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UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

DIMENSIONS : Basic concept of measurement such as length, time, mass,


temperature, etc.
UNITS : Means of expressing the dimensions, such as feet or
centimetres for length, or hours or second for time,
(you can add, substract, or equate numerical quantities only if the units of the
quantities are the same.

CONVERSION OF UNITS

Example :

1. If a plane travels at twice the speed of sound (assume the speed of sound is
1100 ft/s), how fast is it going in miles per hour?

Solution :

1100 ft 1 mil 60 dt 60 min


2     1500 mil / hr
s 5280 ft 1 min 1 hr

2. Change 400 in3/day to cm3/min


Solution:
3
400 in 3  2.54 cm  1 day 1 hr
     4.56 cm 3 / min
day  in  24 hr 60 min

Common Systems of Units:


1. SI
Basic units  length in meter, mass in kg, time in second
Derived units  Force in Newton (= kg.m/s2)
Energy in Joule (= kg.m2/s2 = N.m)
Power in Watt ( kg.m2/s3 = Joule/s)

2. CGS
Basic units  length in cm, mass in gram, time in second
Derived Units  force in dyne, energy in erg, joule or calorie

3. English Absolute System or FPS (Feet, Pound, Second)


Basic Unit  length in foot, mass in lb (pound), time in second
Derived Units  force in poundal, energy in ft.poundal
4. British Engineering
Basic Units  length in foot, time in second, mass in slug
Derived Units  force in pound weight, energy in Btu (British thermal unit)

5. American Engineering
Basic Units  length in foot, time in second, mass in lbm (pound mass)
Derived Units  force in lbf (pound force), energy in Btu

1
Conversion factor gc  to change lbm into lbf in American Engineering System.
Newton’s law  F = c.m.a
1
In American Engineering System  c 
gc
(lb )( ft )
where g c  32.174 (dt 2 )(lb )
m

If the value of g = gc, then the value of lbm = lbf

Examples:

1. One hundred pound of water is flowing through a pipe at the rate of 10.0
ft/s. What is the kinetic energy of this water in (ft)(lbf) ?

Solution:
1
Ek  .m . v 2
2
2
1  10 ft  1
 100 lb m    
2  s  (lb m )( ft )
32.174 2
( s )(lb f )
 155 ( ft )(lb f )

2. What is the potential energy in (ft)(lbf) of a 100 lb drum hanging 10 ft


above the surface of the earth with reference to the surface of the earth?
Solution:

E p  m.g .h
32.174 ft 1
 100 lbm   10 ft 
s2 (lbm )( ft )
32.174 2
( s )(lb f )
 1000 ( ft )(lb f )

THE MOLE UNIT


mass ( g )
g mol 
MW

mass (lb )
lb mol 
MW

Example: If a bucket holds 2.00 lb NaOH (molecular weight=40), how many


a. Pound moles of NaOH does it contain?
b. Gram moles of NaOH does it contain?

Solution:
1lb mol NaOH
2.00 lb NaOH   0.05 lb mol NaOH
40 lb NaOH

1lb mol NaOH 454 g mol


2.00 lb NaOH    22.7 g mol NaOH
40 lb NaOH 1lb mol

DENSITY is the ratio of mass per unit volume.

Units : kg/m3, lb/ft3

SPECIFIC GRAVITY = ratio of two densities-that of the substance of interest A


to that of a reference substance. The reference
substance for liquids and solids is normally water.
The specific gravity of gases frequently is referred to
air.

In the SI system, the numerical values of the specific gravity and density in this
system are essentially equal since the density of water at 4 oC is very close to 1
g/cm3.

Since densities in the American Engineering system are expressed in lb/ft 3, and
the density of water is about 62.4 lb/ft3, it can be seen that the specific gravity
and density values are not equal.

In the petroleum industry, the specific gravity of petroleum products is usually


reported in terms of a hydrometer scale called oAPI.

141.5
o
API   131.5
60 o
SG o
60

Example:
If dibromopentane (DBP) has a specific gravity of 1.57, what is the density in
(a) g/cm3; (b) lbm/ft3; (c) kg/m3.

Solution:
a). Density = Specific Gravity x density of water

g DBP
1.57
 cm 3  1.00 g H 2 O  1.57 g DBP
g H 2O cm 3 cm 3
1.00
cm 3

lbm DBP
1.57
ft 3 lb H O lb DBP
b).  62.4 m 3 2  97.9 m 3
lb H O ft ft
1.00 m 3 2
ft

3
g DBP  100 cm  1 kg kg DBP
c). 1.57
cm 3

m
 
1000 g
 1.57  10 3
m3
 

MOLE FRACTION AND MASS (WEIGHT) FRACTION

Mole fraction is simply the moles of a particular substance divided by the total
number of moles present.

