(PJh

Our Environment

Abhik Gupta

Dept. of Ecology

Assam University, Silchar

Mitra Dey

Dept. ofZoology

G.C.College, Silchar

And

F.R.Bhatlacharjee

Dept. of Economics,

Assam University, Silchar

ASSAM UNIVERSITY

SILCHAR

1996

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Abhik Guptd
Dept. of Ecology.^
Assam Unlveislty, Sllchor
..MifrqJ^ey I■1
bepiofZoofw.
G. C. College Silchqr
and

P. R. Bhattacharjee
Dept. of Economics,
Assam University^ Sllchar
■ii

ASSAM UNiViRSITY
SILCHAR
0; :f
H
 Published by
Registrar
Assam University
Siicticr - 768 015
© A^m University
First Pubilshed - Juiy 1996
Price: Rs. 25/- (Twenty five)
v
/ development educations; (ii) to establish national or regional centre
n-
\ sciences;(iii) to promote cooperative research and information network, an t
ioser Type setting a Printing by. j development.
AVISHEK PRiNTERS
mblcapatfy(College Rood) i important role in generating public awareness regarding
Sllchor - 788 004
FOREWORD
Our Environment has been under constant pressure ever
civilization on Earth. The wanton destruction t-ad its
ruthlessly heralded by the Industnal R®^oluUon in the West whi ^
ramifications all over the World. In our century, the situation S
bad to worse at the turn of almost every calender year, s we that of
threshold of the twenty-first century, one of our major concern is
protecting the natural environment.
The global concern for the steadily deteriorating state of the
first seriously manifested in the United Nations Conference on Human
Environment which was held at Stockholm in June 1972. It focus of
the dangers posed to the quality of human life by conti^ous ^e^ad
ecological assets and pollution due to industrial effluents. This ®
the adaptation of rules and regulations to cover environmental lU^a i.
establishment of the United Nations Environmental Programme (UiMti .
was followed by the creation of the World Commission on ,Qgl
Development in December 1983. The Commission presented its report in ^
suggesting that the concept of sustainable development should Decomc
acceptable principle of both national and international development and p ^
It also called upon the national governments to initiate a systematic .. j
economic and environmental consideration. The Commission esc
sustainable development as development that seeks to meet the nee
aspirations of the present generation without sacrificing tho^ ol _
generations. This report (popularly known as the
extensively discussed and debated in the United Nations in 1989. Inis
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (popularly
as Earth Summit 92) at Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in June 1992. It was in ®
historic summit which formulated a comprehensive and far reaching
for sustainable development all over the world in the form of Agenda .
Agenda of the United Nations had 38 Chapters. 36th Chapter of the g
impelled the United Nations to undertake a comprehensive r^rew
educational programmes including training and public awareness, co
were called upon (i) to support the University system for environme
excellence for inter-disciplinary research in environment and develop _
to promote adult and continuing education programmes in environmen ,
The Rio Summit rightly recognised the potential of the Universities to
degradation, in protecting the environment and in promoting susta
development. Afterall, the Universities are the training grounds for the nex
generation of society's leaders who need to be educated with a broad and
sensitive understanding of the human issues. They are the generators, repositories
and transferors of knowledge. Therefore, many expect the Universities to make
large and meaningful contributions in ensuring the quMity of life of our future
generations through environmental education. Infact, the University system itself
is aware of its unique responsibility, l^ven before the Rio Summit, 33 Heads of
Universities from 10 countries held a conference on "University Action for
Sustainable Development" at Dalhousie University (Halifax, Canada) in
December 1991. The conference declared that the Universities and their graduates
must be significant actors for a wholesome future environment. However, the Rio
spirit gave a filip to efforts of the University Heads in promoting environmental
studies on a priority basis. In March 1993, the United Nations University(UNU)
appointed an Advisory Team to explore the ways and means by which,the
international scholarly community could contribute to the implementation of the
Earth Charter (Agenda 21). The Tej^ recommended that the University system
should adopt a bold and policy-oriented new agenda, the main purpose of which
would be to develop the human resources and build up the capacities of countries
and of the international community to plan and implement the environmentally
sustainable development strategies. Since then sustainable development has been
the key theme in national and international conferences of the Vice-Chancellors.
The 15th Quinquennial Congress of the Association of Commonwealth
Universities, held at Swansea in August 1993, addressed itself to "People and the
Environment". The 68th Annual Session of the Association ofIndian Universities,
held at New Delhi in December 1993, organised a seminar on "Environmental
challenges and the Universities". Similarly, "Environmentally Sustainable
Development" was the focal theme of the Quinquennial Conference of the
International Association of Universities, held at New Delhi in February 1995.
The discussion in every conference were stimulating and rewarding. The common
consensus was to make environmental education an integral part of the University
system.
Jn our country, there has been a growing concern regarding the steady
deterioration in environment.^ A number of individuals and voluntary
organisations had raised their voices since 1970s against wanton destruction of
forests and other natural resources. Unplanned development, rapid
industrialisation and unprecedented growth in population were held as the main
causes of environmental degradation. However, the governments at the centre and
in the states were seized of the problem and had been passing legislations to
preserve ecology and to prevent pollution. The academia in the country made
commendable efforts to assess the current state of environment, to spread
awarness amongst the masses and to implement programmes of eco-protection
and eco-restoration. The National Policy on Education (1986)also emphasised the
importance of environmental education. In a historic judgement passed in
November 1991, the Supreme Court opined that the Universities and colleges
should consider the feasibility of making environment a compulsory subject at
each level of college education. Accprdingly, the University (jrants Commis^on
notified the Universities to introduce Aspects of environmejit^ studies in the first
degree level at &e time of next revision ofthe undergraduate syllabus.
Our University was founded on 2fJanuary 1994 when the University Community
was nationally and intemation^ly deeply engrossed in eiivifpnmental issues. It
was imperative for us to share the anxiety and to respond to the programme of our
global community. The Executive Council of our University decided tomake an
environment-fiiendly approach mmufest in the Logo of the University.'^e-Lbgo
1 conveys the message, "Environmentally Sustainable Human Development
"'I through Education". The geographical jurisdiction of the University is
represented by a big river and its valley and adjoining hills in the design of the
Logo. A book at the base and the flames of light emerging from it symbolize the
spread of.knowledge and its linkage with modern technology to ensure hum^
development. The promise of progress is represented by the Rising Sun. iMI me
elements are put in a wheel of progress to symbolize the role of the University as
an instrument of socio-economic change and environment-friendly human
development. The Planing Board in its first meeting discussed the short and long
term academic programmes of theU'^iversity and identified the disciplines wWcn
should be introduced at the post-graduate level by phases. The regional, national
and global relevance of the disciplines in a changing economy was considered at
length. It was decided that aspects of environmental studies should be
incorporated in the syllabi of all relevant disciplines and there should be a
postgraduate department of Ecology to conduct M.Sc. and rese^ch programmes.
The views of the Planning Board were endorsed by the Academic Council and the
Executive Council. We are glad that the UGC responded to our proposal
favourably and we have been able to start the department of Ecology in our
School of Environmental Sciences this year. This department, besides teaching
and research, is expected to play a crucial role in creating awareness amongst the
masses for implementation of programmes of eco-protection and eco-restorauon.
The master plan for the University's permanent campus at Dargakona, which has
now been finalised, also envisages environment-friendly buildings and other
facilities. We have also decided to keep a portion of the campus undisturbed and
to preserve it as an Eco-Forest and to develop the low-lying and marshy areas,
which are extensions of the great Chatla fen, into lake-cum-fishenes. A massive
programme of tree plantation has been initiated since last year. The Schools of
Environmental Sciences and Life Sciences have been asked to look after the Eco-
Forest, the plantations and the lakes and to use these as natural laboratories for
the practicals of their students. We want that an environment-friendly atmosphere
must flourish on the University and the College campus and the environmental
education should be promoted through the courses of studies prescribed for our
students.
Immediately after take-off, the University was required to restructure the three-
year degree course and to upgrade the syllabus as per UGC guidelines. In fact,
eversince the.three-year degree course was introduced in early eighties the UGC
had made a Foundation Course an integral part of all degree courses. All the CONTENTS a" /
Universities in the Country had introduced a common and compulsory foundation
course in Arts, Scifence and Commerce. To conform to this national fr'^e, we
also made provision for a foundation course in our degree programme.;In the UNIT - 1 THE EARTH AND ITS ENVIRONMENT... 1
meantime, the University was asked by the UGC for the introduction of "K
Environmental Science as a compulsory subject of one hundred marks in college
education for all streams. The UGC also forwarded a draft syllabus for the UNIT - 2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF ECOLOGY...
purpose. The Academic Council considered the proposal and decided to adopt the
draft syallbus on environmental science with some modifications for the
Foundation Course. The Council also decided that for an inter-disciplinery course
of this nature the University should prepare a text book for the students.
UNi;^;^^^^ MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT 40
My colleagues have worked hard to prepare the book at a very short notice. The UNIT - 4 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 46
main draft for Our Environment is a contribution of Dr. Abhik Gupta (Reader in
Ecology). The sections on 'Economy and Environment' and 'Women and
Environment' have been written by Professor P. R. Bhattacharjee (Dean, Social
Sciences) and Mrs Mitra Dey (Lecturer in Zoology, G. C. College) respecdvely.
UnJn^^^ IMPORTANT ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 58
Professor G. D. Sharma (Dean, Life Sciences) and Professor P. R. Bhattachaijee
(Dean, Social Sciences) have gone through and edited the manuscript before UNIT CASE STUDIES IN ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 80
publication. The authors and the editors have taken care to make the text
appropriate for a common course for the students in all streams. It can be revised UNIT - 7 POLLUTION AND HEALTH 87
and improved upon in subsequent editions. The teaching and examination in 1 •
Foundation Course shall be limited to what has been provided in this book. The ]
questions in this course shall be of objective types consisting of multiple choices - 8 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT..98
and short questions. The model questions are being prepared and shall be
published in a book form by November this year.
UNIT - 9 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND INTEGRATED
Words cannot be adquate to appreciate the hard work of the contributors in this I

important task. This is the first effort of its kind and a beginning in environmental ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 115
education in our region. It is time that we should promote environmental
education to develop a world population which is well informed about UNIT - ECONOMY AND THE ENVIRONMENT.
c
„... 120
environmental problems and which has the knowledge, skill and motivation to
work collectively to improve environmental conditions. Moreover, in this course
we have been able to accommodate two requirements of UGC, viz. a foundation UNIT - WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTENANCE 127
course and a compulsory course in environmental science at the first degree level.
I am sure that we will get good response from our colleagues in the degree
colleges to this course and our collaborative efforts will be rewarding to our UNIT - @ ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AND ACTION 137
students. The contents and presentation can be progressively improved as we gain (/r •
experience in monitoring the course.

SILCHAR (J. B. Bhattacharjee)

July 1, 1996 VICE-CHANCELLOR ** Unit 1-9 and 12 contributed by A. Gupta; Unit -10 by P. R.
Bhattacharjee; and Unit i J by Mitra Dey.
 Our Environment
UNIT -1:THE EARTH AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

1.1 Environment and o^anisnis

Stated in a very simple manner, pur environment is our surroundings. In
other words,it is the sum total of all the external conditions and influences_acting
on us. We the hum^s share the earth's environment with millions of other
organisms including plants, animals and microorganisms many of which we can
not even see with our naked eyes. The environment may be thought of as having
two major components - the non-living or abiotic, and the living or biotic. That
means, the millions of organisms that are influenced by the various abiotic
elements of the physical environment, in turn, influence one another and also
influence or even modify the abiotic factors. The abiotic components of the
environment include inorganic (not of biological origin) elen^nts and
compounds, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, calcium, various carbonates
and phosphates,etc.; numerous organic (usually of biological origin)compounds
; and an array of physical factors such as solar radiation, moisture, wind, current,
tides, and so forth. In this abiotic setting live the biotic components - plants,
animals and microorganisms. As said earlier, all of these living organisms have
the ability to influence one another and the physical environment as well.^jThe
plants by spreading their roots can aid in soil formation; the forests can influence
aTOT>r . ■ .1
rainfall and wind velocity and direction; the earthworms can make the soil
porous; and microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi can decompose dead
bodies of plants and animals. But none of these can grossly alter the "natural"
environment. Man stands out as the only exception. The spectacular development
of his central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) has.endowed man with
faculties like intelligence, language, memory,reasoning, and the ability to make
and use tools, among others. Using these faculties, man has been able to alter the
natural landscape evolved around him to a very large extent, often replacing the'
naturally evolved environment with man-made, artificial ones. Again, since the
time when man first appeared, his social structure has been continuously
changing, with a concomitant change in the man-environment interactions. Thus,
the social environment of man at a given time has also had its influence on the
other organisms and on the physical environment as well.
1.1.1. Natural environment

The natural environment on the earth comprises two major categories ;(i)
terr^trial or land, and (ii) aquatic or water. The terrestrial environment includes
1
 Our Environment
such diverse sub-types as deserts, forests, grasslands, mountMns, etc. The aquatic
environment could be further classified info marine, estuarine and fr^hwater.
These environments may be thought of as being structured in the form of discrete,
yet interrelated and interactive units called ecosystems. The sum total of all the
ecosystems may be visualized as a macrb-system designated as the biosphere,
which includes all the living organisms and their physical environment. The
ecosystem and biosphere concepts as well as the structure and function of the
various components of the natural environment will be described in more detail in
Unit - 2.
1.1.2. Man-made environments
As said earlier, man has created artificial environments to suit his own needs
and to meet his various demands. Crop fields, cities, industrial areas, artificial
lakes and reservoirs, canals, etc. are examples of man-made environments.
Although the man-made environments share some of their characteristic features
with those^f their natural counterparts, they are essentially largely different from
the latter.^ake for example a natural forest as opposed to a crop field. The former
almost always has a large number of kinds of plants, whichjn^turn, sustain a
diverse animal community. In the crop field, in contrast, only one species of plant
that is favoured by man, is sown and harvested. Any othei^pknt that may grow
there is considered a wej^ and is removed. Insects living in the cropfield are also
removed or killed, as they are termed as peste, and birds, reptiles and mammals are
not allowed to feed on the crop plant. Like the crop field, the forest also receives
energy from th^un, but a forest does not need any nutrient (fertilizer) and w^er
input from outside. A crop field, on the othwjiand, has to be manured, and except
in the primitive, rain^^ systems, it has to be irrig^d as well. In other words, the
forest is a nearly self-sufficient and fairly stable system, while the crop field has to
be supported by external inputs in the absence of which it will collapse. Thus it is
an unstable system. Again, if we take a look at yet another man-made system, the
chy^ it becomes apparent that in spite of all the sophisticated technology, a city
nevertheless is dependent on the natural environment for vit^ resources like air,
water, and food, and for disposal, treatment, and recycling of its wastes as well.
Units 3-7 outline the nature and magnitude of the problems that confront mankind
and the earth's environment as a whole due to the continued replacement of stable,
self-regulated natural systems by unstable, artificial ones.
Our Environment
1.1.3. Social environment
The social environment of man exerts tremendous influences on the^iiature-
of man-environment interactions. As human societies evolved, human captaibiliiy
of modifying the landscape,increased greatly. The primitive human societies such
as the hunting-and-gathering and the early agrarian societies also modified the
natural environment to some extent. The use of fire to bum forest and grasslands,
and the domestication of plants and animals were two significant events that
altered the natural systems in the early days of human civilization. However,the
global impact of such activities were negligible, as the human population size
was small, and the size of the modified areas small. The agricultural and the
industriafrevolutions drastically changed the scenario as more and more natural
systems were altered often irreversibly to meet the increased demands of a
burgeoning population. Technological advancements led to the production of
innumerable consumer products, thus bringing newer areas under human
intervention. Not only did the human population size increased, the per capita
consumption of goods also increased, stressing the natural environment so much,
that in large areas of the earth, it is showing the signs of an imminent collapse,
calling for an immediate adoption of preventive and restorative measures. Thus,
the genesis of the global environmental crisis has its roots in the societal attitude
towards the natural environment, which has so far remained almost totsJIy
exploitative, rather than mutualistic and sustainable. It is now being increasingly -
realized that in order to manage the earth's resources in a more sustainable
manner, an in-depth knowledge of the structure and functions of the natural
systems is an essential prerequisite. In the following sections of this unit, and in
the subsequent units, we will try to acquaint our readers with some of the
concepts and principles governing the structural, functional, and evolutionary
aspects of the natural systems, and also provide them glimpses of the nature and
extent of the environmental crisis confronting humankind, as well as its causative
agents.
1.2. The Earth - a"living planet'
The earth, a small planet in the incredibly vast expanse of the universe, is
the only place where we know life to exist. The earth is a part of the solar system
which consists of nine planets and a variety of other bodies such as satellites,
ast^ojds, conies and meteors revolving around the sun. The sun is a "middle-
 Our Environment
Our Environment
aged" star about 1400,000 km in diameter and with a surface temperature of 1.3.2.The origin and evolution of life
around 6100®C. Our earth is the third planet from the sun, at an average distance
of some 150,000,000 km, and is about 13,000 km in diameter. It has a deep
Nothing is directly known about the origin of life, as no fossil records o
atmosphere with approximately 21 per cent oxygen and 78 per cent nitrogen,
ow early organisms is aviilable. Nevertheless, from our knowledge about the
considerable water vapour and a small proportion of carbon dioxide(0.032%). The
conditions prevailing on the primitive earth, and the nature ^rfere
earth also has large quantities of liquid water on and near its surface as well as
hi 1.,-lP.s like amino acids, nucleic acids,hydrocarbons,sugars and fats.
adequate amounts of other chemical substances in various forms that are available Table 1.1. A simplified geological time scale.
to the living organisms. The earth is neither too close nor too far away from the Approximate
sun, and therefore has a rather benign temperature regime that is largely within the
time since the
tolerance limits of the organisms that inhabit it
beginning of
1.3Xife on the earth the periods,
in millions
It is now generally believed that the earth was formed about 4600 million
• I
of years Era Periods Epochs Important
events in the
years ago, and the first life appeared more than 3000 million years ago. Much
history of life 4^
about the history of life since it first originated is now known, but unfortunately
fossil records, which tell us about the nature and diversity of organisms that
Dominance of man.
existed during different times of the long history of the earth, are available only 01 COENO Quarter- - Recent
First man.
for the last 500 million years or so. What are fossils ? They are the remains of 1 zoic )nary _ Pleistocene
_ Pliocene Radiation of apes.
organisms that lived in the past. Fossils could also be in the form of tracks, 10 rTer-
Miocene Climax of
footprints or impressions of plants and animals on rocks. The hard parts of the 30 (tiaiy
ihammalian
bodies of the organisms such as bones and teeth are usually preserved, partly or
evolution
wholly replaced by minerals. The study of fossils is known as palaentology. There
are different methods by which a fossil can be identified and dated, and in this
way,considerable information could be obtained about the kinds of organisms that Oligocene Modemization of
40
Eocene mammalian fauna
inhabited the earth in the past. However, before going into more details about the 60
origin and evolution of life, it is essential to know about the time scale of the Palaeocene Expansion of
75
geological history of the earth. mammals.

1.3.1. The geological time scale Cretace Last dinosaurs.

135 MESO

A simplified geological time scale is given in Table 1. 1. The approximate"^; ZOIC ous T Expansion of modem
plants.
times in years of each period are also given, as well the important events in the
165
Jurassic Expansion and domi
history of life. The whole time before the palaeozoic era is clumped as pre-
nance of dinosaurs.
cambrian as fossils are scantly in the rocks of this era. From palaeozoic onwards,
Appearance of birds
fossil records are more adequate, and consequently we know more about the'
and manunals.
organisms that inhabited the earth during that period. a

r'.c
'/

ti''t"
 205 Triassic Our Environnient simple organic molecules likeT>vramino acids (that make|j(i:pteins), pupjies and^
First dinosaurs.
. A 1?7SlA\ h
pyrimidines (components of DNA and RNA), hydrocar^n$, aii«i C itlfdi Sti^rS.lWre'!
230 palaed Permian Expansion of foimedl^om inorganic substances.;This phase is often i;^^ed>tw^ chemical
ZOIC
primitive reptiles. evolution and preceded the appearance of life. SubsequBnfl^b^ the action oF
280
Carboniferous First reptiles. "Coal" chemical condeinsing agents and/or heat, more compiex^3^"^cnl^^.l|Ke
Forests. polypeptides (chain of amino acids), nucleosides (puiines/pyrimtdin^Sg^b^u:f«r)»
32^
Devonian First amphiansand nucleotides (nucleoside + phosphate) and su^a^olymers(chmn of sugars) were
insects formed. These compounds accumulated in the shallow areas of the sea to form an
360
Silurian First land plants. organic "broth". There are two major hypotheses'explaining the formation of the
425
500
\
Ordovician Earliest known Ushes first living cells, often referred to as the p^otobionts or eobionts, from these
Cambrian Abundant marine organic molecules, l^ithout going into the details of the Two hypotheses^ it is to
invertebrates 1)e understood that the first living organi^s were anaerobic (living^ without
3000+
oxygen) forms whichutilized the orga^c molecules in/the "broth" as their
ARCHAEO Pre|cainbrian First known sources of energy and carbon. As q resul^the food material got depleted, and this•
ZOIC*
fossils led to the evoltion of the first autotro^c (those which can synthesize their own -
Fossil records scanty, i;e^lting in an incomplete knowledge of life form food) cells that had the ability to ^nthesize their own food from the carbon
exisung before the Cambrian yerjU dioxide in the atmosphere thrcmgh the process of photosynthesis. These
photosynthesizing cells contributed oxygen to the atmosphere, and the gradual
cLJv" cei^a^ibgenious
conditions that orevailerf HnrJn^ vL. i .. experiments
. that^mulated th~
simulated the buildup of oxygen led to the evolution of the first aerobic (oxygen-consuming)
largely accepabl If daya. scientists conU put forward a cells. These early developntents in life may have taken some 2500 million,years
The worker, h r""'"he mode of origin and nature of early life or about one-half the earthls mstory. As the oxygen content in the atmo^here
increased, an ozone layer formed and gradually thickened in the upper
the origin of life is presented bte.'" ^ generalized account of atmosphere, preventing thyultraviolet rays from reaching the earth's surface.
Consequently, living orgasms could move up to the surface of the sea. Another
important step was the aOTearance of^^aryotjc (with a distinct nucleus, as in all
atmosrempSaJv c!! t"
carbon dioxL h a
^lOOjmllion years ago, the earth's
""rogen. amnwma, hydrogen, carbon monoxide higher forms of lifeVprganisms from the primitive procaryotic (without a
nucleus, as in bacteria)/cells. In the next phase, the first multicellular organisins
oxygelt --lffi.o"r. huT no free; appeared when oxVgefc level in the atmosphere reached about 0.6 per cent
largf proDoi^r r h t!""1 have contributed a f (against the presqnt 21 per cent). This significant event occurred about 600
wa! no oz„ r '®'"""'°'^®^"'°''Phere. As there was no oxygen, there million years ago, ^ound the beginning of th^ Cambrian period. During
oxygen) shortwave rt^ation o" ..J Cambrian there
Cambrian there was
was.a tremendous expansion of new life forms such as singes.
ozone la k'^ '^ cadiation. In the absence of a protective
dav organism, but ironically,radiation
this veryfrom the sunwaswould
radiation have killedin any
instrumental present ii jl'''
stimulating corals, worms, sl^ellfish, se^eeds and the ancestors of seed plai^ and
v^ebrat^.In the following periods of the^^aeozoic era, life filled the seas and
irst 1 e to be formed. Beside the UV rays, the climate of the earth was alst^"^^ iii^ded the land. Development of larger green vegetation on land provided more
marked by frequent thunder and electrical discharges. Under the influence of f ^ oxygen and food, preparing the grounds for larger creatures such as reptiles,
energy in the form of ultraviole^ rays, electrical di^harges and volcanic heat, I
birds, mammals, and eventually man to appear. Meanwhile, the oxygen level
' 6 " I .-'' 7
 _ Our Environment
Our Environment. . , ... • j... «lavman
reached the present 21 pe^.cent by the mid palaeozpic, after which the oxygen ugerving the differences in their external features, and the n
carbpn dioxide balance,(aj^roximately 21 and 0.032 per cent, respectively) was '°Jnften
are often
actual
aciu.i
species, but sometimes they
the
may not conform
individuals
to t etospM)
belonging
largely maintained, albeit with some tempor^ ups and downs. For ex^ple, /the biologist. Wh_atis_a species?- Firstly, the s oaa species
hplnneine
during
^ the carboniferous peripd^.lower oxygen^d Mgher carbon dioxide 1CVC15
levels in
in
are potentially capauic ui
potentially capabl^ breeding among themselves, but soecies is
the atmosphere resulted in a "bloom" ofgi^pplante th^t could utilize the excess jindividuals of another^ecies. Interbreeding among ^
carbon dioxide.
dioxide. These
These plants
plants were
were later
later buried
buried to
to form
form the
the fossil
fossil fuel
fuel (coal,
(coal, oil
oil and
and l;; nrevented
prevented by
by one
one or more reproductive isolating
^ mechanisms, usconstitute
e me an
natural gas)reserves that meet our energy requirements today.
1.4.1 Environment, habitat and niche

