Thermodynamics

(Spontaneous and nonspontaneous reactions)

Chapter 1
Kimia Dasar II (CH1201)
2018-2019

References:
Brady, J, E., Jepersen, N. D., Hyslop A., 2012, Chemistry, 7th Edition, International Student Version, John Wiley and Sons.
Raymond Chang and Kenneth A. Goldsby, 2012, Chemistry, McGraw-Hill
Contents
1. Spontaneous Change
2. Entropy
3. Second Law Thermodynamics
4. Third Law Thermodynamics
5. Standard Free Energy Change, (∆Go)
6. Maximum work and ∆G
7. Free Energy and Equilibrium
8. Equilibrium Constants and ∆Go
Contents
1. Spontaneous Change
2. Entropy
3. Second Law Thermodynamics
4. Third Law Thermodynamics
5. Standard Free Energy Change, (∆Go)
6. Maximum work and ∆G
7. Free Energy and Equilibrium
8. Equilibrium Constants and ∆Go
Thermodynamics
• Study of energy changes and flow of energy
• Answers several fundamental questions:
- Is it possible for a given reaction to occur?
- Will the reaction occur spontaneously
(without outside interference) at a given T ?
- Will reaction release or absorb heat?
• Tells us nothing about time frame of reaction
- Kinetics is required for this
• Two major considerations
- Enthalpy changes, H (heats of reaction)
Heat exchange between system and surroundings
- Nature's trend to randomness or disorder
Entropy
Spontaneous Change
✓ Occurs by itself
✓ Without outside assistance until finished

Choose some of these which are spontaneous

changes!
Non-spontaneous Change
✓Never Occurs by itself
✓Occurs only with outside assistance until
finished

Need electricity

Need Person
to clean up the room
Enthalpy Changes & Spontaneity
• Many* reactions which occur spontaneously are
exothermic (∆H = - )
• Heat given off
• Energy leaving system
Iron rusting Fuel burning

• Thus, Enthalpy (∆H) is one factor that influences

spontaneity
But, Many* means “not all” but mostly
Enthalpy Changes & Spontaneity
• Some endothermic reactions occur spontaneously.
Endotermic reactions, ∆H = +
• Heat absorbed
• Energy entering system

Ice Melting Evaporation of water

(Room T)

• Clearly other factors influence spontaneity.

Enthalpy is only one factor. What is it?
ENTROPY
Entropy (S)
• A thermodynamic quantity
• Describes number of equivalent ways that
energy can be distributed
• Greater statistical probability of particular state
means greater the entropy!
Larger S, means more possible ways to distribute
energy and that it is a more probable result
• Quantity that describes randomness or
disorder of system

• Order , so S disorder , so S
Entropy Distribution
▪ Low Entropy – (a)
▪ A absorbs E in units of 10
▪ Few ways to distribute E
▪ ● represent E’s of
molecules of A
• High Entropy – (b)
• More ways to distribute E
• B absorbs E in units of 5
• ●represent E’s of molecules
of B
different entropy
same energy
Entropy (S)
Which one is larger entropy?

To which direction is spontaneous change?

A→B or B→A

Many Spontaneous reactions :

Increase disorder (increase entropy)
Entropy is a state function
• Independent of path
• S = Change in entropy

• For chemical reactions or physical processes

DS = S final - S initial

DS = S products - S reactants
Factors affect Entropy
1. Volume
2. Temperature
3. Physical state
4. Number of particles
Effect of Volume on Entropy

• For gases, entropy increases as volume increases

a) Gas separated from vacuum by partition
b) Partition removed, more ways to distribute energy
c) Gas expands to achieve more probable particle
distribution
• More random, higher probability, more positive S
Effect of Temperature on Entropy
As T increases, entropy increases
(a) T = 0 K, particles in equilibrium lattice positions and S
relatively low
(b) T > 0 K, molecules vibrate, S increases
(c) T increases further, more violent vibrations occur and S
higher than in (b)
Effect of Physical State on Entropy
• Crystalline solid very low entropy
• Liquid higher entropy, molecules can move freely
• More ways to distribute KE among them
• Gas highest entropy, particles randomly distributed
throughout container
• Many, many ways to distribute KE
Entropy Affected by Number of
Particles
• Adding particles to system
• Increase number of ways energy can be distributed
in system
• So all other things being equal
• Reaction that produces more particles will have
positive S, eg. 2NH3 → N2 + 3H2
Your Turn !
Which represents an increase in entropy?
A. Water vapor condensing to liquid
B. Carbon dioxide (dry ice) subliming
C. Liquefying helium gas
D. Proteins forming from amino acids
Your Turn !
Which of the following processes have a decrease in
entropy?

