Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
An Electronics Project
Presented to
College of Engineering and Computer Studies and Architecture
(COECSA)
Department of Engineering
Lyceum of the Philippines University - Cavite
By
Borjal, Mark G.
Burgos, Ric Charles R.
De Leon, Neal Justine M.
Punongbayan, Aeron Gerard M.
To:
Engr. Den Whilrex R. Garcia
Lecturer
Date
July 22, 2019
ABSTRACT
A third terminal represents the operational amplifiers output port which can both
sink and source either a voltage or a current. In a linear operational amplifier,
the output signal is the amplification factor,
The Schmitt trigger is a circuit used extensively in both the analogue and digital
areas. It has the purpose of eliminating comparator chatter in signal shaping and
on/off control, it finds application in relaxation oscillators and is applied to reduce
the sensitivity to noise disturbances.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To the ECAD lecturer, Engr. Den Whilrex R. Garcia, who gave us the
challenge and opportunity to do this ideal project on the topic of using
Operational Amplifier Circuits and for reviewing each component of the project,
providing advices and troubleshooting technique for Operation Amplifiers.
To the researchers’ parents and friends, who supported us and friends who
helped us a lot in completing this project within the limited time setting.
To the Lord Jesus Christ, the source of all grace that empowers us to be all
that He created us to be; thank you for conveying the wisdom and knowledge
needed to get this project completed. To You all glory and honor.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………………ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………………………………………………..iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………………..iv
INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………1
1.1 Background………………………………………………………….1
1.2 Objectives…………………………………………………………….2
1.3 Significance of the Project……………………………………..2
1.4 Scope and Limitation…………………………………………….3
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE……………………………………………………..5
2.1 Operational Amplifier Concept………………………………..….5
2.2 Op-amp and Diode Circuits………………………………………..6
2.3 Diode Rectifier Circuits and
Limitations on Small Voltages………………………………..7
2.4 Limitations on Small Voltages of a Diode Rectifier…..…..8
2.5RectifierConcept……………………………………………….....……8
2.6 Precision Rectification………………………………………….…..10
2.7 Operation of Precision Diode…………………………………….10
2.8 Dead-Zone Circuit…………………………………………………...19
2.9 Precision Clipping using Dead Zone Circuit…………….…..21
PROJECT DETAILS……………………………………………………………………….…...22
3.1 Basic Description of the Project………………………….……..22
3.2 Main Features………………………………………………………….22
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT………………………………….…….23
4.1 Details of Operation………………………………………………...23
4.2 Schematic Diagram………………………………………..………..27
4.3 Computations…………………………………….…………..……….28
4.4 Power Consumption Table………………….……………....……30
4.5 CAD Design…………………………….……….………………..…….31
4.6 Bill of Materials………………………………………………………..33
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION………………………………………………35
LIST OF REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………..37
APPENDIX A: DATA SHEETS OF INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS USED…………………………………………………………….38
APPENDIX B: COMPANY PROFILE OF
IC MANUFACTURERS …………………………………………………….53
iv
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1
1.2 Objectives
amplifier circuits;
rectifiers.
clipper can be used for educational purposes and project references and
for the students to have an idea about the precision rectifiers and its
application. The project would more significant especially to those who are
2
To the Researchers
knowledge about the precision rectifiers and precision clipper using op-
amps. The project aims for the future researchers to have a deeper
and operation, and for designing a precision rectifier circuit. And for the
researchers, the project intends to give a desired output for the conducting
a future research.
rectifier and Positive Precision Half wave rectifier using Operational Amplifier
Circuits and Precision Clipper using Operational Amplifier Dead Zone Circuits and
study.
project can operate lower than 500 mV up to 10 mV input voltage and for a
Additionally, for the designed circuit of Precision Clipper the project will be
3
In this project, the students will encounter planning, discussions, related
Campus and to be done by the students of Group of BSCPE 301 and BSEE 301,
for the whole 2nd semester School Year 2018-2019 and to be passed before the
4
Chapter Two
This chapter provides the overview of the Precision Rectifiers concept and
Precision Clipper concepts using Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) and how they
the Diode Rectifier and Clipper Circuits in small voltages using the Dead Zone
Circuits.
5
The common IC Op-Amp has a very high gain. Op-amps are used in
analog linear amplification systems and digital logic systems. Pandey (2010)
• An inverting input.
• A non-inverting input.
• Good stability.
