FOOD2003 Food Engineering

RHEOLOGY
(Singh Ch 2, Toledo Ch 6)

Some definitions:

Stress - force per unit area

Normal stress - when a force is acting perpendicular to a surface (pressure)

Shear stress () - when force is acting parallel to a surface

The influence of shear stress leads to a broad classification of materials as elastic, plastic,
and fluid:

Elastic solid - deformation is proportional to stress, and when stress is removed

the solid regains its original shape

Plastic material - deforms continuously on the application of stress, and may show
some recovery when stress is removed, but permanent deformation remains

Fluid - deforms continuously, and rate of deformation is proportional to the

applied shear stress. There is no recovery when stress is removed.

When normal stress is applied to a liquid, there is no appreciable effect (except to increase
pressure) - it is incompressible. Gases, on the other hand, are compressible fluids.

Viscosity

The liquid property that has the most dramatic influence on flow characteristics is
viscosity. Viscosity is the property that describes the magnitude of the resistance to shear
forces in the liquid.

A fluid does not permanently resist shear stress, it continues to deform - it flows. The
velocity of flow increases with increasing shear stress.

Different fluids exhibit different degrees of resistance to the applied stress - they have a
different viscosity.

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Consider that a fluid of interest is confined between two infinitely large flat plates (See
Singh Fig 2.6)

A force F is applied to the top plate, and so it moves with a velocity u. The bottom plate
is stationary.

F  A u/y

or, as separation approaches zero

 = F/A = - du/dy

where  = coefficient of viscosity (or dynamic viscosity, units Pa.s)

The term du/dy is referred to as the shear rate (units s-1), often given the symbol
 = Change in velocity/Gap

For common fluids, the shear stress and shear rate are directly proportional - that is:
=
where  is defined as the “coefficient of viscosity or just “viscosity”.

Fluids which follow this equation are called Newtonian Fluids

Fluids which exhibit Newtonian characteristics include water, honey, milk, and fruit
juices.

In common language, we often refer to a fluid of high viscosity as “thick” - eg honey has
a high viscosity (or is “viscous”), water has a low viscosity, cream is viscous, milk is not
viscous.

Some confusion often exists between viscosity and density. The two are not directly
related.

Note that, with other factors remaining constant, higher shear stress is developed if:
 Viscosity is higher
 Relative velocity is higher
 The gap is smaller

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The viscosity of some common fluids at different temperatures is shown in the following
Table:

Material Temperature (C) viscosity (CP)

Water 5 1.5
25 1.0
50 0.6

60% Sucrose Solution 5 156

25 41
50 14

SAE 30 Machine Oil 5 1200

25 200
50 60

Note that the viscosity of a given fluid is temperature dependent. As temperature

increases, viscosity decreases.

Non-Newtonian fluids

Non-Newtonian fluids are those which do not obey the equation:

 = F/A = - du/dy

They may be classified as time-independent and time-dependent.

Time-independent non-Newtonian liquids:

 the relationship between shear stress and shear rate is non-linear. That is the
“viscosity” of the fluid changes with rate of applied shear.

See Singh Fig 2.11

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 there are two important types, shear-thinning liquids and shear thickening liquids

 apparent viscosity is the slope of the straight line drawn from the origin to the point of
interest on the shear stress vs shear rate graph (that is assuming is acting as a
Newtonian fluid

 for a shear-thinning liquid, as shear rate increases, apparent viscosity decreases.

These liquids are also sometimes called pseudoplastic or power law liquids. Common
examples include condensed milk, fruit purees, mayonnaise, mustard, and vegetable
soups

 for a shear-thickening liquid, as shear rate increases, apparent viscosity increases.

These liquids are also called dilatant liquids. Examples include homogenised peanut
butter, and a 60% suspension of corn starch in water.