A) water freezes
B) isopropanol condenses
C) methanol gas cooling down
D) carbon dioxide going from gas to solid
E) All of the above processes have a decrease in
entropy.
Entropy Changes in Chemical
Reactions
Reactions without gases
• Calculate number of mole molecules
n = nproducts – nreactants
• If n is positive, entropy increases
• More molecules, means more disorder
• Usually the side with more molecules, has less complex
molecules
Reactions involving gases
• Calculate change in number of moles of gas, ngas

If ngas is positive , S is positive

ngas is more important than nother molecules
Entropy Changes in Chemical
Reactions
Ex. N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⎯→ 2NH3(g)
nreactant = 4 nproduct = 2
n = 2 – 4 = –2
Predict Srxn < 0

Higher disorder Lower disorder

Predict Sign of S for Following
Reactions
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
• ngas = 1 mol – 0 mol = 1 mol
• since ngas is positive, S is positive

2 N2O5(g) ⎯→ 4 NO2(g) + O2(g)

• ngas = 4 mol + 1 mol – 2 mol = 3 mol
• since ngas is positive, S is positive

OH–(aq) + H+(aq) ⎯→ H2O(l)

• ngas = 0 mol
• n = 1 mol – 2 mol = –1 mol
• since n is negative, S is negative
Both Entropy and Enthalpy Affect
Reaction Spontaneity
• Sometimes they work together
• Building collapses
• PE decreases H is negative (spontaneous)
• Stones disordered S is positive (spontaneous)

• Sometimes work against each other

• Ice melting (ice/water mix)
• Endothermic
• H is positive (nonspontaneous)
• Increase in disorder of molecules
• S is positive (spontaneous)
Which Prevails?
• Hard to tell—depends on temperature!
• At 25 °C, ice melts
• At –25 °C, water freezes

• So three factors affect spontaneity:

• H
• S
•T
Second Law of Thermodynamics
• When a spontaneous event occurs, total
entropy of universe increases
• (Stotal > 0)

• In a spontaneous process, Ssystem can decrease as

long as total entropy of universe increases
• Stotal = Ssystem + Ssurroundings

• It can be shown that

q surroundings
DS surroundings =
T
Spontaneous Reactions
(Second Law Thermodynamics)
• Says q lost by system must be gained by
surroundings
• qsurroundings = –qsystem

• If system at constant P, then

• qsystem = H (see last semester)
• So
• qsurroundings = –Hsystem
• and
q surroundings -DH system
DS surroundings = =
T T
Spontaneous Reactions
(Second Law Thermodynamics)
Thus Entropy for Entire Universe is
DH system
DS total = DS system -
T
Multiplying both sides by T we get
TStotal = TSsystem – Hsystem
or
TStotal = – (Hsystem – TSsystem)
• For reaction to be spontaneous
• TStotal > 0 (entropy must increase)
So,
(Hsystem – TSsystem) < 0
must be negative for reaction to be spontaneous
Spontaneous Reactions
(Second Law Thermodynamics)
• Would like one quantity that includes all three
factors that affect spontaneity of a reaction
• Define new state function, G

• Gibbs Free Energy

• Maximum energy in reaction that is "free" or
available to do useful work
G  H – TS

• At constant P and T, changes in free energy

 G =  H – T S
Gibbs Free Energy
 G =  H – T S
G <0 Spontaneous process
G =0 At equilibrium
G >0 Nonspontaneous

• G  state function
• Made up of T, H and S = state functions
• Has units of energy
• Extensive property
• G = Gfinal – Ginitial
Criteria for Spontaneity

• At constant P and T, process spontaneous only if it is

accompanied by decrease in free energy of system

H S Spontaneous?
– + G = (–) – [T (+)] = – Always, regardless of T
+ – G = (+) – [T (–)] = + Never, regardless of T
+ + G = (+) – [T (+)] = ? Depends; spontaneous
at high T, –G
– – G = (–) – [T (–)] = ? Depends; spontaneous
at low T, –G
Summary
• When H and S have
same sign, T determines
whether spontaneous or
nonspontaneous
• Temperature-
controlled reactions are
spontaneous at one
temperature and not at
another
Your Turn !
At what temperature (K) will a reaction become
nonspontaneous when H = –50.20 kJ mol–1 and S =
+20.50 J K–1 mol–1?
A. 298 K
B. 1200 K
C. 2448 K
D. The reaction cannot become non-spontaneous at
any temperature