Op-amp diode can be used with diodes to rectify signals with peak to peak
values in the millivolt region. A conventional diode cannot do this by itself because
it required a larger voltage to turn on. A silicon diode requires about 0.7 V and
germanium diode requires 0.3 V. Putting a diode in the feedback loop of an op-
amp (along with a resistor to let the inverting input float), can build a rectifier
that eliminates the problems for voltages less than 0.6 V as the diode turns on.
The improved rectifier circuit keeps the output of the op-amp from being driven
to the rails when the circuit is blocking the wrong sign input. Since op-amp has
a limited slew rate, this improves performance. It also eliminates the 0.6 V offset
6
2.3 Diode Rectifier Circuits and Limitations on Small Voltages
Diode rectifier circuits obviously rely on diodes for their operation. Diodes
are devices that only pass current in one direction. When Ambrose Fleming
invented the first diode, a thermionic device or vacuum tube, he called it a valve
because of its one way action. Semiconductor devices are now used and these
The diode has a characteristic something like that shown in the figure 2.1.
In the forward direction, a small voltage is required across the diode before it
conducts the turn on voltage. The actual voltage depends on the type of diode
rectifier and the material used. For a standard silicon diode rectifier this turn on
voltage is around 0.6 volts. In the reverse direction, the diode rectifier will
ultimately break down. The breakdown voltage is normally well in excess of the
turn on voltage the scales on the diagram have been altered (compressed) in the
7
2.4 Limitations on Small Voltages of a Diode Rectifier
depletion region, which for most silicon diodes is a significant 0.7 volts.
negligible for most purposes. Enough reverse voltage will result in the
through the diode in the reverse direction. The diode rectifier will not
hence lower than 0.7 volts the diode rectifier circuits will have a 0 volt
output.
current (AC) power source into a pulsating direct current (DC) power source.
Rectifier diodes are the most rugged and durable of the semiconductors in the
junction diode family. Rectifier diodes are especially noted for large forward
The positive half-cycle of source voltage will forward-bias the diode, since
the switch is closed the positive half cycle will appear across the load
resistor and on the negative half-cycle, the diode is reverse biased. In this
8
case, the ideal diode will appear as an open switch and has no voltage
cycle. The rectified load current flows during both half-cycles. The
diode D1 is reverse biased and this cycle will produce a positive load
voltage. The load voltage has the same polarity and the load
9
2.6 Precision Rectification
a rectifier and an ideal diode. When the voltage given in the circuit is negative,
then there will be a negative voltage on the diode. So this circuit works like an
open circuit. It means there is no flow of current in the load, as well as output
voltage, is zero. When the input is positive, it is improved by the op-amp, which
activates the diode and there will be a flow of current through the load, because
of the response, the output voltage is equivalent to the input voltage. The super
diode’s actual threshold is very near to zero. It equivalents the actual threshold
be greater than the cut in voltage. Hence the diodes when used in
rectification will have a dead time in which they will not conduct currents
even when the voltages are positive (0< Vd< Vcut in voltage). An ideal diode
should have zero cut in voltage. A simple half wave rectifier is shown in
10
When Vout < V’out, diode will be on and the circuit reduces to voltage
follower in which Vout = Vin. Because of high gain of op amps the input cut
in voltage will be reduced to Vγ/Avo, where Avo is the open loop gain of
op-amp. Thus for even for very small input positive voltages the output
will be high, the combination of op amp and diode acts as diode with zero
diode (ideal diode) and practical diode rectifier with drop across diode (Vd)
and non-zero cut in voltage (Vγ) for an input sine wave is shown in the
figure 2.5.
diode with zero cut in voltage.For normal silicon diodes there exists a dead
time when the voltages are within (0< Vd< Vcut in voltage).Because of high
gain of op amps even for very small input voltages in rising mode the
output will be high and the dead time can be made negligible. A precision
11
Types of Precision Rectifier
When Vi > 0 volt the half wave rectifier can be simplified and redrawn as
follows
12
Figure 2.8 When Vi > 0 volt
Then the diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased, the diode D1 shorts
the output of the op-amp to the inverting terminal. Using the concept of
zero volt.
The diodes D1, D2 will be reverse biased and are open. The circuit
figure 2.10.
