRIBES: Atacama , Or Kunza, among whose members are sometimes included the coastal Chango, the inland
Casa vi nd o and Cochinoca .

LANGUA GE: Atacama , an ind epend/nl stock.

The info rmation is limited here to archaeological materials found at th e sites of Chiuchiu, Chunehuri (at Calama),
the Desierto de Atacama. La Paya (Cuidad Atacameiia). Pisagua , Puna de Juju y and San Pedro de Ata cama . Atacama
culture history may be divided into three main epochs; they are best illu stra ted, with regard to the artifacts of
co nce rn in Ihis paper, by the finds at Pisagua described by Uhle (1915), fr om the northern part of the Atacama
region .

The first period at Pisagua preced ed that of (he construction o f th e classic Tiahuanaco II monuments and was
contempo rary with Proto Nazca. (Acco rding to Willey, in lectures before 1961, Proto Nazca was about 330 . a
B.C .). Th e inhabitants ofPisagua were the Chango; and only bone tubes, no tablets, are found in the burials here.

The second pe riod at Pisagu a co rresponded with that of th e cla ssic period of Tiahuanaco 11 (a ccording to Willey, 0
. 500 A.D J Here the first tablet s appear and are wooden . New tubes appear here whi ch are reddish at one end from
what seems to be coca-stained saliva: this suggests that two people must have been involved in their employment,
one to blow and the other to receive.

The third period at Pisagua preceded that of the Inca empire by just a few decades. (Willey placed thi s period
about 800 - 1000 A.D.). Th ere is evidence that at this time th e self·administrat ion suggested in the first period
persisted alo ng with that requiring two person s, from the second period. There is an enormous variety of decorations
fi gu red on th e tubes of this la st period, as well as on all of the known tab lets of the Atacama region , including those
found south of Pisagua. The art is of high quality but \'ery sy mb olic and not well understood. It is likely that the
very finest of the tubes found at Pisagua were imported fro m the Diaguila (\Jhle, 1915).

59

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 In general, the tablets of the Atacama culture may be described as flat, rectangular wooden artifacts which appear
to have been used for grinding; they have a rectangular concavity on one face and are often, though not always,
adorned at one end with one or more ca rved handles of the same piece of wood. Carved-figure handles are common,
as well as surface incision and shell inlay . The incised designs are sometimes of pure classic Tiahuanaco style and
correspond to the stone tablets found at Tiahuanaco, except that handles are lacking on the Tiahuanaco examples.
The forms of the handles on the Atacama tablets are as variable as the character of the basin is stable (Bennett in
Steward, 1946; Uhle, 1913, 1915) .

The tubes which accompany the tablets are made of bone, wood, cane o'r combinations of these materials. All of
them are slender and cylindri cal. with conical nosepieces which are commonly carved of the same piece of wood as
the tubes; the tubes are often ornamented with relief or overlaid with gold leaf (Bennett in Steward, 1946).

Contemporary with the third period of Pisagua was a find at the cemetary of Calama, which included a woven
purse containing gray-brown powde r made of pulverized leaves. The leaves could not be botanically identified but
proved to be irritating when snuffed . With the po wd er in the purse were tubes (made of bone like those of the first
period at Pisagua) and tablets. At Calama there were, out of a good sampling, about ten crania per one
tablet-and-tube, Hence , the employment of these mate rials evidently was not for religious but medicinal purposes
(Dhle , 1913 , 1915).

The uses of the tabl e ts and tubes discussed appears 'i'o have extended from the centre of the Atacama region all
the way. to the northern region of Chil e. There , along with a developed agriculture, these Indians see m to ha ve
maintained in operation a nomad ic system of commerce with their neighbors (Uhle, 19] 3). According to Serrano
(1941), the tablets or trays passed from Tiahuanaco along the coast to the north of Chile and into Argentina , where
they are found not only of stone but also of wood.

The tubes of the Atacama cu lture arc older than the civilization of (classic?) Tiahuanaco and represent a type
which was developed lat er at Tiahuanaco. However, it seems that the tablets of the Atacama must have been derived
from Tiahuanaco for at lea st two reasons: 1) some of the early wooden Atacama tablets, like all the classic stone
tablets of Tiahuanaco . are without handles; 2) the incised designs on some of the Atacama tablets are of classic
Tiahuanaco style and corre'spond to the stone tablets at that site (Bennett in Steward, 1946; Uhle, 1913).

Von Ro se n (1924) and Nordenskibld (1930) believe that some of the tubes found in northern Argentina and
northern Chile are the nozzles for enema syringes. A small and beautiful wooden tray described from Puna de Jujuy
resembles closely, they say, those employed by the Maue along the Rio Tapajoz for grindingParica snuff; they add
that this tray may be related in use to the archaeological tubes commonly found with trays. According to von Rosen
and Nordenskibld, enema syringes may have been utilized for administering intoxicating clyste.rs in Argentina as weB
as in the Maue region; these authors added that in Argentina there is a botanical species with properties like those of
Parica and that the plant is taken as snuff, [00, like Parica.

Various Argentine tubes exhibit the figure of a man seated with a tpbe in his mouth which looks like a trumpet.
Nume rou s tabl ets show figures sea led with their legs doubled. Many figure s afe on both knees ; they differ from the
kneeling figures in adoration o n the sculptures ofTiahuanaco but resemble the position assumed by the Maue when
approaching one another for rec iprocally administering snuff, as described by Martius. Th e identical posture is
assumed by a Yaruro for the same purpose, according to Rivero (Uhle, 1915).

In addition to th e archaeological materials and (he variety of speculations as to th eir uses given by the aulhors cited
above, information related [0 the time of contact for tills general region may be worth considering. Ogilby (1671)
stated that in the Chilean language Vilca meant mother-in-law ; Hilca meant a ohe-eyed person. Dobritzhofer(I784)
indicated that Cevil produced bark for dressing hides, together with certain pods which Ihe Indians, he said, had
formerly been in the custom of burning, inhaling the smoke lnto their mouths, noses, and whole bodies; th e practice
was said to render the Indians drunk, mad and for some tiine furious. It is interesting and perhaps should not be
overlooked that , not only among the Indians of Chile, as mentioned earlier, but aJso among those of British Guiana (see

60
 Mur a), it was repo rt ed that tbe seeds, o r pods, were burned and the smoke inha1ed. If tills means of administration js
not to be interpreted as a mi staken description of snuffing, then it may be necessary to question again whe ther or not
this was also the method so metimes employed by Ihe Taino, in the West lndies, as some of th e ea rli es t reports might
be thought to suggest (see Taino).

