Topic 4

4.1 SPECIES, COMMUNITIES AND ECOSYTEMS

Species – is a group of organisms that can be interbred and produce fertile offspring,
viable offspring
Population – a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the
same time
Community - a group of populations living together and interacting with each other
in an area
Habitat – the environment in which species lives or the normal location of a living
organism
Ecosystem – a community and its abiotic environment

MODES OF NUTRITION
 Living organisms obtain chemical energy by one of a methods of nutrition (or
both)
Ingestion – taking in a substance
1. Autotrophs – synthesize organic molecules from abiotic inorganic sources
using energy from:
- Light photosynthesis (Photoautotrophs)
- Oxidation Reaction (Chemoautotrophs)
^^^^Producers^^^^
2. Heterotrophs – obtains organic molecules from other organisms, can be
categorized as:
- Consumer (Ingests other living organisms)
- Herbivores, carnivores, omnivores
- Scavengers (Feeds on dead or decaying matter)
 - Detritivore (ingests non-living detritus (dead)) ex. Earthworms, snails, dung
beetles
- Saprotrophs (Externally digest dead organisms) ex. Decomposers; bacteria,
mold
- - Organisms that live on non-living organic matter and release enzymes to
absorb nutrients (products of digestion)
Nutrient Cycling
Nutrients – the materials required by an organism for growth and survival
- The supply of inorganic nutrients is finite, hence must be constantly
recycled.
Autotrophs – convert inorganic nutrients into organic molecules
Heterotrophs – ingest organic molecules and many release inorganic byproducts
Saprotrophs – break down the nutrients in dead organisms
- Nutrients released by saprotrophs are returned to the soil for use by
autotrophs
Mesocosms – Ecosystems that have the potential to be sustainable over long periods
of time
 Sustainability requires 3 conditions;
 Energy availability (ex. Light Source)
 Nutrient availability (Decomposers)
 Waste recycling (ex. Detoxifying bacteria)
 Are enclosed environments with controlled conditions (ex. Terrariums)
 To study sustainability
Quadrat Sampling
- The presence of species in a given area can be determined via quadrat
sampling
 A rectangular frame is placed in an area
 Species numbers are counted/estimated
 Sampling process repeated many times
= Is used to access the number of sessile (non-motile) species
Species Association
- The presence of species in a habitat will depend on interactions between
them
- If species are found in the same habitat they show positive association:
 Predator-prey relationships
 Symbiotic relationships
- If species do not share a common habitat they show negative association:
 Competition (exclusive or partitioning)
Chi-squared
- Test can show if there is an association in the distribution of 2 species
 Based on data collected by quadrat sampling

4.2 ENERGY FLOW

Energy source – light is the initial energy source for almost all communities (ex.
Photo autotrophs)
 Some producers may instead derive energy from chemical processes
(Chemical autotrophs
*Light energy is released via process of photosynthesis*
ENERGY TRANSFER
- Heterotrophs obtain the chemical energy in organic molecules by means of
feeding
 Chemical energy is released via process of respiration in heterotrophs and
autotrophs
Trophic Levels
 An organisms trophic level refers to the position it occupies in a feeding
sequence
 Producers always occupy the first trophic level
 Consumers are labelled 1 degree, 2,3,4 etc.
Level 1 = Producer
Level 2 = Primary consumer
Level 3 = Secondary consumer
Level 4 = Tertiary consumer