It has already been explained that the term environment includesvthe sum exchange genes. Thus,(^e oc^ccPc^These three attributes
total of physical and biotic conditions influencing the organism. The,environment intercommunicating gene pool that the species po _ .
may be thought of to be consisting of a very large number of habitats. The habitat .ake the species a nnmral
of an Organism is the place where it is found. For example,a forest is the habitat of species), yet interacting with them m vanous w y .( ^ a
the deer, the rabbit or the wild buffalo/ while a stream is the habitat of the fish. belonging to the same species and occupying ® -^5 ij^ing in a
The habitat can be further-broken down tO'narrower microhabitatSf "whoTO sl popuUitioru)ln turn, an assemblage of populaUons o 1 example,the
specific organism may befound. For example, a rabbit may be found in its warren,
while the wild buffalo usually lives in the open grassy patches within a forest. small grassy field near your house may ha« rats th ^
However, neither the term environment nor habitat tells us anything about the grasshoppers, and some red and black era .
functional role of an organism in the community. The term ecological niche and black ants each belong to a dtffere p of these
includes not only^ the physicial' habitat occupied by an organism,:. but also:>the occupy different ecological niches as ive . grasshopper,the red
functional aspects of its life, such as the food it eats, its predators and parasites, if species form a population and the populauons of the rat P
3ny, and thgibuvironnieiTtal conditions(in terms of temperature, moisture^,altitude, am.the black ant. the few species of grasses growing m the fl^.and
soil etc.) in which it lives. According to the renowned ecologist E.P. Odum, the and fungi living there, make up the the biotic commumty therein.
habitat is the organism's "address", while the niche is its "profession". Thus each
species of organism has its own particular niche which is never exactly the same 1.4.3. Adaptations
as that of another species. Different niche requirements of different species make .were veryJsimple
The first living organisms P and probably neededinlittle
However, the
possible the living together of many species in a community. adjustments to their stable and favoura e complex habitats such as
1.4.2. Species,population and community palaeozoic era a large number of specia iz marshes etc. began
Uts.deserts, mountains, grasslands ";"Xmr™rdemanded more
In the previous section, we came across the tenns species and community. It ,0 he occupied by the growing variety ; wUh
is therefore, essential that a basic understanding be gathered about these terms . specialized adjustments to the environme ecological niche. These
and concepts. Man has always tried to identify and classify the things around him, < ^3" each species restricted to its particular and behaviour
including living beings. He knows that a mango tree, a pine tree, and a maize plant V-^ adjustments include those in morphology (structure), physiology
are different "kinds" of plants, or that a cat is a different "kind" of animal from a and are collectively referred to as adaptations.
dog or a rabbit. These distinctions among plants and animus are usually made by
8
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Our Environment
1.5. InteracHons among organisms
uigaiusms Our Environmeri^ „. Mutualism
Mutualism is a positive interaction
l,5,2.h.Mnta^^Ta'. v .netherwhere aU_^
Mutualism

with ^ community not only interact ^eLhe^wtoe ^gaeandf^

broadly classified as(a)negative tvhereT ^'""actions could be »^°"other The alga manufactures food by photosjm^sis which the fu^u g ■
Jllki 13 IWJfe—
s. 1 <»« well-
1.5.1 Negative interactions or disoperations limals, and between plants

materials such as fo^'od. spLe/co^rrtt^for ^sources or

-m short supply, species compete ^th eL^o'tLIT
competuion. In competition all comn„ in
lesser or a greater extent. ' species are adversely effected to a

species, the prf2tr!g!^ns asTfen ^ ^ which one

1 C 1 .A Tfe

expense of the other,l^hol'p^ZT"'' species, the parasite, benefits at the

f.bee). While'ives
whenonit the
livesbody
insidesurface
let", of21'
u' t""''
"" (e.g.
^'^endaparasite(e.gg,toundworm Y"
roundworm, maJanal parasite, etc.) ">
substances thm'ilwbi^thT °""YV "^h^^ual
P-nome„onisrefemedto:i~r:^^^^^^^^^^
Positive interactions or cooperations
two or more sp!"eT'i!here 11 those interactions among
^^-^fited nor harmed Po^i tanTe^r ^
hodtes of shark, swordfish "Id barr a ^ ,o the
P-h.ems to their larger plifners Tow T P°--
because when the host fepH n association benefits remora
-ten by them. " ^^P^ swept up by the side crbe
 Our Environment^
UNIT - 2:BASIC CONCEPTS OF ECOLOGY
2.1. Scope and relevance of ecology
Today, a growing awareness of the importance of environmental studies in
maintaining the quality of human civilization has made ecology a household word,
Elements of ecological thought could be traced in many ancient scriptures and
treatises as well as in the writings of the early Greek Naturalist-philosophers like
Hippocrates, Aristotle, Theophrastus and others. However,^it was the renowned
Gem^ biologist ^st Haeckel, who first proposed the term "oekologie" derived
from the Greek words "oikos", meaning house, and "logos", meaning study o^In
1870, Haeckel defined ecology as " the total relations of the animal both !|
to its inorganic and to its organic environment...". Several other definitions of %
ecology have since followed, including "scientific natural history" (Charles Elton,
an English ecologist), "the study of biotic communities"(Frederick Cl^^ts, an
American ecologist), and "the science of the environment" (Karl Friedericks, a
German ecologist). One ofthe most renowned contemporary ecologistsT^gene P.
Odum defines it as the "s^)^fAe fracture and function of nature"
To appreciate the scope and relevance of ecology, we ought to know about f
the subject-fields that it investigates, and its relation to other branches of science
as well. This is not an easy task, as ecology is multidisciplinary in nature and
covers an enormous range of subject materials. To cite a few examples,
autecol^ deals with the study of an individual organism or a species, while
synecology deals with the communities. Ecos^^ dynamics studies the flow of
energy, cycling of nutri^ts, and productivi^; geographical ecology the
distribution of plants and animals in the different regions of the world;
evolutionary ecology the problems of spedes fqnnation and niche specialization;
and physiological ecology the nature of responses and adjustments of organisms to
their physical environment. Systems ecology concerns itself with the translation of
ecological concepts into mathematical models; chemical ecology with the nature,
mode of action and effects of the vast array of both natural and man-made
chemicals; and radiation ecology with the effects of ionizing radiation. :
Furthermore, ecological concepts find their applications in a wide variety of
disciplines such as wildlife management, forestry, mining, pest control,
agriculture, aquaculture, urban planning, industrial and economic development,
and public health, among others. All industries now have to incorporate ecological
12
Our Environment
safeguards to maintain environmental quality.
The above examples are suggestive of the great breadth of scope and social
relevance of ecology, a point well-emphasized by the British ecologist, A.
Macfadyen as early as in 1957 : ".... the ecologist... roams at will over the
legitimate preserves of the plant and animal biologist, the taxonomist, the
physiologist, the behaviourist, the meteorologist, the geologist, the physicist, the
chemist and even the sociologist..."
,^2.2. Concept of the biosphere
The earth can be thought of as being made up of four layers or spheres :
atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), lithosphere (land), and bioshpere (life),
^e biosphere includes those portions of atmosphere, hydrosphere and
lithosphere in which life exists in constant interaction with the physical
environment..^ The concept of biosphere was first put forward by an Austrian
i geologist, Emiard Suess in 1875. and later propagated and popularized by the
(fiussian geochemist Vladimir Vemadsky in the 1920's^The concept of biosphere
that emerges from their pioneering studies and those of a host of subsequent
workers, reveals it to be(a dynamic inter-related macfosystem - the sum total of
all biomes and ecosystems^)The ultimate-source of energy for the biosphere is the
sun. Solar energy reaching the earth's surface is utilized by the green plants to
manufachire carbohydrates that comprise the basic food material. This process is
called photosynthesis and involves the following chemical reaction :
sunlight
6CO2+6H2O >C6Hi206 +602
6 molecules of + 6 molecules of >1 molecufe of glucoses-
carbon dioxide water 6 molecules of oxygen
Photosynthesis is the basic process by which we get our food. It should be
noted that the only organisms capable of photosynthesis are those that possess
chlorophyll, a green pigment, viz., green and purple bacteria, green and blue-
green algae, and all higher plants.
13
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Respiration is another important process during which oxygen from air (or
water in the case of aquatic organisms) enters the bodies of plants and animals.
The glucose molecules formed during photosynthesis react with oxygen to
generate energy needed for various activities. During this process carbon dioxide
is released :
C6H12O6+6O2 --> 6CO2+6H2O
Glucose + Oxygen > Carbon dioxide + water
Thus, respiration and photosynthesis together form a cycle.
Within the confines of the biosphere, life is known to exist almost
everywhere, even under extremely hostile environmental conditions. For example,-
bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are known to inhabit hot springs
w/where temperature rises up to 1()0°C. On the other extreme, although the green
vegetated zone in the Himalayas is Hmited to an altitude of 6200 metres, certain
species of insects and spiders are known t^ive beyond this zone, feeding upon
organic particles brought up by_the wind. Again, in the hydrosphere, the waters of
the arcticTand antarctic seas are populated by a myriad marine organisms even in
those'^eas where an ice-shield of up to 420 m thickness separates them firom
sunlight and the atmosphere. Going to the lower boundaries of the biosphere, oil
bacteri^ave been found in oil wells upto a depth of 1700 m, while in the ocean
sediments the depth to which life penetrates varies from around 5-120 cm. If we
now explore the upper boundaries, flying birds and insects forage and feed upto an
altitude of 10-12 km. Beyond this limit, life exists in the form of bacteria, fuj^gi,
viruses, protozoan cysts and algal spores till about 70-80 lom_However„ in this
zone~most microorganisms sink into a state of"anabiosis", that is, they can survive
but cannot reproduce. This zone, together with polar ice caps.and higher mountain
slopes^ where life can only exist in a state of "suspended animation", is often
referred to as the parabiosphere.
2.3. Concept of the ecosystem
In the biosphere, living organisms and their non-living (abiotic) environment
are in constant interaction with each other.^ a given area, the abiotic environment
along with its living (biotic) components of plants, animals and microorganisms
form discrete yet interlinked units that constitute an ecological system or
14
Our Environment
ecosystemr^lthough (Ac term ecosystem was proposed by the the British
ecologist^^G. Tansley in 193^the concept of a structural and functional unit of
environment appeared in the writings of several nineteenth century European and
American ecologists such as Karl Mobius, V. V. Dokuchaev, G. F. Morozov, and
S. A. Forbes.
1^/^23.1. Structural organization of ecosystems
All ecosystems comprise structural components that could be broadly
classified into abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) components.
^3 J.a. Abiotic components
^ ^.3.1.a.i. Inorganic substances : Inorganic substances (i. e., not of
bi^ogical origin) such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water etc.,
that are required by living organisms circulate through the ecosystem in a
cyclical fashion.
.3.1.a.iL Organic substances : Organic substances (non-living, but of
biological origin) such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats etc., that organisms n^
either to build their body structures or to meet their energy requirements.
23.1.a. iil. Climate regime : This comprises light, temperature, rainfall,
humidity etc., that influence the other abiotic as well as the biotic components in
■f an ecosystem.
23.1.b. Biotic components
2.3.1.b.i. Autotrpphs or producers : These include higher plants, algae,
and certain bacteria, that can synthesize their own food in the presence of
sunlight, by the process of photosynthesis.
^ 2.3.1.b.ii. Heterotrophs or consumers ; They do not produce their own
food but depend on other organisms to meet their energy requirements.
Heterotrophs could either be pimgotrophs or macroconsumers (pKago = to eat;
macro = large), chiefly animals, that ingest other organisms or paniculate organic
matter; or saprotrophs (sapro = to decompose), or osmotrophs (osmo = to pass
through a membrane), or microconsumers (micro = small) or decomposer^r
chiefly bacteria and fu^i, which break down the dead protoplasm of other
15
nent
Our Environment
r (or , / Our Environment Our Environment
ecosystem.^lthough(the term ecosystem was proposed by the the British organisms and absorb the by -products to get their nutrition. During this process, including bacteria, flagellates and fui^t_Some of these attack living organisms
nals.
ologist ^ G.Tansley in l^^the concept of a structural and functional unit of they also release the organic and inorganic nutrients bound in the dead protoplasm, and are called pathogenic (disease-causing), but the great majority only attack
to
nvironment appeared in the wntings of several nineteenth century European and and make them available again for use by the autotrcphs. Thus they play an active dead organisms to derive their nutrition. As stated earlier, they release the
»xide
Dokuchaev, G. F. Morozov. and role in the recycling of nutrients in the ecosystem. inorganic and organic nutrients locked up in the bodies of organisms for reuse in
S. A.Forbes,
the pond.
It should be pointed out here that any habitat that contains the aforesaid
23.1.Struclaral organization ofecosystems major components to function as a unit, could be considered an ecosystem. Thus 2.4. Functional analysis of ecosystems
ecosystems could come in all possible sizes and life spans, ranging from a From a functional standpoint, ecosystems may be studied in terms of the
classified Oion-hving)and bioticcomponents
(Uving)components.
that could be broadly temporary pond to the ancient ocean, and from a small meadow to the vast rain following parameters.
forest.
most Abiotic components 2.4.1. Movements of energy and nutrients in ecosystems ; I
nple,- Let us now take the example of a pond to further understand the structural I1
components of an ecosystem. The most abundant abiotic component in a pond, 2.4.1. a. Movement of energy:
rings
?reen
bil<^ca/ori^^s.!r^'c^f°"'
that are required by livina •
' substances (i. e., not c
carbon dioxide, water etc
of
needless to say, is water (H2O). However, pond water, or as a matter of fact any
The ultimate source of energy for all ecosystems and the biosphere as a
natural water, does not exist in a "pure" state. It has several inorganic and organic
srtain
upon
cyclicalfasL ' through the ecosystem - in a
substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, salts of calcium, nitrogen and whole is the sun. It is estimated that in the northern hemisphere ,nearly 42 per
cent of incoming solar radiation is reflected. Another 10 percent is diffused by
phosphorus, amino acids, carbohydrates etc. dissolved in it. Furthermore, these
jrs of
Organic substances • Ch-o ■ substances are also present in the bottom mud (sediments) of the pond as well as ozone, oxygen, water vapour and small particles in the atmosphere. The
&n in biological origin)such as carboh dr * substances (non-living, but
b of remaining 48 per cent actually reaches the earth's surface. A part of this solar
from either to build their body structure's or to meet their energy
^'^ts etc.,requirements.
that organisms need in the bodies of the organisms that live in the pond. The pond is also influenced by
radiation (especially the blue and red rays) are absorbed by chlorophyll, the green
e, oil the climate regime of the area where it is located. The climate.regime comprises
pigment in vegetation, and is converted to chemical energy in the form of
)cean
23.1,a. iii, Qinjate regime • Th" several factors such as sunlight, temperature, humidity, rainfall etc. which exert
humidity etc.,11^ influence the th ^°°^Prises light, temperature, rainfalh carbohydrates. This is how solar energy is fixed in the ecosystem. The energy
[f we their influence on the other abiotic factors as well as the living organisms in the
an ecosystem. abiotic as well as the biotic components in contained in the carbohydrates is used by the green plants for various activities
to an pond.
including the synthesis of other chemical substances like proteins, fats etc. In the
U£gi,
Let us now turn our attention to the biotic components. The autotrophs or next step, the green plants are fed upon by plant-eating heterotrophs (herbivores
1 this "•1''®1?^ components or primary consumers). When this happens, chemical energy in the form of
rvive
producers in the pond are of two main types :(a) rooted or large floating plants
23.1.b.i Anmi such as sedges and waterjily etc. that are mostly confined to the shallow marginal carbohydrates, proteins and fats, along with a host of nutrients are transferred to
ntain and certain bacteria! '"<=lode higher plants, algae. areas ; and (b) phvtoplankton (phyto = plant; plankton = floating) that are minute the herbivores. Again when the herbivores are consumed by animal-eating
aften
sunlight, by the proemsofphotosynti,^'™ floating plants, mostly al^ae^ The phytoplankton, being tiny organisms are not heterotrophs (carnivores or secondary consumers), energy and nutrients are
v/2.3.i.b;lL Heterotrophs or ™ ordinarily visible and therefore, hardly attract our attention except when they are transferred to the latter. For example, grasses fix solar energy by converting it to
ood but depeml on other orea^!!""'" = do not produce their very abundant and impart a greenish colour to the water. In spite of their minute chemical energy (carbohydrates) through the process of photosynthesis. When a

Heterotrophs size, phytoplankton are the major producers in large, deep po^, Jal^and, of plant-eating insect, say a grasshopper, eats grass, the chemical energy in grass
ment
macro = large),could either
chiefly be n/iap„,^!"'^"ooonsumers
aniinalsi;;^^ ^^cir energy(pHago
requirements-
= to eat; course, in the oceans. Among the heterotrophs or consumes, the major along with various nutrients are transferred to the grasshopper, and when a frog
ment
maner;or sapmrophs(sapro=to dcf*^' ®t8anisms or particulate organ"® phagotrophs or macroconsumers are insec^shriings, fist^tc. Some of these feed feeds on the grasshopper, these are transferred to the frog and so on, However,
lisms
through a mekbrane), or mlcrocor"*"''''~ (osmo = topaaa on plan't^'^plant parts, while some othelTfeed on other animals. Besides, there solar energy converted to chemical energy by grass cannot be again converted to
n or
® 'e y actena and fu^i_ <""®ro ^luSiTor decompose^- are the zooplankton (zoo = animal; plankton = floating) that are the animal solar energy. Similarly, chemical energy transferred from grass to grasshopper,
the dead protoplasm of other counterparts of phytoplankton. Then there are the saprotrophs or microconsumers
17
15 16
 Our Environment Our Environm&
or from grasshopper to frog, can not revert back to the preceding stages. Thus,
ener^ flew in ecosystems is unidir^tional and non-cyclic. It only flows from the
sun to the producers to the primary consumers to the secondary consumers and so
on, but not vice versa. Furthermore, when grasses fix solar energy,some energy is
always lost as.heat. The same thing happerfs when grasshoppers eat grass, or frogs
eat grasshoppers. Thus, no energy transfer is 100 per cent efficient, as some
energy,is lost as heat. Hence, as we move from grass (producer) to grasshopper
and frog (consumers), there is progressive diminution of energy. The
"^ni^ectional, non-cyclm flow of energy and its progressive diminution -during Producers
1113(GPP)
Hcrbivtires Carnivores
148(GHP)
successive transfers constitute the two cardinal prmciples of energy flow through 879(NPP) 104(NHP)
3!(GCP)
13(NCP)
the ecosystem. These two principles conform to the two laws of thermodynamics
that govern the movement ofenergy. The first law states that enerev can neither be
createdjmi^stro>^d but can be changed from one form to another. In the
ecosystem, radiant energy is converted to chemical energy and heat. The heat
produced is not directly usable by the system. Hence the system dissipates this
heat, and in the process tends to lose its organized structure, thus moving towards
entropy or disorder. This is the subject matter of the second law of
thermodynamics, which states that every energy-system has a tendency towards
OTjna3^um disorganization in structure. This trend is rniinTafaThy
continuous input ofenergy, which in the case of ecosystems comes from the sun.
Z4.1.b. Movement of nntnents:Let us now try to trace the movement of
nutrients in the ecosystem. We already know that during the transfer of energy Nuiricnt Decomposers
from producer to consumer, and then from one consumer to another, many 35
nutrients are also transferred. Notable among these are nitrogen, phosphorus,
sulphur, magnesium and 15 or more other essential nutrients. However, unlike
energy, nutrient movement is cyclic. In order to understand this, we have to know
about the role of decomposers in the ecosystem. The decomposers, chiefly bacteria Fig. 2. 1. A simplified model of energy flow (solid lines) and nutrient cycling
and fiingi, are heterotrophs, but unlike herbivores and carnivores, they do not (broken lines) in the ecosystem. Energy flow is unidirectional and with
ingest their food. Instead, they produce enzymes which act upon the dead plants progressive diminution of energy from producers to carnivores, while
and animals to release the nutrients contained in their bodies. A part of these nutrient movement is cyclic through the decomposers and the nutrient pooK^''
nutrients are absorbed by the decomposers, and the rest is released into the eco
Energy represented as kcal/m^/year. The model also illustrates the concept '^
system where they are reused. Thus nutrients move in a cyclic manner as opposed productivity (GPP and NPP - Gross and Net Primary Productivelyi^" ^
to the unidirectional and non-cyclic flow of energy. The movements of energy and respectively; GHP and NHP - Gross and Net Herbivore Production',
nutrients are depicted in a simplified form in Fig. 2-1. respectively; and GCP and NCP - Gross and Net Carnivore Production;'.'
resf)ectively).
18
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Our Environment
2.4.2. Concept of productivity
The sun's energy is utilized by producer organisms to manufacture organic
food materials. The rate at which solar energy is stored (as chemical energy) by
photosynthetic activity in a given ecosyste^i, is termed the primary productivity of
that ecosystem. Gross primary productivities the total rate of photosynthesis,
including the organic matter used up in respiration by plants. The surplus organic
matter stored by green plants in excess of what they utilize in respiration is
referred to as net primary productivity. A part of this organic matter is consumed
by heterptrophs (herbivores)i^Net primary production minus the amount consumed
by heterotrophs gives a measure of net community productivity^^yond the
producers, energy is stored by successive consumers (herbivores afiid carnivores).
The rate of energy storage by consumers is referred to as secondary productivity.
2.43. Food chains,food webs and trophic levels
f,The sequence of organisms through which food energy is transferred in an
ecos^tem is referred to as the food chain. For example, grasses that fix the sun's
energy are grazed by the sheep whigh is preyed upon by the wolf. In this particular
instance, the food chain has only three sequences:
Grass- ->Sheep >Wolf
9 Trophic levels have been discussed in the previous section. The different
However,the chain may be longer, such as:
Plant >Insect- ->Frog- ->Snake >Owl
This food chain has five sequences or levels. These levels are called trophic
(fr. trophe = nourishment) levels. When food energy is transferred at successive
levels, a large proportion of the potential energy is lost as heat. The progressive
diminution of energy restricts the number of sequences in a food chain to a
maximum of four or five. Each trophic level in a food chain has a distinct name.
Por example, in the plant >owl food chain, plants occupy the first trophic
level (the producer level), insects the second (primary consumer), frogs the third
(secondary consumer), snakes the fourth (tertiary consumer), and owl the fifth
(quaternary consumer) trophic level. However, it must be remembered that the
same carnivore may occupy different trophic levels in different food chains. For
20
Our Environment
example, in a food chain such as : plants >rat ->owl, the owl
occupies the secondary consumer level.
• rf"
Food chains are of two basic types : grazing food chains and detrital food
chains. A grazing food chain starts from a green plant base, proceeds to grazing
herbivores (animals that eat live/fresh plants) and then to carnivores (animal
eaters). The examples cited above are all of this type. In contrast, a detritus food
chain starts from a dead organic matter base to micro-organisms and detritivores
(detritus-eating organisms)and then to carnivores. Detritus food chains are often
the dominant food chain in shallow estuarine or coastal areas. An example of
such a food chain in a mangrove zone of Florida, USA,is given below :
Mangrove leaves (acted upon by microorganisms) >grass shrimp
(detritivore) >Minnow (small carnivorous fish) > Stork (fish-eating
bird).
The term chain gives the impression of a simple, isolated relationship. In
most ecosystems food chains rarely occur singly but ^e interlinked with each
other, forming an interlocking pattern, that is referred to as a food web. A
relatively simple food web is depicted in-Fig. 2.2.
2.4.4. Ecological p3rramids
trophic levels in an ecosystem constitutes its trophic structure.^nie trophic
structure of an ecosystem as well as the trophic functipn in terms ofenergy losses
at each transfer in a food chain can be graphically represented in the form of
ecological pyramids. In such a pyramid, the producer level forms the base and
the successive levels form the upper tiers. Ecological p)'ramids can be of three
general types :(a) the pyramid of number,(b) the pyramid of biomass, and (c)
the pyramid of energy.J)
2.4.4. a. Pyramid of numbers :^^e pyramid of of numbers depicts the^
number of individuals in each trophic level. However, the form of^e numbers
pyramid may vary greatly, depending on wh^er
small and numerous (e.g., phytoplankton, grass),
(e.g., trees). Accordingly, a pyramid of numbers iq^c^^^ly or whollyihy^
(Fig. 2.3.a.)
21
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Our Environment
» Our Environment
Pyramid of biomass: Instead of counting the numbers, the total
Clumna
weight (biomass) of the individuals at each trophic level may be measured to
construct a pyramid of biomass. In most terrestrial (land) ecosystems, such a
pyramid will have a broad base gradually tapering towards the apex. However,in
Cvoatwenns
many aquadc (water) ecosystems, where the producers are tiny phytoplankton
that grow and reproduce rapidly, the base of the pyramid will be small, giving it
an inverted appearance (Fig. 2.3.b.)

Uytiscus Coenatfrion
2.4.4.C. Pyramid of energy: An energy pyramid depicts the amount of
nntsops
energy contained at each trophic level. As the amount of energy progressively
diminishes at each successive trophic level, the energy pyramid is always
upright, and correctly reflects the functional properties of an ecosystem.
Furthermore, while the pyramids of numbers and biomass represent the standing
states, that is the condition at any given moment, the pyramid of energy reflects
Daphnia Cenodaphnia Cyclops cloeon Larva
oosniinn
the rate of energy flow through an ecosystem. The e'nergy pyramid is shown in
Fig. 2.3.C.

2,5. Nutrient or blogeochemica! cycles ^

Scenedesmus
Spirogyra
Beside energy, living organisms also require some 20-30 chemical
Cosmarium
Navicula Suglena elements to carry out various life processes. Some of these elements are required
Fig. 2. 2. Part of a food web in a sm»1i r»r>n#4 nm in relatively large amounts, while others are needed in small or even trace
include : ^ ® organisms shown in the food web amounts. Elements belonging to the former category are called macronutrients,
while the latter are referred to as micronutrients. Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,
=Phyo. nitrogen and phosphorus are the major macronutrients. Micronutrients necessary
the producers in the pond. ^Photosynthesis and are for life include su^hur, chlorine, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron,
manganese, and several other elements. As already stated,^nutrient
feid "'saniama that movement in ecosystems is cyclic. These cyclic movements are collectively
(c) Cloeon larva: Larva (vounplnf.n- . referred to as biogeochemical cycles, as they involve biological organisms aind
consumer. group called the mayflies. A primary their geochemical(atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere) environment. Each
(dl Dytiscus, Coenagrion, Anison« • cycle may be thought of as having two pools or compartments:(i) a large, slowr
laifvae bf insects, and Channa • a fish Z : Adults and/or moving rcjervoir pool, ^d (ii) a relatively small, more active, or •
c^ivores.r.e.,secondly and tertiary consumere^'^ carnivores and top gyc/mg pool that moves rapidly back and forth between
• v.. _ tj,- inamediate environment. Biogeochemical cycles fall intt ^
(i) gaseous types, where the reservoir pool is in llS^JEi^sphere or
(hydrosphere);,and (ii) sedimentary types, where the^^i^oir is in the ear®^'
22
crust(lithosphere). Examples of the first type are nitrog^^^b^4and.water',• ■
23
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Hawk 2 Our Environment
I Lizard 50
1 Lizard 50 (oxygen and hydrogen), while cycles involving phosphorus and sulphur are |"
j Grasshopper 1000" I Caterpillar examples of the latter'^In this section, the global cycling of carbon dioxide and
1 Grass Water are presented in a simplified manner, as these are among the most
i 1 150,000 rz—^ 5.00
Tree 5 important biogeochemical cycles as far as man is concerned.
(i) GRASSLAND (Upright)
(ii) FOREST fPai'tly inverted) 2.5.1. Carbon cycle
Carbon cycle is shown in Fig. 2.4. a. The cycling of carbon is very efficient
in the sense that it is returned to the environment nearly at the same rate at which
it is removed. It involves a gaseous phase, in which it is stored in an atmo^heric
jHawk 48 pool as carbon dioxide, and a larger pool in the ocean where it is mainly in the
Fish 15 form of carboimtes and bicarbonates dissolved in sea water. Carbon from the
Lizard 250
I Insects and Molluscs 4 atmosphere moves to the green plants, which utilize carbon dioxide for
I Caterpiliar 800 ZoopJankton 0.5
manufacturing their food through photosynthesis. It then moves to the consumers
(herbivores and carnivores), and from both producers and consumers to the
Tree 22,500 Phytoplankton 5 decomposers, and then back to the aunosphgre. Besides, some carbon is also
FOREST (Upright) returned to the atmosphere via respiration of producers, consumers and
OPEN WATER POND (Inverted)
decomposers. A large amount of carbon is also stored within the earth's crust in
the form of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) and forms the geological
component of carbon cycle. These fossil fuels are nothing but plant and animal
remains buried long ago, mostly during the carboniferous period (see Unit-l).
Cc) I Owl 15 _ Burning of these fossil fuels results in the entry of carbon into the atmosphere in
^ MLizard
—^
250 carnivores 20 I
Carnivores 350
the'form^f carbon dioxide^ a process the implications of which on the global
I [Grasshopper 2000 Herbivores 3500 climate will be discussed later/Furthermore,'a substantial amount of carbon is
also released from the soil, due to deforestation and agricultural activities which
I [Grass 15,000 Producers i ' '— result in rapid oxidation of organic matter(humus)in soil to carbon dibkide. The
— ___|->-SunIight received ' ocean, the major reservoir of carbon tends to regulate the amount of carbon
grassland (Upright) ^800,000 dioxide in the atmosphere as it readily absorbs the excess carbon dioxide and
STREAM (Upright) f converts it to carbonates and bicarbonates.