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: Uhle (1915) pointed out that, while the snuff powder used in the Sierra de Cordoba
(the region of th e Comechingon) and by the Lul e (see V ile la) is probably made from a legu me, that o f th e Atacama
was made from cru sh ed lea ves. Howeve r, Dobritzhofer's statement ab ove indicates· otherwise for the sn uff of this
general are a. I have identified one specimen o f Anadenanthera colubrirza vaT. Cebi/ from the extreme eastern section
of the Atacama culture re gion, bordering on the Omaguaca culture region (which see). The species JS not known to
me fro m the weste rn side of the Andes ~ but, if th e seeds or leaves were much esteemed, they could have been
ob tained through the trade routes of nor th ern Chile. It seems possible that th e archaeological trays or tab le ts may
have been, at least in so me instances, assoc ia ted with the use of Anadenanlhera substances. Anadenonlhera colubrina
var. Ce bil was represented . a mong specimens examin ed from near Tiahuan aco. Bolivia, and from further south in
that country near the nort hern border of Chile . Aided by leaflet studie s which were carried out in th e course of
resea rch o n th e ta xono my o f Anadellall/hera (Altschul, 1964), it might be possible to learn the identity of the snuff
powder in th e Calama purse mentioned above, if the material is well enough preserved .

COMECHINGON CULTURE :

TRIB ES: Comechingcin, Indam a and Savan iro n.

LANGUAGE: believed to constitute an independent Slock.

I have exam in ed no sp ecimens of Alladenalllhera fr om th is region, whi ch , like that of th e Araucanians, appears to
be farth er south th an th e r:inge o f these trees. How ever, Pardal (1937) repo rted th at Rodolfo Deering stated that the
Comechingon keep some kind of snuff powder insid e a con ch shell (Slrophocheilusoblongus MOller) or chorrilO, a
gastero pod common in the sierras and val leys o f Cordoba. Furthermore , Sotelo Narvaez (1915 ed.) described th e
natives aro und Cord oba at the ti me of conquest as ha vi ng few riles; they did not use chicha in the volu me th ai the
Peruvians did . but (h ey took through th eir nostrils Seb il. a fru it like Vi/ca, which they pulverized and "drank"
through th e nose .

The common names used today for Anadenanrhera colubrina va r. Cebil in parts o f Argentina to the nort h of (he
Comechingon culture region are Cebil, Cevil and variants followed by Spanish epithets (Descole 34431 :Peirallo
68243; Venturi 67d, 1027,2483, 5362,9720, 9730).

DIAGUlTA CULTURE:

TRlBES : Diaguita natio n, o f wh om the Ca1chaqui are the best known divisions.

LAN GUAGE: an independent stock .

Diaguita inform ati on is largely arc ha eological. A few facts of interest of a non·archaeological nature in clude a
statement by Ambrosett; (1917) th at Vilko is a family name o f Quechua or Calchaqui origi n from th e Calchaqui
vall eys of Saha. Th e most anc ient form o f worship o f the Diaguila trib es, whose religion was sim il ar to tha t of Ih e
Andean peoples further north, was the cu lt of t rees and stones, of wh ich the last was connec ted with
ancestor-worship an d survives to some extent tod ay (Joyce , 1912). Alth ough the worship of stones is by no means
un common among primiti ve cultures, it may be significant that vilque wa s the Qu echua word for the vases o f chicha
poured by the Peruvian Indians over a sac red stone as part o f their an cestor worship. Benne tt (i n Steward, 1946)
says thai the Diaguita used toba cco and Parioca snuff.

61

I
!

 As for the archaeological materials in general, Lothrop (in Steward, 1946) has stated that typical are delicately
carved articles of small size, among which are the trays, usuaJly with a handle in human or animal form. Associated
with the trays are ca rved tubes. Means (1931) stated that the archaeology of northwe st Argentina makes it clear that
the Diaguita culture was akin to that of the Inca.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: I have examined specimens of Anadenanthera colub rina var. Cebi! from the Diaguita
culture area and consider it likely that such mat erials were used by the Indians living there, particularly in the east.
The common names used today for A. colubrino var. Cebi/ in Argentina 'are Cebil. Cevil and variants thereof (see
Comechingon). Ambrosetti (1917) stated that some of the wooden archaeological tablets from Calehaqui are made
of algarroba, which, as mentioned earlier, is one of the conunon names sometimes app lied to A . co lubrina vaT. Cebil:
it would, in fact , seem rea sonable for such objects to be made from the same trec as the snuff associated with them.
A study of all the wooden archaeological trays or tablets from Chile and Argentina as to their botanical identity
might be illuminating.

HUARPE CULTURE: lake·shore dwellers.

TRIBES: Allentiac and Millcayac.

LANGUAGE: independent Huarpean or All entiac slbck.

NAME: Cibi!.

REFERS TO: an herb .

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION : it was kept in the mouth.

/
PHYSICAL EFFECTS: by "Pact with the Devil, or by natural Vertue" (p. 82), it afford th em sustenance for
severaJ days; a white foam appears on the lips, a sight which was disagreeable to the author and made him sick.

SOURCES: Ovalle, 1703.

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: I have seen no specimens of Anadenanthera from as far south as the cent re of the
Huarpe culture region. Should they be found in this region, weight would be added to the possibility that
Anadenanthera materials might be the source of the substance referred to and also to the possibility that they might
be the source o f several other substances in question : the Sebil of the Comechingon just to the north east; an
adulterant of the tobacco mixtures of the Araucanians; as well as an ingredient of whatever was used in the
archaeological tablets of southeast Brazil (see Guarani). Arwdencmthera coJubnona var. Cebil Occurs naturally as [.aT
south as 28 degrees latitude, which is at the very northern limit of the Huarpe culture region. Judging from the tree s
of that variety intr oduced into Orlando, Florida, at 28 degre es N.latitupe, it could be that these trees may be able to
subsist al slightly higher latitudes than 28 degrees. It is worth mentioning that Ovalle distinguished between Cibil
and a tree whose pod was used by the Indians 10 make bread and which he said was called Algaroba in Spain .

OMAGUACA CULruRE :

TRIBES: Oeloya and Omagua ca (Humahuaca).

LANGUAGE: affIliations undetermined .

Among the Puna and Quebrada cultu res of northwestern Argentina, Casanova (in Steward, 1946) has referred to
the art of ca rving stone , wood and bone as not being greatly developed; tbe finest works are tablets and tubes of very
hard wood expertl y carved with human and animal figure s, as weU as some skillfully carved stone and wooden idols.

62

I
I
 I have examined specime ns of Anadenan rilera colubrina var. Cebil fro m this region, including Vet/ furi 5362,9720,
from Juj uy and labelled Cevil, foll owed by Spanish epithets.

63

 CULTURE AREA CHACO

MATACO CULTURE: very little agriculture, mostly fishers.

TRlBES: Mataco (Mataguayo, Nocten).

L.-\NGUAGE: Malacoan stock.

NMllE: Cebit, Cevil, Harax, Jalaj, Sibil.

REFERS TO: pow der snuffed~ pla n t source whose seeds o r grains are used in the powde r; the drug.

~lETHOD OF PREPARATIO N AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE : th e seeds are glOund and partly dried,
Ih (' 11 slOred in a jar. ltems associated with jts use are gourd rattl es and bells, red h ead bands, feathers. red waiSI CO:1ls,
arroWS, bird leg bone whi stle s or flutes .