Food Chains
 They show linear feeding patterns between the species in a community
- Arrows indicate direction of energy flow
Examples:
Phytoplankton -> Green mushroom coral -> Yellow tail damsel -> Reef Shark
Buckwheat -> Gopher -> Gopher snake -> Red tailed kite
Food webs
 The interconnections that exist among food chains
 Each organism may have several sources of nutrition, or be a source of
nutrition
Energy Loss
- Energy stored in a carbon compounds flows through food chains by
means of feeding
 Energy is released in forms of carbohydrates and other carbon compounds
energy by cell respiration (heat energy) in the form of ATP
Not all stored energy is transferred upon feeding – most of the energy is lost:
 Energy is used to fuel cellular process
- Nucleic acid system
- Ion exchange across membranes
- Cell Division
 Heat is by-product of these reactions (heat loss from ecosystems)
 Ecosystems need a continuous influx of energy from an external source
 Chemical energy is produced by an organism can be converted into a number of
forms:
 Kinetic energy (ex. During muscular contractions)
 Electrical energy (ex. During transmission of nerve impulses)
 Light energy (ex. producing bioluminescence)
= Exothermic, releasing heat =
Energy efficiency
- Energy transformations in living organisms (between trophic levels) are
10% efficient (90% is lost) to account for energy lost through excretory
products, faeces, heat and body that is not consumed
 Less energy is available to store biomass at higher trophic levels
Biomass – total mass of all living organisms in a given area/habitat
- As energy and biomass is progressively lost, food chain lengths are
restricted
 Food chains have a maximum of 5 levels
= Energy stored in organic molecules (ex. Sugars and lipids) can by released by cell
respiration to produce ATP =
Pyramids of Energy
 Representations of the amount of energy at each trophic level
- Energy units per area per time (KJm^2 year^-1)
 Pyramids of energy will never be inverted and levels should differ by a factor
of 10
- Because transformations are 10%/effiencient
- Energy is lost as heat from respiration, incomplete digestion and egstion
pyramid of energy
4.3 CARBON CYCLING
Carbon
 Forms chemical bases of all known living things
 Found in autotrophs, which transform CO2 into more complex molecules, such
as glucose
Carbon dioxide
 Gas heavier than air
 Solubility increases as pressure increases, can combine with H2O to form
H2CO3 (Carbonic acid)
 Unstable and dissociates easy in water in hydrogen ions (H+) and carbonate
ions (HCL)
 Hydrogen ions released in this dissociation lowers the pH of the water
Calcium carbonate
 Shells of mollusks and exoskeletons of hard corals contain carbon
 When animals die, calcium carbonate becomes part of sedimentary rock
 Dissolves in acid, but not alkaline solutions
 Most oceans are slightly alkaline, creating right conditions for formation of
limestone rock
Carbon cycling
 A reservoir is a very large pool or store of an element
 When a carbon moves from one reservoir to another it is called a flux.
 They tend to be very large reserves of carbon, which have a relatively low
exchange (ex. CO2 dissolved in oceans)
 Exchange pools tend to hold smaller amounts of carbon, but more rapid in
exchange
 Size of carbon pools and the flux of this element can be measures
- Unit is gigatones
Key features of carbon cycle:
- Carbon exchange involves 4 spheres;
 Atmosphere (carbon/methane)
  Biosphere (organic compounds)
 Lithosphere (detritus and fossil fuels)
 Hydrosphere (bicarbonate ions)
Carbon Conversions
ORGANIC:
Autotrophs - convert atmosphere CO2 into organic compounds
Heterotrophs – obtain organic compounds (ex. Carbohydrates) via feeding
 The breakdown of carbon compounds via cell respiration (to produce ATP)
releases CO2 as a by-product
AQUATIC:
Carbon Dioxide – may remain dissolved in water or form hydrogen carbonate
Animals – Animals may combine carbonate ions with calcium to form
shells/exoskeletons (ex. Coral, Mollusca)
Carbonate Ions – may also interact with rocks and sediments to form limestone
Methane Production
 (CH4) is produce from organic matter under anaerobic conditions (no
air/oxygen)
- Wetlands (swamps and marshed)
- Marine sediments (ex. Mud of lake bed)
- Digestive track of ruminant (cattle, sheep, deer) animals
 Methane may diffuse into the atmosphere or accumulate in the ground (gas
deposit)
 In the atmosphere, methane is oxidized to form CO2 and water
Methane
 organic matter is changed to organic acids and alcohol by a group of bacteria
 Other bacteria convert it into acetate, CO2 and hydrogen
 Methanogenic archaea can produce methane through reaction of :
CO2 + 4H2 => CH4 + 2H2O or CH3COO- + H+ => CH4 +CO2
Fossils Fuels
- In aerobic condition, decomposers break down organic matter and return
it to soil
- In anaerobic conditions (without air/oxygen) decomposers can not function
and organic matter builds up
 Waterlogged soils and sea beds are anaerobic
- Anaerobic respiration produces organic acids, resulting in acidic soil
conditions
Peat/coal
- Organic matter not fully decomposed in anoxic or acidic soils becomes
peat
- When peat is composed under layers of sediment, heat and pressure
remove moisture and transform peat into coal
Oil/Natural
- Marine organisms maybe buried under sediment on the ocean floor after
death
- This burial creates anaerobic conditions and the compaction also
generates heat
- This transforms the organic matter into hydrocarbons
 The formation of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) takes place over millions of years
- Making them a non-renewable energy source
Combustion
 Hydrocarbons undergo a combustion reaction in the presence of oxygen
- Reaction is exergonic (energy is released)
- CO2 and H2O are produced
 Sources of hydrocarbons:
 Fossilized organic matter (coal, oil, gas)
 Biomass (e.g bioethanol and biodiesel)
 The energy released via combustion is used to power industrial processes
 Industrial combustion is increasing CO2 levels concentration
 Also peat fires, car engines, forest fires
Carbon fluxes
- Describe the rate of carbon exchange between sinks and resevoirs
- Driven by number of key process including photosynthesis, respiration,
combustion and lithification (transform into stone)
Reasons for flux change include:
 Climate (affects dissolution of CO2 in oceans)
 Natural effects (volcanic eruptions)
 Human activity (deforestation or combustion)