Mole fraction of A = Moles of A/Total Moles

Mass (Weight) fraction is the mass (weight) of substance divided by the total
mass (weight) of all the substance present.

Mass (weight) fraction of A = mass (weight) of A/Total mass (weight).

The composition of gases will always be presumed to be given in mole percent


or fraction unless specifically stated otherwise.

Analyses of liquids and solids are usually given by mass (weight) percent or
fraction, but occasionally by mole percent.

The analyses of liquids and solids will always be assumed to be weight percent
unless specifically stated otherwise.

Example:
An industrial-strength drain cleaner contains 5 kg of water and 5 kg of NaOH.
What are the mass (weight) fraction and mole fraction of each component in
the drain cleaner container?

Solution:
Component Kg Weight MW Kgmol Mole
Fraction fraction
Water 5.0 5/10 18 5/18=0.278 0.278/0.403
NaOH 5.0 5/10 40 5/40=0.125 0.125/0.403
Total 10.0 1.0 0.403 1.0

THE AVERAGE MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF AIR

Component Lb.Moles MW lb Weight %


(%)
O2 21 32 672 672/2900=23.17
N2 79 28.2 2228 2228/2900=76.83
Total 100 2900 100

The average MW = Lb/Lb moles = 2900/100= 29 lb/lb mole.

Choosing a Basis

1. If a fuel contains 80 % C and 20 % H by weight, what is the C/H ratio in


moles?

Solution:
If a basis of 100 kg or 100 lb of oil selected, percent= kg or pounds

Component Kg or lb Molecular kg mol or lb


percent Weight (MW) Mol
C 80 12.0 80/12=6.67
H 20 1.008 20/1.008=19.84
Total 100
Consequently, the C/H in mole = 6.67/19.84 = 0.33

2. Given that a 50 kg test run of gas averages 10 % H 2, 40 % CH4, 30 % CO,


and 20 % CO2. What is the average molecular weight of the gas?
Solution:
Basis 100 (kg or lb) mol of gas
Component Mol (lb mol or MW kg or lb
kg mol)
C02 20 44 880
CO 30 28 840
CH4 40 16.04 642
H2 10 2.02 20
100 2382
2382 kg
Average MW= 100
 23.82
kg mol

3. A medium grade bituminuous coal analyzes as follows: 2 % S, 1 % N, 6 %


O, 11 % Ash dan 3 % water. The residum is C and H in the mole ratio H/C
= 9. Calculate the weight (mass) fraction composition of the coal with the
ash and the moisture omitted.

Solution:
Basis = 100 kg of coal
The sum of S + N + O + Ash + Water = 2 + 1 + 6 + 11 + 3 = 23 kg
Hence C and H = 100 – 23 = 77 kg.
To determine the kilograms of C and H, we have to find the weight fraction
of C and H for mole ratio H/C = 9.

9
H   1.0 kg  0.9 kg
1 9
1
C   12 kg  1.2 kg
1 9
2.1 kg

Therefore, for 77 kg of C and H

0 .9
H   77 kg  33 kg
2 .1
, 1 .2
C   77 kg  44 kg
2 .1

The fraction composition on the basis of the coal ash free and water free as
follows:
Component Kg Wt. fraction
C 44 0.51
H 33 0.39
S 2 0.02
N 1 0.01
O 6 0.07
86 1.00

TEMPERATURE
Temperature Scale  Level to quantify the temperature of a material.
Thermometer  Device to measure how hot or cold something is.

Temperature scale
1. Celsius (Celsius, 1742) are relative scales in which their zero
2. Fahrenheit (1700-an) points were arbitrarily fixed by their
inventors.
3. Kelvin Absolut temperature scale have their zero points
4. Rankin at the lowest possible temperature which we believe can
exist.

 1.8 0 F 
T 0 F   0  T 0 C  32
 1 C 
 1K 
TK   0  T 0 C  273
1 C 
1 oR 
T 0 R   0  T 0 F  460
1 F 

Example: Temperature Conversion:


1. Convert 100 0C to
a) K b) 0F c) 0R

Solution:
 1K 
a). TK   0   100 0 C  273  373 K
1 C 
 1.8 0 F 
b). T 0 F   0   100 0 C  32  212 0 F
 1 C 
1 0R 
c). TR   0   212 0 F  460  672 0
R
1 F 

2. The termal conductivity of alumunium at 32 0F = 117 Btu/(hr)(ft2)(0F/ft).


Find the equivalen value at 0 0C in terms of Btu/(hr)(ft2)(K/ft)?