We are looking for when ΔG is 0

So T = (ΔH/ΔS)
T = (-50.20 kJ mol-1)/(0.02050 kJ K-1 mol-1)
T= - 2448 K
Next session ....
Contents
1. Spontaneous Change
2. Entropy
3. Second Law Thermodynamics
4. Third Law Thermodynamics
5. Standard Free Energy Change, (∆Go)
6. Maximum work and ∆G
7. Free Energy and Equilibrium
8. Equilibrium Constants and ∆Go
Third Law of Thermodynamics
• The entropy of a perfect crystalline substance
is zero at the absolute zero of temperature
“S = 0 at T = 0 K”.

• Standard entropy, S °
• Entropy of 1 mole of substance at 298 K (25
°C) and 1 atm pressure
• S ° = S for warming substance from 0 K to
298 K (25 °C)
Consequences of Third Law
1. All substances have positive entropies as they are
more disordered than at 0 K
• Heating increases randomness
• S ° is biggest for gases—most disordered
2. For elements in their standard states
• S °  0 (but Hf° = 0)
• Units of S °  J/(mol K)
Standard Entropy Change
• To calculate S ° for reaction, do Hess's Law type
calculation
• Use S ° rather than entropies of formation

( ) (
DS o = sum of S ° of the products - sum of S ° of the reactants )
Learning Check !
Calculate S ° for the following:
• CO2(s) → CO2(g)
S °: 187.6 213.7 J/mol K
S ° = (213.7 – 187.6) J/mol K
S ° = 26.1 J/mol K

• CaCO3(s) → CO2(g) + CaO(s)

S °: 92.9 213.7 40 J/mol K
S ° = (213.7 +40 – 92.9) J/mol K
S ° = 161 J/mol K
Your Turn !
What is the entropy change for the following
reaction?
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s)
S o 72.68 56.5 96.2 J K–1 mol–1

A. +32.88 J K–1 mol–1

B. –32.88 J K–1 mol–1
C. –32.88 J mol–1
D. +112.38 J K–1 mol–1
S ° = [96.2 – (72.68 + 56.5)] J K–1 mol–1
S ° = –32.9 J K–1 mol–1
Standard Free Energy Changes
• Standard Free Energy Change, G °
• G measured at 25 °C (298 K) and 1 atm
• Two ways to calculate, depending on what data is
available
• Method 1:
G ° = H ° – TS °

• Method 2:
G °= (sum of Gf o of the products) – (sum of Gf o of the reactans)
Ex. Calculate G ° Method 1
Calculate G ° for reduction of aluminum
oxide by hydrogen gas
Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g) → 2Al(s) + 3H2O(g)
Step 1: Calculate H° for reaction using heats of
formation below

Substance Hf°
(kJ/mol)
Al(s) 0.0
Al2O3(s) –1669.8
H2(g) 0.0
H2O(g) –241.8
Ex. Calculate G ° Method 1
DH = ånp DHf products - ånr DHf reactants
DH o = [2DH fo Al(s ) + 3DH fo H O(g) ] - [DH fo Al O (s ) + 3DH fo H (g ) ]
2 2 3 2

é æ 0.00 kJ ö æ –241.8 kJ öù
DH = ê2 mol çç ÷÷ + 3 mol çç ÷÷ú
êë è mol ø è mol øúû
é æ –1669.8 kJ ö æ 0.00 kJ öù
– ê1 mol çç ÷÷ + 3 mol çç ÷÷ú
êë è mol ø è mol øúû
H ° = 0.0 kJ – 725.4 kJ – 0.00 kJ – (– 1669.8 kJ)
H ° = 944.4 kJ
Ex. Calculate G ° Method 1
Step 2: Calculate S , Substance So
from data: (J/mol.K)
Al(s) 28.3
Al2O3(s) 51.0
H2(g) 130.6
H2O(g) 188.7
thus get S ° = 179.9 J/K
Step 3: Calculate
G ° = H ° – (298.15 K)S °
G ° = 944.4 kJ – (298 K)(179.9 J/K)(1 kJ/1000 J)
G ° = 944.4 kJ – 53.6 kJ = 890.8 kJ
• G ° is positive
• Indicates that the reaction is not spontaneous
Ex. Calculate G ° Method 2
• Use Standard Free Energies of Formation

