GENERAL EDUCATION-SCIENCE

Biological Science
Licensure Examination for Teachers

Biology is the study of living organisms, their morphology, physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin and
distribution.
Characteristics of life:
• Living things are composed of cells
• Living things have different levels of organization
• Living things use energy
• Living things respond to their environment
• Living things grow
• Living things reproduce
• Living things adapt to their environment
Cell Biology
The cellular theory of life states that:
• All living organisms are made of cells.
• Cell is the basic functional unit of an organism
• All cells arise from preexisting cells.
A group of similar cells having similar functions form tissues.
A group of tissue forms an organ.
Several organs working together form a system
Cells are divided into two varieties: prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes have no nucleus or other internal membranes. Bacteria are prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes have a nucleus and are more complex cells. They make up every other form of life such as
human cells.
General functions of cells include (a) the manufacture of proteins and other materials that build the cell; (b)
the manufacture of food for energy and (c) reproduction
THEORY OF ENDOSYMBIOSIS – Eukaryotic cells containing organelles like mitochondria and chloroplast
evolved when free living prokaryotes took up permanent residence inside other prokaryotes about 1.5 billion
years ago.

Parts of a cell
Nucleus – found in the center of the cell; contains chromosomes, which carry genetic materials; controls and
regulates the functions of the organelles
Ribosomes – the site of protein synthesis
Endoplasmic reticulum
Rough E.R. – the site of protein synthesis resulting from the attached ribosomes
Smooth E.R. – assists in the synthesis of steroid hormones and other lipids and carries out various
detoxification processes
Golgi apparatus – they “package” substances produced in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and secrete
then toother parts or to the cell surface for export
Lysosomes – the principal site of intracellular digestion.
Mitochondria – site of cellular respiration
Vacuoles – single, membrane bound structures for storage
Plastids – found only in plants and algae. They are small organelles that contain pigment or food. They are
three types
Chloroplasts – the site of photosynthesis; contains chlorophyll, a green pigment present in all green plant
and cyanobacteria that is responsible for the absorption of light to provide energy for photosynthesis
Leucoplasts – store starch and are found in roots or in tubers
Chromoplasts – store carotenoid pigments and are responsible for the red-orange-yellow color of carrots
and tomatoes.
Cell wall – present only in plant cells; a rigid layer of polysaccharide that lies outside of the plasma
membrane.
Cell membrane – a selectively permeable membrane that regulates the steady traffic that enters and leaves
the cell.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT- Movement of molecules down a concentration gradient from a region of higher
concentration to a lower concentration. (Simple Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion, and Osmosis)
ACTIVE TRANSPORT – movement of molecule against a gradient; requires energy usually in form of ATP.
(Exocytosis and Endocytosis)
Cell division functions in growth, repair and reproduction. The two types of cell division are
Mitosis – cell division that occurs in somatic cells; a parent cell that produces two new cells whose
chromosomes are the same in number as the parent cell; daughter cells are diploid
CYTOKINESIS – Splitting of cytoplasm
CLEAVAGE FURROW – Animals
CELL PLATE – Plants (MIDDLE LAMELLA – sticking cement adjacent in plant cell)
Meiosis – occurs in sexually reproducing organisms and results in cells with half the chromosome number of
the parent cell; daughter cell is haploid
Also called as REDUCTION DIVISION
SYNAPSIS – Pair up precisely with their homologous pair
CROSSING OVER – Greater variety in the gametes.
Most cells have a predetermined life span. They normally divide for a set number of cell divisions and then
die. When cells grow and divide until they become too crowded, they stop diving. This normal reaction to
overcrowding is called contact inhibition. If cells lose their contact inhibition and begin to divide uncontrollably,
they are said to be cancerous.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the molecule of heredity. Mutations are changes in the genetic material.
Mutations can be caused by mutagenic agents including toxic chemicals and radiation
A virus is a parasite that can live only inside another cell. It is neither classified as a living or a non-living
thing. Each type of virus can infect only one specific cell type because it gains entrance into a cell by binding to
specific receptors on the cell surface. A sudden emergence of new strains of virus that affects animals may
result from a mutation in the virus that expands it host range. Some common viral disease are
• Colds - virus infects only the membranes of the respiratory system
AIDS - The virus infects only one type of white blood.
Hepatitis - virus infects the liver
Dengue – viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes causing sudden fever, rashes, severe headache, pain
behind the eyes and muscles and joints. Dengue mosquitoes bite during the day. There is nospecific treatment
for dengue but the usual treatment is to the replacement of lost fluids in the patient.
Foot and Mouth disease (FMD)–a highly contagious viral disease of cattle, sheep, swine, goats, deer and
other cloven hoofed animals that causes blisters on mouth, teats and soft tissues of the feet. FMD is not a
significant health risk to people.
Bacteria are unicellular organisms that have cell walls but lack organelles and organized nucleus. Bacteria
are widely distributed in water, soil, air and on or in the in the tissues of plants and animals. Bacteria can be
both harmful and beneficial.
Bacteria play a role in chemical changes such as organic decay, nitrogen fixation and fermentation.
Bacteria can cause diseases. Some of these are
Tuberculosis