Solution:
32 0F = 0 0C
117 ( Btu )( ft ) 1.8 0 F 1o C Btu
2 0
 0
  211
( hr )( ft )( F ) 1 C 1K ( hr )( ft 2 )( K / ft )

PRESSURE

Pressure is defined as normal force per unit area.

vacuum Suppose that the cylinder of fluid is a column of


mercury that has an area of 1 cm2 and 50 cm high.
If the density of the mercury (Hg) = 13.55 g/cm3
50 cm therefore the force exerted by the mercury =
Hg
13.55 g 980 cm 1 kg 1m 1N
F   50 cm  1 cm 2    
cm 3
s 2
1000 g 100 cm 1 ( kg )( m
s2
plat  6.64 N
2
Force 6.64 N  100 cm 
Pr essure ( P )    
 1m  
Area 1 cm 2  
 6.64  10 4 N / m 2

In the American Engineering System

846 lbm 1 in 1 ft 32.2 ft 1


P   50 cm    
1 ft 3
2.54 cm 12 in s 2
32.174 (lbm )( ft )
( s 2 )(lb f )
lb f
 1387
ft 2

Relative pressure (gauge pressure) is a pressure with the reference for the
open end of manometer is the pressure of the atmosphere.

Absolute pressure is a pressure with the reference is a closed manometer or a


complete vacuum (no pressure).

Thus, the zero point for an absolute pressure scale corresponds to a perfect
vacuum, where as the zero point for a relative pressure scale usually
corresponds to the pressure of the air that surrounds us at all times, which
normally varies slightly.

Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + barometer pressure

Atmospheriic pressure = Barometric pressure = Pressure of the air


surrounding us which varies.

The standard atmosphere is equal to 1 atm or 76 cmHg at 0 0C.



33.91 ft H2O

14.699  14.7 psia (pound per square inch absolute)

29.921  29.92 inHg

760 mmHg

1.013 x 105 Pa  1 Pascal = 1N/m2

101.3 kPa
1 bar = 100 kPa

Examples:

1. Convert 35 psia to inches of mercury

Solution :
Basis: 35 psia

29.92 inHg
35 psia   71.25 inHg
14.7 psia

2. When the pressure is 340 mmHg, how many inches of water is it? How
many kilopascals?

Solution:
Basis; 340 mmHg
33.91 ftH 2 O 12 in
340 mmHg    182 inH 2 O
760 mmHg 1 ft
1.013  10 5 Pa 1 kPa
340 mmHg    45.4 kPa
760 mmHg 1000 Pa

3. The pressure gauge on a tank of CO2 used to fill soda-water bottles reads
51.0 psi. At the same time the barometer reads 28.0 inHg. What is the
absolute pressure in tank (in psia)?

Solution:
The pressure gauge is reading psig, not psia.
Basis: Barometric pressure=28.0 in Hg

14.7 psia
Atmospheric pressure = 28 inHg 
29.92 inHg
 13.78 psia

The absolute pressure in tank = atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure


= 13.78 + 51 = 64.78 psia
THE CHEMICAL EQUATION AND STOICHIOMETRY

Stoichiometry deals with the combining weights of elements and compounds.


Mole is a basis of chemical reaction equation.

Example :
In the combustion of heptane, CO2 is produced. Assume that you want to
produce 500 of dry ice per hour and that 50 % of the CO 2 can be converted
into dry ice. How many kg of heptane must be burned per hour?

Solution :
The chemical reaction as follows

C7H16 + 11 O2  7 CO2 + 8 H2O

Basis = 500 kg of dry ice per hour

1 kg CO2 1 kg mol CO2 1 kg mol C 7 H 16 100 kg C 7 H 16


500 kg dry  ice      325 kg C 7 H
0.5 kg dry  ice 44 kg CO2 7 kg mol CO2 1 kg mol C 7 H 16
Since the basis is 500 kg dry ice per hour, then 325 kg of C 7H16 must be burned
per hour. Note that kilograms are first converted to moles, then the chemical
equation is applied, and finally moles are converted back to kilograms for the
final answer.

SOME DEFINITIOS IN INDUSTRY

In industrial reaction you will rarely find exact stoichiometric amount of


materials used. To make a desired reaction take place or to use up a costly
reactant, excess reactants are nearly always used. This excess material comes
out together with, or perhaps separately from, the product-and sometimes can
be used again. Even if stoichiometric quantities of reactants are used, but if the
reaction is not complete or there are side reactions, the products will be
accompanied by unused reactants as well as side products. In these
circumstances, some definitions must be understood:

a. Limiting reactant is the reactant that is present in the smallest


stoichiometric amount.

b. Excess reactant is a reactant in excess of the limiting reactant.