Kg. 2. 3. a. Pyramids of numbers (numbers/100 m2) i 2S,2. Water cycle

Kg. 2. 3. b. Pyramids of biomass(dry weight g/m2) Water is of tremendous ecological significance.Gt makes up around 70 per
g. . 3. c. Pyramids of energy (kcal/m2/year) I cent of the total body weight of organisms and is a significant medium for
to reaUituatmnT'^ hypothetical and may not conform exactly I biological activityYit is also an important geological agent, continuously working
' through its cycles of erosion and deposition.jFurtheimore, by virtue of its being a
24
 Our Emironment
Our Environment
ATMOSPHERIC POO!.
(AsCOj) solvent me(iium for a host of nutrient salts and gases, it plays a significant role in
f\
Respinilian
! the transportation of these substances and their uptake by organisms. Finally.^^®
Dccomp»>silion I to its heat absorbing ability, it has a moderating effect on the temperature pf
surrounding areal^(^e major characteristic feature of the water cycle is the
Photosynthesis
/ . \
/ Combustion
OCEAN
fMostJy / DefaTestation.ete. Y'interchange between, the earth's surface and the atmosphere, the energy for
Oarbonates)
CONSUMERS I y is provided by the sun (Fig. 2.4.b). One important feature of water cycle i? that
producers
■Weathering /^e total precipitation is balanced by total evaporation^ It should be noted that
waste fltroducts precipitation over land is greater than evaporation from it, while the reverse is
Combustion true for ocean. The deficit in precipitation over ocean is compensated by
from land surface|'^e blotic components of the ecosystems incorporate water
for making their protoplasm and a substantial ^ount of this is returned to the
atmosphere by way of trarispiration from living plant^ As Fig. 2.4.b. also showSt
p5 per cent of the earth's water is bound in the rocks (lithosphere), and only 5 per
cent is potentially free and in circulation. Of the latter, about 97 per cent is in the
ocean. Freshwater forms only 3 per cent of the free water, of which again, al^^*
75 per cent is locked as ice in the polar ice caps and glaciers, and much of the
Pig. 2. 4. a. The carbon cycle. rest is groundwater. Only about 0.3 per cent is in the lakes and about 0.03 p6f
cent in rivers and streamsj)These figures serve to reveal the limited amount of
fireshwat^ that we have at our disposal.
ATMOSPHERE (0.1.1)
A . Ecological succession

pThe development and evolution of ecosystems is more commonly referred

to as ecological succession. Succession is a process during which ecosystems ahd
VOLCANIC
ACnON
their communities evolve over time. In the course of this evolution, the
inland
WATE^
communities are altered by their physical environment and in turn, the latter is
(•0.25) also altered by the influence of the former. The process of succession culminates
ICE CAPS
glaciers ETC
(255)
in a stabilized ecosystem where the organisms are in dynamic equilibrium with
circulatino
ground
their abiotic environment. Two basic types of succession may be recognized : (a)
WATERS
(2.5)
primary succession when a previously uninhabited area (e.g., a newly exppsed
OCEAN
(13.800) rock or sand surface, or a stretch of lava flow) is colonized by organisms, and
LITHOSPHERE
(ROC3CS)
secondary succession which takes place after a complete or partial removal of
(2SO.OOO) destruction of an earlier community, such as an abandoned crop field or a
Fig. 2. 4. b. The water cycle (amounts in geograms, i.e., 10^0 grams). deforested area.

An example of primary succession on bare rock may help further explain

26 and illustrate the concept and sequences of this important natural process.
27
 Our Environment
Our Environment
The first plantis to colonize a bare rock surface are the lichens. Lichens are
unique organisms, being associations offungi zmd algae. Of the three major types
of lichens, the crustose lichens which form hiard granular crusts are the first to
adhere to the bare rock surface. These afe followed by the foliaceous lichens
which have flattened leaf-like bodies. The next? colbmzefs are usually.the yh/hcorc
lichens which have much-branched erect bddies, along with mosses. These lichens BARE ROCK SURFACE CRUSTOSE LICHEN

and mosses soak up moisture from rainfall and from air, and absorb mineral
Z
nutrients from the underlying rock sur^e. Carbon dioxide released from these ROCK
plants combines with water to form carbonic acid that dissolves the binding
material between small rock particles. The r^ts of these plants also penetrate rock
to son^e extent. At the same tiriie, they trap windblown'dust. When the plants die,
they contribute organic matter to the ^il kccumuUted on the rock surface. When MOSS
sufficient s^ and ofg^ic matter thus accum'ulate, bttier higfier plants like grasses FRUTICOSE LICHEN
and ferns invade, and in turn^'accelerate the process of weathering_ofrock to form FOLIACEOUS LICHEN
s^.Eventually, shrubs, and then trees get established to give rise to a stabilized
SOIL
community (Fig. 2.5.). SOIL

The above example shows thatj^ sequence of plant00°""""^^®^ colonize the - ROCK
— ROCK

rock, one after the other. Each of these transitory ^stages are called the serai stages
or developmental stages or pioneer whilc^the final stabilized community is shrubs
called the clinuix community. For example, in Ind^die climax community could trees
FERN
be a Sal^est in some of the foothills, while it may be Oak or Pine at higher GRASS

altitudes. Thus the nature of the climax community is distinct for a given area or
even a specific biome (explained in section 2.8) depending upon several factors
such as clin^te,soil characteristics, latitude, altitude, and so forth.^ 'rav -

-SOIL
Like their terrestrial counterparts, aquatic ecosystems also undergo the - ROCK
h-ROCK
process of succession. This is very clearly illustrated in the evolution of lakes. All
freshwater lakes proceed from an aquatic state to a semi-terrestrial and eventually
to a terrestrial state. They begin as oligotrophic (few food)systems. At this state,
they are nutrient-d^cient and hence have lowrgroductivity. Marginal plants are
scarce, and plankton density is low, although the number of speci^sjnay be high. Fig. 2. 5. A-F: Stages ofsuccession on a bare rock surface (not to scale).
Thus, oligotrophic lakes are geologically and biologically "young". From this
young stage, they gradually age, and finally become eutrophic (good food),
becoming shallower and more produ^ve. Littorzd (marginal) vegetation is more
abundant, planktqn_density is high, and "blooms" of filamentous green or blue-
29

28
 Our Environment
green algae commonly occur. This aging process from oligotrophy to eutrophy is
referred to as eutrophication. J It should be borne in mind that the process of
eutrophication is very slow, and measured on a geological time scale. However,
human activities are accelerating this process of eutrophication, which will be
discussed in Unit-6.
2.7. Species diversity in the ecosystem
Among the many interesting attributes of the biosphere, perhaps the most
fascinating is the rich variety of life forms that it harbours. There are some 3 lakhs
of species of plants, over one and a half million of animals, while many more still
await description. However, different areas of the biosphere do not have the same
diversity. Generally speaking, the tropical and subtropical areas are much more
diverse than temperate and polar regions. For instance the number of bird species
found in India is more than 1000, while it is only 56 in Greenland.
Although we tend to ordinarily use the term 'diversity' to denote the number
of species, merely this is not a good measure of diversity. The number of
individuals belonging to each species should also be taken into account, as well as
the way they are approportioned among the species.^example may help to
understand this better. Two ecosystems may each have 10 species and 100
individuals, and yet have very different diversity depending upon how these 100
individuals are approportioned among the 10 species. At the one extreme; an
ecosystem may have 91 individuals of one species only and merely 1 each of all
the others (91+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1), while at the other, another system may
have 10 individuals of all the 10 species (10+10+10+10^10+10+10+10+10+10).
In the second system the individuals are much more evenly approportioned among
the species, and therefore, this system has a higher diversity than the first system.
Of course, such extreme cases are cite^ here only for explaining the difference. In
natural systems, we will more often come across intermediate situations.
On the basis of the above deductions, we can say that diversity can be said to
comprise two components : a species richness or variety component (number
of species), andjb) an evenness or'equitability component(^proportionment of
individuals among species). In the example cited, the two systems have the same
variety, but their evenness components are very different.
30
Our Environment
2.8. Species diversity and community stability
A biotic community is said to be stable, if it meets at least some of 6ie
following requirements :J^lthe densities of its constituent populations do not
oscillate too frequently and too violently ; it has enough resilience to
withstand perturbations in its physical environment; and^^iHylin the event of 4'
perturbation, the community has the ability to return, sooner or later, to a state of
equilibrium. Many ecologists believe that high diversity promotes stability in a
community. Hutchinson(1959)and Macj^thur(1965), who were among the first
few ecolb^sts to put forward this diversity-stability connection, reaisoned that[;in
a systern wiA high diversity, the different species occupy different ecological
niches. With a high biotic diversity, the food chains are longer and more complex
with many interlinking connectioris, As a result, a shift or perturbation in one
component or asj^t is unlikely to affect the system as a whole^OThe chiefreason
behind the stability of climax communities is their high species diversity.
However, while numerous studies have served to reinforce positive relationship
between diversity and stability, several others, including those involving
modelling, have tended to disprove this hypothesis. Hence, the diversity-stability
relationship yet remains to be fiilly undeiistood.
2.9. Major ecoj^sten^ and their communities
.^. The ecosystems Of the world could be broadly classified into two types:
terrestrial qpd aquatic, each of these, in turn, having further sub-types. Several
major types of terresfrial ecosystems can be recognized at the regional of
subcontinental level. These are often referred to as the biomes. Aquatic
ecosystems may be subdivided into freshwater, esturine and marine ecosystems.
2.9.1. Terrestrial ecosystems
Temperature and rainfall, along with other factors such as soil conditions*
largely govern the distribution of biomes. In turn, temperature, and to a larga
extent, rainfall, are both associated with latitude. Hence, demarcation of biom®
types is more or less based on latitude. In addition, altitude also influences biom^
demarcation in tall mountain ranges such as the Rockies, Andes, and Himalay^-
This happens because, like latitudinal changes, changes in altitude also result in
altered temperature and rainfall regimes and soil conditions. Th& environmental
31
 Our Environment
characteristics and the biotic communities encountered in the major biomes are
described here.
Tundra
Tundra lies largely north of latitude^60° N. It includes vast areas in North-
America, Europe and Asia, encircling the Arctic Ociean. It is characterized by the
absence of trees, the larger vegetation being represented by stunted shrubs. The
ground surface is spongy and uneven due to alternate freezing arid thawing, an
unique feature being the presence of a layer of penhahently frozen- soil
(permafrost) at a d^epth of a few inches to sevefal feet. Gfbiind flora includes
lichens, mosses and sedges. Animal species include reindeer (caribou in N.
America), musk ox, arctic hare, voles and lemimngs (all herbivoresj; and arctic
fox, wolves and polar bears (carnivores). Reptifes and amphibians are few or
absent. Almost similar conditions as that ofTunSra also exist at very high^titudes
and is called Alpine tundra.
2.9.1.b. Boreal Coniferous Forest
Also known as Taiga, this biome lies largely between 45 and 57° N latitudes
in N. Europe, N. Asia and N. America. The climate is cold but with higher rainfall
than tundra. The dominant vegetation is the needle-leaf» evergreen conifer such as
spruce, fir, pine, hemlock, and some birches and poplars. Mammals include
moose, deer, snowshoe hare, vole (herbivores), and bear, marten, lynx, sable,
wolverine, wolf, Siberian tiger and puma (carnivores). Reptiles are rare, but some
amphibiaiis are present.
2.9.I.C. Temperate Deciduous Forest
This biome is characterized by a more moderate temperature and high
rainfall. Most trees are deciduous, that is they shed their leaves in autumn and
winter. The temperate deciduous forest biome extends over Western. Centiral, and
Southern Europe, Eastern N. America, Western China, Japan, New Zealand, and
temperate S. America. Common trees are beech, tidip, sycamore, maple, o^
hickory,elm, popl^ and birch. Major herbivores include various species of deer,
wild pig, vole, mice, squirrels, and chipmunks, while carnivores include black
bear,fox, bobcat, puma,and racoon.
32
Our Environment
Tropical Rainforest
; Tropical rainforests occur in the equatorial regions in Central and South
America, Cential ^d Westeni Afinca, Southeast Asia, the East Indian islands,
and Northeastein Australia. The annual rainfall ranges between 2000 to-25()()ihm
with high ternperature showing little seasonal variations. These forests, although
occupying only about 7 per cent of the eardi's surface, harbour about 40 per cent
of the world's plant and animal species. Tropical rainforests are dominated by
multiple storeys of diverse, broad-leaved evergreen trees and shrubs and rich
epiphytic flora lUce orchids and bromeliads, as well as vines(lianas). The fauna is
equally diverse with various insects, ^phibians,and reptiles. Mamim^s mostly
include arboreal (tree-dwelling) forms like squirrels, moi^ys and apes, and
leopard and jaguar among the carnivores.In tropical rainforest, decomposition of
soil organic niatter is rapid and most of the nutrients areitied up widiin the'bodies
of the organisms. The soil is acidic and nutrient poor.
y:
(i.e. Tropical Savanna
Tropical savannas are grasslands with scattered trees, and coyer extensive
areas in Eastern Africa, pj^jof Austi^ia, S. America and Asia. The climate is
characterized by a wet(May-October) and d^(November-April) season. The
fauna include a rich variety of gr^ers and browsers such as antelopes, buffalo^
zebra, elephant, rhinoceros, wildbeest, kangar^, bison, and predators like lion,
cheeteh. wild.dog, etc.
l.f. Grasslands
The interior areas of continents, especially in the temperate region, with
low rainfall are occupied by grasslands. These are called tall grassland short
grass prairies in Central North America,steppes in EuroBg and Asia, and pampas
or llanos in South America. As the name indicates, the vegetation is dominated
by different species of grasses, with trees mostly restricted to stream valleys. The
fauna include large herbivores like bi^, pronghom antelope and elk^ and
smaller burrowing herbivores like prairie dog,jack rab^, ground squmel and
gopher. Carnivorous forms include badger, coyote, fereet, and r^and grey_
wolves. The soil is rich in miner^ content and highly suitaWe for fam^g and
grazing. •
33

Our Environment
2.9.1.g. Desert
Deserts are mostly found in continental interiors and are characterized by
very low (usually less than 250 mm annuanv^l and sporadic rainfall and low
humidity. They are also characterized by intense sunshine coupled with soil and
air temperatures that are extremely high bv day and drop abruptly by night.
Furthermore, the eyaporation rate is yery high. Drouight resistant vegetation such
as cacti, euphorbias, sagebrush, etc. dominate the desert flora. Among animals,
mammals adapt to the harsh climate by burrowing during the day and becoming
active at night. Major mammals include camels, kangaroo rat, many small rodents,
and some antelopes. There is a rich lizard and snake fauna. Desert sqjl_is poor in
organic mattgr and alkaline, or in certain areas, saline.
2.9.2. Aquatic ecosystems
As said earlier, aquatic ecosystems are of three major types, viz., freshwater,
marine, and estuarine. These are differentiated mainly on the basis of the salt
content of water. Aquatic ecosystems cover a total of more than 70 per cent of the
earth's surface and harbour a diverse and unique flora and fauna.
2.9.2.a. Freshwater ecosystems
Different freshwater systems may vary considerably in their salt content, but
with the exception of certain mineral springs, even the hardest fresh waters have a
salt content of less than 0.05 per cent. Freshwater ecosystems may be lotic or
running water, including springs, brooks, creeks, rivulets, rivers,,etc., and lentic or
standing water including pools, ponds, bogs,swamps,lakes, etc.
2.9.2.a.i. Lotic ecosystems ; Lotic or running water ecosystems over their
course tend to change from being narrow, shallow, and relatively rapid to
increasingly broad, deep, and slow moving. The susbtratum also changes from
rocky to sandy and then silty. The upper reaches called "rhithron" are
characterized by alternating turbulent rapids and riffles, and placid pools.
Waterfalls also occur where the stream bed falls steeply.(Organisms which can
adhere to or cling to the susbstratum or are very strong swimmers,are found in the
upper reaches of lotic systems. The adhering plants, called periphyton include
filamentous green and blue-green algae, and single-called diatoms. Various small
invertebrates such as larval forms of mayflies, stoneflies, blackflies, beetles, and
34
Our Environment
caddisflies are found, and fishes that are strong swimmers, such as darters, trout,
salmon, and mahseers, etc. Some fish like Garra have suckers to attach to stones
and rocks. In the lower reaches, warm-water fish like carps, cattishes, and
invertebrates like molluscs occur. The cool water of the upper reaches is rich in
oxygen. As the water becomes warmer and devoid of turbulence downstream
(also called the 'potamon' zone), oxygen level tends to go down. On the other
hand, nutrient concentrations tend to increase downstream. The most important
producers of the lotic ecosystems are algae, but organic matter (i.e., food)is also
imported from the surrounding terrestrial ecosystems. There are, therefore, two
major classes of organic matter in running water ecosystems :(i) that originating
from in-stream sources, such as algae and aquatic plants (also called
'autochthonous') and (ii) that brought in from outside (also referred to as
'allochthonous'). Fig. 2.6.a. depicts the zonation in lotic systems.
2.9.2.a.ii. Lentic ecosystems: Generally speaking, these ecosystems may
be considered to have three zones : littoral, limnetic, andprofundal. However,
these zones may not be distinct in small and shallow habitats such as^jxynds,
pools and swamps, but are clearly demarcated in large lakes. The littoral zone
represents the marginal, shallow-water region of a lake that typically has rooted
vegetation. Various submerged, floating, and emergent plants such as reeds,
cattails, lotuses, water lilies, water hyacinths, water lettuces, etc., are found in
this zone. Common animals include insec^arvae and adults, snails, bivalve
molluscs, frogs_and snakes, etc. The limnetic zone is the open-water zone
extending from the surface till the depth to which light penetrates. This zone
contains planktonic forms, that is, organisms whose movements are largely
determined by currents. The planktonic forms comprise phytoplankton (plant
plankton)such as diatoms, green and blue-green algae; and zooplankton (animal
plankton) that mainly includes protozoan^ and microcrustaceans (small-sized
allies of prawn^ shrimps, and crabs). Several types of larger, swimming
organisms collectively called nekton (fish, amphibians, larger crustaceans likie
prawns and shrimps, and larger insects) also inhabit this zone. The bottom and
deep~^ea below the limnetic zone where light cannot penetrate effectively is
called the profundal zone. Food supply in this region comes from the limnetic
zone. This zone contains a variety of bottom-dwelling invertebrates (collectively
referred to as benthos), bottom-feeding fish, as well as decomposer organisms.
The zonation in lentic systems is shown in Fig. 2.6.b.
35
 Our Errvironment
2.9.2.b. Marine ecosystems
Marine ecosystems, occupying more than 70 per cent of the earth's surface
with an average depth of 3750 m (deepest part: 10,750 m in the Marianas Trench
in the Pacific Ocean) and salinity of 3.5. per cent (much of which is sodium
chloride), are of great ecological significance. Five major zones, viz., intejtidal or
littoral, neritic, ocemic, bathyal, and abyssal, are generally recognized in the
ocean. Additionally, the area in the trenches, which are often more than 6000 m in
depth ,is also designated as the kadal zone. The littoral or intertidal zone covers
the area between the high and low tides, and is therefore, subject to wave and tidal
action, and experiences extreme variations in temperature and moisture as well. If
the shoreline is rocky.sessile (fixed) organisms like seaweeds (large al^e),
barnacles, starfish, sea-anemones, etc., are abundant. Along sandy beaches,
organisms that burrow into or crawl on sand, such as polychaetes (marine
annelids), crabs and sarid dol^s(echinoderms) are more common. Near the bays,
mudflats may occur, with al^^ on the surface and photosynthetic bacteria
beneath the algae. Animals like clams, worms, and crustaceans are also found.
Beyond the littoral zone, the shallow water (upto about 200 m deep) zone
overlying the continental shelf is the neritic ("near shore") zone. This zone
receives a considerable amount of nutrients from the larid and is consequently rich
in productivity. Abundant phyto- an5 zooplankton, and a variety of fishes are
present in the surface waters, while seaweeds, cl^s, snails, and wojms_ occur in
high densities on the sea bottom. The region of the open ocean beyond the
continental shelf is the oceanic zone, that is relatively low in nutrients and hence
in productivity. The flora and fauna of this zone are designated as pelagic, and
comprise various phyto- and zooplankton, and actively swimming forms like
fisl^s, large crustaceans, and jellyfishes, etc. The region of the continental slope
and rise is the bathyal zone, beyond which is the abyssal zone (around 2000-5000
m deep). Vertically, two zones may be recognized based on light penetration :(i)
(the upper, relatively "thin" and photosynthesizing euphotic zone, the depth of
^hich varies from around 30-200 m,and (ii) the much laiger aphotic zone below
the former, where light penetration is not adequate for photosynthesi^Th®
zonation in the .sea is shown in Fig. 2.6.C.
2.9.2.C. Estuarine ecosystems
Estuarine ecosystems include river ^Itas, tidal mashes, coastal bays, Qords
36
Our E^ronment
and shallow basins enclosed by offshore bars or barrier islands,^stuaries are
unique 'transition zone' ecosystems where freshwater is mixed with sea watw)
Depending on the extent and rate of mixing, estuarine or brackish water systems
may be classified as nlifiohaline (relativelv low salinity), mesohaline (moderate
salinity), and polvhaline (high salinity)^ Fui^ermore, day-night and. seasonal
variations in salinity as well as temperature are Characteristic features of
estuarine ecosystems. Consequently, organisms living in brackish water possess
wide tolerances to flpctuating salinity and temperature. Estuarine communities
consist of a mixed assemblage of(i)^dndemic species, that is species which are
restricted to estuaries,(ii)^bse which come from the sea, and (pi)^ very few
species from the freshwater environment, that have the osmoregulatory
capabilities in order to survive in more saline conditions,pstuaries are one of the
most productive natural ecosystems^This high productivity results from estuaries
being 'nutrient traps', and ^ecause estuarine producers like sea^yeds, marsh
grasses, benthic algae, ana phytoplankton are capable of photosynthesizing
almost throughout the year. Furthermore, the tides bring in food and nutrients,
and remove wastes. The estuaries act as nursery grounds for many_fisl^ and
crustaceans. Besides a rich diversity of zooplankton, the estuaries harbour other
animals like oysters, clams^ lobsters, crabs, fis^s like salmon, eels, mullets,
Hilsa, the spotted sea trout, and many othersj^owever, estuaries all over the
world are also under tremendous pressure from ill-planned activities like
overfishing, encroachment for urbani^tion, industrial development, off-shore qil
drilling, 2ind others.^
37
 Oiir Environment ! Our Environment

Rhithron zone

(«»■• y ■*/ '*) Intertidal

or Littoral Neritic

y zone zone Oceanic (Open Se^

Euphotic region (Photosynthesis)

Potamon zone
Aphotic region (No Photosynthesis)

Abyssal zone
Continental

(upto around 1(X)0 m)

Fig. 2. 6. a. Longitudinal zonation in a river or stream.
Continental Slope

Littoral zone Abyssal plain

Trenches
(Sometimes > 6000 m
deep) Hadal zone
Limnetic zone
(Photosynthesis)

Profundal zone
Fig. 2. 6. c. Zonation in the sea.
(No Photosynthesis)

Fig. 2. 6. b. Zonation in a deep lake.