Prions are infectious proteins that cause several brain damage such as mad cow disease in cattle. Prions
are not cells and are not viruses however because they are seriously infectious entities they are included with
viruses.

Genetics
GREGOR MENDEL (1822-1884)
• Father of Genetics because of his bright insights and methodologies
• Discovered in 1866 that hereditary characteristics were determined by elementary factors (now called genes)
that are transmitted between generations in uniform predictable fashion.
Gene: inherited factor on the chromosome responsible for a trait
• Locus: location of a gene on a chromosome
• Genotype: genetic constitution of an individual
• Allele: alternative forms of a gene
Allele for yellow color
Allele for white color
• Phenotype: physical,physiological, biochemical and behavioral trait of an organism; determined by the
genotype and its interaction with the environment.
• Dominant: gene exerting full effect despite the presence of another allele of the same gene
• Recessive: gene not expressed in the presence of another allele.
Homozygous: 2 copies of the same allele of a gene (e.g. YY, yy)
• Heterozygous: 2 different alleles of the same gene (e.g. Yy)
PUNNET SQUARE – Predicting outcomes in genetics
Law of Independent Segregation
• Alleles in a gene pair separate cleanly from each other during meiosis.
Law of Independent Assortment
• Alleles of different gene pairs
• Separate independently from each other and randomly combine during meiosis
Law of Complete Dominance (3:1)
AA and Aa have the same phenotype
The presence of a dominant allele is enough to express the dominant trait
F2 genotypic ratio: 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa
F2 phenotypic ratio: 3 : 1
Law of Incomplete Dominance (1:2:1)
 F1 phenotype is intermediate
F2 genotypic ratio: 1 : 2 : 1
F2 phenotypic ratio: 1 : 2 : 1
Law of Codominance (1:2:1)
The products of the two alleles in the heterozygote are present.
MULTIPLE ALLELES
When there are two or more allelic form (Usually used in Blood Type)
POLYGENIC INHERITANCE
Many characteristic result from a blending of several separate gene that vary along a continuum.
SEX-LINKED GENES
Traits carried on the X chromosomes.

PEDIGREE
Family Tree; used to determine how a particular gene/ trait is inherited.
MUTATION – any abnormality in genome (complete set of genes)
CHROMOSOMAL ABERRATIONS
1. Deletion
2. Inversion
3. Translocation
4. Polyploidy
5. Non-disjunction
MOLECULAR GENETICS
Watson and Crick – received the Nobel Prize for correctly describing the structure of DNA as Double helix
DNA is a double helix like twisted ladder; 4 possible nitrogenous bases: Adenine, Guanine, Thymine and
Cytosine.
Joined together by Hydrogen Bond; A:T, G:C =CHARGAFF’S RULE
TRANSCRIPTION – DNA to RNA
RNA PROCESSING – Initial transcript is a process of edited by a series of enzyme.
TRANSLATION – Production of Protein

RECOMBINANT DNA – means taking DNA from two sources and combining them in one cell.
GENETIC ENGINEERING- Branch of science that uses DNA recombinant technology.
GENE THERAPY – Insert functioning gene to non-functioning gene.
RESTRICTION ENZYME – Important tools for scientist working with DNA, used to cut at specific recognition
sequence or sites.
GEL ELECTROPHORESIS – Separate large molecules of DNA on the basis of their rate of movement through
an agarose gel in an electric field.
POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION – DNA can be rapidly copied or amplified.