• Energy to form 1 mole of substance from its

elements in their standard states at 1 atm and 25
°C

G °= (sum of Gf o of the products) – (sum of Gf o of the reactans)

Ex. Calculate G ° Method 2
Calculate G ° for reduction of aluminum oxide by
hydrogen gas.
Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g) → 2Al(s) + 3H2O(g)

Substance Gf °(kJ/mol)

Al(s) 0.0
Al2O3(s) –1576.4
H2(g) 0.0
H2O(g) –228.6

DG = [2DG f Al(s ) + 3DG f H O(g ) ] - [DG f Al O (s ) + 3DG f H (g ) ]

2 2 3 2
Ex. Calculate G ° Method 2
é æ 0.00 kJ ö æ –228.6 kJ ö ù
DG o = ê2 mol çç ÷÷ + 3 mol çç ÷÷ú
êë è mol ø è mol øúû
é æ –1576.4 kJ ö æ 0.00 kJ öù
- ê1 mol çç ÷÷ + 3 mol çç ÷÷ú
êë è mol ø è mol øúû

G° = 0.0 kJ – 685.8 kJ – 0.00 kJ

– (– 1576.4 kJ)
G° = 890.6 kJ
Both methods same within experimental error
Next session ....
Contents
1. Spontaneous Change
2. Entropy
3. Second Law Thermodynamics
4. Third Law Thermodynamics
5. Standard Free Energy Change, (∆Go)
6. Maximum work and ∆G
7. Free Energy and Equilibrium
8. Equilibrium Constants and ∆Go
Spontaneous Reactions Produce
Useful Work
• Fuels burned in engines to power cars or heavy
machinery
• Chemical reactions in batteries
• Start cars
• Run cellular phones, laptop computers, mp3 players
• Energy not harnessed if reaction run in an open dish
• All energy lost as heat to surroundings
• Engineers seek to capture energy to do work
• Maximize efficiency with which chemical energy is converted
to work
• Minimize amount of energy transformed to unproductive heat
Thermodynamically Reversible
• Process that can be reversed and is always very
close to equilibrium
• Change in quantities is infinitesimally small
• Example - expansion of gas
• Done reversibly, it does most work on surroundings
G ° = Maximum Possible Work

• G ° is maximum amount of energy produced

during a reaction that can theoretically be harnessed
as work
• Amount of work if reaction done under reversible
conditions
• Energy that need not be lost to surroundings as heat
• Energy that is “free” or available to do work
G°Varies with Temperature
• So far, we confined the relationship of free energy and
equilibrium to a special case, 25 °C
• How about other Temperatures?
Equilibria certainly can exist at temperature other than 25 °C, and
G°varies with temperature.
Thus: GoT = HoT – TSoT

Go depends very strongly on the temperature, however Ho and

So are relatively intensive in changes in temperture.
So, we can use Ho298 and TSo298 as reasonable approximations
of HoT and TSoT .
GoT = Ho298 – TSo298
Ex. Determining Effect of
Temperature on Spontaneity
Calculate G °at 25 ℃ and 500 ℃ for the Haber
process !
N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)
Answer:
• Assume that H °and S °do not change with
temperature
• Solving strategy
Step 1. Using data in Table to calculate H°and S°
for the reaction at 25
H
o o S
(kJ/mol) (J/mol.K)
• H ° = – 92.38 kJ
• S ° = – 198.4 J/K N2(g) 0 191.5
H2(g) 0 130.6
NH3(g) -46.19 192.5
Ex. Determining Effect of
Temperature on Spontaneity
Step 2. Calculate G ° for the reaction at 25 ℃ using
H ° and S °

N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)

• H ° = –92.38 kJ
• S ° = –198.4 J/K

• G ° = H ° – TS°
• G ° = –92.38 kJ – (298 K)(–198.4 J/K)
• G ° = –92.38 kJ + 59.1 kJ = –33.3 kJ

• So the reaction is spontaneous at 25 ℃

Ex. Determining Effect of
Temperature on Spontaneity
Step 3. Calculate G ° for the reaction at
500 °C using H ° and S °