39
38

^ Qur £jf\4ronment
XJNIT-3 :MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT
3.1. Human Societies and environment
3.1.1. Nature of man - environment interactions
The basic concepts and principles of ecology that were broadly outlined in
Unit-2, clearly show that ecosystems are complex entities characterizedJjy a
m^titude of interactions among their biotic and aWotic componente^ and a
ecosystems, in turn, are part of ^enonnous, dynamic macrosyste.m - t e
biosphere. It ought to be remembered that, man, too; is essentially one of t_e
numerous biotic components of the biosphere, involved in the ^w of energy an
cycling of nutrTe^nts. However, an extraordinary development of the c^tral
nervous system (larain and spinal cord) has endowed mankind with the ability to
modify the structure ant^fonctions of ecosystems to suit lusjvarious nee^. So
"great has been the"rde"of man in altering the operation of ecosystems that the
Russian geochemist Vemadsky (1945) suggested that the concept of biojp^e
(sphere of all life) be changed to one bF'noosph^Cfrom Greek Noosjjmnd), a
word controlled by the mindof_man. Nevertheless, tHe human species, m spite ot
its ability to effect massive alterations in the biosphere, is still influenced by
ecological processes and is not immune to backlashes resulting from ecologically
incompatible activities.
3.1.2. Historical perspective
The early human societies were hunting and gathering (HAG)societies. The
hunter gatherers were nomads who foraged for edible plants and killed, ^imal^
with primitivejyeappns. As the supply of food was limited and hardly contained
'any sur^s, the group size in HAG societies was small. These societies had
hardly any adverse impact on the environment.
/^From the nomadic and unstable HAG societies, the first agricultural
societies, referred to as primitive agricultural Societies (PAS), evolved around
10,000 years ago. These societies practised subsistence level fanning only,
producing enough to feed individual families. The group size increased
somewhat, and semi-permanent habitations were established. Nevertheless, the
little damage, that their activities caused on the ^^^ironment, could easily be
repaired by environmental regeneration)|^e)e[societies were followed by^:
40
Our EnvirdHment
horticultural (AHS) and agrarian (AS) societies, with increasing economic
surpluses and group size. Permanent settlements were built. Current researches
show that the impact of agrarian ^societies on environment was considerable in
certain areas, leading to desertification and loss offertility. At the same time,
improved agricultural techniques led to increased production, and trade centres,
the citie^were established. evertheless, the impact ofearly agrarian societies on
the environment was con:fined to relatively small areas,^as the population size was
small, and vast areas remained uninhabited and occupied by natural systems.
Wastes produced by these societies were easily reincorporated into natural'
systems, and abandoned agricultural lands quickly reverted to forests.
The man-environment interactions underwent a rather dramatic change with
the onse.t ofthe industrial revolution in the 17th century. The industrial revolution
created an exploding d.eroand for fos.g|] fuels, minerals, mid other natural
i^oiircesi Industries released their wastes ^m localized,'point' sources, rather
than from dispersed, 'non-point' sources. Sophisticated tools employing fossil ^
^Is and electricity were used to increase production in the agricultural sector,
^^ass production ofa varieQ' of consumer articles started.'^li^ge scale production
and use of synthetic chemicals, pesticides and insecticides, metals etc. led to die
generation of wastes that could Jiot be easily degraded by natural processes. At
r the same time, more potent medicines aiid effective control of infectious diseases
gi^tly reduced mortality and increased life expectancy. Consequently,the human'
population started a rapid ascent. To meet the demands offood and shelter of this
burgeoning'population, more and more natural systems were converted to
croplands and human settlements. All these events together exerted a tremendous
^ pressure on the j^hvironment. ^
3.13.Human population growth 2)0®°"^
sudden and remarkable increase in human population in recent years is^^'^^,
often referred to as "population explosion'^ If we analyze the pattern of world
population growth since the time man.first appeared in its present form (Homo £
sapiens)some SO. OOP years ago, use of the term "explosion" wx)uld appear to be
fairly appropriate. The human population at the time of Christ was around 300
million. Since then, it took about 1800 years for it to reach the 1 billion mark.
However, subsequently, it started growing very rapidly, becoming 2 billion in
1930, 3 billion in 1960, 4 billion in 1975, and 5 billion in 1987. Thus while it
1^7
41
" 1. .i:; lecc^c'cc ±0
:! -j'i ,C tt(*C 1C .1 .
.^'12 ' I
 Our Ermronment
Our EnvironmeM
took tens of thousands of years for the human population to become 1 billion, it '1'' '
Caii technological advancements alone provide food, shelter arid other baag
only took 12 years for it to increase from 4 to 5 billion. Again, we can see that the ariienities to each and every individual in the coming years j^No unequivocal
time taken or likely to be taken in future for the human population to double itself answer to these questions appear to be available with us today. NeverthelesSf
is as follows: certain trends and problems are briefly discussed here.(We have seen that therate^
from 0.75 to 1.6 billion 1750 - 1900,i.e., 150 years \ s: of population growth is relatively high in developing countries. Most of thes|
rihtions would double their populations within a time span of 20 - 30 years. That'
from 1.6 to 3.3 billion 1900 - 1965,i.e., 65 years mearis in order to maintain the same standard of liying that is ayailable to.the;
5.-7 people oif these countries today, each and every facility like potable water,fo^i
from 3.3 to 7 billion 1965 - 2010,i. e., 45 years
energy, road network, recreational facilities, health care etc. would have to be;
While the global scenario stands as above, there is a lot of variation among doumbd within the doubling time. It would be extremely difficult, -well-nigh:
nations. About 75jger cent of the world's population is contributed by ^e iiiiposrible for these poor countries to muster such vast amount of resources. Withl
developing nations of Asia, Africa and Latin America, which have a growth rate 'almost all of their resources spent on bare essentials like food and energy, other
of around 2.5 percent,^ compared to less than 1 percent in the developed sectors like education, health, research and industrial growth would suffer. Some
countries. India which occupies only 2% of the world's land surface, harbours experts theorize that the presently available arable land (1.3 billion ha)could be
15% of its population, that keeps on growing at a fairly rqjid pace, as shown in increased to about 4.2 billion ha, and at the same time enhanced production by
Table 3.1. }| applying genetic engineering techniques would greatly increase food production
Table 3.1. Population growth in India(1901-1991)
J to adequately meet the demands of the extra population load. However,it must be
Year Population Increase in a decade
^ remembered that a substantial amount of expenditure would be involved in terms
(in millions) (in millions)
li of irrigation, fertilizers, mechanization and applied research. Furthennorfi^ W?
'f have to take into account the increased rate of soil erosion due toJntensi>5«l
1901 238.4 -

j! cultivation, waterlogging in irrigated lands, and salinization of the soil. Henoie,

1911 252.1 ■ 13J I the^human species is to survive, subscribing to the myth of cornucopia, that is of
'1921 251.3 -0.8 unlimited supplies offood, sp^e_and material resources has to be dispensed with,
279.0 27.7
i We have to realize that the earth is finite in its resources and no species can hopo^
193Iv
T to live beyond its resources. In the word of the renowned American ecologist \
1941 318.7 39.7
j Edward J. Kormondy, "Demand must come into balance with supply and that I
l^v 361.1 42.4 .1 portion of the supply that can be recycled must be recycled if humans are to
439.2 78.1
survive as a species There is a limit to growth, a limit to the size of
1961 -
■ population that can be sustained by a finite supply of resources. Human
1971 548.2 109.0
. population size will need to be regulated and demand for supplies will need to be
1981 685.2 137.0 reduced".

1991 819.4 134.2 3.2. Resources and environment

What are the social, economic and environmental implic^iqns of the. 3.2.1 Natural resources
extraordinary growth of human population, especially in the less developed Besides, the basic need of air, water and food, human societies have a
countries ? Can the biosphere support the teeming billions that are being added ? variety of other needs and wants that have steadily increased with the growth of
42
43
 Our Environment
civilization. Ali these materials are finally obtained from natural resotirces. Thus
Aiauiral resources could be defined as raw jn^er^^s and energy—
indirectly obtained from the natural eriviron^n^nt^Natural resounds may ^
classified into two broad categories : renewable and non-ren^abl^R®newa
resources can be replenished within a relatively short time throug
natural cycle^. For example, trees in a forest, water in a lake or river, fish^id
livestock etc^However, it must be borne in mind that even these resources are not
unlimited when demand for them outpaces the time taken for their natural
replenishihent or recycling,^on-renewable resources, on the contrary,,are either
replenished extremely slowly or for all practical purposes, are not replenished at
all. Examples are fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas,^d mmCTal^
Natural resources can also be classified as abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living)
resources.
3.2.1.a. Abiotic resources
The major abiotic resources needed by human societies include fos^lJuels
(coal, petroleum, natural gas), solar energy, windr mineral resoimies, water and
land. While solar energy and wind power are virtually inexhaustible, the other
resources are finite. Fossil fuels will be exhausted in several hundred years from
now. The same can be said about mineral resources, whiclr are also non-
renewable.Iiir^e of the huge reserves of freshwater on a global scale, a limited
amount is available at our disposal. During the lean season, Ganga watCT is used
several times over before it flows to the sea. Yet, about 150 million people in the
world do not have a^uate potable water supply, and 120 million lack.proper
sanitation facilities.^^bArTMTd resources are also finite, and much of the available
land is either wastel^,deserkor mountain ,and not accessible to agriculture.
3.2.1.b. Biotic resources
.forests have been supplying us with timber, fuelutpod. f^,spicM and
other forest products. Several industries like paper mills also utilize a substanti
porUon of om forest resources. The exploitaUon of our forests is rapidly reactang
unstistainable levels>1fee rich biodiversity, that is the milhons of
which we share our planet, is essential for maintaining the
capacities of the biosphere. Furthermore, these life forms supp y us wi
medicines and other essential products. .
44
Our Environment
3.2.2. Effects of resource utilization on environment
As the nature and magnitude of the impact of exploitation of natural
resources on ecosystem quality, biodiversity, human health and socio-economic
systems will be discussed in some detail in units 4-7, this section only intends to
provide some basic ideas about the relationship that exists between resource
utilization and environmental quality. It is to be realized that^mitle^s exploitation
of resources, material or biological, will result in th^erasing of the natural
threshold and carrying capacity of natural systems. ThCTiaiural threshold of a
natural system is the amount of stress it can^i^stand without changing
irrevocably or collapsing altogether,^ while^ie""cWying capaci^ of the
environment is the maximum number (of plants, animals, human beings,
industries, cities, etc.) that it can support, or the maximum amount (of wastes,
toxic chemicals, radioactive substances etc.) that it can self-purify and assimilate
without disrupting its normal functions^It is now evident that this threshold and
carrying capacity of many natural systems are being exceeded. For example,
fertile lands are turning into 'deserts'; forests are dying due to acid rain; rivers do
not contain fish and other aquatic life forms; and natural calamities like floods,
droughts and landslides are becoming more frequent a!hd increasingly devastating.
Unless we opt for a more sustainable utilization of.our resources, not only shall
we leave a resource impoverished planet for the fiiiure progeny, the
environmental backlashes may become so severe as to make the earth largely
inhospitable or even uninhabitable.
N
Co
A.*-
\
A Sv
(P-r
r ^
j S
45
 Our Environment
UNIT - 4:ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
4.1. PoUutioii
As already stated.in Unit-Span's activities often stress the natural systems
beyond their natural thresholds or burden them beyond their cairying capacities.
This is referred to as pollutipnphich can be more comprehensively defined as
(;'an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of
our air, land and water tl^^inay or will(harmfuUy affect human life or that of
desirable specms, our industrial processes, hving conditions, and cultural assets,
or that may or will waste or deteriorate(^our raw material resourc^?fe;;rrhp'
report by the committee on pollution. National Academy of Scienc^ USA
1966, as quoted in "Fun^entals of Ecology" by E.P. Odum, 1971). In more
simple words, pollution is the addition of undesirable substances or effects that is
I^llutants. wWch adversely alter the environment. "Pollutants are residues of the
tfengs we make, use and throw away .^As the earth becomes more crowded
there IS no longer an 'away'. One person's trash basket is another's living space".
4.1.1. Types of poDuthnts
Environmental pollutants include a vast anay pf substances like human or
anim^ exCTe^ domestic sewage, nutrients, acids, toxic elements such as heavy
tn^s. prg^coinppunds. pesticides, pardculate matter, gases, heat! radiation
noise and oAm. Hpytever.,all these myriad Pollutants, may be ^sifiia^
biodegradable and non-biodegradable. i n '.
4.1.1.a. Biodegradable pollutants
(^Biodegradable pollutants are those that can be relatively ranidlv
decomposed^, that is degraded, by natural processes and ab^^^h^-^T^
environment. Such pollutMts include substances like'Human and aiiSS"excreta
and other natural bypro^cts, materials of organic^ngin^irch as paper
cottOD,jul^ lin^, h^ wo^and other similar substances.Yhus biod^ad^'
pollutants can be broken down and dispersed or assimilated through natural waste
treatment mechanisms.(^e^ or thermal pollution, can also be included in m
category, as it can be naturally dispersed, provided it is within reasonable limits.)
However, biodegradable substances also create pollution when their input into the
environment exceeds the natural assimilative or dispersal capacity of the latter.
Thus biodegradable substances, although not toxic or harmful by themselves, can
46
j « Our Environmerit
-r ^ pollutants when they are introduced into the environmjent iii
lai^e quMUties. One good ex^ple of pollution by biodegradable siibs^fcra
the pollution of rivers or lakes by domestic sewage released fi:om hiiriahi
settliemehts.
4.1.1.b. Non-biodegradable pollutants
^Non-biodegradable pollutants are those that either do not degrade^.pf, ^ 1
degrade very slowly. This category includes substances like metal scraps and ■ I ■*
wastes, glass, plastics, long-chain phenolic chemicals. DDT, PGBi
(polychlorinated biphenyls). dioxins and such other synthetic chemicals fcff Whiai
there are nojnatuMJtteapnen^ processesYNon-biodegradable pollutants, tl^fbre,!
accunmlate in the environment. Not^i^ that, some of them are also "biological^ !
magmfied" as ^ey move along food chains or in biogeochemical cycles (sw
^scussion). Furthermore, they may combine wifli SSct
compounds to produce new toxinsA Hence, the possible solutions for non-
biode^adable pollution comprise steps like prohibiting or severely restricting tfie
dumping of such substances into the environment, or else their rempyal may i
involve expensive, yet only partly efficient, treatment or extraction processes, j
Again, non-biodegradable pollutants with toxic effects are stressful for the j
®^y??9nment even at Veiy low or chronic levels.
^4.1.2. P^utidn of ecosystems ■ r; . .
Human activities have become so widespread and intensive that a v^t
majority of our ecosystems have no longer been able to retain their pnstine
nature. Our air, water and land ecosystems have become polluted to vaiying
Various environmental backlashes have followed, resulting in ^
imp^rment of normal functioning of natural systems and harmful effect^ on
human health. PolluUon has also caused a widespread degradation of our nafural
resource base. In the following sections of this unit, a brief overview of the
pollution of air, water and land is provided.
( 4.2. Air Pollution
^*2.1. The Atmosphere
nie atmosphere contains over 5 x 10 • 5 metric tons of air.. Calculated on a
per capito basis, ffiis amounts to about a million tons for each human beins a .
massive amount indeed. However, in spite of its apparent massiveness and ■
47
 Our Ermronment
invulnerability, the atmosphere, on a global scale, is only a thin cloak of air^
percent of which is contained in a""12 km. thick layer around the earA. "^is
thickness is triflingjvhen compared to the 13,000 km diameter of the eaith. Yet
this airy film is instrumental in preserving life on the earth. Among other
functions, it provides oxygen to breathe, possesses an ozone layer to shield
against the deadly ultraviolet radiation of the sun,keeps the earth warm due to the ^
carbon dioxide it contains, forms and releases ^nfall and moderates the weather.
However, our stable yet delicately balanced atmosphere is under an increasing
onslaught by various human activities.
(^Air is a mixture of gases. It comprises 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen,0.93%
argon, 0.032% carbon dioxide, and traces of other gases like hydrogen, heliuiii,
krypton, xenon,radon, and others. However,"pure" air of this composition hardly
exists in nature, as it contains several other substances such as water vapour and a
variety of suspended particulate matter.
4.2.2. Kinds of Air pollutants
4.2.2.a. Natural pollutants
Even in the absence of man made jpollutants, natund {Jrocel^ses contribute ;
some "impurities" to air. For example, volc^c eruptions,send up ininute solid '
and liquid particles along with the volcanic gases into the an. These particles can
remain in the atmosphere for several weeks or more. After the eruption of f
-111-
Krakatoa, particles <0.002 mm remained for years in the atmosphere. Beside
— ■ — ^ ^
volcanoes, forest fires contribute tiny carbon particles; soil erosion and sand storm
dust particles, and sw sprays salt and minerals to the atmosphere. Furthermore,
plan^pollens, fiin^l and algal spores, volatile organic compounds firom leaves
and trees, decomposed organic matter and a host of other materials are "naturally"
dispersed in air. However, the concentrations of such natural impurities are very
low and hardly pose any threat to the atmosphere.
4.2.2.b. Primary and secondary pollutants
Primary pollutants are those pollutants that are directly emitted froift
sources that produce them. The major primary pollutants are carbon monoxide
(CO), oxides of nitrogen (N2O, NO and NO2; collectively referred to as NOx),
sulphur compounds (SO2 and H2S), hydrocarbons (HC), and suspended
48
Our Emnronment
particulate matter (SPM)^ccqnda/y pollutants, on the other hand, are' not
directly emitted by any source. They are formed by chemical reactions With Mhd
between primary pollutants. For example, sulphur dioxide, a primary pdliift^t
reacts with oxygen to produce a secondary pollutant sulphur trioxide(SO3)which ^
in turn reacts with water vapour present in the air to form droplets of sulphuric
acid(H2SO4),which is also a secondary pdllutan^,
'4.2.2.C. Some major air pbllutaBts
4«2.2.c.i« Carbon mononde:Carbon monoxide(CO)in the atn^osphere is
largely contributed by the automobile's internal combustion engine, incomplete
combustion of gasoline and other fuels produce carbon monoxide^The mmn
potential danger.from^CC^lies in its strong inclination to^onn|bih^with the
haemoglobin of blood andthereby reducing its oxygen carrying capacity. A level
of more than lOCX)ppm CO in blood proves to be fatal to human being^ ^
4.2.2.c.iL Sulphur Compounds:Sulphur dioxide(S02)'2®^ other sulphur
(S) compounds are considered to be among the most hazardous air pollutants
worldwi^^ While sulphur compounds like SO2 and hydrogen sulphide(H2S)are
also emitted from volcanoes, sulphur emission^ from man-made^sources npw
rival or exceed those from nature on a global basis.^hernutl powerpl^^t^t uW
coal are the main sources'Of sulphur dioxide in the air. Suli)Jiur dUonde is ifr^lf
injurious to both plants and animals. In the latter, its main effect is on the
respiratory system. Another sulphur compound - hydrogen sulphide(H2S,known 1
for its rotten-egg smell) is also toxic but fortunately is not eihitted m great ^
quantitie^Sulphur dioxide can react with oxygen to form sulphur tnbxide(SO3)
which reacts with water to forin sulphuric acid, a highly corrosive compound.
This acid is a principal component of acid rain which is a major threat to our
environment on a global basis. Sulphur dioxide itself has corrosive effects/if its ,
concentration in the atmosphere is high, metals cofrode,limestone and n^ble
crumble,falmcs age,paper becomes brittle and leather sttff arid cracked^^uch of
our priceless heritage in terms of historical monuttieiits, prbcious library
collections, antique items etc, are being gradually destroye^ due to the increasing
levels ofSO2 in urban air^
4.^2.c.iii. Oxides of Nitrogen • Nitrogen, a colourless, odourless, nontoxic,
and largely chemically unreactive gas,that constitutes 78% of air, is converted to
49

Our Environment
nitric oxide nitrogen dioxide(NO and NO2)whenever air is raised to a very
high temperature, such as during combustion of fuels- coal, gasoline and oipThe
other member of the nitrogen oxide (NOx)family, dinitrogen oxide or nitrous
oxide(N2O)is not significant as a man-made pollutant(^Automobile emission is
the major source of NO and NO2,followed by thermal power plants. Nitric oxide
is moderately toxic but nitrogen dioxide is a highly toxic and corrosive gas and is
involved in the formation of photochemical smog.)
4.2.2.c.iv. Hydrocarbons and photochemical oxidants: Hydrocarbons are
compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen and represented by the general
formula HC. They are produced during burning of coal, gMoline and'Wood. They
by themselves cause little damage, but some of them, called reactive
hydrocarbons react chemically with oxygen atoms, ozone and oxides of nitrogen
to form photochemical oxidants. Many of these latter are toxic,and irritating to
eyes and damage vegetation. The most notorious photo-chemical oxidant is
peroxyacetyl nitrate, commonly known as PAN.
4.2.2.C.V: Lead : Lead, a metal, enters the atmosphere chiefly from
automobile exhaust. Lead in the form of tetraethyl lead is used as an anti-knock
agent in gasoline, as it raises the octane value of gasoline, and prevents premature
ignition of the fuel that causes knocking. However, use of lead is being largely
discontinued now in diffCTent countries and India also has taken iip programmes
to ph^e out the hse ofleaded gasoline within the comiiig 10 years or so.
4,2.2.c.vL Suspended Particulate matter ;(^Small particles, both in solid
form^Md as droplets of liquid, suspended in air, are known as particulate matter.
Their residence time in the atmosphere is determined largely by their size and
weight.^articulates smaller than 1 micrometer (pm - one thousandth of a
millimeter) are called aerosols^Some of the paiticulates may contain carcinogenic
organic compounds like polycyclic (or polynuclear) aromatic hydrocartjons
(PAH)of which perhaps the best known carcinogen is benzopyrene, while some
others may contain toxic metals like cadmium, chromium, vanadium etc. The
largest contribution of paiticulates comes from burning of coal, followed by
metallurgical industries, cement industry, stone quarries, etc.
4.23. Sources of air pollution
It is evident from the above discussion on major air pollutants that the
sources of pollution are extremely varied. Many industrial, as well as domestic
50
i
Our Envirormerm
and agricultural activities contribute, although the two most outstanding sourcesij
are coal-fired power plants and gasoline driven internal combustion engines ihj
automobiles. Thus burning of'fossil fuels poses the most serious,thureat-.to thej!i|
atmosphere, although ore smelting, tilling of land,forest fires etc. also contribute ||
their share.
43. Water PoUution
The aquatic ecosystems of the earth, viz., streams, rivers, ponds, l^e§,,
wetlands, estudries and even the mighty ocean now face the dangers of-pollu^h
arising out of various human activities. The groundwater reserves are dso iujt
being spared from pollution. A myriad pollutants like sewage,agricultural
silt and sand, industrial effluents, radioactive wastes and excess heat are regularly
discharged into various water bodies the world over, thus making water pqllutipn
a very serious environmental problem.
43.1. Types of water p<4Iutioii
Water pollution could be classified in several ways, such as on thebsiristff
the nature of the |>ollutants, that is into organic, inorganic, metallic, radio^tive,.
them^ ete., of on the sources of pollution such ias into domestic, ihduStiialir
agncultural etc. Another way is to first classify on the basis of the type oflii^i^'
such as into freshwater, marine and groundwater pollutidni^^.
then classify further according to the nature or source of the pollutants. For
purposes of cprivenience the latter approach is adopted here.
Fresh water poUixtion
Freshwater comprises only about 3 percent of the earth's water supply, y®^
man needs freshwater for various activities : drinking, washing, cooking,
irriga^n, industrial production, generating electricity, and others. Each of these
uses generates wastes which in turn are often disposed into the freshwater
ecosystems themselves, causing pollution. Although the same vyater body may
receive poll^ants from several sources simultaneously, for purposes of
convenien^, freshwater pollution could be studied under the following broad
heads: ,/
domestic waste water or sewage;
51
 Our Environment
Our Environment e.g. cadmium,copper, manganese,
b) Industrial effluents; ; lead, zinc, nickel, chromium,etc.
Steel Chemicals, oU,suspended particulates.
c) agricultural wastes; and
Fertilizers Heavy metals, other chemicals
d) radioactive and thermal pollutants. Chlor-alkali Mercury
4.3.2^. Domestic waste water or sewage
ThermalPower Fly^h,heavy metals
Sugar Org^c wastes
Various biological and household activities in human settlements generate
uf StOTage battery Le^
waste water or sewage that contains human and animal excreta, garbage, soaps Copper,zinc, and Copper,zinc, and lead
and detergents, waste food, demand a host of other dscMdeimatenal. r-
lea^ srnelters
When thellSi)ont of sewage released into a freshwater system exceeds the self
purification capacity ofthe latter, it causes pollution. 4.3.2X. Agricultural wastes

4.3.2.b. Industrial effluents Some a^cultural wastes are directly disposed off into waterways, while
some others enter die fireshwater systems dirough runoff from agricultural lands.
Industrial producdon and processing produce large quantities of waste Agricultural wastes ihclude^manme and excreta from poultry and mdmal farms;
effluents that are often discharged, after varying degrees of treatment(or even in- slaughteriiouse waste; harvest' waiste; fertilizers and pesticides from croplands;
an untreated form), into nearby freshwater systems. The composition of the and silt froni eroded landsr
effluent varies from one industry to another, and include a variety of waste
materials like organic matter,inorgai^ts,various metals and their compomds, 43.2.d. Radioactive and thermal wastes
nrjanic compounds,
major pollutants oil, grease, acid^alkalies
generSS'byi^e and,others.
common industries that apTable 4.1 lists
routinely the
released Radioactive materials can enter freshwater ecosystems diMng the milling of
uranium. Discard^'radioactive hacers used iii indusfry and re^airch'dlm als'6
intofteshwatd:systems. ■ • ' -- - ■ ■ -.-ii ■ " ' contribute to water p^lution, as does the waste water ffbih nuclear ^wer
industry. ''
Table 4.1.Pollutants generated by some common industries
Name of industry Pollutants generated Thermal and nuclear power plants as well as several other industries use
Brewery Organic wastes substantial-quantities of water as coolant. The resultant heated^water when
Diary Organic wastes discharged into streams, rivers or lakes can alter the temperature regiihb of the
7^
^ 3. Leather Chromium (heavy metal), sulphides, ecosystems cppc^med and have serious effects on the biota therein.
suspe^ed particulates
Organic wastes, mgrcury and some 433. Groundwater pollution
Paper and pulp
^

other heavy metals Pollutants like sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural wastes and others
Paint and varnish Aromatic long-chained hydrocarbons that can pollute surface waters, can also contaminate groundwater if not treated
Textiles Dy^and m^s(used as mordants) and disposed properly. Raw sewage deposited in poorly constructed soak pits,
Oil and grease,suspen^ ' leaking septic tanks and ditches may eventually percolate to the groundwater
Oil and Petro
particulates, various heavy me^s aquifers. Similarly, industrial pollutants may also cause groundwater pollution.
.

chemical
such as cadmium,copper, manganwe,etc. Large amounts of nitrate and phosphate fertilizers applied in agricultural lands
SOX
Cement Suspeji^d particulates, heavy me^s,
53
52
 Our Environment
db when heard at a distance 01
j -ii
of imw, Errvirormtai
100 m or so; industnal equipments like nnpifens*;!
have been found to contaminate groundwatefin several countries,including ours. drill S6nerat6 around inn wk u-i " k pneinnsti||

4.3.4. Marine poUution

domestic appliances can frequently industrial
| a^ ^U
Environmental changes brought about by human activities have reached
such proportions that even the vast ocean has not been sp^^d of their adverse ofsound. However, natuml noises are mmly oflong dumtion. 1
effects. Of the different marine habitats, coas^ >^ters as well as estuaries have
been the most hard hit, partly due to their, proximity to land areas, and partly to produce a wrde range of problems
nroH 1° noisein(i.e.,
human beings
sound ffon,the
beyond meredesirable
irritationlimit)
to «vScan
their shallow depths tha^ enable rapid buildup of pollutants. Many coastal areas mental trauma, impaired heannc hvoertencinn i j-
ui
of other problems: ® contrni' cardiovascular diseases and a host
An effective
have a hi^h population density and a high concentration ofindustries. Resultantly,
the coastal and estuarine waters receive large volumes of sewage and industrial awareness among people and strict°"troI of noise pollution Would' requii^
enforcement of rules by conceU
virastes. Besides, rivers discharge a lot of silt and other pollutant load into the audrontres. In uffian are« efficient soundproofing of buildings and apartments,
coastal waters, thus contributing further to their pollution. The increasing and creatron of green belts" and open spaces can cut down sound iLls to a
pollution of estuaries and epastal ecosystems is of global coppern as they are great extent. Border planting of highways with h 50 ft. wide band of trees tii&
among the most productive ecosystems of the world. Coral reefs which rnostly only absorb sound but also create habitau for.m.n „iidUfe.
develop along the coastline of continents and islands, harbour an extremely nch 4.5. Ionizing radiation and pollution
biological diversity that is under grave threat from unchecked exploitation by
man. While the effects of radiation on health will be dealt with separately in Uniti
7, this secnon intends,to acquaint the readers with a few fundamental conceptsii)
Apart from being affected by the pollutants that also contaminate freshwater
andi groundwater, the marine environment faces certain characteristic radianbn ecology and the sources ofionizing radiation in the environment
environmental problems, the most important of which is oil pollution. This will be 4.5.1. Radioisotopes and ionizing radiation
discussed in det^ ifl the next unit.
The atoms that are the ultimate building blocks of all matter comprise a
4.4. Noise pollutioii central nucleus and surrounding electron(s). The nucleus consists of protons and
neutrons. The numbe£ o^romns equal that of electrons in all atoms. While the
Noise pollution is yet another important threat to our environment. Noise number of protons in the atoms of a particular element is always constant, the
may be defined as "undesirable sound" that can have adverse effects on its number of neutrons may vaiy/£ie« ^erent atoms of mi element.T^ch with a
recipients. The unit of measurement of sound is the decibel (db) which is not an different number of neutrons, are calledjsotope^Almost all the 90-odd •
absolute unit but a relative one. The decibel scale is logarithmic, that is an found on the earth have two or more isotopes. Some of these isotopes are stable,
increase form 10 to 20 represents a 10 - fold increase in intensity and not 2- fold. but some are_unstable. The unstable isoiopes disintegrate into other isotJ^jS^
The range of human hearing extends from 0 to 120 db or more, but noise releasing energy at the saine time. These unstabin^55gi are r.lSt
beyond 80 db may prove hazardous. radioisotopesjor radionuclides(mid the energy (or radiation)"lii;i;5~^lhe^
O.'s prescribed level of optimum noise referred to as ionizing radiation. The three major types of ionizing radiaUon that
is 45 db by day and 35 night. However, in urban industrial areas noise are of ecological concern are alpha(a),be^)and gamma(y). TTiese radiations
bevond 80 db is very common. For example, traffic noise can ftequendy range have adverse effects qn living organisms. ' ^
beLeen 60-95 db or more; heavy trucks can produce upto 100 db of sound, wtale
motorbikes can generate around 105 db. A jet taking off can produce around 120
54 55
 Our Environment
4^.2. Sources of radiation

Radiation exposure occurs both firpm natural and man-made sources. Jii'fSS" --v-. .."irrs:
4.5.2.a. Natural Sources
—U ,repro<gsssd. involving significant gaseous ivaxm
Cosmic rays:Cosmic rays from outer space enter the atmosphere
and are a pri^aary source of natural radiation. and mills mid liiinei"^ 'Uranium ore and dust hear mines
Radionuclides in earth's crust: Several radioactive elements
like uraaLum. ""W dismtegtation products present in the earth's crust
constitute another natural source.