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATION: the snuff is laken wilho ul Ih e aid of in slrumenls, simply by inhaling a pinch
of (Ill' powder held bet wee n the fingers and applied (0 the nos(~il s.

PIIYSICAL EFFECTS: lorpor, lighl Irance or mild slale of Irance probably accompanied by hallucinations or
drc:1m s; also over-excitement.

CllLTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: habitually used in ceremonies of medical magic in which prevenlion of ilIncss is
cffc(ICd by driving awa y hostile spirits. The Indians of the Chaco believe th at when they become intoxicated by a
'$ ub !\unce from a tree, they are being possessed by the good spirit which inhabits jt and brings about growth and
fruit maturation. Since little agriculture is practiced, wild fruits are all the more appreciated . In the ceremony of
<"xpd ling sickness, the Indians don red headbands with feathers, neckl aces and red waistcoats an d line up behind a
row of arrows sfuck in the ground. They begln a counter-offensive with songs accompanied by rattJ es and whistles or
Il utc!'. At intervals, the snuff is taken so that the soul may become a bird and fly to heaven to challenge th c hostile
$riri1 $. This metamorphosis is facilitated by the blowing of the bird (yulo) whistles. Then everyone threatens the
invisible enemies with rattles and feathers and marches against them, kicking the earth, picking up handfuls of soil
..and throwing it in front of them. Souls of dead shamans, as well, are invited to participate in this ceremony by th e
pouring of powder on the ground for them.

Thc Mataco obtain Jalaj from tribes in the east of the province of Salta by sending youths to obtain it. The seeds
;na.y be ob tained also from farther north than where the Mataco are and evidently at a high price in trade, as it is
~rce;:3 burro may be exchanged for a smaU amount of Cevil.

USED BY: an old chief may grind the seeds the day before the ceremony, in which both sexes pallake but ill
which. apparently, only shamans inhale the snuff powder.

SOURCES: Dijour, 1933; Karsten, 1926; Metraux ill Steward, 1946; Melraux, 1939; Metraux, no date; Pardal ,
'937 .

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: I ha ve examined specimens of Anadenanlheru cotubrina var . Cebil from Ihis region and
~o ncur with Metraux (no date) in altribu(jng to this species the snuff which the Mataco use . Specimens from
northern Argentina are labeUed Cebi!, Cevil (see Comeching6n).

\jLElA CULTURE:

TRIBES: MaJala , Chunupe, Lule, Ocole , Omoampa (Umuampa), Pasain , Vacaa, Yecoanita, Yooc and several
l:;:ssel ones.
64

I
 LANGUAGE: Lule·Vilelan stock, presumably independent.

NAME: Cebil, Halax, Sebil, Se"il.

REFERS TO: th e tree SOurCe.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: the seeds are pulverized; items asso ciated

with use are a bird leg bone whistle and, sometimes at least, a smaU tube through which the powder is faken.

MANNER OF ADMINISTRATI ON : the snuff powder is administered by means of a little tube or pipe and perhaps
aJso as the Malaca take it, without an instrument.

PHYSICAL EFF ECTS: mild stale of lrance Or over·excitement, probably wi th some halluc inati ons or dreams;
deprivation of judgement. jumping about, shout ing and singing inharmoniously.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: medicinal magic and 10 induce rain for crops. The shamans sea rch for the
patient's soul, which th ey bring back by sending , through the usc of snuff, their own souls in the form of birds to
heaven. The elders take snuff through a tube in order to achieve a stale in which they can call rain for th e crops.

USED BY: ~1amans and elders.

SOU RCES: Lozano, 1733 ; Metraux in Sleward, 1946 ; MelrauX, no date; Pard ai, 1937 .

BOTANICAL IDENTITY: I have examined malerial of Anadenanlhera colubrina vaL Cebil from this cullure

region ; as mentioned under the Malaco cu llUre, specimens of Anadenanthera from northern Argentina bear the
common names of Cebil, Cevll, whi ch suggest th at the snuff of the ViJeJa is made from these trees (see
Com ech ingo n) . /'

6S

I
,I
 CULTURE AREA EASTERN LOWLAND

GUARANi CULTURE

TRIBES: the group embraces the Guarani (Caingua , Carijo) nalion, among whose mosl imporlant ancient and
modern divisions arc the Apapocuva, Arechanc, Carima, Cayua, Chciru, Chiripa, Guarambare, Guayana, !talin,
Ivapare, Maya, Oguauiva, Pan, Taioba, Tanygua, Tap e , T arum a and Tobalin .

LANGUAGE: related languages of the Tupi-Guarani stock .

NAME : KUTUpa.

REFERS TO: powder from a tree called Kurupayara.

METHOD OF PREPARATION AND ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH USE: the seeds are semi·dried and pulverized.

PHYSICAL EFFECTS: stupefying, haUucinogeni c.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE: medical witchcraft.

USED BY: shamans.

SOURCES: Fieb rig, I932;Pardal , J 937.

BOTANICAL IDENT!TI': representa tives of Anadenanthcra are relatively numerous for this region , including
material of A. colubn'na var. Cebil, A. colubrino var. colubrilw and A. peregrina var . [alcala. Pardal (1937) suggested
that Anadcnan1hera is used in this region for making snuff; and the common names of Indian origin which appear on
specimens of A. coluhn"na var. Ccbi! are nearly identical with the names given by Pardal: Curubuyi,
CUTUpai, Curopal, CUTUpay, Curupay (Balan sa 1419; Lindman A. 2057; Malm c 1096; all from Paraguay). Fiebrig has
given Kurupal as the name for A. colubn'1Za var. Ccbil in Guarani botanical nomenclature; the collection Lindman A .
2057 indicates that the same is true of Curupai or eurupay. This need not mean that only Anadenanthera materia ls
are used by the Guarani for their into xicating powde r but that at least one source is almost certainly Al1odenan rh cra.

Serrano (1941) described from th e south of Brazil an archaeol ogical culture no table for its CaTern! and ab undant
Slo ne work and characterized by stone table ts that arc wholl y zoo- o r anthropomorphic (these tablets arc unlike
those of the Maue or the ancient Atacama or Diaguila, in whi ch onJ y the ha ndle was so heated , the bod y being
geometric). There are two main kinds of tablets Or vessels from this Brazilian culture; both are found thrQughout the
states of Sln ta Catharina, Rio Grand e do Sui and the southern coast o f Sao Paulo, parts of which today lie within
the Guarani c ulture region. The predomina nt artifact is tabuliform and sim ilar to Iypes which have turned up
occasionally in Chile and in the provin ces of Cordoba, San Juan and San Luis in Argentina. These provinces are
south of the known distribution of Anadanal1lhcra and overlap th e sou th ern borders of the Comeching6n and
Diaguita cultu re regions. One of the tabuliform arti facts turned up in Cuzco. A kind of transitional tablet appears to
lead from th e typejusl referred to to the seco nd form , which is bettcr desc ri bed as a marlar, as it has a deep concavity;
the mor ta r is made usuall y to represe nt a bird . Similar vesse ls have appeared in Catamarca (Cultura de los Ba rreales),
Argen tina ; in Panama; a fe w in the Antilles; and some question ab le ones in Amazonas. Ecuado r and Uru guay.