A general equation for Non-Newtonian fluids is:

 = Kn + 0 (see Singh equation 2.30)

where  = shear stress

 = shear rate
0 = yield stress
K and n are constants which characterise the
fluid

For Newtonian fluids, K > 0 (= ), n = 1, 0 = 0

For Shear-thinning (Pseudoplastic) fluids, K > 0, n < 1, 0 = 0
For Shear-thickening (Dilatant) fluids, K > 0, n > 1, 0 = 0
For Bingham fluids, K > 0, n = 1, 0 > 0
For Plastic fluids, K > 0, n < 1, 0 > 0

Singh Table 2.2 shows how the values of K and n vary

Time-dependent non-Newtonian fluids:

 these obtain a constant value of viscosity only after a finite time has elapsed since the
application of the shear stress

 these fluids are also called thixotropic materials, and include certain types of starch
pastes

Another important class of non-Newtonian fluids require the application of a yield stress
before any response is observed. The plot of shear stress against shear rate does not pass
through the origin. After the yield stress is applied, the response may be similar to a
Newtonian fluid (termed Bingham liquids), or may be similar to shear- thinning materials
(termed plastic).

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Measurement of viscosity

The two common methods of measuring viscosity are the capillary tube viscometer and
the rotational viscometer.

Capillary tube viscometer

See Singh Fig 2.8

The pressure P is sufficient to overcome the shear forces within the liquid and
produce flow of a given rate. The shear force is acting on the entire internal
surface area,
 = F/(2rL)

The pressure P is the force per cross sectional area,

P = F/(r2)
or
F = (r2). P

Therefore
 = (r2). P /(2rL) = Pr/(2L) = - du/dy

Simplifying and integrating (see Singh pp53):

 =  P R4/(8 L V)

where R = internal radius of the tube

P = pressure drop across length L of tube
and V = volumetric flow rate

If we allow gravitational force to provide the pressure drop, viscosity can be calculated
from the time it takes for a liquid to drain through a length L of vertical glass tube by:

 = m g t/(8 L2)

where m = mass of liquid in the tube

g = acceleration due to gravity
t = time

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Rotational viscometer

The second type of viscometer is the rotational viscometer:

See Singh Fig 2.9

The diagram is specifically relevant to a coaxial-cylinder rotational viscometer, in which

the fluid is placed inside the space between inner and outer cylinders, and the inner
cylinder is rotated.

It can be shown that the torque,

 = 2r2L

where L is the length of the cylinder and r denotes the location between the
inner and outer cylinder which is being considered.

Solving this equation,

 = [/(82NL)] (1/Ri2 - 1/Ro2)

where N = revolutions per second of the inner cylinder

A variation is the single-cylinder viscometer, in which a single cylinder of radius Ri is

immersed in a liquid. It assumes that the wall of the vessel containing the liquid has no
influence on the shear stresses within the liquid. The above equation becomes:

 = /(82NLRi2)

Influence of temperature on viscosity

Viscosity changes significantly with temperature. For example, even with water the
change is around 3% per oC. Therefore when measuring viscosity and utilising values of
viscosity, care must be taken to ensure temperature is considered.

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 FLUID FLOW IN PIPES
(Singh and Heldman Ch 2, Farrall Ch 4, Toledo pp 204 - 225)

Flow of Fluids in Pipes

Some definitions:

Pressure - the force acting on a unit area

Head - a term often used in pumping, and which can have several meanings:

Pressure head - equivalent height of water which would develop a given pressure

p =  g h,
where p = pressure (Pa, or N/m2)
 = density of fluid (kg/m3)
g = 9.81 m/s2
h = height (m)
(eg, if pumping against a head of 5 m, pressure is 40 050 Pa)

Static head - vertical distance a fluid is above a reference level

Velocity head - related to energy required to change the velocity of a fluid

Flow characteristics of Newtonian fluids

At low flow velocities, flow of a fluid is smooth and uniform. This is termed laminar
flow.

In this case, if flow is occurring through a pipe, there is a parabolic velocity profile across
the pipe - velocity is highest in the centre, and lowest at the edges:

As velocity is increased, there is a stage where the flow becomes “turbulent”. The
velocity profile across a pipe is then flat but fluctuating.

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The conditions under which flow changes from laminar to turbulent can be determined by
the Reynold’s Number. The Reynold’s number is a dimensionless number defined as the
ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces. For a tube or pipe:
Nre = DV/

where  = density of the fluid

D = internal diameter of the tube
V = average velocity
 = viscosity

If Reynold’s number is 2100 or less flow will be laminar

If Reynold’s number is greater than 10 000, flow will be turbulent

At Reynolds numbers between these values, flow is in transition.