• T = 500 °C + 273 = 773 K

• H ° = – 92.38 kJ
• S ° = – 198.4 J/K

• G ° = H ° – TS °
• G ° = –92.38 kJ – (773 K)(–198.4 J/K)
• G ° = –92.38 kJ + 153 kJ = 61 kJ

• So the reaction is NOT spontaneous at 500 ℃

Does this answer make sense?
• G ° = H ° – TS °
• H ° = –92.38 kJ
• S ° = –198.4 J/K
• Since both H ° and S ° are negative
• At low temperature
• G ° will be negative and spontaneous
• At high temperature
• TS ° will become a bigger positive number and
• G ° will become more positive and thus eventually, at high
enough temperature, will become nonspontaneous
∆G and Reaction Quotient
• G is related to G ° by an expression that
includes reaction quotient Q

DG = DG o + RT lnQ
• This important expression allows for any
concentration or pressure

y
[products]
Q= x
[reactants]
Ex. Calculating G
Calculate G at 298 K for the Haber process
• N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g) G ° = –33.3 kJ
For a reaction mixture that consists of 1.0 atm N2, 3.0
atm H2 and 0.5 atm NH3
Answer:
Step 1 Calculate Q
PNH
2
(0.50)2
Q= 3
= = 9.3 ´ 10-3
PN P 3
H2
(1.0)(3.0) 3
2
Ex. Calculating G
Calculate G = G ° + RT lnQ
G = –33.3 kJ/mol +
(8.314 J/K mol)(1 kJ/1000J)(298K)(ln(9.3  10–3))
= –33.3 kJ/mol + (2.479 kJ/mol)(ln(9.3  10–3))
= –33.3 kJ + (–11.6 kJ/mol)
= – 44.9 kJ/mol

▪ At standard conditions all gases (N2, H2 and NH3) are

at 1 atm of pressure
▪ G becomes more negative when we go to 1.0 atm N2,
3.0 atm H2 and 0.5 atm NH3
▪ Indicates larger driving force to form NH3
▪ Preactants > Pproducts
Equilibrium Constants and G °
• G = G °+ RT lnQ (At Equilibrium, G = 0 and Q =K)
• G ° = –RT lnK and K = e–G °/RT
• Provides connection between G ° and K
• Can estimate K at various temperatures if G °is known
• Can get G ° if K is known
Relationship between K and G ° :
Keq G ° Reaction
Favored
>1 – Spontaneous
Energy released
Unfavorable
<1 + non-spontaneous
Energy needed
=1 0 At Equilibrium
G °and Position of Equilibrium
• When G ° > 0 (positive)
• Position of equilibrium lies close to reactants
• Little reaction occurs by the time equilibrium is
reached
• Reaction appears nonspontaneous
• When G ° < 0 (negative)
• Position of equilibrium lies close to products
• Mainly products exist by the time equilibrium is
reached
• Reaction appears spontaneous
G °and Position of Equilibrium
• When G ° = 0
• Position of equilibrium lies ~ halfway between
products and reactants
• Significant amount of both reactants and
products present at time equilibrium is reached
• Reaction appears spontaneous, whether start
with reactants or products
• Can Use G ° to Determine Reaction
Outcome
• G ° large and positive
• No observable reaction occurs
• G ° large and negative
• Reaction goes to completion
Free Energy Diagrams

Non-spont. G ° > 0 • G is different than

G°
• G interpreted as the
slope of the free energy
curve and tells which
direction reaction
proceeds to equilibrium
• Minimum, at G = 0,
indicates composition of
equilibrium mixture
• Because G ° is positive
equilibrium lies closer to
reactants
Free Energy Diagrams

Spontaneous, G ° < 0 • Reaction proceeds

toward equilibrium
from either A or B
where slope, G , is
not zero
• The curve minimum,
where G = 0, lies
closer to the product
side for spontaneous
reactions. This is
determined by G °
Ex. Calculating G °from K
Ksp for AgCl(s) at 25 ℃ is 1.8  10–10 .
Determine G ° for the process
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s).
Answer:
Reverse of Ksp equation, so

1 1
K= = = 5.6  10 9

K sp 1.8 10 −10

G ° = –RT lnK
= –(8.3145 J/K mol)(298 K) × ln(5.6  109)(1 kJ/1000 J)
G ° = –56 kJ/mol

• Negative G ° indicates precipitation will occur

Your Turn !
Calculate Kp for the following reaction,
H2O2(l ) → H2O(l ) + O2(g)
given G ° = –234.3 kJ mol

A. 1.103
B. 0.906
C. 8.5 x 10-42
D. 1.17 × 1041

G ° = –RT lnK
K = e–G ° /RT
Your Turn !
Calculate the equilibrium constant for the
decomposition of water at 298 K,
given G °= 474.4 kJ mol.