The exis tence in an Atlantic sec tor of South America of a stone culture as well defined as this and appa renll y
isolated from the Pacific poses serious problems for the archaeologisl and hislorian (Serrano, 194 J) and a challenge
to further researches in ethnob otan y.

66

i
 TA IN O

ACHAGUA OTOMAC
BA NIWA
BETO I
SALI VA
YARURO
CARIJONA
GUAYUP E
TU CA NO
TU CU NA
WIT OT O GUAHIBO
PUINAVE,
SHIRIANA

AMAHUACA
YE CUA NA CAS HIN AWA
CA TUKINA
CHA M A
IPURI N A
CHIB CHA _ _ __ MAY ORUNA
TUNE BO Pr MURA

GUIANA ,
MAUE /
COCAMA MUNDURUCU
MA N AO
OMAGUA

INCA ---~

PI RO - - -- - \ -_\:

CHIRI GUAN O
MACURAP
PACAG UARA
YABUTI

MATACO _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _-F_ -=_ _+_

VILELA
/
GUARANI

ARAUCA NIAN
ATACAMA ,
CO ME CH INGON ___ _ _ __ -f_
DIAGUITA
HUARPE CHILEAN
OMAGUACA

AMERINDIAN CULTURE AREAS

AND CULTURES WITHIN THEM
DISCUSSED IN THIS TREATMENT
(AF TER MURDOCK, 195 1)

I
I
 " J
I
[

j
II,I
,

i'[
I;
, II
I ,
i
./ Ii
I i
, I

.:i .i
:
I!

Ii
-j.,I I'
1
, I'
,
, I

I:
I
, r
I
.,
t'i
Ii
LINGUISTIC PHYLA OF SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN CULTURES
![
PURPORTED TO USE ANADENANT HERA MATERIALS I I
Ii
1"i
ri
, .....
"
I II
- ,~

The dotted areas indicate Andean -Equatorial langu~ges (Achagua, Daniwa, Beloi, Catukina ,
\'hiritlillno, Cocama, Guahibo, Guarani , Guayupe, Igneri (and Taino] . Inca, Ipurina.
M;1cunlp, Manao, Maue, Mundurucu, Omagll3 , Otomac, Piro, Puinavc . Saliva, Tucano,
TU CUlI;l, Yaruro) ~ the horizontal1y lined areas indicate Ge·Pano·Carib languages (Arnahu3ca,
'\\;]ucallians , Cashinawa , Carijona, Chama , Huarpe, Malaca, Mayoruna, Pacaguara. Witoto,
y,bull, Yecuana); th e vertically lined areas indicate Macro·Chibchan langu ages (Chibcha,
~111r;J . Shiriana, Tun ebo). The independent or unclassified stocks of the Atacama,
,'ome,'hingon , Diaguita and Omaguaca are not re presented. Classification aft er Greenberg &
\ lcQ1",wn, 1960. See Steward & Faron , 1959.
 II

i
I
,i
I
t­
,I

''1' ''' .­
, (

i
,, ,
,,
, I
:I J.
IT---7-\-~~ ,I
.I
I I DISTRIBUTION OF ENEMAS. SNUFF TUBES AND TRAYS !i
[I
II POSSIBLY ASSOCIATED WITH ANADENANTHER A

i 1\
l'i \
MATERIALS IN SOUTH AMERICA

\
\\
!! I \.0 \ I

Enemas are represented by solid dots; snuff tubes are represented by the I. II, V and Y
symbols. indicating th e form of the instrument; trays are represented by solid rectangles,
The symbols are placed in the regions of tlie cultures employing the items or traits they
represent. Archaeo1ogicaJ materials are not distinguished from others.

69

/
 · ~
\
\,

i
!

.., ,

!,I
f
, I
; ~

!, II
:!
DI STRIBUTlDN DF PURPDRTED USES DF ANADENANTHERA
iI
i I MATERIALS AMDNG INDIAN C U~TU RES OF SOUTH AMERICA

The solid areas indicate uses co nfirmed (Achagua, Guahibo, Inca, Saliva, Tunebo, Yabut!);
the cross-hatched areas indicat e uses reputed and probable (Betoi, Chiriguano, Gu ara ni,
Igneri , Macurap, Mataco, Maue. Mundurucu, Mura, Otomac, Pire , Puinave, Vilela, Yaruro,
Yecuana) ; the vertically lined areas indicate uses possible , though unlikely , or not well
supported by evidence (all other cultures discussed in this paper).

70

/
 CROSS-CULTURAL CHART

SUMMARY OF DATA FROM PRECEDING CULTURE OUTLINES

Tubes are represented by I, II, V, Y. and X, indicating their general form; trays are represented by T.

/
,
j
 CU LT URE NAM E FORM/USE [TEM S EFFECT PURPOSE USERS MISC.

Tain o Co hoba snu ff wood [ Y T ha ll uc., intox. div ino caciques

Igneri Yopa powder related to Tai no
Chibcha Yopa snuff bone [ mrsal dischg. djvin. most adv. cult. in
aboT. Colombia
Tune bo Yapo snu ff bone [ T sti rn. , narc. hygien. usc probab ly recen t
Achagu3 Nio pa, Yopo snuff bird bo ne X Y vio[ently divino sh ama ns,
intox. 1·2 men

Baniwa Nopo, Yopo snuff bi,dbone Y halluc. magic , med. only

Viro[a'
shamans

Betoi Yopo powder magic sham ans

I L.a nJon a NlO pO wlll te snull stern .,laxa t. reug. men

Guayup e Yo pa l1allllC., in tox. divin., cercm . people
"ru cano Parica snull VirOla !
Ticuna ParicC) Virola?
Wil o lo who powder
I U lOl11 tlc eurupa, Yopo sn ull Oiraoane Y T intox . war, divi no snamans,
river but agnc.,
men
trad e with Omagua
Saliva Curu pa, Yo po snuff birdbo nc Y T inl ox. divino shamans. ri ver but agric.
men
Yar uro Curu ba, YO l'O sn uff bone II nasal dischg. wa r, divi no shamans, river, hunting
men and fishing
Guahibo Yopo (C urupa , snuff birdbo ne Y T stern., narc. , war, divino . shamans, hunting and
Pa rica) inl ox. me n gathering
Puinave Noo pa sn uff birdbone magic agric. wh ere inn u,
by Arawak
Shiri ana Yo po snuff bamb oo, in tox. divin ., eerCnl ., shamans,
fo rest nomads
recd [ vice 2 men