The percent excess of a raectant is based on the amount of any excess


reactant above the amount required to react with
the limiting reactant according to the chemical
equation.
mol in  excess
% excess   100 %
moles  required  to  react  with  lim iting  reacant

A common term, excess air, is used in combustion reactions; it means the


amount of air available to react that is in excess of the air theoretically
required to completely burn the combustible material. In practice, the
excess air for fuel oil, is normally 5 – 20 %.

Even if only part of the limiting reactant actually reacts, the required and
excess quantities are based on the entire amount of the limiting reactant.

c. Conversion is the fraction of the feed or some material in the feed that is
converted into products.

d. Conversion is related to the degree of completion of a reaction.

Degree of completion is the percentage or fraction of the limiting reactant


converted into products.
.

e. Selectifity is the ratio of the moles of a particular (usually the desired)


product to the moles of another (usually undesired) product
produced in a set of reactions.

f. Yield, for a single reactant and product, is the weight or moles of final
product divided by the weight or moles of initial reactant. If more
than one product and more than one reactant are involved, the
reactat upon which the yield is to be based must be clearly stated.

The term yield and selectivity are terms that measure the degree to which a
desired reaction proceed relative to competing alternative (undesirable)
reactions.

Example:

Antimony is obtained by heating pulverized stibnite with scrap iron and drawing
off the molten antimony from the bottom of the reaction vessel:

Sb2S3 + 3 Fe  2 Sb + 3 FeS

Suppose 0.6 kg of stibnite and 0.250 kg of iron turnings are heated


together to give 0,2 kg of Sb metal.

Calculate
a. The limiting reactant
b. The percentage of excess reactant (% excess reactant)
c. The degree of completion fraction)
d. The percent conversion
e. The yield

Solution:

Component kg MW g mol
Sb2S3 0.6 339.7 1.77
Fe 0.25 55.8 4.48
Sb 0.2 121.8 1.64
FeS 87.9

a. To find the limiting reactant, we examine the chemical reaction equation


and note that if 1.77 g mol Sb2S3 reacts, it requires (3 x 1.77) mol of Fe
= 5.31 g mol Fe where as if 4.48 g mol of Fe reacts, it requires (1/3 x
4.48) mol of Sb2S3 = 1.49 g mol Sb2S3.. Thus Fe is present in the smallest
stoichiometric amount and is the limiting reactant; Sb 2S3 is the excess
reactant.

b. The percentage of excess reactant is

1.77  1.49
%  excess   100 %  18.8 %
1.49

c. Although Fe is the limiting reactant, not all the limiting reactant reacts.
We can compute from the 1.64 g mol of Sb how much Fe actually does
react:

3 g mol Fe
1.64 g mol Sb   2.46 g mol Fe
2 g mol Sb

2.46
Fractional  deg ree  of  completion   0.55
4.48

d. The percent conversion can be arbitrarily based on the Sb 2S3 if our interest
is mainly in the stibnite.

1 g mol Sb2 S 3
1.64 g mol Sb   0.82 g mol Sb2 S 3
2 g mol Sb
0.82
% conversion  Sb2 S 3 to Sb   100 %  46.3 %
1.77

e. The yield will be stated as kg of Sb formed per kg of Sb 2S3 that was fed to
the reaction
0.2 kg Sb 1 kg Sb
Yield  
0.6 kg Sb2 S 3 3 kg Sb2 S 3

Selectivity and Yield


Example :

Two well known reactions take place in the dehydrogenation of ethane.

C2H6  C2H4 + H2
C2H6 + H2  2 CH4

Given the following product distribution (in the gas phase reaction of C 2H6 in the
presence of H2)

Component %
C2H6 35
C2H4 30
H2 28
CH4 7
Total 100

What is :
a. Selectivity of C2H4 relative to CH4
b. The Yield of C2H4 in kgmol of C2H4 per kgmol of C2H6

Solution:
a. The Selectivity C2H4 relative to CH4

30 kg mol C 2 H 4 kg mol C 2 H 4
 4.29
7 kg mol CH 4 kg mol CH 4

b. The moles of C2H6 entering into the reaction can be determined from the
C2H4 and the CH4 formed.

1 kg mol C 2 H 6
30 kg mol C 2 H 4   30 kg mol C 2 H 6
1 kg mol C 2 H 4
1 kg mol C 2 H 6
7 kg mol CH 4   3.5 kg mol C 2 H 6
2 kg mol CH 4
33.5 kg mol C 2 H 6

30 kg mol C 2 H 4 kg mol C 2 H 4
Yield   0.9
33.5 kg mol C 2 H 6 kg mol C 2 H 6

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