4.5.2.a.iii. Radioactive substances in soil and water:Radionuclides of v«y«»£rU ® mentioned usees ofradioisotope tracers is
potassium,car^,strontii^etc. are present in soil, water and food plants.
4.5.2.a.iv. Background radiation :The radiation from liatural sources and = eolcontains traces of uraniutn
constitute what is known as background radiation to which the present biota is However human radiaf '^'ntegrauon products are released with fly ash.
signifies. aourde is,not likely to be
apparently adapted. However,certain areas of the earth have higher
background radiation levels. Such a/ugh bacj^pundra^uon^ ).
present in the coastal region of Kerala where mon^ite sands emit radiauon
mainly due to the presence of thorium. The biological effects of high backgroun
contail1tc~fi°d" 'R-OioacUve wastes from nuclear reactors
radiation is not yet fully understood. containerS^e'Stl
possible catastrophic results.
" are stored or buried in sealed
''®'aase, with
4.5.2.b. Man-made sources

Bomb raUout ^Radiation from nuclear test explosions^as been

redu^^nsiderably after the test ban treaty of "ans overground
testingdn overground testing, considerable quantities of fission pro uc s
dispersed into the atmosphere. These radioisotopes eventually settle on e e s
surface and contaminate food chains^
4.5.2.b.ii. Nuclear power plants: On a global scale, the release so far
seems to have been very small, but with increasing use of nuclear energy, power
plants may pose problems of pollution in future. X' f
^ •

II.
4.5.2.b.iii. Reactor accidents:Several accidents in the reactor core have
occurred. Reactor accidents occurred at U. K. and U. S. A., an t e
Chernobyl disaster in the then USSR was of a very serious nature, with at le
56
57
 _ -1 o \

OurEmnronme Our Environment

V>K UNIT-5. IMPORTANT ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS desertification in vast areas of N. America and Central Asia, which now have ,
5.1. Carbon dioxide and global warming(Greenhouse Effect) high yield Of agricultural crops, resulting in food crisis on a global scale.
5.2. Ozone layer depletion
Carbon dioxide(CO2)is a colourless, hbn-tpxic gas that readily dissolves
water. However, since about 1850, the level ol^ carBoh dioxide in the atmospher^ ([Ozone^s a minor constituent of the atmosphere but plays an extremely
has been rising dramatically, causing a,niajor environmental concern because qj. significant role by^providing a protective screen against deadly ultraviolet (UV)
its impact on the world climate. The two most impprtantre^ons for this increa^^^ radiation, thus making life on land possible^The maximum concen^ation of
in ca^on dioxide in thcratmosphere burning of fossil fuels and massive*. ozone is around 10 ppm in the stratosphere^where it exists as a band at an altitude
deforesta^n on a global scale. ItTs estimated that from about 290 ppm (parts pe^T of about 25-30 km./fcuririg the recently ears, however, this band of ozone has
million) in 1850, it has incrtSased to about 334 ppm;ifi 1979. If the present trends thinned and especially above the South Pole, a 'hole* in the ozone shield has been
continue, the latter figure could be doubled bv the vear 2020.
■'
•"
- ssy I. ^ detected where ozone concentration has declined by almost 40 per cent^ •
^ ^ . . ^ 2.e'2-0
What kind of an impact does rising levels of carbon dioxide have on the The principal reason for ozone depletion has been attributed to a groupi>f
world climate ? We know fliat tho incoming solar radiation passes through the I chenucals called chlorofluorqcarb^s (CFCs). The most common CFCs^ej)
1

atmosphere to strike the earth, and carbon dioxide has the unique property of CPCI3, ^faich is used in aerosol s^ray cans, and ii) CF2 C12, which is usg(d j&.Si
absorbing the outgoing heat (infra-red radiation). Hence, an increase in carbon refnger^t. The latter has the commercial name of 'l^eoi^There are oAer CTCs^
dioxide in the atmosphere would result in a warming of the earth. This warming is also, extensively^sed as a blowing agent for^oft polyurethane foam^/ds agents
popularly referred to as Greenhouse Effect. It takes its name from the warmth in for metal clewing and drying, in industrial sterilization of medical equipment,
greenhouses, where sunlight freely enters through the glass panes, but the heat and in fast freezing of foods. CFCs in the atmosphere destroy ozone (($3) by a
generated in the form of infra-red radiation is largely absorbed by the game glass photochemical process whiichr may be expressed in a simplified fashion as follb^
panes. In other words, carbon dioxide acts much as the gf^s panes do, preventing
heat to escape. '
CFCI3/CF2CI2 + ultraviolet light ->C1
Beside carbon dioxide, other gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect
are water vapour, methane, and to a lesser extent, ozone. It has been observed that C1 + O3 >ClO + O2.
methane emissions from livestock manure, rice-fields, and digestion of dead wood
in forests by termites are also increasing considerably due to increased Thus CFCs react with ultraviolet light to produce chlorine (Cl) which in
deforestation and proliferation of livestock-rearing and agricultural activities, thus im attack ozone and destroys it. The ClO produced is unstable and breaks dowfij
enhancing the greenhouse effect.
ao >C1 + O

According to a projection made by the National Academy of Sciences,
USA, a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide is likely to result in a global
increase of temperature around 1.5 to 4.5 °C. The possible outcome of this,/f'
increase would comprise :^^^a)inelting of the massive ice caps of Antarctica ancAK^
Greenland as well as of glaciers resulting in a rise in sea level by 0.5 to 2.5 metrei^fSSS^®*^®'
and the consequent inundation of coastal areas, and certain islands, and ^b)4-'
58 vA ^ ^ V
a
1 The released chlorine now can attack fresh ozone, in this way settihg up n
f chain reaction and destroying many molecules of ozone,
such as the 'Concorde' consume large quantities of fuel, thereb)
i-^is4'easing nitric oxide (NO) into the stratosphere. This can destroy ozone in tlie
l owing manner:
59

fvl A'_to^(i^'
Our Environment
NO + O3 >N0i>02
NO2 reacts with oxygen atoms(O)to yield NO again :
NO2+ O >NO + O2
i 5. A veiy liai^ge number-of lakes in.United States; Canada, and Scandinavian
And NO can again destroy fresh ozone.
Thus, both CFCs and NO can have a devastating effect on the ozone lay '
by setting up chain reactions in which large amounts of ozone can be destroyed
even small quantities of these two chemical compounds.
The thinning of the ozone shield would result in an increased amount of
ultraviolet radiation penetrating through the atmosphere and striking the earth's
surface. This could greatly • in^ease the incidence of skin cancer, reduce 11
agricultural productivity, and destroy the youngs of many marine organisms.
besides contributing slightly to the greenhouse effect.
5.3. Acid rain
it
Rain water in unpolluted areas has a pH. of around 5.6, being slightly more
acidic than saliva or milk. When rain,-or any other form of precipitation such as
snowi sleet or fog, has a pH less than 4, it is termed as acid rain. Acid rain
contains dilute solutions of two very strong acids, sulphuric and nitric. They are
formed when sulphur dioxide from coal burning ^ower plants, industrial boilers
4J »
and smelters, and nitrog^'idioxide from automobile exhaust,come in contact with
water vapour in air to form sulphuric and nitric acids, respectively. The
concentrations of sulphur and nitrogen oxides in air have risen siibstantially in
many parts of the world due to an increase in industrialization and automobile
traffic. Consequently acid rain has become more frequent and more acidic during
the past few decades. Just to cite a few examples, the city of Wheeling in West
Virginia, USA, experienced rain fall with a pH of 1.4 (almost as acidic as car
battery acid), Toronto received rainfall having a pH of 3.5, and Los Angeles 2.2.
I
The pH scale is an index of acidity and alkalinity. It has a range of0-14. pH
neutral, i.e., neither acidic nor alkaline, while values below 7are progressively acidic, a
these above 7, progressively alkaline. Y species of plants and animals (pests). Pesticides include :(i) insecticides used to
vO 1 0
V
60 •>7
__
Our Environment
Acidifrain; can,cause incalculable damage to terrestrial and?iaquatic
ecosys.tem& Mbst fish species can not survive in-waterc having a pH;dfiless than
countries like Norway,and Sweden have become almost totally devoid of fis^ due
to acid:r^irHigfeiaeidity>also..results;in a higher release of metals such as
alunu^m from the:s6iljjrestiltmg;in toxicity. Acid rain also adversely afreets soilv<
bacteria and fungi, as wClfcasiiees like spruce,rpine, aspen and birChr Yet another
important harmful efr^t ofacid rain is the damage it has caused to important
architectural^structures..liker the^ Acropolis of Athens, therParthenon, the Taj.
Maha^sAth^ Coloaseum [of Romej the Lincoln^Memorial; and tthe'Washin^oni:
Monument besides damagingiinnumerable othet;buildings, bridges etc..
y
<Vy>^.4IHea^ metal pdUution
• S^Veriai'huinah acfivit^^ such as iiidus^^ization, power generation and^
transpprtatidh liaVp"resulted iii the release and dil'charge of heavy-ihetal^iiie
most iiiipditant bfw^ch,in terms of toxicity are rhercit^,lead and ca^riiiurh and
metalloids'like arsenic. However, other metals such'as c^ipmium, copper, ziric,
ni^ei and mmganese_cm also cause adverse effects if their levels exceed ceriain
limits. Heavy metals ar^also released into the en-Wponment from natural
processes like volcanic activity arid yeadiprmg; ypckgi ftoyeyer,?:their
concentration have been greatly amplified in air, water and soil due to hiiman
activities. The^^ two most infamous environmental disasters associated witHlieavy
metals^e the Minamata disaster (separately dealt with in Unit-6)due to merfeury,
and Itai-Itai-disease due to-high levels of cadniium. Lead is anotheir toxic heavy
metal that is largely contributed through the use of leaded gasoline as automobile
fuel. The health effects of these and other heavy metals are described in Unit-7.
Heavy metal pollution poses a serious threat to the environment because- natural
cycles for removal of heavy metals from the ecosystems require a very long time,
and hence the residency periods of these metals in the environnient are so.great
that on a human time scale they may be considered as permanent. Furthermore,
many metals tend to get 'biologically magnified' in the food chain and; in
biogeochemical cycles, thereby compounding the problems of pollution and
health (see section 5.5.3 for a discussion on biological magnification).
5.5. Pesticide pollution
Pesticides are chemicals used to control and destroy undesirable or hanhful
61

Our Environment
kill insects which att^k crops, or those which cause disease (e.g., mosquito,sand
flX.etc.), or those which are^^omestic pests (e;gi, cockroach),(aytierbicides meant
for killing weeds, Ciiiyf^gicides specially designed to check fungal growth, and
QyH)!fier pesticides such as redenticides(to kill rats), nematocides (to control
nematodes), and others: Needless to say; pesticides have enabled man to control
many dangerous diseases like malaria, kala^azar- ^d ^phusi and to greatly
augment his food production. However,indiscriminate use of pesticides without a
proper understanding of their pathways in the environment as well as their various
harmful effects have created problems of great environment concern. Some of the
pesticides are biodegradiable and are degrade^by natural processes. However,
most of them are non-biodegradable, or they form byproducts which are more
toxic than the original chemical. These non biodegradable^sticides tend to
persist in the environment for an inordinatelj^i^ tinie period, and alsq get
"biologically magnified" causing further probieinSj.,The most dangerous pesticides
include chlorinated hydrocarbons like J)PT, pieldrin, Aldrin, Heptachlor,
Toxaphene etc. The major adverse impacts of pesticides on ecosystemT^
summarized below, while their effects on human health are discussed separately
in Unit - 7. ^ and dther chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticidesNwere found to be espect^iy(|
5S.1,Destruction of non-target organisms
Although pesticides are meant tO;kill their respj^tive target organisms, they
often do not spare the non-target species. Thus, insecticides kill even useful
species of insects which may either serve as food for frpgs and birds or as natural
enemies of the pest species. Fungicides destroy useful fungi that help in
stabilization and mobilization of important nutrients like phosphates. Herbicides,
besides wiping out weeds, also eliminate useful species of plants and minor crops
which play an important role in the ecosystem.
5.5.2. Growth of uiununity in target organisms
Extensive use of pesticides have resulted in the evolution of pesticide
resistant strains in the target organisms that are no longer vulnerable to these
chemicals. It is estimated that about 45Q species of insects, mites and other pests,
and around 50 species of weeds have developed immunity against various
pesticides.
62
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Our Environme0\
5.5.3. Biolqigical magnification "Him
Perhaps the most dangerdus property of many pesticides is their tendency^
get "biologically magnified". This property they share with other pollutants like^j
certain heavy metals and radionuclides. In biological magnification, orfoodcha^|
concentration, a substance tends to get concentrated (that is its amount increas^)iij
as it moves alongithe food chain from producer through successive consum§rt<
levels. J
fThe following ex^ple illustrates the biological magnification of D0T;j;
whi^ was sprayed in very low concentrations so that its level in water w'^
mere 0.00005 ppm. However,due to biological magnification, its concentration iiiii
plankton became 0.04 ppm,in minnow (small fish)0.23 - 0.94 ppm,in predate^
fishes such as pickerel ah^ needle fish 1.33 - 2.07 ppm,in small fi^h-eatingbir^
like Heron and Tern :3.57-3:91 pm, and in Cormorant(a bird feedmg oir^l^g^
fish) a spectacular 26.4 piim. One consequencq of this phenomenon was a drastif;
reduction in the populations of predatory(^ird^^uch as hawks, eagles etc^wi3T
harmful to birds as these compounds ^terfere witn egg shell"formation, resiiltihg; i,;|
in e^s that break eksily, killing the young chick withinjhgjri.Pesticid^^^
also constitute a direct'threat toQium^^beings through widespread cohtatiimfiabdn ^
of food items. Vegetablesfvvhe^^ and cotton seeds were foiind "lb fed
cohtanunated with DDT'and BHC(another pesticide). In USA,meat,fish;'pbtifti^ ^
and dairy products were found to be contaminated with pesticide VesiduCs
although pesticides are not directly applied to any of these products, indicating'
contaniination through the food chain. Thus, biological magnification afid
widespread contamination of environment by pesticides constitute a major |
environmental problem with serious implications for human health and safety, aS jj
well as for various implortant wildlife species. |
5.6. OU poUutioii of marine ecosystems
Marine ecosystems are extremely important ecologically as the oceans
occupy more than 70 per cent of the earth's surface, and act as the main reservoir
for carbon dioxide, besides having a strong influence on global climate, and a
source of food for the world populace. Hence, any undesirable alteration in' 1
marine ecosystems is bound to spell disaster for mankind. A very serious |
environmental problem confronting marine ecosystems is their pollution by oil. \
. I j^ ^ a cco^ . ,03 /., , ^ecr^U !t> • A ,t,)^
j b1
> >^ ^ -I '

Our Environment
During the last three or four decades, there have been several incidences of oil
spills in the sea, either from offshore doling sites, or due to oil tanker (large ship
transporting oil) accidents. One of the most dangerous fallouts of the gulf war in
1991 was the pollution of the Persian gulf by some three to four hundred million
gallons of oil discharged by Iraq. However, oil pollution due to major accidents or
due to war receives a lot of media and Government attention and attempts to
'clean' the oil spill is made on a war footing with all possible technological aids.
Yet/a large proportion of oil pollution of the se^goes unnoticed and uncared for.
Such pollutionfoccurs as a result of cleaning of the holds of an oil tanker. An
empty tanker'of the super class retains some 3,000 gallons of oil sticidng to the
walls of its hold. A great many tankers are routinely flushed at sea, as this practice
is much cheaper, although illegal.
Oil pollution arouses great environmental concern as oil is not a simple
compound but is a complex mixture of numerous chemicals with varying types
and degrees of toxicities. This makes it extremely difficult to understand its
ecological effects. When oil comes into contact with water it yapidly spreads into
a thin layer and its lighter fractions evaporate. Some are oxidized and some are
broken down by microorgani^s. l^owever, even within the short time span
before evaporation, they c^^ause incalculable damage to marine ecosystems.
The hart^st hit are the dental ecosystems,and coral reefs, Salt marshes. whi<ih are
spawning grounds and, nursery beds for various sea fishes and sanctuaries for
birds and other forms of wildlife, the shallow inshore tidal and intertidal zones
that are among the most productive areas of the world, and the coral reefs which
harbour a spectacular range of biodiversity, are aH^P^erely affected by oil spills.
Large scale mortality of aquatic birds such as guillemots, razorbills, puffins,
penguins, auk etc. occur when they get coated with oil and die due to loss of
insulation, loss of bu^micy>^nd poisoning after swallowing oil in an attempt to
clean their feathers. The gills ^d other respiratory^rgans of fish, inolluscs such
as clams and oysters get choked with.oil, resulting in death. Chronic inhibition of
reproduction, behavioural change and ev^genetic change of endangered species
of animals and plants may occur. The heavier fractions of oil, which persist as
tarry lumps have been found to contain several cycmogens (cancer-causing
substances) and other toxic chemicals. It is not yet fully understood whether these
hazardous chemicals are entering marine food chains and are getting biologically
magnified.
64
Our Environment
It is estimated that about 5 million metric tonnes of oU is spilled into the sea
annually. Therefore, oil pollution remains and is going to remain g major threat to
our marine ecosystems and resources. Improved technology for cleaning
operations, such as those using oil-eating bacteria, are of course, noW available,to
combat oil spills with far greater speed and efficacy.
y
5.7. Loss of wildlife and diminishing biodiversity
The term wildlife embraces all plants and animals that are not domesticated,
although traditionally, only mammals, birds, and certain reptiles and ^^phibians
came under the popular conception of 'wildlife'. India has a rich heritage of
wildlife. It has some 350 species of mammals; about 12(X) species ofbirds; w^ll
over 20,000 known species of insects and perhaps as many or more still awaiting
description; and abut 7000 species of plants that are endemic, that is, only found
in India. Nearly 1250 species qf orchids occur in India, of which 300 are endemic
to Meghalva in Northeastern India. Besides, there are some 2500 species pf
fishes, 150 species of amphibians, and 450 species of reptiles. Of these,.66 •
species of mammals, 38 species of birds, and 18 species of reptiles^ and
amphibians were listed in Schedule I (endangered species) of the 1972 wildlife
protection Act.
\■ .., " . '' i
5.7.1. R^ons for loss of wildlife - . .f y-;.
A plethora of factors ranging from socio-economic and political to ethical -
behavioural, are responsible for the continued extinction of wildlife species.
Some major specific reasons are briefly outlined here.
5.7.1.a. Destruction and unfavourable alteration of habitat
To meet the ever-increasing demands for food, space, and commodities of a
growing human population, more and more natural systems like forests, lakes,
rivers, and wetlands are being altered, fragmented or even destroyed by
deforestation, overgrazing, agric^ure, construction of dams, drainage, hig^ay
construction, mining, urban and industrial development, and other such activities.
Many wild plants and animals fail to adjust to an altered or degraded
environment, and consequently their numbers decline or are totally decimated.
5.7.l.b. Hunting for food,sport,and commercial products
While the pressure exerted on our wildlife resources due to hunting for food
—fe—
"f3b ^ ~
65 ■f ■)
s ^
^ />y\ f:>' ^^
* . *)
CT-r-c
2^.
-
1 e ^{b
... VG"*- t - 5- -c
 ^and snort
port has considerably declined during the past few Our
decades, killing of
Environment
animals for furjjide, tusk, antler and other body pai^ill continue unabated. For
instance, rhinoceros is hunted for its horn,jharial and crocodile for skin
fat and whalebone, variot^irds for feathers, fur bearing animals like
^njc^^a^,ermine for fur, and tiger-leopard and deer for skin. Organiz^angs
operate, often at an international level, to smuggle and trade in these
commodities. Our superstitious beliefs are also responsible for some of these
Items fetching a high price. Rhinoceros horn is prized as a "potent aphrodisiac"
^ ough there is no scientific evidence for this belief.
S.T.l.b.i. The "bird mystery" and killing at Jatinga: Jatinga is a small
from Haflong, the district headquarters of the North Cachar
Assam. This village is inhabited by the Pnari (or the
.^ynt^^s or Jainti^as they are also called) from the neighbouring Jaintia Hills
bi^^^^ Meghalaya.
.s on certain nights Jatinga is famous
during July for theevery
to October mysterious
year. On"self-immolation^of
such nights, which
are usualjy new^moon nights or in the dark quarter of the moon, birds are fatally
attracted to lights at certain specific spots in the village. However, certain
nvironmental conditions have to be fulfilled for this phenomenon to occur. As
^d earlier, the night must be dark (as on a new moon nighfor within 4-5 days of
e new moon), a misty weather should prevail, and the wind direction should be
rom the South to the North. The villagersr!take advantage of this natural
suim al tendency of the birds, and place lighted torches mounted on long
am^op^s at strategic points in the village. The birds that are attracted to lighT
an descend, are then captj^ and kfibd, and preserved by smoking to serve as
o t oughout the year. This annual massacre has been going on since the time
e Pnars settled at Jatinga. Both resident birds like myi^, bul^l, various wild
pig^s etc., as well as migratory birds such as teals^ podicep, three-toTd
fangfisher, ratis, red-headed heipn etc. have been found at Jatinga. While during
u y- ugust, more resident birds are captured, migratory species are trapped
mostly during September-October. A study team from the North-Eastern Hill
niversity recorded as many as 58 species of birds on a single night! The birds
appear to be dazed and totally disoriented, and do not fly away even if they are
induced to do so. Perhaps none of the various hypotheses advanced to explain the
mysterious behaviour of birds has been able to solve the "bird mystery" of
Jatinga. Nevertheless, the fact remains that a large number of birds, many of them
66
.belonging
I . to rare or endangered species, fall prey to humans
Ourthere
Environmerk
evei^^^
However, it is heartening to note that the Assam Forest Department offieialsfe^
been able to wean away the Villagers from this harmful practice to a lar^
5.7.I.C. Introduction of exotic species
.
J
i
Intfoductibn of foreign or alien (exotic) species into new habitats bft^
result in ecological problems. These introduced species may outcompete a
species with which it shares its niche, leading to the extinction of the latter, to
absence of natural predators, an infroduced species may assume 'pest' propbrti^ii
as exemplified by the case of rabbit in Australia. '1
Ir-'l i!
5.7.l.d. Other factors
Collection of animals and plants for Zoological and Botanical
pnv^ collections and research institutes, industrial pollution, and,
pesticides diat kill non-target species, are among the other factors responsible
the decline and extinction of wildlife.
5.8. Deforestation, soil erosion and desertification (with referttfcd'^fe,
India)
The three very important environmental problems of deforestation,^
erosion and desertification are discussed together as they are intricately linked'
and have overlapping causes and effects.
5.8.1. Deforestation
Deforestation, that is, removal of forest cover is the cause of seriofe
envu-onmental concern on a global scale. In India, the causes of deforestation ate
many,of which the principal ones are :
a) Shifting or slash-and-burn or swidden cultivation, b) other agricultutal'
practices, c)development projects, d) industrial and commercial demands
demand for fuelwood.
5.8.1.a. Shifting or slash-and-bum or swidden cultivation
Shifting or 'Swidden' cultivation is an age-old practice that probably
constituted the first step towards food production by early agrarian societies, It^iS'
67
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a slash-and-burn type cultivation where forested tracts are cleared and burnt to
provide nutrients to the soil. Very simple and primitive agricultural tools are u^d
and after one or two harvests, the land is left fallow and allowed to regenerate its
vegetative cover. This alternate cultivation and fallow regeneration is referred to
as the jhum cycle. This type of cultivation is still widely practised in India in the
two hill districts of Assam viz. Karbi Anglong and North Cachar Hills, and in the
hili states of Manipur. Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura and Anmachal
Pradesh. In these areas, it is locally referred to as Jhum cultivation. Shifting
cultivation was environmentally benign in the past, when the population size was
small, and vast areas of virgin forests were available. Consequently, the fallow
period was very long, ranging from 25-30 years, and was enough for the forest to
regenerate fully. However, population growth and corresponding scarcity of forest
land have forced the jhum cultivators to reduce the fallow period to such an extent
that the jhum cycle has become as short as 3-5 years in certain areas.
Consequently, there is no time for the land to recover its vegetative cover, which
in turn results in soil erosion, as much of the precious topsoil is washed away,
making the land unfit for further use. Fresh areas of forest tracts are then cleared
anew, and the practice continues, gobbling up more and more forested areas. Thus
shifting cultivation is no longer a feasible or even economically rewarding
practice today, as it results in extensive deforestation and soil erosion, while food
production is very low.
Agricultural activities
The vast majority of farmers in India either do not have or have only limited
access to modern agricultural facilities like fossil fuel, electricity and
sophisticated agro-machinery. They still practise traditional agricultural methods
which are heavily dependent on rmnwater, draught animal power, and are, largely
speaking, very much subject to the ^vagaries of nature. Consequently, production
is low, and to meet the growing demands of a burgeoning population, more and
more land is brought under agriculture, mostly by clearing forested tracts.
Available data indicate that of the total area offorest lost in India, around 65-70% _
or more is removed due to agricultural activities.
'^.S.l.c. Development projects
Many developmental projects like highway construction, laying down of
railway lines and construction of large dams for hydro-electric power projects
68
Our Environment
take their toll on the forest. Of particular mention are the hydroelectric power
projects, most of which, besides causing several sociological problems, also cause
!• »
extensive deforestation. For example, the proposed Tehri power project in Tehri,
Garwal Himalays, on the rivers Bhagirathi and Bhilganga would submerge an
estimated 4,600 ha of forest land. An estimated 0.49 million hectares of forest has
been lost during 1951-76 due to the m^jor river valley projects.
5.8.1.d. Industrial and commercial demands.
Wood,the major forest produce, finds numerous^industrial and commercial
uses ranging from hniisebuildlng^ making of boxes, crates, furniture and match
boxes to papered pulp and plywood making. The global demand for wood for
industry and commerce is to the tune of 1.5 billion cubic metres much of which
(about 80%)is consumed by the developed natTons of the North. Nevertheless,
much of the supply comes from poor, developing n^ions rich in forests such as
some latin American nations, Phillipines, Malaysia etc. In India, the paper
industry, the ap]giejjidustry of^e Himalayan states like Jammu & Kashmir and
Hii^achal Pradesh, and plywgod factories are the major consumers of wood.
Unrestricted exploitation of forests to meet these demands are causinjg massive
deforestation throughout the world.
5.8.1.6. Demand for fuelwood
While the developed nations consume the major sh^e of wood for
industrial and commercial purposes, the developing nations utilize about 82 per
cent of their total wood consumption as firewood. About 1.48 billion cubic metres
of wood are burnt as fuel in the less developed nations of the South. India
consumes about 135-170 million tonnes of firewood annually. Until alternative
sources of energy can be provided to both urban and rural poor, fuelwood
consumption is going to remain an important contributing factor towards
deforestation in developing countries.
5.8.2. SoU erosion
Soil, that is the upper weathered layer of the earth's crust is a mixture of
both mineral and organic material, the latter comprising both living organisms
and products of their decay. Soil formation is a slow process that involves
physical, chemical and biological phenomena like weathering, erosion,
69