Yecuana Acuja, snufr . bird bone, sti m. divino J11cd. sham ans,
forest set tlements
Ha kud uO la . reed [ Y [·2
Cocama Cu rupa snurr, enema Y ther ap. Ihe rap. large rivers
Ma nao Pa rica smltr. enema
Omagua Curu pa (Yo po snurr, cncrnJ ca ne, reed violen t, div in., ccrem . only men? rive r agric.
Park,,) Y halluc.
Inca Vilca beverage, intox., divin., hygic n. shamans,
cnem a purge people
Piro snu rf birdbone V slim. sight hun ti ng dog,
1·2 hu nle rs
Am achu<lca Yopo powder birdbonc Y T
Ca shinawa Yopo powder
Catukina Parica sn uff, enema V slim. sight , hun ting shamans,
inl ox. purge men
Cho ma Yopo powde r bird bone Y T magic
Ip urin' I Paric. snutt, en ema nar c. aiyin., eerCIlI., lishi ng, some agric.
vice
Mayor una Yopo powder
Mura Parica snu! I, cne ma v:uious I V violently ccrem. men rivers
intox.
Maue Pa rica snu fr, encma vui ous inlox. cerem ., men ,
[ [[ V T now vice people
Munduru cu Paricil snu rr T
Chiriguano Kuru pa i balm disinf., soo th. cure
Macurap powder tu bc ,tablc tra nce ce rcm., magic shaman s,
[ men
Pacaguara Parka enema bon e trance, excit.
Yab uli Aimpa snurr ce rem.
Araucan ian leaves
Atacama CcviJ burning pods inta x.
inh,Iied
: I rch.: bo nc,
wood & canc
tubes' wood T
Comechingon Cebil powde r is
'd runk '
Diaguita Pariaca SflU rr
arch .: lu bes;
wood T
Huarpe Cibil oral suste nance lake shores
Omaguaca arch.: wood
lubes, wood T
Malaca Cebil , t\ , lax snurr Dngers trance , hall uc . ccrem., magic sha mans fi shing, little agrie.
Vilelo Cebil , Hatax snurr tube trance magic, mcd. shamans,
men
Gu arani eurupa powder halluc., magic , med . shamans
stupcfact.
 . ..:

I ..
" .
> ~, •••: ._ ', :- ."' ~ ' '' '' ..- '''/'

. ;

Snuffing tubes of bird bones, tray, and mort ar and pestle for grindin g roasted seeds of Alladenallfhera p er egn"l0 and

for mixin g lim e to prepareyopo snuff. Guayabero Indi ans, Rio Ori noco , Vcnczuela.

Courtesy: Botanical Museum of Harvard Universily_

74

I
I
 PHYTOCHEMICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL REVIEW

A brief review of the chemical constituents of the species of Anadenallthera and the phannacology of the active
principles is here offered as an adjunct to the foregoing et hnobotanical obse rvati ons. This is followed by a review of
reputed medicinal uses of the same species based on sources in the taxonomic and ethnob otanicalliterature. The
information set forth here comprises data not easily included in the culture outline system employed throughout
this book and, consequently) is here given in a kind of addendum.

As pointed out elsewhere, there arc chemical as well as morphological reasons for recognizing A nadenanthera as a
genus distinct from Piptadenia. In the species employed as th e so urces of hallucinogenic snuffs, some of the same
tryptamine dcrivatives and l3-carbolines have been found as in Virola, the myristicaceous genus also utilized in the
preparation of narcotic snu ffs in South America.

The chemistry of Anadenanthera has been summarized in Holmstedt & Lindgren, 1967; Agurell, Holmstedt,
Lindgren & Schultes, 1968; and Schultes & Hofmann , in press.

In 1954, th e isolation of 5-me thoxy-N,N-d im eth yltryptamine was reported by Strombe rg from seeds of
Anadenanthera peregrina. The sa me pl ant mate rial and A. colubril1a var. Cebi/ yield ed N,N-di me thylt ryp tamine,
5·hydrox y-N,N -dim eth y I t ryp tami ne, dime thy It ry pt am i ne-N ·oxid e and 5-h ydrox y-N ,N-dime thy It ryp t amine· N-oxide.
TIle bark o f A. peregrina was fou nd to contain N-monome th yltryptamine , 5-methoxy-N ,N-dimethy ltr yptamine and
5-metho....y-N- mo no me thy I t ryp t amin e.

The bark o f Al1adenalJthero peregrina contains high co nce ntrations o f 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyhryptamine . and
the leaves co ntain almo st equal parts of this compound and N ,N-dime th yltryp tamine. Two new tJ-ca rb o lin es we re
found in A . peregrina: 2- m e th y l -6- m ethoxy- I ,2,3,4-te trahydro-/l-carboline a nd
1,2·d illleUlyl-6· me th oxy- I ,2,3 ,4-tetrahydro-IJ·carbolin e.
\
TIle seeds of Anadenanthero colubrina va r. Cebil con tai n, in addit ion to the constitue nt s found in those of A.
peregrina, a 5-hydroxy ind o le base o f unknown stru cture. \Vh en th e same co mpou nds a re found in bo th species, th ey
occur in simil ar co nce ntration s (Altschul , 1964; Fish , Jo hn so n & Ho rnin g, 1955; Ho rning in a lett er, Octo ber 2,
1955).

The importance of th e pharmacology of Anadenanthera is evident from Marazzi's simplified account ( 1957) of
the so-called 'messengers' of the nervous system; the communications o f the human body are mediated by chemicals
as well as by nerve impulses. I n vertebrates, synaptic tra nsm ission is cont rolled largely by two chemicals, adrenaline and
acetylcholine. Acetylch oline incites transmission ; adrenaHne inhibits it. Among the substa nces chemically akin to
adrenaline, which act in the same way but in varying degrees, are bufotenine and related plant~derived compo und s;
included in this group are lysergic acid (LSD-2S) and the neu rohorm one serotonin, which is normally found in human
beings. Interference with serotonin may disrupt nomlal brain operation. Restric ti on of communication in the brain,
diminishing the normal control by th e higher ce ntres, may 'produce mental disease'. ,
Workers in this field have discovered what are believed to be a few of the physiological co ncomitants of
'schizophrenia'. TIle psychotomimetic drugs (m esca lin e, cannab in ol, harmine, bu fotenine, psilocybin, LSD-25, etc.)
produce an imitation of psychotic behavior in o therwi se nonn al subj ects (Hofmann, 1959). By studying the effects
of these drugs and by learning more about th e physiological characteri stics of psychoses as they occur naturally in
psychotic persons, researchers hope eventually to und erstand the nature of psychic disorders.