Evolution environment
Basic principle of evolution is survival of the fittest. Individuals best adapted to the environment generally
produce the greatest number of offspring.
Evidences of evolution
• Fossil records
• Introduction of new organisms
• Mutation
• Embryological development
• Structural development
Homologous structure- chicken’s wings and bat’s wings
Analogous structure- human arms and bat’s wings
Vestigial structure-wisdom tooth, appendix
NATURAL SELECTION (Stabilizing selection, Disruptive Selection and Directional Selection)
GENETIC DRIFT – change in the gene pool due to chance.
PATTERN OF EVOLUTION
1. Divergent Evolution
2. Convergent Evolution
3. Parallel Evolution
4. Coevolution
5. Adaptive Radiation
Biochemistry
BONDING
Ionic Bonding – Electrons are transferred
ANION – Gain Electron (Negative Ion)
CATION – Losses Electron (Positive Ion)
Covalent Bonding – Sharing of Electrons
Non-Polar – Electron shared equally; Formed equally when two atoms are alike.
Polar – Electrons shared unequally; Two atoms are unalike.
CHARACTERISTIC OF WATER
1.High Specific Heat
2. High Heat of Evaporation
3. High Adhesion Property
4. Universal Solvent
5. Cohesion Tension

Four Macromolecules
Group Building Function
blocks
Carbohydrat monosaccharid Energy storage, receptors, structure of plant cell
es e wall
Lipids Triglycerides Membrane structure, energy storage, insulation
Proteins amino acids Enzymes, structure, receptors, transport and more
Nucleic Acids Nucleotides Information storage and transfer ENZYMES – Large
protein; It speed up
the reaction by lowering the energy of activation, the amount of energy needed to begin a reaction.
INDUCED-FIT MODEL – describes how enzyme works. (Substrate and Active Site)

Taxonomy
Domain-Kingdom-Phylum-Class-Order-Family-Genus-Species
(Dumb King Philip Came Over For Gooseberry Soup)
3 Domains-(Eukarya, Bacteria, Archaea)
5 Kingdoms
Monera
Individuals are single-celled, may or may not move, have a cell wall, have no chloroplasts or other organelles,
and
have no nucleus. Monera are usually very tiny, although one type, namely the blue-green bacteria
(cyanobacteria), look like algae. They are filamentous and quite long, green, but have no visible structure inside
the cells. No visible feeding mechanism. They absorb nutrients through the cell wall or produce their own by
photosynthesis.
Protista
Protists are single-celled and usually move by cilia, flagella, or by amoeboid mechanisms. There is usually no
cell wall, although some forms may have a cell wall. They have organelles including a nucleus and may have
chloroplasts, so some will be green and others won't be. They are small, although many are big enough to be
recognized in a dissecting microscope or even with a magnifying glass. Nutrients are acquired by
photosynthesis, ingestion of other organisms, or both.
Plant-like protist-algae
Animal-like protist-paramecium, euglena, plasmodium
Fungi-like protist-slime molds
Fungi
Fungi are multicellular,with a cell wall, organelles including a nucleus, but no chloroplasts. They have no
mechanisms for locomotion. Fungi range in size from microscopic to very large ( such as mushrooms).
Nutrients are acquired by absorption. Fungi acquire nutrients from decaying material (saprophytes).
Plantae
Plants are multicellular, eukaryotic and autotrophic (can manufacture their own food)
Plants produce their own food through photosynthesis. Photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide, water,
chlorophyll and sunlight. The product of photosynthesis is glucose and oxygen
Classification of plants
Bryophytes or non vascular – plants that has no transport vessels
(mosses, hornworts, liverworts)
Tracheophytes or vascular – plants with transport vessel like xylem and phloem
Seedless plants (ferns)
Seed plants
Gymnosperms – cone bearing
Angiosperms – flowering plants
o Monocot
o Dicot
Some important parts of plants
Roots – absorb water and nutrients from the soil
Stems – transport the nutrients to the leaves through cells that are specialized for transport
Leaves – food manufacturing site; stomata in the leaves open to exchange photosynthetic gases and close
to minimize excessive water loss
Plant reproduction
Plants can clone themselves or reproduce asexually by vegetative propagation. A piece of the vegetative
part like the roots, the stem or the leaf can produce an entirely new plant genetically identical to the parent
plant. Examples of vegetative propagation are grafting, cuttings, bulbs and runners.
 Sexual reproduction happens in flowering plants. The flower is the sexual organ of a plant. Fertilization in a
flower begins with pollination. After fertilization, the ovule becomes the seed and the ripened ovary becomes
the fruit.
HORMONES IN PLANTS
1. Auxins
2. Cytokinins
3. Gibberellins
4. Abscisic acid
5. Ethylene