our Environment
These process^
d penetxauon by "horixons' in the so.b
Our Environment
harmful activities. Soil erosion from 'Jhum' lands was found to^ be ranging
between ji.l:44_tDnnes, per .heclaie-P®f_ y^a^around 40-50 tonnes from slopes
^ having potato cultivation, and 24 to 62.6 tonnes per beetle per. year from.slopes
covered witli pineapple orchards.

giaduaUy lead hotixons ts co P ^^yet ,n 5.83. Desertification

The uppennosi_9l n As the lopsoi^s • pccentia^ n have led to
About one third of the earth's total land area is occupied by deserts which
support about one sixth of its population. Deserts may be classified into three
main categories.

a) Hyperarid deserts, e.g. Sahara in Africa. Mojave and Sonoran in N-

America, Takla Makan in China, and Arabian desert in Arabia.

b) Arid deserts, e.g. Sahel in Africa, Chihuaruan in Mexico, Gobi in China.

fotas. plays in soil^ .s abs^^^^^;^ -'trl utuV- - ■ and parts of Thar in India and Pakistan.
dons not bit the stnl suri^ ly .nftb^ tbesuean^°^^
covers the ground^ I^^g^epjt.and c) Semiarid deserts, e.g. Great plains in the United States, Kalahar^jg
Africa, and eastern parts of Thar in India. ,
latter. Some manner, the on hill slopes, th ^^sion,
flow especially thus causi g ^ Desert formation in agricultural areas also look place in the early days of
forest cover dislodgin&i^l^-—.-^'^ov/s along the su ^ the
human civilization. For instance, the Tigris-Euphrates V^ley, which once was a ,
M the same d can perco a sustained m - tamy fertile agricultural land had turned to desert. However, the world has experienced,
an alarming expansion of deserts over the past two centuries or so. This process
„u.oft
nin-off and very ^,,ar ia
in a conns'^;- ,d4ad--ater
cot}— _ sdt-laden ^ater flood!
"°\ Jy receive
^i'^^^ntrad'tbey receive large voto-^^^J^-the
large « severtiy
the severny^^
has been accelerated by human misuse of land, and is a major global concern- •

i^asfeSSrri------
canymg capa V ^^positiom /
Indiscriminate agricultural activities without proper land use planning and soil
conservation measures, as well as overgrazing by livestock anim^als have been
largely responsible for the creation of desert like conditions, a phenomenon
termed, as desertification. According to an UN estimate, the annual rate of
«ith increasmg^ desertification is about 80,000jg. km. If this continues unabated, a total land aiefl
of some J[9,OOP,000 sq. krm (equal to that of USA, the erstwhile USSR and
5.8.2.b- Mature „ological process the or less Australia combined) would be affected by desertification in future. In India, about
^ million hectares of land area in Rajasthan and Western Gujarat is affected by
desertification, much of which has occurred due to ecologically unsustainable
"•"■"t' rp."- '"::"a"fc~»"' •• *■• agricultural and grazing practices.
 Our Environment
5.8.4. Deforestation in North-Eastern India Our Environment
Table 5.1. Forest cover in the North-East Indian states (1987-1993)
The seven Northeastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, i (Bas^ on satellite imagery)
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura together occupy an area of around Geographical Forest Area(km'^)
255,083 sq. km., and comprise about 7.8 per cent of India's total land area. About Area Assessment Year
65 per cent of this land area in the Northeast is under fores^, making it one of the State (Km2) 1987 1989 ^91 1993
'greenest' ar^s'in the country, besides the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. At the 1. Arunachal 83,743 60,500 68,7^3 68,757 68,661
same time, the forests in this region have also been under tremendous pressure Pradesh
from human practices like shifting cultiyatipn, timber logging, and agricultural 2. Assam 78,438 26,386 26,058 24,751 24,508
expansion. Table 5.1 gives the status of forests in the Northeast Indian states 3. Manipur 22,327 17,679 - 17,885 17,685 17,621
based ^ assessments made by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests. 9^
4. Meghalya 22,429 16,511 15,690 15,875 15,769
Govt. of India HnHnp 1987 - 1993. The data provided^ow that^hile the total 5. Mizoram 21,081 19,092 18,178 18,853 18,697
area under forests increase^somewhat during 1987 to 1989. it again decreased
Nagaland 16,579
progressively during 1989-1993!)lt may also be observed from the Table that^^e ■ iT'
6. 14,351 14.356 14,321 14,348
7. Tripura 10,486 05,743 05,325 05,535 05,538
1987-'89 increase was mainly due to an increase in the forest area of Arunachal
4 255,083 160,262 166,255
Pradesh. All the other states, barring Manipur^r^corded a decrease in their forest North-Eastem 165,777 165,142
India
cover. Looking at the statewise break-up, Assam could be seen to be continuously
Insmg its forest cover since 1987, and till 1993, it coult^e observed to have lost f Source of data : Regional office. Ministry of Environment and Forests,
about 1878 sq. km. of its forests. Again, between 1991 and 1993 assessments^all
the Northeastern states have lost their forest cover to varying extents, bamng 5.9. Floods in Northeastern India (with special reference to the Barak
marginal increases in Nagaland and TripuraJ fey)
The two hill districts of i^sam, viz., Karbi Anglong and North Cachar, -Ji=^)ne of the m,ost serious environment^ backlashes resulting^om unchecked
contain about 39-40 per cent of the total forests of the state. However, the forests jestation, modification of natural drainage patterns, and faulty agricultural
in the hill areas are facing the onslaught of deforestation due to timber log^ng, I^ettl^ent policies is the flood, the frequency and magnitude of which have
jhumming, highway construction, urban expansion, and other such activities. Jl^ed greafly during the'recent years in the Brahmputra and Barak valleys of
FurSiennore, only7bout~^-24 per cent of the forest area in the hills are in the
form of forest reserves under direct'^ovemment control.The rest exist as forest
reserves and unscheduled forest under the control of the district councils, and are,
ECarimganj, has a geogi^phical are of about 6941 sq. km.,^and constiTutes-a
Thft Bar^ Valley, comprising the three districts of Cachar, Hailakandi,

ate drmiiage'basin from that of the Brahniaputra. It is bound by the North

therefore, likely to be much less stringently monitored and protected. In fact,
more than 70 per cent of the forests in the hill districts exist as 'Unclassed' or
'Unscheduled', of which some 24 per cent is proposed to be given 'Reserve Forest'
status by the district councils, still leaving about 47 per cent as unscheduled. It is
needless to emphasize that only a concerted eiffort by the Government, the district
councils, and the voluntary agencies can ensure an adequate protection of the
valuable forest cover in these hill areas. / f
72 ^3-2.^
I'
ar Hills of Assam and the Jaintia hills of Meghalaya in the north, Manipur in
he east, and Mizoram in the south. It is drained by the river Barak and its
tributaries. The Barak, originating in Nagaland, flows through Manipur before it
enters the Cachar district at Lakhipur. Its major tributaries are Madhura, Chiri,
Jatinga (from N. Cachar hills), Jiri (from Manipur), Kalaincherra (from Jaintia
hills), Sonai, Rukmi, Ghagra, Dhaleswari, Singla, and Longai (from Mizoram).
All these rivers, especially Barak, while adopting a meandering path through the
alluvial plains, shift their courses, ofren forming ox-bow Izikes. A large number of
r? - -
73
 Our Environment menf
otidiiuj., lidiuidi
wetlands ucptciiiuiis that lie close to the rivers,
natural deoressions , are also y
present in the g€mbankments. It may then cause breaches
i. in
• the
i. embankments
, and flow into a
valley. These ecosystems, locally j called 'bil' and 'haor', serve to hold the excess ^ew channel, .inundating
, . areas occupied
. ,,by farmlands
^ , ,
and settlements, thereby
water when the rivers overflow after heavy rain. The largest wetland in Assam, , -m. mo^ : ."Tt;;"",
® !.. pausing a major disaster. The 1986 committee mentions that the bed of R. Longai,
the Sone bil, is in the Barak valley. However, an expert committee that was rnc i i j u u . 1 ^ " j- ""
> ^ tributary of R. Barak, is already higher at places than the surrounding
formed after the fl986 tfloods in Assam noted with concern that/deforestation in A ^r a ■ u i . a a ^ ^ n
. — : V • ~ t^ountry.^de. Besides nver embankments, road and rail embankments, as well as
the upper reaches of the rivers has caused siltation of the bils, which coupled With .'J. j-.:
- ■ ^ ^ l^tifljTOW bndges are also instrumental m causing drainage congestion.
encroachment^ for agricultural and settlement purposes, has greatly reduced their u
wat^ding capacity. The Rashtriya Barh Ayog (I^^ynal Flood Commissii^
i"(IggOltrongly recommended against the reclamation of wetlands wh^njit (,„n,n,i33ion and the Brahmaputra Board is the
■JJ's report_Urat^;Tn cgnsideratitm ofJhe mipor^^ of retaining valley of alM^^rhrghdaSTon the Barak at TipaimukhTl^^^ at the
for aoodmoder^, no large^edrainage schenmo^amation of bils,, 1 Mi^oram. This dam is to store the
haors, or jheels should be taken up". However, unless unrestricted settlement in J tA - ~ ^ T. " TA
the riv^ine areas as well as in ther meander belt of the...rivers is controlled, theilfl .^xcess
^ water as well as Slit coming from the upper catchments of the nver.
flood situation is likely to worsen in future, as has also been stated by the expert|j * -i t. . , ♦ i. i • i i a u ..ic and
Besides various
Besides various technological
technological solutions
solutions like
like dams,
dams, chamois,
channels, and.
ano.
committee on 1986 Assam floods. ll ' '■■ ■, , __i , •
sjtibankments, many experts feel that several ecological, social, and political
The flood^^oblem has been further compounded by the construction of ■assures may be adopted to substantially reduce the damage caused by floods,
numerous embankments on the rivers for controlling floods. Embankments no^ making the concept of "living with floods" a reality. These may include,
cover considerable lengths of the major rivers in the Barak Valley, and yet the- *-nong others ;
intensity of floods appears to be increasing year after year. This view is shared by '
the expert committee which pointed out that "the duration of floods in the Control of deforestation in the upper hill areas of the catchments to
Valley prior to 1950 was much shorter and the damage was not very high. But' uncontrolled
ncontroHed surface runoff and soil erosion.
erosion Programmes
Proprammfts to check
after 1950, the duration increased and the resulting damage also inci^?"' iljfe^^Siing and timber logging, coupled with soil conservation measures, may t'®
considerably". Th^report further states that the embankments aid in the risilS^.^ m to realize this goal.
river beds, as the silt load that was originally deposited in the floodplain, ^
settles within the channel itself. Furthermore, "^ater outside the embanki^
jM Restructuring of the cropping system in the plains
M^^^vWater rice varieties in the lowlands, XH'Tmproving production of the winter
c^not flow into the ri ver anymore, and accumulates, particularly neSf^ S
confluence of the tributaries with the main river. Imp^per operation of the slui<^ ^
ra^ rice yield by introducing dwarf variety with cold tolerancej^Xc^r^lanting the
in the embankment delays the drainage process and flood waters stagnate or Ahu (sown in April) as mixed crop^^dT"slanting the Bodo paddy in peaty
long time, thus increasing the severity and duration of floods. Hence, tllie of multiple cropping with emphasis on wheat, mustard,
committee strongly felt that the "embankments have changed the behaviour of the jTf bodo rice, and vegetables in the cold, flood-free period.
Assam rivers towards the worst. No more embankments should be constructed tdtf
avoid a deterioration of the situation". Thejlashtriya Barh Ayog (RBA) has also fi- ^ ^^^^3Almprovement of flood forecasting and warning systems.
pointed out the danger of the progressive rising of the river beds due to
indiscriminate construction of embankments. It warned that if this is allowed to Preservation of natural drainage and water retention systems like the
continue, a stage may come when the ri ver can no longer be contained by l \ thus increasing the prospects of fishery.
 '- Our Environment
Our Environmen
S.10.2. Impact of urbanization on the physical environment
5. A more environmentally compatible settlement policy in flood-prone
5.10.2. Impact on atmospheric environment
areas, with proper rehabilitation ofchar' and lowland dwellers on higher grounds.'
j ■
The cities act as "heal traps" or heat islands, being several degrees warmer
5.10. Urbanization and environment -Ithan the surrounding countryside. In some South East Asian cities like Kuala
.^Lumpur, the warming was found to range between 2-8°C. The levels of pollutants
Urbanization, that is the formation of urban areas like towns and cities is
i)ike suspended paniculate matter, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and lead
ongoing process, the rate of which shows a rising trend. United Nation j^ere found to be higher in almost all major cities of the world.
projections reveal that by the year 2000, more than half of the total wori^.*
population would be living in urban centres of various sizes. Urbanization refleoifj f 5.10.2.b. Water pollution
society's shift from resource-gathering (fishing, hunting etc.) and traditional
Untreated or partly treated domestic and industrial effluents are discharged
production agricultural practices to intensive agriculture, industrialization an! into rivers and lakes located near urban centres. Examples of such degradation
mass production of goods. This has resulted in the migration of large sections o
and pollution are numerous. The Rhine that flows past several major cities in
the rural populace into the cities to serve as the work force for industrial and
Germany and Netherlands is grossly polluted.'The Ganga receives sewage and
allied activities. Although the cities perhaps represent the ultimate in man'
capacity to alter his physical environment, ecologists feel that in spite of all th^ -'ndustrial wastes from more than 100 urban settlements along its bank. The
'amuna at Delhi, the Gomti at Lucknow, and the Sabarmati at Ahmedabad are all
sophisticated technology that they contain, the cities are nevertheless, artific^ 'everely polluted. Even a fairly Targe freshwater system like Lake Erie has
systems which are dependent for all the vital resources like air, water and foocW come grossly polluted by the effluents of urban industrial cenues like Toledo,
the natural 'rural' systems that surround them.
alo, Cleveland, Erie and-Detroit.
5.10.1. Types of urban areas
5.10.2.C. Impact on Land resources and wildlife
i

In order to be considered as an "urban area", a human -settlement 1^,,^
satisfy certain requirements which may vary somewhat from one couh^ ^
another. However,in India, the 1991 census refers to a settlement as an urbanj /
a munic^ality, coloration, cantonment board or a notified town % j
committee q£.>)^ri^^J)Jrf'minimum population of 5000|J))^ least 75%
male population engaged in activities other than agricultural; andjijj-^opu^^
density of at least 400 persons per sq. km. Besides, some other places like m|^
project or railway colonies, important tourist centres etc. may also be accor"^
urban status by the relevant authorities even if they do not strictly satisfy all tj
criteria mentioned above. TJie urban areas are divided into six classes on the
of their population with a population of 1,00,000 and above;^^asST ^ h-
with a populati^'of 50,000 - 99,999; Class^I having between 20,000 at
49,999; Cla^^PV^etween 10,000 and 19,999; Class^ between 5,000 and 9,99-|
and Class^^n^aving less than 5,000(only those settlements given a special stati,
as towns, as mentioned earlier).
Establishment of new urban centres and the expansion of existing ones
t invariably involve conversion of agricultural land, clearing of forests, and
amation and draining of swamps/wetlands or even the intertidal zones of sea
estuaries. Furthermore, urbanization results in the development of road and
twork connecting one city to another, and these activities also take their toll
ural ecosystems. Consequently, the natural flora and fauna in large areas in
around an urban centre are lost for ever. The huge demand for construction
erials such as brick results in the mushrooming of brick kilns in the areas
ing cities, further damaging fertile agricultural land.
5.10.3. Impact of urbanization on the social environment
5.10.3.a> Overcrowding and formation of slums.
Urban centres as a rule experience a high concentration of people in a
ited area. Consequently, the demands on resources and amenities like housing.
 Our EnvironmenL
electricity and other forms of energy, potable water,sewage disposal facilities and ,
t OurEnvironmenl
.-However, other factors like disparity in financial conditions of the diffcren'
members of a family and an increasing inclination towards a life that has mote
others are also very high. In most urban areas, the pace at which these facilities ^M,irindependence and fewer responsibilities are also instrumental in the disiniegratipn
can be provided, cannot cope with the ever increasing demands. This problem is ofjoint families in an urban setup.
especially acute in developing countries, where the amount of financial
investment towards commissioning of these facilities is far from satisfactory. As a ft' Yet another aspect of urban living i.«: the cultural hybridization thai
result, almost every city, even those in developed countries, are sharply divided.jj due to people of different ethnic and cultural backgrounds living in close
into rich and poor residential areas. In most cities in developing countries, a verj>j- proximity to one another. Although this often leads to severe erosions in
large proportion of the urban poor live in slums, which represent the leastu/ ■^1 indigenous culture^, folk traditions and values etc., a high degree of cultural
developed section of urban settlements. It is'estimated that in India, over 30M integration, blending and interaction also enable people of diverse cultural origia^
million people who represent about 20 per cent of the country's urban population,
| to know about each other's heritage and value systems, thus helping dispel racial
live in slums. In.Bombay, 3-5 million slum dwellers live on about 8000 acres of^j 3b and religious misunderstandings to a large extent.
land; and some lOOiOOO and 600,000 people sleep on the pavements in Bombay'.j
and Calcutta, respectively. The biggest slum in Asia, Dharavi, is in Bombay. The; 5.10.3.d. Psychological stresses due to urbanization
slums represent perhaps the worst type of environmental degradation with« Almost all the adverse impacts of urbanization on the physical and social
overcrowding, lack of sanitation, water supply, and a social environment that
»^^pnvironments, such as polluted air,'high level of noise, overcrowding and
thrives on immoral and illegal activities. Although various slum improvemeivl
diverse kinds of stimuli, have their effects on the human mind,
schemes have been launched, they cannot keep pace with the rate of influx
^fe^ausing psychological stress. The rural migrants often fail to adapt to the strains
people into the cities, most of whom flock from rural areas or smaller towns ^ 'i
l@S8^urban living, leading to psychological problems like depression,.tendenc)'
search of better earnings in a city. |^^^^ards violence, other emotional problems, and even schizophrenia(madness)-
5.10.3.b. Sub-Standard suburban living ^
While a large proportion of the poorer sections of the urban populace liv(4 I
slums,another group of people, mostly represented by the lower middle class, ^
in suburban areas outside the city. These people travel to the city everyday#
public transports like buses and local trains, whose numbers are far fr^
adequate, resulting in overcrowding and often perilous journeys on the roof ;
foot boards. It may be mentioned here that in developed countries, the rich l^^t^
suburban areas, which have all the facilities, and as these people mostly have tHf®
own transport, suburban living in developed and developing countries prejf t]
very contrasting pictures. 'j ;I
I
5.10.3.C. Impact on family structure and cultural systems , <
a

Urban living is almost invariably accompanied by the splitting of lar?-

families into smaller, nuclear units. One of the reasons for this breaking up is
acute scarcity of housing spacious enough to accommodate a large fami)
 1 dutiSi^yironment
dut^f^^ronment
Our Environmen
UNIT - 6:CASE STUDIES IN ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS a moismreWsiCw
A brief discussion on some major environmental disasters/problems
other respiratory probleins. The effects can he.L ^
provided in this unit,, serves to illustrate the catastrophic consequences oi
and the immediate survivors could also die evewMallyJrom
environmental mismanagement and ecologically incompatible developme'ntal
activities.
'■x,
In the Union Carbide plant at Bhopal, MIC ^storedrn 'ttofe steel tanks.
6.1. The Minamata Disaster
However, the temperature was not maintained at 0°C, as the refrigeration umts^
were not working since June, 1984. On the night of December 3, fte temperature
During 1953-1960, a strange disease afflicted many residents of Minamata. in one of the MIC Sfe^eldjFc, and a tremendousjirMSHr?
a tiny fishing village in Japan. A total of 52 people died, nearly a hundred eventually opening the safety valve, and r^asing ovety^SO^f^ s— ^ ^
suffered crippling neurological disorders, many became blind, and genetic vapour and liquid form, along with phosgene. hydr6gen_c^e and c^^
defects were observed in 20 babies. All the affected people and the mothers of dioxide over a period of two hours. These gases drifted over Bhopa , got mixe
the mutated babies were found to have consumed seafood from the Minamata with water vapour, and due to atmospheric inversion settled over the city, c g
Bay. The disease was eventually traced to the toxic effects of n^rcury (Hgj widespread panic and suffering among its residents. Official estimates put the
>^stes discharged into Minamata Bay from a giant chemical plant producing.^ death toll at over 2, 500, although unofficial reports claimed that it was aroun
{^astics^nd using large amounts of mercury for catalyzing various chemicrf^ 10,000. Around 100,000 people were affected in varying degrees, a large
reactions. Some of this mercury became converted to a highly toxic form, methj^ percentage of them suffering irreparable damages to their ey£S^I"£^s, an ot
mercury (CH3Hg;';j. before being discharged into the Bay. Nobody thought th^ vital organs.
this methyl mercury could cause any damage because it was diluted in the ba}^^ The exact reasons for the violent reactions in the MIC tank are no^le ^y
a concentration of a mere 2-4 parts per billion (ppb) in the water. HowdV&Sj I understood. However, the temperature inside the tank was much more an
living organisms in the bay biologically magnified this deadly compoiiii^;:| , stipulated O^C. It is also known that MIC can react with^^ost any
thousands of times its original value, so that fish and shellfish from the ^ including itself to generate considerable heat and carbon_dio?d^ purther
contained as much asj.OOO to 20,000 ppb of mercury that was extremely to ; .y
About 900 people in the Minamata Bay area were found to show some sympt^ I |
f accelerates the reaction and results in the build-up of tremendous press
more, the MIC at the Bhopal
f plant
f was in the ~
storage tan^thpforstorage time, the
of mercury poisoning (to know about the nature of health hazards from merp' ; ^ moT^, which is contrary to the safety rules, as the longer ^ Varad^aj^
and other metals, See Unit-7) '
■! m K*. more the chances of side reactions. The report submitted by^L—: ^tateTthm
6. 2. The Bhopal Tragedy (
who was entrusted by the Govt. of India to lead the
P water combined with phosgene to produce heat, carbon^i^^®' ^"eactionTofthe
On the fateful, chilly night of December'3, 19^4, an environm< acid, thereby resulting in the acceleration of the
catastrophe of an unprecedented scale struck Bhopal, the capital city of M; MIC. Both the safety devices in the plant, comprising a scr^^er failed
Pradesh. The toxicant that caused this tragedy was Methyl isocyana^(M- i |1| the gas with caustic soda, as well as the flarejo^r for burnmg
released from the Ui^n Carbide planMhat manufactured C^baryl, al^s^t'i ^ to work.
MIC is the starting material for the production of Carbaryl, and due to its extrt ^ r A'
Even after 11 long years, numerous cases regarding p y
avmctit of adequate
of
sensitivity to moisture and volatile nature, it is customary to store it in moisti| ^
free tanks at Q°C, and mixed with phosgene (COCI2) to keep it stable. Phosgen ^ ^ compensation to the kith and kin of the dead, and to afflict
 Our Environment Our EnvtronmerSi