The causes for the inception of psychic disorders in the individual must be many, varied, involving t o a greater
degree than once was suspected the interrelationship of hereditary constitution and environment. 'Whatever the
predominant factors in the initial causes of suc h disorders, it might be said in a simplified way that at one end ofa
range of disturbances are those termed psychological: they may involve slight physiological mis-patterning,
remediable by a re-orientatio n o f emotional processes through. psychoanalytical techniques . At the other end of the
range might be those disturbances not responsive to a thought ·p ro cess approach: they may involve physiological

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 departures (from normal) of a more extensive, more complex or even of another kind than the milder disturbances
first referred to. It is in this last realm that the psychotomimetic drugs producing «model psychoses' appear to act.
As Hofmann (1959) pointed out, understanding the chemical basis of psychic funclions is still far from a realization.
One importance of A nadenanthera to this work lies in its possessing a number of closely related compounds of this
type.

From 1943, when Hofmann (1959) discovered LSD-25, to 1961, over five hundred publications appe,ued on the
subject of LSD alone. I have here included only a few references which seemed of greatest interest relative to
A nadenanthera. In a volume devoted to 5-hydroxytryptamine, an indolealkylamine closely related to bufotenine,
Lewis (1958) stated that relatively little was known about bufotenine. Bumpus & Page (1955) noted that
bufotenine, which occurs widely in plants, is a nonnal constituent of toad skin and that it appears in the urine of
healthy humans. These investigators emphasized the wide distribution of indole derivatives in living systems. A year
earlier, in 1954, Erspamer stated that bufotenine is found in the mushroom Amanita mappa. Hofmann indicated in
1959, however, that the amount of bufotenine found in at least Amanita muscaria was inadequate to account for the
psychotomimetic properties associated with that species. Erspamer (1954) also reported that anolher
indolealkylamine, enteramine, is found as a secretion of the enterochromaffin ceU system of various animals. With
respect to the last information, could it be that the enemas used by the Catukina, Cocama, Inca, Ipurina, Manao, Maw~,
Mundurucu, Mura, Omagua or Pacaguara, some of which probably include Anadenanthera materials, might act upon
the ~uman being as would an excessive secretion of enteramine? Marazzi & Hart (I955) have compared the
similarities of some of the psychotomimetics with cerebral neurohumors. Evarts, Landau, Freygang & Marshall
(1955) described some effects of LSD-25 and bufotenine on the electrical activity in the cat's visual system, showing
that the drugs produced similar reactions.

A study by Evarts (1956) indicated that the reactions of monkeys to LSD-25 and to bufotenine, injected
intravenously, also were similar; they both were characterized by a sensory disorder in the absence of a clear defect
in muscular power but accompanied by a marked degree of tameness. In the first twenty minutes after drug
administration, the monkeys assumed a prone position which they insisted upon maintaining, showing muscular
vigor, despite attempts to place them in other positions. Later, they assumed sitting postures and began to move
about ataxic ally , in circles. About an hour after injection, motor coordination had nearly returned; ten minutes
later, reaction to painful stimuli returned, foUowed by visual reactions, while unusual tameness persisted. One and a
half hours after injection, the monkeys were normaL Evarts suggested that the disturbance of locomotion and the
prone posture might be looked upon as sensory in origin; transmission of sensory impulses appeared to have been
altered. Hofmann (1959), however, said that, under the influence of LSD-25 at least, he felt an irresistible urge to lie
down. Robert F. Raffauf stated (in a Jetter, December 2, J955) that dogs injected with bufotenine had presented what
was described as a 'scared to death' syndrome. A letter from Alvares Pereira (April 10, 1958) mentioned that
bufotenine iodide possesses curarimetic action, as evidenced in a rat phrenic nerve-diaphragm preparation and by
injectlons administered to chicks (see Alvares Pereira, Marins & Moussatche, 1958; Moussatche, Alvares Pereira &
Marins, 1958).

Raffauf further stated that Fabing had reported in conversati~n that Evans had given buf01enine to a human
volunteer who suffered an alarming vascular coUapse. Fabing & Hawkins (1958) reported, nevertheless, that
intravenous injection of bufotenine in healthy young human males is feasible in doses as high as 16 mg.; that the
drug is hallucinogenic; that there is a linear progression in symptoms as the dose increases; and that its effects are
reminiscent of LSD~25 and mescaline but develop and disappear more rapidly. Nystagmus and mydriasis are
exhibited, but there is little cardiovascular effect. Fabing & Hawkins added to their report that the faces of their
subjects turned purplish; the authors suggested that this might be due to a serotonin-like bronchiolar construction
and consequent anoxemia. They indicated that the possible role of anoxemia in the production of the hal]ucinogenic
effects of bufotenine requires clarification. Perhaps the death from suffocation described for Maue and Mura
snuff-taking (of Anadenanthera?) might involve more than choking on the large amount of pOWder. One could also
ask whether anoxemia might be involved as a cause of the unconsciousness foUowing inhalation of tobacco-leaf
smoke which Oviedo y Valdes (185J ed.) described among the Taino (which see). Furthermore, what is ti,e
relationship, if any. between a possible curarimetic action of bufotenine, and anoxemia? St. Szara (1956) reported

76

 that DMT produces in man visual hallucinations~ illusions, distor:tion of spatial perception and body image,
disturbances of U10ught and speech, and euphoria, as well as elevation of blood pressure. Unlike other model
psychoses, he said, the symptoms of DMT appear three to five minutes aiter injection and pass away within an hour.
The lack of unchanged DMT in the urine suggests a rapid breakdown process.

Granier·Doyeux (1956) described a study conducted with Napa powder (unanalyzed, but assumed to have been
made from seeds of Al1adel2ollfhera peregrillO var.peregrillO). The powder had been obtained from Guahibo Indians,
and its action on mice and rats was described as two-phased: I) stimulation. wHh exultation and hallucinations
which were dependent partly on the personality of the subject (eompare Otomac with Guahibo); 2) a hypnotic state,
with a kind of intoxication characterized by lo ss of reasoning faculties, foUowed by a lo ss of consciousness.

Albino mice responded to the snuff with excitement a few minutes after administration; they rubbed their snouts
with their front legs. appearing to sense irritation in the respiratory mucosa. They ran around the cage and bit the
gratings, although the author says that in neither of the experiment s did the animals become hostilely aggressive. At
five to six minutes after adm in istration, respiration was rapid and uneven. At eight minutes, nasal itching appeared
to be very intense . At nine to ten minutes, the animals suffered disturbances in walking, acting as though they were
'drunk', dragging their abdomens on the noor of the cage, opening and closing their eyelids until finally the upper
lids closed. At thi s point, according to Granier·Doyeux , th e animals exhibited all th e symptoms of alcoholic
intoxication. At about twenty minutes after administration. convulsive movements appeared, and the mice arose on
U1eir hind legs, shaking th eir bodies, as though suffering from spasmodic hiccough s with diaphragmatic contractions
(as Alvares Perejra suggested above), and shaking their heads. About forty minutes after administration, these
symptoms all disappea red, and onJy the 'drunkenness' remained. At sixty minutes) the animals were normal and
tended to sleep .