Animalia
Animals are multicellular with well-developed tissues and are heterotrophic by ingestion. Animals cannot
manufacture their own food.
Two main division of animals
Invertebrates – animals without backbone
Porifera -pore bearing animals (sponges)
Cnidaria-stinging cells called nematocyst (jellyfish, hydra)
Platyhelminthes-flatworms (tapeworm, planaria)
Nematoda-roundworms (ascaris)
Annelida-segmented worms (earthworm, leech)
Molluska-soft bodied organisms
Gastropods-one-shelled (snails)
Bivalves-two-shelled (oysters)
Cephalopods-no sheel (squids, octopus)
Arthropoda-jointed legs
Insects-3 pairs of legs
Arachnids-4 pairs of legs
Crustaceans-5 pairs of legs
Centipede-one pair of legs per segment
Millipede-2 pairs of legs per segment
Echinodermata-spiny skinned animals (sea urchin)
Chordata-with notochord developed later into backbone, gave rise to vertebrates (lancelets, tunicates)
Vertebrates – animals with backbone
Jawless fishes-Agnatha (lampreys, hagfish)
Bony fishes-Osteichthyes (sea horse, milkfish)
Cartilaginous fishes-Chondrichthyes (sharks, manta rays)
Amphibians-spend their early life in water, adult life in land and return to the water to breed (frogs,
toads, salamanders)
Reptiles-creeping creatures (turtle, snakes, crocodiles)
Birds-wings for flight, feathers, and a beak rather than teeth
Mammals-have hair or fur, mammary glands, capable of thermoregulation,
Monotremes-egg-laying mammals (duck-billed platypus)
Marsupials-abdominal pouch to carry the young (kangaroo, koala)
Placentals-presence of placenta (pig, human)
GERMS LAYER- Formed early in embryonic development.
ECTODERM – outermost layer and becomes the skin and nervous system
ENDODERM – Innermost layer and becomes the viscera or the digestive system
MESODERM – middle layer and becomes the blood, muscle and bones.

Ecology
Ecosystem is formed by the interaction of a community or organisms with their physical environment.
Activities in the ecosystem includes nutrient cycling and energy transfer
POPULATION – Group of individuals of one species living in one area.
COMMUNITY – Consist of all the organisms living in one area.
PROPERTIES OF POPULATION
Size – Density - Dispersion
Biotic (living) factors in an ecosystem
• Autotrophs or producers
Heterotophs or consumers – includes decomposers, scavengers, carnivores, herbivores, omnivores
Abiotic (non living) factors include the biosphere and physical and chemical factors.
Symbiotic relationships
Mutualism – relationship that is beneficial to both organisms involved
Commensalism – an association between two organisms in which one benefits and the other derives neither
benefit nor harm
Parasitism – association of a parasite and a host; the parasite lives in or in the host and benefits by deriving
nutrients at the host’s expense
Predation – association of a predator and a prey; the prey is hunted and killed by the predator for food
BATESIAN MIMICRY – Copycat coloration
MULLERIAN MIMICRY – two or more species resemble each other and gain advantage from their combined
number.
Food chain is the hierarchical series of organisms wherein each is dependent on the next as a source of
food. A system of interlocking and interdependent food chains gives rise to food webs.
CARRYING CAPACITY – Population grows until it reaches the maximum that the environment can support.
LIMITING FACTORS – Are those factors that limit population growth. (Density dependent and Density
independent)

Anatomy and Physiology

Digestive system – breaks down food into simpler forms so that food substances are small enough to be
carried by the blood and able to pass on to cells
Respiratory system – helps the body take in oxygen from the air.
Excretory system – filters out wastes and purify the blood; its main organ is the kidney
Circulatory system – pumps blood to the different parts of the body
Muscular system – muscles have the ability to contract producing movements in or maintaining the position
of parts of the body.
Skeletal system – system that gives support and shape to the body
Nervous system – master controller of the body; monitors conditions within and outside the body
Reproductive system – the system that allows the continuation of the human species.
Integumentary system – commonly called the skin; offers protection from the sun’s rays and serves in body
temperature regulation.
Lymphatic system – body’s main defense against all foreign substances

EMBYONIC DEVELOPMENT
Sperm fertilizes an egg to form a diploid zygote.
Zygote then undergoes cleavage, a succession of mitotic divisions that result in the formation of a hollow ball
called BLASTULA.

Zygote – Cleavage – Blastula – Gastrulation – Germinal – Embryo - Fetus