Losses in Pipelines

When flowing through a pipeline, a fluid loses pressure due to “frictional losses”.

Losses occur when:

- fluid flows through a length of straight pipe
- when the fluid changes direction
- when the cross sectional area of the pipe changes
- fluid flows through other valves, fittings etc

A derivation of the “Fanning” equation can be used to calculate frictional losses in straight
pipes:

Pressure loss; Pf = 2f(u2L/D),

or Head loss in m = 2f(u2L/Dg),

where:
f = friction factor
D = pipe internal diameter
u = velocity of flow
g = gravitational acceleration
L = length of pipe
 = density of the fluid

The friction factor, f, may be found from a “Moody Diagram”, knowing the “Reynolds
Number” for the flow conditions. (see Singh Fig 2.15)

For Laminar (Smooth or non-turbulent flow, which is when Re < 2100):

f = 16/Reynold’s Number

As an easier alternative, pipe manufacturers often supply charts or tables which give head
loss per metre of pipe for various flow rates. Note however that this is generally for water
only.

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Losses due to changes in cross-sectional area, fittings etc

A sudden contraction of expansion in the pipelines will result in additional frictional

losses.

Sudden contraction:

In terms of pressure loss, Pf = Kf.u22/2

or Head loss in m = Kf. u22/2g,

where Kf = 0.4 (1.25 – D22/D12) when D22/D12 < 0.715

or
Kf = 0.75 (1 – D22/D12) when D22/D12 > 0.715

When flow is from a tank or reservoir into a pipeline, Kf is usually taken as 0.5, if the
opening is square edged, between 0.01 and 0.05 if the opening is well rounded.

Sudden expansion:

In terms of pressure loss, Pf = u2/2 [1-(A1/A2)]2

or Head loss in m = u12/2g [1-(A1/A2)]2

For sudden expansion from a pipe to a tank or reservoir, A1/A2 = 0, so head loss is u12/2g

Fittings

Fittings are often accounted for as an “equivalent length of straight pipe”:

Eg a 90o square elbow will cause the same head loss of 60 diameters of straight pipe.

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Pumps

Positive displacement pumps

- pumped flow is closely related to pumping speed, but can vary with “slippage”
depending on viscosity etc

- if flow blocked, pressure increases until something bursts or pump stalls (or motor
burns out)

- rotary lobe type uses a pair of closely fitted geared rotors which push the fluid
through. Commonly used in food industry (eg Waukesha)

- reciprocating pumps use a piston in a cylinder to force fluid through the pump
(resulting in pulsating flow)

- helical rotor pumps use a single rotor in a helical case to force flow parallel to the
rotor shaft (eg original Mono pumps)

- screw pumps have a “screw” inside a closely fitting casing

- the peristaltic or hose pump pushes the fluid through a flexible tube which is
compressed by a rotor

- the “sine pump” is a relatively new style of pump which apparently provides a very
gentle pumping action

Centrifugal pumps

- consists of a motor driven impeller within a case

- product enters the pump at the centre of rotor rotation and moves to the impeller
periphery due to centrifugal force, then out the exit

- most efficient for low viscosity fluids and moderate pressures

- as pressure increases there is increased "slippage" past the impeller

- flow can be readily controlled by a valve on the discharge pipe (prolonged running
at low/no flow not recommended)

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 Sizing Pumps

Positive displacement pumps

Flow rate delivered by the pump is approximately the product of the displacement (or
volume or flow) per revolution multiplied by the pump speed. This needs to
be modified due to expected slippage, which is very dependent on type of
pump and fluid viscosity. Some manufacturers provide relevant pump
curves, but generally the advice of the manufacturer is required for detailed
information.

Centrifugal pumps

Flow rate delivered by a centrifugal pump is dependent on the discharge head (or
pressure) as well as the speed and size of the pump.

Manufacturers of pumps will provide pump operating curves to prospective

purchasers.

Note - discharge head is not only the “static head” (height of delivery above the
pump) but must include frictional losses in the pipeline, which is a
component of the “pressure head”.