The albino rats reacted to Nopo snuff nearl y as did the albino mice. The arrhythmic breathing may have been
accentualed; it was, at least, more clearly visible. ]n addition to exhibiting the 'drunkenness' of the mice, the rals
scratched their whole bodies, as though seized with generaJized itch. At nine to ten minutes, they suffered
contortions which made th em adopt varied positions, and they did not respond to external stimuli. At fifteen
minut es after administration they were totally stupefied and passed into a semi·lethargic state for about an hour.

Turner & Medis (1959), using act ual plant parts in their experiment, indicated, surprisingly, that U1ey were
unable to produce intoxication in human subjects by maximally tolerated doses prepared in a variety of ways
duplicating Indian methods . Both normal and schizophrenic subjects were used. TIle snuff was made from seeds of
Anadellanfhera peregrina procured in Puerto Rico, dried, pulverized and mixed with a little lactose. A second
sample, labelled Yopo, was in the form of a dark brown mass, which the experimenters pulveriz.ed for use. This
sample supposedly came originally from Peru ('), sold by a curandero. A third sample was obtained from Zerries,
who procured it from Indians at the headwat ers of the Orinoco River. Turner_ & Merlis stated that they were
convinced th e Indians were able to tolerate 10 gm. of the snuff. This amount contains about 50 mg. of burotenine
and up to 10 mg. of dim ethyltryptamine. The production of intoxica tion wduld require that at least 50% of the
fonner and all of the latter be taken into the blood stream within a three- to five-minute period. Amines are inhaled
with a large amount of 'inert' carrier. Even the pure compound administered nasaUy is ineffective. Hence. the
authors decided that they had to reject bufotenine and dimethyltryptamine as capable of producing the acute phase
of intoxication from Alladerwnthera snuff. Bufotenine given intravenously in doses up to 20 mg. to schiz.ophrenic
subjects did not produce hallucinaOons, onJy profound e1ectro·encephalogram changes, loss of consciousness and
intense peripheral action of serotonin character. Dimethyltryptamine produced less intense physiologicaJ activity,
but, when over 20 mg. were given intravenously or intramuscularly, preconscious ideations appeared.

Ho fmann (1959) and Schultes & Hofmann (in press) state U1at true hallu cinations do not always occur with
psychotomimetic drugs; that, if they are present, it is usually with high er doses and dependent upon the individual
and environment. TIlis is, in fact , why Hofmann suggested the term psychotomimetic as preferable to hallucinogen .
As one who experienced the effecls of the synthetic, LSD-25, he describes the effect, of psychotomimetic drugs as
producjng " ... profound and acute changes in the sphere of experience, in the pcrception of reality , changes even

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!

 of space and time and in consciousness of selr. Phenomena of depersonalization may also occur. Retaining fuU
consc:iousness, the subject experiences of kind of dream-world. which in many respects seems to be more real than
the customary normal world. Objects and colors, which generally become mOre brilliant, lose thcir symbolic
eharacter, they stand detached and assume an increased significance, having, as it were. their own mOrC intense
existence" (p. 24J). This description brings to mind the empJoyment by the Piro, Catukina and Jnca of various
powders for the purpose of clea ring their vision and rendering them more alert. Could these be the effects of
psychotomimetic drugs taken in small quantity?

To continue, Turner & Merlis stated that the effects of neither of the amines bufotenine and
dimethyltryptamine are long-lasting enough to suggest their participation in acute intoxication from Anadenanthera
snuff. When administered by injection, both compounds acted very rapidly in onset and very briefly in duration. The
authors suggested that there might be constituents other than A nadellalllhera materials in the snuffs used by the
Indians which could be responsible for the rep'uted effects. Finally, they said that the freshness of the material also
might influence its potency. The work of Turner & MerEs introduces unexpected questions in the reasoning which
has generally been held , however tentatively, with regard to the chemicals responsible for the putative hallucinogenic
effects of Anadenalllhera. It might be worthwhile to check, as well , into the reports of the inhalation of burning
substances o f AfUldenanthera . as suggested by the information under Atacama. .

Some possibly thought·provoking applications of Anadenonthera, not included in th e culture outlines, are the
following: The gum of Allodenanthera is used in medicines (Allemiio, 1867). It exudes from the bark , like
gum·arabic, and has th e same properties (Le Cointe, 1945; Reboucas & Eugenheiros, 1877). The gum and bark are
used as a tonic, a pectoral and an anti·gonorrhea agent (Soares de':'Cunha, 1941). In general, the bark is astringent
and bitter and is used therapeutically (Reboucas & Eugenlleiros, J877) .
•
The gum of AnadenQnthera peregn"na var. peregrina looks like gum-arabic and is a powerful counteractant to
chills, bronchitis, pneumonia and bronchial·pulmonary infections in general (Le Cointe, 1947; Meira Penna , 1946); it
is also h emostatic (Meira Penna , 1946). The bark , which is astringent , is used for dysentery, uterine hemorrhages and
gonorrhea (Le Cointe, J947; Szyszlo, 1955). It is administered as an infusion for gonorrhea (Le Cointe, 1947). A
decoction of the leanets is used to relieve dysentery; the root is aromatic and the source of a pectoraJ (Meira Penna,
1946).

Anadenanthera peregrina VaT. falcota is said to counteract pulmonary infections (Meira Penna , 1946). The
pulverized bark has styptic prope rties and therefore is used for washing the female genitals, as well as for inhibiting
hemopt ysis (Hoehne, 1939).

Anadenanthera colubrino vaL Cebil is employed as an abortifacient ; it impedes the development of the egg in hens
and causes it to be expelled before tennination (Schickendantz in Hieronymus, 1882). The leaflets, which fall in the
winter and dry in the sun, mak e good fodder , espccially for cattle (Hieronymus, 1882) .
•
The gum of A nadcnanth era colubrinG var, colubn'na is used as gum-arabic; it is employed as an analeptie and is
taken orally for general respiratory troubles (Almeida Pinto, 1873; Barbosa Rodrigues, 1894). As a pector.U , it is said
to be very good for coughs (Barbosa Rodrigues, 1881). Both the gum and the bark are employed in phannaceuticals
for pulmonary and bronchial infections (Meira Penna, J946). The bark is bitter and astringent, for bathing ulcers,
etc. (Barbosa Rodrigues, 1894; Almeida Pinto, 1873). It is used also as a bath against leucorrhea and for swellings of
the legs (Almeida Pinto, 1873). A tjncture of the leaves is said to be a good remedy for contusions, cuts and brain
disturbances or shocks (Almeida Pinto, 1873). Finally, the seeds of this variety, dried in the sun, and ground, are
taken as snuff to cure constipation, upsets, chronic grippe and headaches consequ ent to chills (Hoehne, J939).