A. 1.47 × 10-83
B. 1.21 x 100
C. 7 × 10-84
D. 1.17 × 1041
-DG o -(474400 J/mol)
= = -191.5
RT (8.3145 J/K mol)(298 K)
K = e -191.5 = 7 ´ 10-84
System at Equilibrium
• Neither spontaneous nor nonspontaneous
• In state of dynamic equilibrium
• Gproducts= Greactants
• G = 0
• Consider freezing of water at 0˚C
• H2O(l ) → H2O(s)
• System remains at equilibrium as long as no heat
added or removed
• Both phases can exist together indefinitely
• Below 0 °C, G < 0 freezing spontaneous
• Above 0 °C, G > 0 freezing nonspontaneous
Phase Change = Equilibrium
• H2O(l )  H2O(g)
• G = 0 = H – TS
• Only one temperature possible for phase change at
equilibrium
• Solid-liquid equilibrium
• Melting/freezing temperature (point)
• Liquid-vapor equilibrium
• Boiling temperature (boiling point)
• Thus H = TS and
• or T = H
S
Ex. Calculate Tbp
Calculate Tbp for reaction below at 1 atm and 25 °C,
given H ° = 31.0 kJ/mol,
S ° = 92.9 J/ mol K
Br2(l ) → Br2(g)
Answer:
DH 31.0 kJ/mol
Tbp » » = 334 K
DS 0.0929 kJ/(mol K)

For T > 334 K, G < 0 and reaction is spontaneous

(S ° dominates)
For T < 334 K, G > 0 and reaction is
nonspontaneous (H ° dominates)
For T = 334 K, G = 0 and T = normal boiling point
Learning Check
What is the expected melting point for Cu?
Hf° (kJ/mol) Gf° (kJ/mol) S (J/mol K)
Cu(l ) 341.1 301.4 166.29
Cu(s) 0 0 33.1
Answer: Cu(s)  Cu(l )
H = 1mol(341.1 kJ/mol – 1mol(0 kJ/mol)
H = +341.1kJ
S = 1mol(166.29 J/mol K – 1mol(33.1 J/mol K)
S = 133.19 J/K
341.1 kJ
T = = 256.1 K
0.13319 kJ/K
Temperature Dependence of K
• G ° = –RT lnK = H ° – TS °
• Rearranging gives
æ DH ö 1 DS o
ln K = - çç ÷÷ +
è R øT R
• Equation for line
• Slope = –H °/RT
• Intercept = S °/R
• Also way to determine
K if you know H ° and S °
Ex.
Calculate K given H °and S °
Calculate K at 500 ℃ for Haber process,
N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)
Given H ° = –92.38 kJ and
S ° = –198.4 J/K
Answer:
Assume that H °and S °do not change with T

− 92,380 J − 198.4 J/K

ln K = − +
(8.314 J/K )(773 K ) (8.314 J/K )
ln K = + 14.37 – 23.86 = –9.49
K = e–9.49 = 7.56 × 10–5
Temperature Dependence of K
• If Given two temperature data (T1 and T2)

 H   1 S o
ln K1 = −  +
 R  T1 R
 H   1 S o
ln K 2 = −  +
 R  T2 R

K1  H   1  H   1
ln = −  +  
K2  R  T1  R  T2
K1  1 1  H 
ln =  − 
or K 2  T2 T1  R
Example: Calculate K if given H °
and K on another T
Calculate K at 25 ℃ for Haber process, if K at 500 ℃ is
7.56 × 10−5.
N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g) H ° = –92.38 kJ

Answer:
K1  1 1  H 
ln =  − 
K 2  T2 T1  R
K1  1 1  − 92,380 J
ln −5
= − 
𝐾
7.56 10  773K 298K  (8.314 J/K )
ln 1
= 22.91
7.56 ×10−5

K1/ 7.56 × 10−5= e22.91 K1 = 6.74 × 105

Thank you ...