4.4 CLIMATE CHANGE

Greenhouse gases – absorb and emit long-wave (infared) radiation, thereby trapping
heat within the atmosphere
Greenhouse gas impact depends on:
 Ability to absorb long wave radiation
 Concentration within the atmosphere
 Water Vapour
 Carbon dioxide
 Methane (CH4)
 Nitrogen oxide
 H2O and CO2 and CH4 are the most significant
 CH4 and N2O have less impact
Greenhouse Effect
- Some gases, such as CO2 and CH4 can absorb longer wavelengths of light
and re-emit them as heat
 Is a natural process
 Incoming radiation from the sun includes short-wave ultraviolet radiation
 Some of this radiation is emitted by Earth as long-wave infared radiation
 Greenhouse gases absorb and re-emit this long-wave radiation as heat
which increases average temperatures
The enhanced greenhouse effect is a human induced process (not natural):
  Industrial and agricultural processes are increasing emissions of greenhouse
gases
 Deforestation is reducing the up-take of CO2 by plants
 An increase in greenhouse levels maybe causing global climate change
Climate Change (atmospheric concentration
 Higher global temperatures mean total amount of water that evapourates
from oceans and lakes increase as well
 Increase H2) in the atmosphere leads to heavier rainfall
 Substantial effects, stronger hurricanes, typhoons, changes in ocean currents
 Greenhouse gases effect global temperatures and the latter in turn affects
climate change, then global temperatures and climate patterns must be
influenced by changing concentrations of greenhouse gases
 More recent increases in atmosphere CO2 are largely due to the increase in
combustion of fossil fuels
- Vehicles for transport
- For central heating
- Production of electricity
- Factories powered by fossil fuels
 Scientists predict that greenhouse gas emissions will change global
conditions
- Global Temperatures will increase
- Climate patterns will also be altered
Ocean acidification
 The ocean is a major carbon sink that absorbs 30% of humans CO2 emissions
- Absorption by oceans is temperature dependent
- Higher temperatures result in less absorption
 When CO2 is absorbed by the oceans:
- Some CO2 remains as a dissolved gas
- Most CO2 is converted into carbonic acid, which dissociates to release H+
ions
 This conversion impacts marine organisms (i.e Coral):
- Increases ocean acidity, which can stress coral survival (Higher amounts
of H+ = lower pH levels
 - Lowers carbonate ion concentrations, which is required for shells and
exoskeletons
Climate change debate – Is current climate change natural?

 Historical Data shows temperature cycles 😊 Claim

 Past changes were not as abrupt as current ☹ Counter
 CO2 levels are the highest ever recorded ☹ Counter
Are greenhouse gases the cause?

 Temperature could be caused by sunspots😊 Claim

 Sea levels increased before CO2 emissions😊 Claim
 Climate patterns do not match sun activity ☹ Counter
 Current rate of sea level increase is higher☹ Counter
Are climate change models reliable?

 Different models make varying predictions ☹ Counter

 All models predict a temperature increase 😊 Claim