Bhopal tragedy remain to be settled. The disaster also raises several questions xtiake Ganga one of the most polluted rivers of the world.
such as pertaining to the policy on allowing factories producing hazardous
chemicals in densely populated areas, and to the adequa:cy of safety measures 4.1. Nature of pollutants entering Ganga
adopted by such units. The Bhopal incident would perhaps go down in history as The 100 odd t<mns and cities on the banks of the Ganga discha^
a disaster that could have been averted if the authorities concerned displayed a Avaste water into the river. Most of the smaller cities and towns have no seW§^
little more concern about environmental safety. treatment facilities, and even in those which have, these facUities are oft^n#^
6.3. The Chernobyl Accident Tunctional or only partly functional due to lack of maintenance and scarcigj^'
electricity. These urban wastes, largely organic in nature, raises the B.O.^
Besides nuclear weapons, radiation hazards can result from accidents in water, and lowers the amount of dissolved oxygen.
nuclear reactors. Several such incidents have occurred, including the reactor fire
at Windscale, UK, in 1957, and the accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear The Ganga and several of its tributaries like the Yamuna, Gomti
plant in Pennsylvania, USA,in 1979. However, the Chernobyl disaster in USSR Chambal also receive large quantities of industrial effluents including those
in 1986 has paled into;insignificance the previous accidents in the havoc that it tanneries, textile mills, paper mills, power stations, jute mills, rayon, feihl^®'!
has wrought over a very large area of Europe. The top of one of the reactors of soap, polythene, and vegetable oil factories, metal and steel plants, sugyj^^
the Chernobyl Nuclear Plant was blown off in a massive explosion that occurred distilleries and numerous other industrial units.
due to the overheating of radioactive fuel rods. Radioactive materials spread over The massive pollutant load that the Ganga carries is made worse by the'^
large areas of Europe, causing contamination of air, water, soil, and plants and that the desired level of discharge and flow of water essential for dilutinl *^
animals. Official records admit death of 31 people due to radiation exposure, pollutants cannot be maintained during thef9ry seas^^This happens beeaiise'*''®
although many more have suffered from ailments Caused by radiation. The long- Ganga is intensively tapped for irrigation.fMuch. of the lean season
term effects of the widespread contamination of ecosystems are ye.t to be-fully diverted via the Upper Ganga Canal at Haridwar and that regenerated
iascertained. Haridwar and Aligarh is again fed to the Lower Ganga canal near .
Conisequently, there is very little flow in the Ganga at the heavily
». 4.Pollution of Ganga S ^J ^ i stretches at Kannauj and Kanpur during dry weather. It should be mentiom
Ganga,the holy river of India, along with its tributaries, drains the states of that the Ganga receives over 60 percent of its water from Yamuna. Ghagnm
HimacheQ Pradesh. Punjab,.Haryana. Uttar Pradeshi.Rajasthan^adhya Pradesh, and Gandak. all of which join it at or below Allahabad. The Hardwar-Allf^^
Biharand West Bengal and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. In its 2525 stretch of Ganga, is therefore, particularly vulnerable to the adverse iinp^*-;
Km long course, the Ganga has on its banks 29 Class I cities (population over pollution. Again, near Malda in W. Bengal, much of Ganga water flowsi't^'
100,000), 23 Class II cities (population between 50,000 and 1(X),000), and about,, Bangladesh through one of its arms - the Padma river. The other aipli
48 small cities with populations of less than 50,000. Among these are severe Bhagirathi or Hooghly, that flows past Calcu^ into the Bay of Beng^
pilgrim^^tres where millions of people come to bathe and offer prayers during Gangasagar, does not have enough discharge to appreciably dhi^p and
religious festivals such as the kui^s at Haridwar andjMlahabad. The wastes of huge amounts of sewage and industrial effluents that enter it in the
all these towns and cities, effluents from scores of industries discharging either
Howrah area. In this area, there are more than f50jndusiries and about^
into Ganga or one or the other of its tributaries, as well as the surface run off Sewage outfalls within a 120 km stretch, thus constituting another
polluted zone in the Ganga. \ ■
from agricultural lands where chemical fertilizers and pesticides are applied,
^ Ki

&( 82 Q.-r ^ 83
^ ^ C .1^ -
fl
^7
-

6-
 Our Environment * our Environment i
'^4.2.The Ganga Actton Plan iiutrient - poor or oligotrophic condition. At this stage they support
in 1985, Ganga Action Plan, the ■ ■ TnHJheir productivity is their waters^e^ar. As there IS a lack
is low and dissolve^gen of decking
is high in their ,
was launched by the Govt. ofIndia to improve and conserve the ^ ^ "t.-teir'Asthe nutrientlwply ofthese lakes increase with time,they become more
River Ganga. In order to reduce the pollution load, and to estafehs ^^posiisof organicmatter and aliclyr^^
sustaining water treatment plants,some of the major goals that are to be tea ized|^^ marginal areas. In this stage, they are said to be eutr^c,and the
in Oia first phase are: oligotrophic to an
1. Establishment of sewage treatment plants and renovation of existingluttophicationCnius eutrophication is a namral process,
plants to treat the sewage and recycle the solid waste and waste w^r. ^ js best measured on a geological time scale, owever, i #»utroohication^
^ — activiUes have resulted in an acceleration of this naturai process of eutroplucanon^
2. Construction ofinterceptors for diverting sewage flow. Studies conducted in the Great Lakes indicate that particularly since j ese
- , . „
3. Introducuon oflow cost sanitation programmes. ^lakes,♦ especially
*' j Erie,
^ Ontario, and Michigan, have experienced
«vnKi#>.Tn an extteme
because eutrophic y
lakes
—^ — ^^pid rate of eutrophication;This IS an important problem because cuu y
4. Alternative arrangements to prevent discharge of animal wastes ffon|y^ most undesirable to man. Due to an increase in nutrient levels, plan gr ^
cattlesheds near the river bank. 1^8^* Water weeds become abundant, thick mats of blue-green algy pp ,
f _ rn, r;^„iiisplace other plant and animal life. The decay of dead algal maten s cots ^
5. Biological conservation measures for purificauon of streams.^fin the resultant anaerobic conditions impart bad^ and
objective of the plan is to achieve a minimum dissolved oxygen level of depots of organic matter on the bottom makes the lake
and a maximum B.^.level of3mgA in the Ganga water. rh^er and shallower till it ceases to exist at all.
6.5.Eutifophicafion and PoUution of the Great Lakes conducted on Lake Brie reveal many undesirable changes in its
The great lakes of North America - Lakes Superior, Huron,Michigan,E^X-ater quality such as increases in the amount
and OntOTO - together constitute the greatest reservoir of freshwater on thqhloriites, sulphates,phosphat^, nitrates, and isso ve imiKirtankfi^
earth's surface. The Great Lakes basin is inhabited by nearly 15_Eercei,t oftecrgTc in dissolved ^y^On the ^ „have decUn^
U.is.A's population and more than a third of Canada's. About 95 percent of th^pecies like lake hemng,blue pil^, drum,channel
. freshwater supply of U.S.A and 20 pement of the world is contained in thesemmber, while the less table-favoured(co^ifoims i e^ have'also t^en
lakes. As a result of the high density of population in their drainage basins, th^at^h, yellow perch etc. have become vvith heavy
Great Lakes, especially Lakes Erie, Ontario, and Mic^an. have becomolace in the compo^Uon and abund^ce ot^lanK . which after
polluted and undergone eutrophicatirn. ^ " frowth of"nuisance"
leath and decay, makegroup^like
the beaches unsuitable for recreational pw ;
Before the nauire and magnitude of pollution in these lakes are discussed^ ^^angerous change has been the tremendous increase of cohformv^^_^_—^
is necessary to explain the term eutrophication. The concept of ^cological^^.^g severe ^lea^hazards for bathere, swimmers and the shoreline popu ation
succession (Unit - 2)illustrates that all ecosystems - teirestml as well as a^atic^ general, resulting in(§osjngyiown of several(feche|^
- go through the process of ageing. Just as a bare roclLSurface finally harbours i u, f and pollution of the Great
forest community, freshwater lakes proceed to a semiterrestrial (boj; or marsh. The major factors responsi e or eu op
and finally to a fully terrestrial (grassland or forest) state. All lakes are bom Lakes are briefly outlined below. j v p^
 Our Environmei

1. Uncontrolled commercial(fishi^and the consequent depletion of fislj UNIT - 7:POLLUTION AND HEALTH I
*"— j environme t~i— effects .on human health due to blatant disregard fori
2. EulrophicsstioTi due to {Imtrienh enrichment Irom-sewage, agriculturl ^andi^nmenta
Chemnhv?
safety haveT^ been
•.
illustrated
.
by events like the Minamata, Bliob^'
runoff, etc. ; . ^ . ^^^-^r^.i.^6sides these cataclysmic events, hiimaiThealth alfom
. _, r ° ^ conhm^to be threatened through exposure to'dihgerourchemicals.
3. Shoreline restructuring, especially reclamation and drainage

4. Release of(4oxi^materials like mercury, asbestos, polychlorinatei wellTs poor hygieiHc— pollution and degradation of environment as
biphenyls(PCBs),DDT and dioxins, that have serious health implications. briefhutline nf __ itions m wo^ng piaces. This unit attempts to provide a
^ environment-relatedliiikini^i^'a^ds.
Extensive programmes to prevent and control pollution of the Great Lakes 7 i Hflmrri
especially Lake have been launehedi--However, in spite of marked *" \
improvement in certain aspects, it is apprehended-that some of the damages ar^ One of the most environmentally significant fallouts of the*industrlal ^
irreversible, thus rendering the task of restoring Lake Erie to its original pristint revolution and the subsequent technological advancements is the synthesis of ■
£ _ i aLivati^wiijwjiid lo Liiv ojrjjiuvoio w
splendour extremely^arduous, if not impossible. ^ numerous chemicals.Qt is estimated that nearly 5 million chemicals have been
I synthesized over the last forty year^f which some 50,000 to 70,000 are used
extensively in millions of different commercial products. Many of these chemicals
^e known to have toxic effects on plants and animals including human beings.In
act, toxicological information on a vast majority of these chemicals is far from
complete. Those chemicals which have been more or less adequately studied, have
been shown to have an incredibly wide range of toxicities, causing aHergiegj
damage to vital tissues and organs like eye, liver, kMney, reproductive organs,
braii^hd nervous system, and even genetic defects and canqer of various types.
Some common examples are chlorinated hydrocarbons like DDT,BHC,dioxins,
etc., polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs), benzene, vinyl chloride, acrylonitriles,
asbestos and others. Furthermore, human activities have also led to the relea^,in
large amounts, of toxic elements and compounds which were earlier present in the
environment only in extremely minute amounts. These include toxic metals like
mercury, cadmium and lead, metalloids like arsenic, and toxic compounds-such as
sulphur dioxide and the oxides of nitrogen etc. Even those elements which are
sssential for maintaining the various vital processes of organisms, such as iron,
mpper, zinc, manganese, nickel, chromium, selenium, vanadium and others, are
low occurring in the environment at concentrations at which they are known to
urn toxic. Our air, water and soil, our foodstuffs, and even our body tissues and
'lose of other plants and animals are being loaded with these toxic substances at
 Our Environment
Our Environment
increasing levels and rate, thereby posing a serious threat to our health and well-
being. Table 7.1 summarizes the source and deleterious effects of some of thes 'able 7. 1. Common hazardous chemicals and their effects on human
hazardous chemicals.

me of the Source Effects on health

7.2. Occupational health hazards emical

ylonitrile Acrylic fibres, synthetic Highly toxic,
Workers in mines, quarries and various industrial establishments constitute rubber, plastics. carcinogenic, teratogenic.
the "high-risk" groups that are prone to suffer from various diseases tectly or enic Pesticides, indigenous dermatitis, muscular,
indirectly caused by the environmental conditions in their work places^Howeve , drugs, glass. paralysis, liver and
even the workers in "clean" working environments can suffer from physic an Kidney damage.
psychological stress and strain, as well as from the effects of noise frequent istos Roofing, insulation, Carcinogenic.
„Ll/driving, working in nigh, shifts etc. Table 7. 2 summarizes the v»ou air-conditioning conduits,
occupational health hazards, their source and the nature of their harmful effe fibre, paper, plastics.
jcne Detergent, moldings, Anaemia, bone marrow
on human health.
fibres, insecticides, damage, leukaemia.
many chemicals, gasoline
additive.
7. 3.Pathogens,Parasites,and health
fllium Aerospace industry, Lung and heart disease.
1-^
One of the most beneficial aspect of the industrial and technological ceramics, household

,'ly" ■ -
revolutions has been the synthesis of numerous drugs and vaccines that appliances.
f-y-: succeeded in preventing and controlling many viral, bacterial, and protozoan ^ds^„^ Electroplating, plastics,
pigments, super
Kidney and lung damage,
possibly carcinogenic,
helminth diseases which proved a scourge for the human species. Paradoxica y, phosphate fertilizers. skeletal disorder.
improperly planned developmental activities have also resulted in the resurgence Automobile exhaust, Heart disease, effects on
and spread of such diseases. Increasing contamination.ofj^e and groun ^n fuel burning. nervous system, anoxia.
water as well as the potable water sujeplyjunte and pipelines with se«^..*i e Tobacco smoke, automo Carcinogenic.
irrigation and opening of new areas for agricuUure, improper solid w^ieTyrenes bile exhaust, oil residues.
dispSTin towns and cities, andinadequmedraina^^ Pesticides, fumigants. Effects on central
thel^eral factms that have been directly or indirectly instrumental m the nervous system.
of many dangerous diseases caused by virus, bact^a, protozoans and hej^ntt .)
t worrns, which were believed to have been either wiped out or comp e e Leather tanning, paints, Dermatitis, kidney
controlled by modem drugs and other control measures. A brief account of som,^^|^^^^ pigments, anti-corrosion damage.
such diseases and the environmenul factors responsible for the rise in t oihromates agent, fungicides.
occurrence is given below. , Herbicide. Skin ailments,
suspected carcinogen.
ffv
t 89

Pipes, storage batteries,
paints, printing, gasoline
additive.
Mining, welding, dry cell
battery, ferromanganese.
Chloralkali plants,
fungicides, pharmaceu-
- ticals.
Produced during curing of
Nitrosamines
meat, and smoking of fish
and meat.
Sewage, agricultural fields
Oxides of Automobile exhaust.
nitrogen
Phthalates As plasticizers in plastic
resins.
Polychlori- Transformers and other
nated electric appliances, plastic
biphenyls containers, epoxy resins,
(PCBs) ingredients of soap,
cream, paint, glue,
paper, waxes, etc.
Sulphur dio Coal-burning power
xide stations
Fertilizer
Vinyl chloride Plastics
Our Environment
Neurological disorders.
Damage to nervous and
reproductive systems.
Nervous damage,
teratogenic, mutagenic.
Carcinogenic.
Cause methylnitroso- ■zA
mania in children by
combining with haemo-
-globin and reducing its
oxygen-carrying
capacity.
Respiratory distress.
Nervous tissue damage.
Nerve, skin, and liver
damage, intestinal
disorders, stillbirths,
temporary blindness,
suspected carcinogen.
Eye and respiratory
irritation.
Bronchial problems,
kidney disorders.
Damage to liver, bone
and circulatory system,
birth defects, suspected
carcinogen.
Table 7. 2. Major occupation^ health hazards and their effects
Nature of occupation
1. Gold, silver, lead, zinc,
mica and manganese mine
workers, |>ottery and ceramics
workers, workers in sand and
stone quarries, construction
orkers in textile and fibr-
ebased (flax, hemp, etc.)
mSustries
t- Workers in sugar
mills
4; Workers in asbestos
fa^rbnes
^ Coal mine workers
6. Printing press workers
Possible effects on health
Prone to 'silicosis' - caused by inha-
-lation of silica dust, that induces
cough and chest pain, and eventually
causes emphysema of long, reducing
its surface area for gaseous exchan-
-ge. The patient wheezes like an
asthmatic, a condition known as
dyspnoea.
Affected by 'byssinosis' - cotton,
flax or hemp fibres enter the respira-
-tory tract, causing chronic bronchi-
-tis and emphysema.
Prone to *bagassosis'_- by inhalation
of dust from bagasse or sugarcane
waste that is used to make boards.
Symptoms similar to those of byssi-
Afflicted by 'asbestosis' - extremely
tiny asbestos fibres cause pulmonary
(lung) fibrosis, cancer of the respira-
-tory and gastrointestinal tracts.
Vulnerable to '^thracosis'
(black lung)- due to exp>osure to
coal dust that makes them prone to
tuberculosis and heart diseases.
Susceptible to lead poisoning,
leading to neurological disorders.

7. Agricultural labours
8. Office workers
9. Travelling salesman and
commercial drivers
10. Workers in textile mills,
machine tool and automobile
industries and others
Our Environment
Handling of pesticides cause toxic
poisoning, abortions in women,
neurological disorders, etc.
Bad sitting posture may lead to
diseases of spine, backaches, and
spondilytis.
Stress may lead to hypertension,
hyperacidity and ulceration.
Noise over 80 db - prolonged expo-
-sure may cause hearing problems,
mental stress, hypertension, heart
diseases, and others.
Our Environment
debilijating disease that affects the liver, spleen, urinary tmct and bladder, and
other organs. Consequently, the lakeside population is experiencing a sharp rise in
this disease.^In India, subsidence of malaria by spraying DDT led to the extension
of agricultural activities in the Himalayan foothills. However, increased irrigation
led to an increase in the breeding places for mosquitoes, which also developed
resistance to insecticides. At the same time, the malarial parasites also developed
chloroquine resistance. The net result of these has been a resurgence of malaria in
a more dangerous form. Poor drainage in cities due to inadequate sewerage, and
irrigation canals and barrages in the rural areas have now resulted in severe
outbreaks of malaria over large areas in Eastern India in particular. Similarly, the
expansion of rice fields which serve as breeding grounds of mosquitoes, and a
simultaneous increase in piggeries, have led to the spread of encephalitis, a killer
viral disease that is transmitted by mosquitoes, with the pig acting as an
intermediate host.

^
Widespread contamination of surface water bodies like ponds, lakes, rivers md
^
ede 7. 4. Ionizing radiation and health

streams by sewage and human as well as m^al^xcreta has resulted in rising
incidences of various water-borne diseases like|yphoid, chol^, gastro-enteritis
and baciljary dysentery (bacterial diseases), infective hepatitis (viral), amoebic
dysenter^ and Giardiasis (protozoan), and various helminth worm infections of ^
the gastro-intestinal tract. Tliese diseases largely result from using contaminated
water for drinking and washing, and are creating havoc among the poorer
sections of people in the developing nations of Asia, Africa and Latin America
who do not have access to safer water supplies.
Even in big cities, improperly maintained, old and leaking sewers running
side by side with water mains result in faecal contamination of drinking water,
causing a sharp rise in the incidences of these diseases, especially infective
hepatitis.
Developmental projects that do not take into account their possible adverse
^ effects on the environment have resulted in outbreaks of many parasitic diseases,
large dam built on the Zambezi river in Africa has led to severe outbreaks o^
the dreaded disease^Trypanosomiasis or^sleeping sickness^ as the large lake
shore has increased the habitat for flies v^ch are the vectors (transmitters) of
this disease. The Aswan High on the River Nile in Egypt has resulted in a
population explosion of snails, which are the transmitters of Schistosomiasis, a
In Unit - 4, it was explained that radioisotopes or radionuclides emit high
energy Alpha (a). Beta (|3), and Gamma(Y) radiation. Besides, X-rays are also
a kind of high energy radiation, while ultraviolet rays have less energy than X-rays
or ionizing radiation (a, P, and y radiation ) but can cause skin cancer on
prolonged exposure. Before knowing about the health risks from exposure to
ionizing radiation, it is desirable to understand about the units for measuring
radioactivity.
7.4.1. Units of radioactivity
The Curie (Ci) is the basic unit of radioactivity, which is defined as the
amount of radioactive material in which 3.7 x 10^® atoms disintegrate each
second. This amount varies greatly from one element to another, depending upon
their rates of disintegrations. Thus the Curie tells us about the number or amount
of alpha or beta particles or gamma rays emitted by a radioisotope.
The radiation dose received by an organism is measured by several units
such as the Rad, Roentgen(R), and Rem/One rad denotes the absorption of 0.0024
calories(= 0.01 joules) of energy by a kilogram of tissue or other materi^The
Roentgen is an older unit used for X-rays and gamma rays, and is nearly
93

92

Our Environment
equivalent to the rad. Smaller units, such as the millirad (mrad) or milliroentgen
(mR), that represent 1/1000th of the larger units, are also used. The rem is also
similar to rad. One rem is equivalent to one rad multiplied by an adjustment
factor called the relative biological equivalent(RBE), or the quality factor (QF).
The RBEs for the different ionizing radiations are often different. When RBE is
equal to one(l), as in the case of gamma and X-rays, and beta particles, then 1
rem = 1 rad. Thus for these three types of radiation, rad, roenfgen and rem are
equivalent. However,for alpha particles, one rem is equivalent to 10 rads. It is to
be noted that the rad/roentgen/rem is a unit of total dose. The dose rate
determines the degree of exposure per unit time.Thus if an organism receives,
say, 10 mrad or mR pfcr hour, its 24-hr exposure would be 240 mrad/mR, and an
annual exposure of 87600 mrad/mR, or 87.6 rad/R. Here it may be pertinent to
mention that the worldwide average natural background radiation exposure is
about 105 millirads (0.105 rads) per year, although in some high background
radiation areas, it can be upto 12 rads per year.
<4.2. Health effects of ionizing radiation
As with the other pollutants, radiation damage can be acute (short-term,
high dose), or chronic (long-term, low dose). While little is known about the
chronic effects, studies conducted on the victims of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, as
well as animal experiments, have thrown much light on the health effects of
acute, short-term exposures. Table 7. 3. shows the dose of radiation that is lethal
to 50 percent of test animals over 30 days of exposure (a measure referred to as
LD50 or lethal dose to 50 percent). \
m
Table 7.3. Lethal doses(LD50)for certain mammals
Species of mammal LD50(rads/rems)
Rat 750
Dog 350
Goat 300
Pig 250
Monkey 550
Logically, man should also have a similar lethal, dose. Any sudden
exposure to around 500 rads of radiation is more than likely to be fatal to human
94
Our Environmei
beings. It is also known that death is caused by damage to blood, and failure oi
gastrointestinal and nervous systems. As opposed to this, some insects cwl
withstand aropriS 100,000 rads, and microorganisms even more ! |
jpie chronic, long-term effects of radiation are known to be manifested in^
following forms:
(a)Carcinogenic effects:It is a well-known fact that radiation causes canc^J
Clarence Dally, Thomas Alva Edison's assistant, died from it in 1904 dueiii
0
excessive exposure to X-rays in the laboratory. Skin, bone, and thyroid cancersi
and more conunonly leukaemia, can result from chronic radiation exposure. 4
,(ii
(b) Premature agin^: Radiation exposure can bring about aging by causiiig
changes in the density of fine blood vessels, in connective tissue (bone, cartila^|
ligament etc.), formation of eye cataracts, and greying of hair. 1
' M
(c) Teratogenic changes : These include defects in the developmental
foetuses, causing birth abnormalities and defects.
■'$
(d) Genetic damage : Although genetic defects are much more difficultftb
study, it is estimated that if a population of 1 million is exposed to 1 rad, some?®
offspring will suffer lethal genetic changes (including death of foetuses), and tii|.
will continue at a slightly decreasing rate for about 50 generations. Besides, ni8n||
non-lethal genetic changes may be produced in a large number of individuals
4. 3. Different ionizing radiations and their effects
It has already been stated that three major types of ionizing radiations, viz:,
alpha, beta and gamma, are emitted by radioisotopes. In addition, there are the
neutrons and X-rays. The characteristic features of these radiations and the natu^^
of damages they cause, are briefly outlined in Table 7.4. ^
(s
Table 7.4. Different ionizing radiations and their nature and effects |
A
Type of rzidiation Characteristic features and nature of damage |
1. Alpha Corpuscular in nature, i.e., emitted as subatomic
particles particles composed of two protons and two neutrons.
95
 Our Environment Our Environment

Slowest and least penetrating of all measures. The epidemiological approach comprises determination of the
radiations. Can travel in air only a few cms and distribution patterns of a disease within the target population, as well as the
can be stopped by a piece of paper or a thickness linking of the disease to its causative agent/agents. It involves the following major
of skin. Can, however^cause great damage when investigations:
ingested or inhakd. )
1. Studying the seasonality, if any, of the disease. ,
2. Beta Also corpuscular, in the form of an electron
particles emitted by the nucleus^an travel at high speed 2. Delimiting the area affected by the disease.
in air for a few feet and penetrate tissue upto
1 or 2^ms. Cause damage to the skin,^kin 3. Finding out about the distribution of the disease - the sections of
cancer and eye ca^acts.) population most affected - their socio-economic and occupational
3. Gamma rays In the form of electromagnetic radiation such as backgrounds, etc.
light, but of much smaller wavelength and has
4. Determining the frequency of occurrence of the disease.
much more energy,(^an travel longer distances
and penetrate through an organism and pass ou^) 5. Possible causes of the disease.
Thusi^ey release their energy over long paths.
4. X-rays Also in the form of electromagnetic radiation. 6. suggesting suitable preventive and control measures.
Very similar to gamma rays, but originate from
A case study of epidemiology may enable us to understand the above
the outer election shell, and not from the nucleus,
approach more clearly. In a study conducted by the National Institute of
as in the case of the former.(Can pass through the Occupational Health (NIGH)in 1981 on the occurrence of silicosis in Mandsaur
body tissues except bone. Cause molecular
area of Madhya Pradesh, it was found that the affected people were slate factory
damage.^
workers. Based on the study conducted on 605 workers, slhte-stone cutting by
5. Neutrons Large,""charged particles which by themselves
electric saws was found to generate dust that entered the lungs of the workers. It
do not cause ionization.^ut can induce
radioactivity in nonradioactive materials or
tissues through which they pass. There are "fast"
# was further found that of the 55 percent of workers who were affected by silicosis,
18 percent had an advanced form of the disease. Male workers were more
affected, as they worked as cutters, while the female workers were mainly
and "slow" neutrons, the former causing more
involved in rolling and packing the product, and were therefore, relatively less
damage^ affected. The death and debilitation rate is so high among the male workers that
/