Since these reports are fro m the literature, there may occasionally be a question as to the exact ,species or variety,
but they undoubtedly all refer to genus Anadenanlhera. The fact that the common uses attributed here to this genus
do not include any indication of psyehotomimetic qualities suggests that if, in fact, such qualities are attributable to
it under some conditions, the y may , as Turner & Merlis say, be related to the freshness of the material or to the

78

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 presence of adulterants, with Wllich Anadenanfhera constituents may interact. Numerous plants could be involved,
as is indicated und er the discussions of individual cultures: for instance, the Mura refer to more than one legume as
Farica. Relatively recently, N,N-dimethyltryptamine was identified as the important alkaloid in Mimosa hos/i/i'
Benth ., used by the Pancaran.l Indians of Pernambuco for an intoxicating beve rage called iurema and associated with
magico-religious ce remonies (pachter, Zacharias & Ribeiro, 1959; Schultes, 1970) . One also might wonder what
compounds are found in Cecropia spp_, a rnOraceous genu s whose leaves are used as a fine ash mixed in coca powder
th at is packed and held in the mouths of so me Amazon In dians (Schultes, in conversation). The use of lime, so often
repo rtedly used with snuffs , is assumed to release the coca co nstituents produ cing the desired physiological effects.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND LITERATURE CITED

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----. 1913. Tabletas de mad era d e Chi uchiu. Rev. Chilena Hist. y GeogI. 3:454-458.

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92
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93

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OMMON NAME S OF ANADENANTHER A

DISTRIBUTION OF C ON SPECIMENS
SPP. IN SOUTH AMERICA. BASEP

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94

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 COMMON NAMES OF ANADENANTHERA SPP.

The foUowing common names have been attributed to the species of Anadenanthera in taxonomic and
ethnobotanical sources and in notations on herbarium specimens examined in the course o f study. These names are
given in addition to those found under the individual culture areas in this paper.

NAM ES FROM ALL SOURCES

Aculpa, Acuja, Aimpa, AJgaroba, AJgarrobo, Angi ca , Angical, Angico, Angico branco, Angico de brejo , Angico
do cam po, Angico do cerrado , Angieo rosa, Angico verdadeiro , Angico vennelhao, Angieo vennelho , Angicos, Anjico
branco , ArapiTaka.

Barbatirnao do Parana , Bastard Tamarind , Bilca, Black Parica , Bohoba, Bois de tendre aCail1ou, Bois ecorce, Bois
galle, Bois l'ecoTce . Bois rouge.

Cabuim , Cahoba, Cajoba, Cambui ferro, Cambui, Cambuy, Cambuy ferro , Cimbuy vermelho, Candelon, Caoba ,
Caobo , Carica, Cebil, Cebil blanco, Cebil colorado, Cebil moro , Cebil negro, Cebil rouge, Cehobba, Cehobba, Cevil,
Cevil blanco, Cevil colorad o, Ch6hobba, Cibil , Coboba, Cogiabo, Cogiba, Cogioba , Cahaba, Cohiba, Cohibba,
Cohoba, CohObana, Cohobba , Cohobba, Cohot, Cojiba , Cojoba , Cojobana, Coj6bana , Cojobilla, Cojobillo, Cojobo,
Cooba, Coxoba, Coyoba, Cozobba, Cunepa, Currupa, Curuba, Cuniba , Cunlba, Curubuy, Curupa , Cu ru pa, Curupai,
Curupai, Curupau, Curupau barcino, Curupau blanca , Curupau bareino (barcino?), CUrupau barcino, Curupay .
Curupay, Curupa)\ Curu pa y·curu , Curupay·cuni , Curuva, Cypay.

Dopa, Dopa.

Ebiinii

Rower s of Entada.

Gioia .

Hakuduflla(?), Hatax, Horco cebil, Horko·cebil, Huayo, Huil ca, Huillca, Huillca romana .

l opo.

Jataj, Jop .

Kohobba, Kurupa , Kurupa, Kurupal, KurupaJ, Kurupalral, Kurupayara.

Niopa , Niopo , Niopo , Niupo, Noopa , Nopa, Napa, Nupa ,1'liopo, flopa , flope, !'Iopo, l'Jupa.

Oeuf de Poule .

Palo de hierro, Pao-de-boaz, Pariaca, Parica, Parica, Panca de terra firme, Paricade cortume, Parici. de curtume,
Parka de tierra finne, Parica do campo , Parka grande de cortume, Parica rana, Parica-uva, Paricacru, Paricarama ,
Paricarana , Paricarana, Paricatuba, Parika, Petit sebil .

Quebracho .

95

 Savannah Yoke, Sebil, Sebil, Sevil .

Tamar indo de teta, Tan Bark, Tara Huillca.

Uillca.

Vil ea, Vileas, Vilka, Villea.

Wil 'ka, WilIka.

Yacoana, Yarupi, Yoco, Yoke, Yop, Yopa, Yopo, Y6po, Yoto, Yu'"ii, Yu 'a', Yupa , Yuuba.

Zumaque.

NAMES FROM HERBARlUM SPECIMENS ONLY

Anadenanthera colubrina var. Cebil. Argentina. Jujuy: Cevil Blanco, Cevil Colo rado. Tucuman: Cebil, Cebil
Blanco. Cevil Colorado. Bolivia: Qilupau Blan ca, Curopau Barcina o r CUriJpau barcino. Brazil. Minas Geraes:
Angieo , Angico do Cerrado. Pernambuco: Angieo. Rio de Janeiro: Cabuim. Sao Pau lo: Angico. Paraguay : Curubuj,
OJrupai, Curupai, Curupai-curU, OJrupay. Peru: Aigarobo , Vilea.

Anadcnanthera colubrina var. colubrina. Brazil. Rio de Jan ei ro: Cabuim. Sao Paulo: Angico. No stale given:
Cam bui Ferro.

Anadenanthero peregrina var.peregrina. South America. Brazil. Amazonas: Angieo, alo ng (he Rio Branco;Pan'ca,
along the Rio Mad eira. Minas Geraes: Angieo, Angico Vermelho , Anjico. Para: Angr'co, Pan'ca. British Guiana: Black
Parica, Paricaranw, Ton Bark. Colombia: Yopo , Yoto. Venezuela: Cajoba, Caoba, Cohoba, Yapo. We s~ Indies.
Dominican Republic: Candel6n. Haiti : Bois Ecorce. Bois Rouge. Puerto Rico: Cojobifla. Trinida d : Savannah Yoke.

Anodenanthera peregrirlO vaLlalcata. Braz il. Minas Gera es: Angico Vemlclhao. No state given: Angico.

The c ritical speci mens hav e been cited earlier by coll ect ion numb ers und er th e appropriate cultu re headings.
Although the specimens fr om which th e above names were obta ined a re not ve ry co mpreh ensive , they do suggest
tha t differences betwee n the spec ies (and varie ti es) of Anadenanthera are nol co mmonly distingui shed in colloquial
usage. This is not surprising, in view of th e similarities o f these element s. The names appear to vary, rath er, with
geographical distribution as a reflection of th e particular cultures or group s of cultures associated with given areas.
The geographi cal distributi on of the various commo n nam es given on herbari um sheet s co incides with that of the
most fr eq uentl y used vernacular nam es found in the taxo nomic literature; the names are predomin an tly Indian in
ori gin.

96