Cavitation

Cavitation is a problem that arises when the liquid entering the pump experiences a
partial vacuum and local vaporisation occurs. This vaporisation causes small
bubbles, which subsequently collapse. The result can be very high local
pressures, leading to vibration, noise, and rapid wear of the pump, and must
be eliminated as soon as possible. The solution is to increase the Net Positive
Suction Head (NPSH). Note that NPSH requirements may be quoted by the
manufacturer only at normal temperatures - cavitation may still occur at
elevated temperatures.

Entrapped air can cause similar problems to cavitation. If it occurs, it may be

necessary to stop the pump and bleed off the air.

Net positive suction head

NPSH available = atm pressure - frictional head loss through intake - suction lift - vapour
pressure of the fluid

NPSH available must be greater than NPSH required

For an approximate calculation:

Atm pressure = 10 m

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Vapour pressure (20 oC) = 0.25 m

Frictional loss (can vary greatly) - allow say 1 to 2 m initially

If NPSH available is not significantly more than NPSH required, more detailed
calculations may be required (especially with regard to frictional loss)

Good pump installation practice

(i) Check that motors will not be overloaded under any possible conditions (eg lower
pressure due to another valve opened)

(ii) Whenever possible, centrifugal pumps should be installed with a flooded suction
(suction below fluid level). Pumps can sometimes operate with a “negative”
NPSH, but may require “priming”.

(iii) Orientate pump so that discharge is at the top (to assist removal of entrapped air)

(iv) Check direction of rotation - centrifugal pumps will generally still work in
reverse, but with much reduced performance.

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 Fans

There are four basic types of fan:

Propeller fans

- probably the simplest type of fan, in which a motor directly drives an impeller
similar to a propeller

- common examples are ceiling or desk fans

- suitable only against quite low pressures, and not normally used for actual process
operations in food plants

Axial flow fans

- similar to a propeller fan, but enclosed in a cylindrical casing so that there is

minimum clearance between the casing and the tips of the impeller blades

- this results in air flow being virtually parallel to the axis of the impeller

- can be made very large for high flow rates

- commonly used in dryers

Centrifugal fans

- the same principle as centrifugal pumps, though the impeller design is quite
different

- air entry through the centre of the impeller, and exit from the periphery

- suitable for higher pressures for their size, but practical size is limited due to the
restriction at the inlet (all air must enter through the centre of the impeller

- also commonly used in dryers

Cross flow (or tangential) fans

- less common type, and can be mistaken for centrifugal fans

- uses similar impeller to centrifugal, but both ends of the impeller is sealed, and flow
enters at the periphery on one side and exits from the periphery on the other side

- a major advantage is that the volume flow from this type of fan is virtually
unlimited, simply by extending the impeller

- an example of common use of this type of fan is the domestic "fan heater"

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Selection of fans

Must be based on "fan curves" supplied by manufacturers (similar to selection of

centrifugal pumps). These curves basically plot volume flow rate against pressure
drop across the fan for a range of fan speeds. Additional lines on the plot (or separate
plots) show power requirement for the selected conditions.

The main difficulty is estimating the pressure drop across the fan (the difference in
pressure between the inlet and the outlet of the fan), which is related to the pressure
drop through the system (similar to pressure drop in a liquid system). Methods of
calculation similar to that used for liquids are available, but measure this pressure
drop if possible.

For maximum efficiency, pressure drops should be minimised by using large duct
diameters, and minimising direction changes (especially sharp ones) and sudden
changes in diameter. An area of particular difficulty is obtaining even air flows in
areas such as dryers.

Application Tutorial – Fluid Flow and Pumping

1. A 10,000 litre vat of water must be emptied in 20 minutes. The water must be raised to a
height of 5 metres above the level of the vat, through a stainless steel pipeline of 50 mm
nominal diameter. Length of the pipeline totals 25 metres, and also includes five 90o elbows.
What pressure head must the pump overcome?

Using the pump curves provided, determine the speed at which the pump must be driven,
and what size (power rating) motor will be required.

If the pump was mounted so that its inlet was 2.5 metres above the base of the vat being
emptied, would you expect any difficulties with respect to cavitation? Explain.

2. You require a fan capable of moving 5.5 litres/second of air against a pressure of 500 Pa.
Will the fan represented by the “example fan operating curve” be capable of this duty? Is so,
at what speed would it need to be driven, and what should be the power rating of the motor
driving the fan?

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