7. 5. Epidemiological approach to monitoring and assessment of half of them were aged below 25. Thus the above study helped to find out about
environmental health hazards
the distribution and frequency of occurrence of the disease in a given area, identify
the affected segment of the population, and determine the causative agent of the
Health problems caused by environmental degradation/pollution or by toxic disease.
contaminants usually affect large sections of population. Hence, an
epidemiological approach that examines the frequency of occurrence of a given
disease within a population or representative sections of it is an useful
prerequisite for adopting suitable clinical and other preventive or control
97
96
 Our Environment
unit - 8 : ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION AND
management
8.1. Concept,objectives and principles of conservation
Contrary to popular belief, conservation is not aimed against development^
fxhe concept of conservation plans to.achieve a balance between pro action a
protection,)and is against any unplanned development that
principles. A true conservationist is able to appreciate the fact
has a finite resource base that should not be strained beyond its limife-iBecause of
the finite nature of resources, an acceptable quality of life to every individua ca
only be provided if resources are judiciously used and at the same time,
conserved to maintain a sustainable yield for a long time to come^Otherwise,
future progeny would be inheriting an earth that is resource impoveris
inhospitable, and possibly uninhabitable as well,^urthermore^besides ensunng a
sustainable yield of materials for the present and future generations,^ goo
conservational strategy should also aim to preserve aesthetic quality (chiefly
through maintenance of wilderness areas) and meet recreational need^
WOTder to achieve the aforesaid goals, conservation programmes are based
on ^^eral principles. They include:
(a) Judicious exploitation of non-renewable resources like fossif^els an
minerals, so that their reserves are not depleted, and their unchecked utilizatio
does not lead to pollution and degradation of the environment.
(b) Sustainable "hguwest and renewal" of r^ev^le resources like
plants, timber trees, fodder and fuel-yielding plants, medicinaljilants, other raw
materials of plant origin, e.g., p^r etc., range and game animals, fi^, and such
other living resources, so that the breeding stock is not depleted, but provides
mankind with a sustained yield.
(c) Restoration of degraded areas such as wastelands, deforested land,
polluted water and air.
(d)Efforts to substitute a "rare" resource with a more abundant one.
(e) Recycling of wastes, such as sewage and industrial wastewater. Thu
98
T'
i-j - OurErmro
conservation is not based on the concept of "hoarding" of resources, but on"
judicious and sustainable utilization in accordance with ecological principles-^1
M
the following sections, some of the major conservational programmes are brie#!
discussed.
8.2. Wildlife conservation in India with special reference to Noi%^
eastern India
In Unit - 5, the major threats to wildlife in India have already bfeen^
described. A sizeable proportion of our wildlife wealth including mammals,bif4^
reptiles, amphibians, insects and plants are threatened with the spectre o^!
extinction. The Indian North-East is a region generously endowed with natuis?
diversity, having many plant and animal species which are endemic to this regipOt
that is, found in this region only. A large number of these rare organisms noWi
face a serious threat to their existence.
Table 8.1. lists the major wildlife species found in Northeastern India*
Ibcluding the endemic species. As a result of the growing awareness about the,
urgent need to protect these plants and animals, several protected areas have been
created in our country, including the Northeast, to conserve them in their naturi^
^habitats. India now has 80 national parks and some 412 wildlife sanctuary
besides several biosphere reserves that have either been ajready created or^
going to be commissioned shortly. Although sanctuaries, national parks anfl
biosphere reserves are all meant to protect wildlife, there are certain differences io
thrir .status and organizational set up.(Sanctuaries are protected places whe^
dapturing or killing of any animal is prohibited except under orders of die
authorities concerned. Existing private ownership rights are allowed to continue
inside a sanctuary, and forestry operations, grazing of domestic animals,
collection of minor forest produces are permitted to a limited extent^/
parks^ on the other hand,^re areas demarcated for preserving tne
environment and the flora, fauna, and historical objects therein. All private
are nonj^xistent in a national park, and forestry operations and gra^g dfi
domestic animals totally prohibited)However,^the latest concept in conservation
is thelbiosphere rejgrve,>vhicH^is based on the principle that natural resources ctf;
be protected while still providing for people's needs. Thus, a biosphere reseti^f
not only protects the wildlife therein, but also takes care of the needs of'dw
99 ■i
 Our Environment
indigenous communities like tribals, for whom the forest has been the home since
time immemorial^ Hence, biosphere reserves are aimed at resolving the Our Environment
confrontation that often arises between the forest dwellers and wildlife protection . bsmunda regalis "Royal Fem" rare Deforestation and

authorities. To achieve this goal^biosphere reserves integrate several zones habitat destmction

Schizaca digitata Perennial fem -do- - do -

having different levels of human activity within the protected area. They have a
'core area', where no human activity is permitted, surrounded by a 'buffer^zone' Bulbophyllum
where a limited amount of resource withdrawal by local people is allowed, and an acutiflorum orchid very rare - do -

outer 'free zone' that is open to settlements and resource gatheringMt is expected Bulbophyllum
that this would encourage the local people to feel more involved in conservation penicillium - do - - do- - do -

'Chamacrops khasiana - do - - do - - do -
practices and even assist the authorities in foiling the evil designs of intruders and
poachers. Table 8.2. provides the list of sanctuaries, national parks, and biosphere // Dendrobiumfalconeri - do- -do- -do- -

reserves in the Northeastern region of India. Sarchochilus hystrix - do- -do- - do -

FAUNA
Table 8.1. Some endangered flora and fauna of Northeastern India Mammals Schedule I Habitat
Felis temmineke Golden Cat (threatened) destmction,
Botanical/Zoological Common Name/ Status Nature of threat
with extinction) killed for skin
Name brief Des

cription
ai "^Felis bengalensis Leopard Cat - do - - do -
Neofelis nebulosa Clouded Leopard - do - - do -
FLORA
■^^i^nthera tigris Tiger - do - - do -
Acanthephippium orchid rare Deforestation and
y/bervis eldi eldi Brow antlered deer - do - All the above; also
sylthetense Lindl. commercial killed for flesh
exploitation
Nycticebus cougang Slow Loris - do - Habitat destmction
Aphyllorchis montana - do - - do - - do -
- do - - do -
Adinandra griffithi Dye tree - do - Deforestation and
" Pr^ytis geei Golden Langur

habitat destructidh'
'^^fii/^inoceros unicomis One-homed Rhino - do - Above and killed
for hom
Aglaia perviridis Hiem - do - - do - - do -
Phayre's Leaf - do - Habitat destruction
Ptesbytis phayrei
Anacolosa ilicodes - do - - do - - do -
Monkey
^lacocarpus prunifolius - do - - do - - do -
- do - - do -
Hylobates hoolock Hoolock Gibbon
Camellia caduca shrub - do - - do -
Arctonyx collaris Hog Badger - do - - do -
Zanthoxylum scandens - do - - do - - do -
Schedule II & HI
-^Gastrodia exilis herb - do - - do -
i Bos gaurus "Gaur" or (not yet threa Habitat
Paphiopedilum insigne - do - very rare - do -
Indian tened but would destruction
Arundina graminifolia - do - - do - - do - "Bison" become endan
Nepenthes khasiana "pitcher plant"; - do - - do - gered if present
climbing undershrub practices continue)
Macaca arctoides Stump-tailed -do- -do-
Brainae insignis Fern very rare - do -
Macaque
Macaca nemestrina Pig-tailed -do- -do-
100
Macaque

101
 Our Environment Our Environmeii
Presbytis pileatus Capped Langur Schedule Habitat
Fishes****
n& m destruction
Chocolate N. A. Pollution and/or
^etaurista petaurista Flying Squirrel -do- -do-
Accrossocheilus
Habitat destruction
Panthera pardus Leopard -do- Above; killed hexagonolepis Mahseer
for skin Mahseer - do - - do -
Tor tor
Scelenarctos thibetinus Himalayan -do- Habitat destruction - do - - do -
Tor putitora Mahseer
Black Bear - do - - do -
Garra lyssorhynchus Hill stream
Melursus ursinus Sloth Bear -do- -do- suckered fish
Garra rupecola - do - - do - - do -
Birds*
Lepidocephalus Loach - do - - do -
Tragopan blythi Blyth's Tragopan Schedule-I Above; killed
annandalei
for flesh
^nMesonoemacheilus - do - - do - - do -
Lophophorus sclateri Sclater's -do- -do-
Monal pheasant /^eticulofasciatus
Crossoptilon crossoptilon Elwe's - do - Habitat
eared pheasant destruction;
^i^^ects(only common names)
^Butterflies and Moths
killed for flesh Habitat destruction;
Gray tiger butterfly N.A.
Syrmaticus humiae Mrs. Hume's
collected for use as
humiae bar-backed pheasant do- - do - decorative items
Reptiles** Large Silver Stripe - do - - do -

Geoemyda fnouhati Leopard Lacewing - do - - do -

Assam Fresh Schedule IV Pollution;
water tortoise (notyetthre- killed for Golden Sapphire - do - - do -
eatened but flesh - do - - do -
Four-bar Swordtail
may become so) - do - - do -
Kaiser-e-hind
Cyclemis dentata Freshwater - do - - do -
Moon moths - do - - do -
tortoise I

Kachuga sylhetensis Assam sawback - do - - do - ♦Birds : A few Schedule I birds listed. A total of 20-25 bird species in N. B
turtle
India are endangered to varying degrees, including the various hornbills, storks
Indotestudo elongata Land tortoise - do - killed for flesh cranes, partridges, other pheasants, etc.
Indotestudo emys Assam tortoise - do - - do -
Amphibians*** ♦♦Reptiles : Several snakes such as pythons, king cobra and other cobras,
Trilototriton Himalayan Newt N. A. Pollution and/or
tree racers, bronze backs, pit vipers, copper heads, kraits etc., are also facing
verrucosus or Salamander threats of extinction. The N. E. region harbours some 65 species of snake^
Habitat destruction
Icthyophis sikkimensis Limbless - do - . - do -
compwising about 25% of Indian snake fauna.
amphibia ♦♦♦Amphibians : Represented by over 40 species (115 species in India)!;
Hyla annectens Tree Frog - do - - do -
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 Our Environment
The Himalayan Newt found in Arunachal Pradesh is the only salamander found in Our Environment
India. The habits and habitats of some others like the "Garo Hill Webbed Footed
Assam
Takin, Hombill, Python.
Orang
Tree Toad" is little known. W1.S Indian elephant. Tiger,Fishing
cat, Hog badger. Swamp deer.
****Fishes : Of a total of 683 freshwater fish .species found in India, 131
Rhinoceros, Wild buffalo.
occur in the Northeastern region. Capped langur. Pangolin.
do-
Pobitara W1.S N.A.
N.A.: Not available/assigned .- do-
Lawkhowa -do- Tiger, Rhinoceros,Wild buffalo,
[Data compiled in the Table based on the list of Rare and Endangered _ do-
Python, Monitor lizaid
Nameri - do-
Animals of India, Zoological Survey of India, CITES (Convention of - do-
N.A.
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora), and Saharia
Garampani Indian elephant. Tiger,
-do-

(1982)] S^o- Leopard, Hombill,Python.

Bamadi .do^ Elephant, Tiger, Leopard,
Table 8. 2. Wildlife Sanctuaries, National Parks, and Biospher^ >- Capped langur. Hispid hare.
Reserves in Notheastern India
4S - Pygmy hog,Hombill,Python. -
Manas B.R
yC Elephant, Tiger,Leopard,
State Name of Status* Indicative Fauna
Qouded leopard,Binturong,
Protected Area
Rhinoceros, Wild buffalo,
Gaur, Golden langur. Capped
Arunachal D'ering Wl.S Swamp deer, Indian elephant.
Tiger, wild Buffalo.
langur. Sloth bear. Swamp
Pradesh Memorial deer. Pygmy hog.Pangolin,
- do - Pakhui - do Indian elephant. Tiger, Sloth Peafowl and many bird species;
Bear, Leopard, Slow Loris, Python^
Great Indian Hombill. Kazirangj B.^ Rhinoceros,Elephant, Tiger,
- do - Itanagar - do - Indian elephant. Tiger. Leopard, Fishing cat, Wild
- do - Lali - do - N. A. buffalo. Swamp deer,Hoolock
- do - Namdapha B.R Tiger, Clouded leopard. Fishing gibbon. Capped langur. Hog
cat. Leopard, Snow leopard, badger, Hombill,Python,
Hoolock gibbon, Musk deer. Monitor lizard.
^anipur Siroy
Slow loris, Mishmi Takin, N.P. Tiger, Leopard, Tragopan
Wild buffalo. Great Indian pheasant.
do.
hombill. Eared pheasant. Keibul Lamjao N.P
Brow anUered deer. Hog deer.
do Mehao N.P Tiger, Leopard, Clouded Leopard cat. Fishing cat
leopard. Leopard Cat, Snow '^eghalaya Baghmara Wl.S N. A.
do^I
Siju
leopard. Swamp deer. Musk - do- Elephant, Tiger. Wild buffalo.
deer. Spotted linsang, Mishmi Leopard. Clouded leopard.
104
105
 Our Environment Our Environment i
Leopard cat. Marbled cat. Bear, *W1. S. : Wildlife Sanctuary; N. P.: National Park; B. R. : Biosphere
Gloden Cat, Hoolock gibbon. Reserve. N. A.:Not Available.
Slow loris. Fishing cat.
8.3. Conserration of air and water quality
Peafowl,Pheasant, Hombill,
Python, Monitor lizard. 8.3.1. Management of air quality
Meghalaya Nongkhyllem Wl.S Elephant,Tiger, Clouded
leopard, Sloth bear. Slow loris. The nature and magnitude of air pollution and its hazardous impact on
Leopard cat, Hoolock gibbon, human health have already been outlined in Unit-4 and Unit-7, respectively. The
Binturong,Capped langur. management of air quality involves the establishment of emission standards for
Pangolin, Horhbill, Python. various industries as well as ambient air quality standards; monitoring of air
- do - Balpakram N.P. Elephant, Clouded leopard. pollution from various sources; and adoption of suitable control measures to curb
Sloth bear, Binturong, Hoolock pollution levels. The Central Pollution Board prescribes the air quality standards
gibbon. Slow loris, Hombill, So far as the industrial emission standards are concerned, different standardshave
Python. set for different industries. Briefly described,^the suspended particulate
- do Nokrek B.R. Elephant, Tiger, Wild buffalo, '^-^^ntatter(SPM)from cement plants, iron and steel plants, thermal power^pi^^
Clouded leopard. Golden cat. stone quarries etc., are required to be in the range of 50-2000 p«|. \
Fishing cat, Hoolock gibbon. 1 (micrograms per normal cubic metre). Similarly, limits have been set Z—
i
Capped langur, Hombill, j^pollutants like sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide and othersotxicr
Th
Python. ambient air quality standards that delimit the concentrations of different pollute
Mizoram Dampa Wl. S. Tiger, Leopard, Panther, iin the air are provided in Table 8.3. and vehicular emission standards in Table ^4^
Clouded leopard. Wild dog,
Sambar, Great Indian Hombill,
Enforcement of air quality standards requires regular monitorin f
Pheasant.
pollutant levels in industrial stack emissions as well as in the ambient air T^es
Tiger, Leopard, Sambhar,Sloth
involve measurement of industrial emissions at the source and in the ambient '
Wl. S.
- do Murlen
using a variety of sophisticated instruments. Ambient air quality is u
bear, Hume's bar-backed
measured with the help of high volume samplers over time periods ranginp fv
Pheasant, Hombill.
to 24 hours. ^ ^
Nagaland Fakim - do - Tiger, Hoolock gibbon, Flying
Squirrel, Tragopan pheasant. If the industrial emissions are beyond the permissible limits, several control
- do - Pulebalze - do - Tragopan and Kalij Pheasant. systems are employed to reduce the level of pollutants so that they conform to tl^
- do - Itanki - do - N. A. standards. Several devices like cyclones and multiclones, bag filters, scrubhf ^
Tripura ,Trishna Wl.S N. A. electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) are used. IiTorder to control veh^ T'
- do - ,Charilam Wl.S N. A. emissions, proper tuning of the engine and carburettor, as well as inct^n ^
- do - Sepaijala - do - N. A. ^ ^aiytic converters are measures that can bring down the level of c h
- do - Rewabird - do - Birds (details not available) ihonoxide, oxides of nitrogen, and hydro-carbons by ensuring more co
sanctuary /Ombustion of the fuel. Recently, the phased introduction of non-leaded o
gasoline
106 107
 Our Environment
Our Environment monitoring and adoption of control measures to minimize pollution of freshwater
is expected to reduce the magnitude of lead pollution originating from automobile called for. A brief discussion of the Ganga Action Plan has already
emissions. outlined some of the measures adopted to monitor and control freshwater
'pollution. Furthermore, the Central Pollution Control Board, Govt. of India, has
Table 8.3. Ambient air quality standards also laid down water quality standards for industrial wastewater from various
industries, water meant for domestic use such as drinking and bathing, and for
Locality Concentration of pollutants in/{Xg/m^
agricultural purposes. Table 8. 5. provides the water quality standards for
SFM^ S02^ CO® NOxd domestic use.

Industrial area 500 120 5000 120 Table 8. 5. Water quality standards for natural waters to be used for
public water supply and at bathing places
Residential area 200 80 2000 30

Sensitive areas* 120 30 1000 30

Parameters Indian Standard
a: Suspended particulate matter; b; Sulfur dioxide; c: Carbon monoxidej^L
4i
pH value (range) 6.0-9.0
Oxides of Nitrogen; ♦: Near hospitals, health resorts, parks etc. Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)(minimum value) 3.0

Table 8.4. Vehicular emission standards

Specific conductance(|imho/cm)(maximum) 300
Total dissolved solids(mg/1) (- do -) 500
Type of Vehicle Parameters CO** %
Sulfate (mg/1) (- do -) 1000
Smoke density in H.S. U*. (by volume) Chlorides as CI" (mg/1) (- do -) 600
Fluorides(mg/1) (- do -) 1.5
Diesel engine vehicles 65 N.A.
Cyanides(mg/1) (- do -) 0.01
Petrol engine vehicles
Phenolic compounds(mg/1) (- do -) 0.005
(i) 2-wheelers(50 CC) N.A. 5.0 Oil and grease (mg/1) (- do -) 0.1
(ii) 2-wheelers(50 CC) N. A. 4.5 Biochemical oxygen demand,
(iii) 4-wheelers N. A. 4.0 (5 days at 20®C)(mg/1) (- do -) 3.0
2. Arsenic(mg/1) (- do -) 0.2
*: Hartridge Smoke Density Unit; **: Carbon monoxide; N. A: Ni Cadmium (mg/1) (- do -) 6.01
applicable.
—i. Lead (mg/1) (- do -) 0.1
8.3.2. Management of water quality Total Chromium (mg/1) (- do -) 0.03
Selenium (mg/1) (- do -) 0.05
The freshwater pollution problem(Unit-4), the pollution of the Ganga aiP
Bacteriological parameters
the Great Lakes (Unit-5), and the health problems emanating from various watt*
pollutants (Unit-7)emphasize the urgent need to preserve our freshwater qualit Coliform organisms,
To achieve this goal, prescribing water quality standards, and stringe' 109

108
 Our Environment
Monthly average(MPN/100 ml) (maximum) Lesis than 5000,
with less than 5
percent of the
samples with
value 20,000, and
less than 20 percent
with value > 5,(XX).
8.4. Forest management and social forestry
8.4.1. Changing perceptions in forestry
The science of forest management or forestry deals with "the management
of growing timber", and with "developing, caring for, or cultivating vegetation".
Unfortunately, forests worldwide have been traditionally exploited for their
products only, instead of viewing them as complex ecosystems which play a
critical role in soil conservation and water balance, harbour numerous wildlife
species, and are instrumental in controlling desertification and climatic changes.
The management strategies of forests in India, introduced by the British
during the end of the 19th century comprised systematic removal of trees and
other products from the forest. These revenue-oriented concepts persisted after
independence also. The ecologically harmful forestry practices include:
^/(a)'Clear cut* timberlogging^ where all the trees in a given.area are cut, and
new trees planted. When these reach maturity, the process is repeated. Although
this process is "economical", it creates the problem of soil erosion.
(b)Fragmwirntm^c^forests, creating isolated forested patches.
(c) Drastic change/)f forest structure and composUion by increasing the
proportion of commercially valuable" species, and removal of other less paying
ones.
(d)Planting of grassy "blanks'*.
(e) Modification of riverine^ and hill forests.
As a result of such *cut-and-run* forestry practices, climax old-growth
110
Our Environmem
forests which have a canopy closure of more than 40 percent are being drasticallj|
decimated.In India,such forests now comprise only 11 percent of the forest area.
Realizing the harmful nature of such practices, corrective measures are TiO%
being adopted. Instead of clear-cutting, only mature trees are to be cut, reducing
the risk of soil erosion. Instead of creating even-aged strands of one or tw^,
dominant species, efforts are on to ensure the conservation and creation of forest^
with different types of trees and other plants of different age structiire, as thes^|
forests can more effectively conserve soil arid water, and harbour a richeti
diversity of wildlife. Isolated patches of forests should be joined by foreste4^
corridors to facilitate the movement and survival of many mammals and birds|
And finally, riverine and hill forests, and all climax forests are to be le^ /•
undisturbed. f
.2. Social forestry
. !
In order to ease the pressure on forests and to enable the people to meet thei||
demands for wood, social forestry schemes have been launched by the fbicrf
departments of different states as well as some other governmental and noD^
governmental organizations. These programmes are mainly of three types : I
v^^^arm forestry prQgramme.s. where farmers are encouraged to pi^nt treei
on their own land by providing them seedlings free of cost or at a subsidized rate.
\V;2^fforestation along roads, canal banks, and other vacant ovemmew
lands by the forest department.
Community woodlots. where barren lands are afforested by the);
community, and the produces shared by them in a sustainable manner. I
Social forestry programmes have been launched by all states. The b^neficia
effects of social forestry are:
J^^ese programmes are expected to relieve the tremendous pressure o
forests to meet the fuelwood requirements of the people.
<-2: Afforestation of agriculturally unproductive wastelands with fast growii
trees and shrubs would result in a meaningful use of these otherwise useless lan(
to meet the fuel, fodder and other requirements of the local people in their ov
111
 Our Environment
area.
_3. Social forestry would also contribute towards controlling soil erosion,|
arrest the pace of desertification, and ameliorate to some extent the effects of air
polludon as well.
.4. Afforested stretches along roads, can^s, streams, and on wastelands
would also serve as habitats for a number of wildlife species such as small
mammals, birds_j_reptil^ and amphibians.
^4i^.Joint forest management(J.F.M)
The concept of Joint Forest Management envisages regeneration of
degraded forests and afforestation of wastelands with the active participation of
the local populace. The villagers maintain and protect the forest and in turn are
assured a share in the produce besides having the entire rights on Non-Wood
Forest Produce (N.W.F.P). Some such programmes have already been launched
and are reported-to have met with a fair degree of success.
ST Soil Conservation and land use planning
Our Environment
,, 6.'Strip-cropping, in which a close-growing crop that hardly leaves any
exposed soil surface is planted alternately with those crops that leave a loK^
exposed land. The soil eroded from the latter is held by the former.
cultivated hill slopes, such asjhum lands, woody perennials(shrubs or
small trees) could be planted in the form of hedgerows, and the crops grown inj
spaces or alleysfbetween the hedgerows. Plants which have nitrogen fixation
capabilities are preferred for hedgerows as they increase soil fertility.
An essential prerequisite to good land management is proper land-use
planning. Land-use maps are prepared, classifying the land on the basis of natural
ecological features such as type of soil, slope, and others. Suitable uses are then
^ identified for each land type. A simplified land-use classification is given in Table
8.6.
Table 8.6. Land classes and their designated uses*
Land Class Characteristic Designated useis
features

As mentioned earlier(Unit*5), soil erosion is one of the most important landn Level or nearly Suitable for continuous cultivation
causative agents ofland degradation. Soil erosion could be brought about by wind - ai level lands with simple conservation measures
action, and more conunonly by water. Some of the remedial measures to check such as crop rotation and strip
soil erosion are : cropping.
mandIV Steeper slopes Greater restrictions if cultivated,
1. Planting of trees that act as wind-break for reducing the eroding action of
than I and II such as periodic fallowing,
strong wind.
perennial crops, or rotated pastures.
2. Cultivation at right angles to the direction of wind flow. " v-vn Steep hill Not suitable for cultivation,
slopes Possible uses are as permanent
3. Various forms of terracing on steep slopes.Terraces.could be "bench" or pastures, sustainable forestry and
"half-moon" terraces depending upon the nature of the terrain. wildlife.

vm Steep hill To be preserved in its natural state,

4. Building diversion channels for directing the surface runoff away from
slopes, thin as habitats for wildlife, for
the cultivated areas on slopes.
soil, as well harvesting non-wood forest
5. On relatively gentle slopes, contour cultivation is practised, where a slope as wetlands produces,for recreational purposes
is plowed along natural contour lines, i.e., horizontal lines of equal elevation. and for watershed protection.

112 113
 Our Environment Our Errvironment
Wetlands more important as water UNIT - 9 : SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND INTEGRATED
reservoirs and wildlife habitats
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
than as reclaimed farmland.
♦After Odiim(1971).
9.1. Concept of sustainable development

The contents of the previous units have emphasized the fact that human
activities in pursuit of development are bound to result in environmental
alterations. Thus, development and environment are intricately interlinked.
Unfortunately, most dev^pmental activities till recently have been governed by
what has been termecf^i^he "frontier attitude" that is guided by the tendency to
view the earth's resources as virtually inexhaustible, and to move to new areas
once the supply of a given material is depleted at a particular plac^ This attitude
has resulted in the squandering of the earth's resource capital in the form of fossil
fiiels, topsoil, major forests, surface and groundwater etc., and in the generation
and pile-up of huge amounts of wastes. However, it is now being increasingly
realised that if such frontier strategies towards development is continued to be
pursued, the very existence of human species may be at stake in near future due to
P
hi-' the widespread contamination of ecosystems with toxic substances. Furthermore,
I. the unchecked exploitation of resources would leave a resource-impoverished
earth for the future progeny.

The concept of sustainable development is based on principles which are

often diametrically opposed to the exploitative frontier strategies. (^Tie word
sustainable denotes something "whose weight can be borne", or something that
can be "supported" or "endured". The concept of sustainabilitj^is neither against
development and the changes brought about by it, nor does it impose absolute
limits on economic growth. It (pnly advocates that Exploitation of resources, as
well as the direction and orientation of technological and economic growth are
f
made consistent with present as well as future social and economic
^
needs^t takes
, into account the limitations on growth imposed by the present state of technology.
availability of resources, and the natural ^siimlative and regenerative capacities
" ^^of the ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole.[It lays stress on achieving a
'ml -balance
• • '
between ■ ■ ■■ " • -
exploitation and conservation of non-renewable resources.—
1 recycling and reuse of renewable resources, and recycling of wastes?)

114 115