V0 = -Rf/R1 (Vi)
13
The output will be positive as Vi is negative.
another diode rectifier. The outputs of the two rectifiers are then joined
14
Figure 2.12 Basic Principle of Full-wave rectification
diode DA with a super diode and by replacing diode DB and the inverting
precision half-wave rectifier but without the catching diode. The actual
Figure 2.13 Precision full-wave rectifier based on the conceptual circuit of figure
2.12, and its transfer characteristic
15
A full wave precision rectifier can be made also by using a diode
bridge. One such arrangement is shown in figure 2.14. This circuit can be
proportional to the absolute value of the input voltage ui. All the non-
idealities of the diodes are masked by placing the bridge circuit in the
RL, D3, and R. When ui is negative, current flows into the op-amp output
through R, D2, RL, and D4. Thus the feedback loop remains closed for
both polarities of ui. The resulting short circuit at the input terminals of
Clipper Concept
16
The Diode Clipper, also known as a Diode Limiter, is a wave shaping
circuit that takes an input waveform and clips or cuts off its top half,
more positive than cathode) during the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal
input waveform. For the diode to become forward biased, it must have
the input voltage magnitude greater than +0.7 volts (0.3 volts for a
germanium diode).
When this happens, the diodes begin to conduct and holds the
voltage across itself constant at 0.7V until the sinusoidal waveform falls
below this value. Thus, the output voltage which is taken across the diode
can never exceed 0.7 volts during the positive half cycle.
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased (cathode
more positive than anode) blocking current flow through itself and as a
result has no effect on the negative half of the sinusoidal voltage which
17
passes to the load unaltered. Thus, the diode limits the positive half of the
The diode is forward biased during the negative half cycle of the
sinusoidal waveform and limits or clips it to –0.7 volts while allowing the
positive half cycle to pass unaltered when reverse biased. As the diode
limits the negative half cycle of the input voltage it is therefore called a
then both the positive and negative half cycles would be clipped as diode
18
D1 clips the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input waveform while diode
D2 clips the negative half cycle. Then diode clipping circuits can be used
to clip the positive half cycle, the negative half cycle or both.
However, due to the forward bias voltage drop across the diodes the actual
clipping point occurs at +0.7 volts and –0.7 volts respectively. But we can
Dead-zone circuit basically, once a control loop has achieved its purpose
and reduced the error signal to zero (or very close to it), the output will remain
in tolerance even though the error signal is slightly off zero. There is a range of
error signal that is not necessary to correct. So, it makes sense to have a dead
band that treats all error signals in that band as being the equivalent of a zero
error input state. The alternative would see the loop constantly trying to remove
that error even though the controlled variable is within tolerance. An improved
and another amplifier driven thereby to provide a null output until an input to the
output of the other amplifier follows the output of the pair of amplifiers applied
19
type described featuring improved performance with a reduced number of
components.
voltage goes above one positive reference voltage and also how
reference voltage and all signals below a negative reference voltage. The
20
reference voltages can be made symmetrical or non-symmetrical around zero.
(RC) to the bipolar output dead-zone circuit. The output of each operational
amplifier is connected to the input of the inverting adder. The signal is connected
to the third input of the inverting adder via resistor (RC), if resistor (RC) is
removed the circuit will act as a dead-zone circuit. When (RC) is present input
voltage is subtracted from the dead-zone circuit’s output and the result is an
Chapter Three
PROJECT DETAILS
21
3.1 Basic Description of the Project
rectifier and clipper using op-amp circuits with dead-zone circuits aim to produce
or convert the sinusoidal wave coming from the function generator with 500 mV
input voltage to have a precision rectified output of Half Wave, Full Wave and a
Clip Waveform. Also the major limitation of conventional rectifiers is that it cannot
rectify AC voltages below forward voltage drop 0.7 V of a diode. This project,
precision rectifier will make it possible to rectify input voltage of a very small
1N4001 diode
Potentiometer
flexibility to change the output voltage of the circuit for the desired voltage gain.
Chapter Four
22
4.1. Details of Operation
diode in the feedback loop. This effectively cancels the forward voltage of the
diode, and a very low-level signals can still be rectified with minimal error.
applied when the diode conducts. The forward voltage is effectively removed
by the feedback, and the inverting input follows the positive half of the input
signal almost perfectly. When the input signal becomes negative, the op-amp
23
has no feedback at all. When the positive input signal positive again, the op-
amps output voltage will take a finite time to swing back to zero, then the
forward bias the diode and produce an output. In the positive half cycle of
the input signal the diode in the feedback of the op-amp and the diode in the
output will also conduct. Having the same value of the resistors in the input
and feedback will give negative output signal but the same as the value of
input signal in the positive half cycle. In the negative half cycle of the input
signal the diode in the output will be off and the output in the negative half
cycle will be zero. After the operation performed in the op-amp 1 the output
signal will move to the op-amp 2 which will be the input signal of the op-amp
the positive half cycle the negative input signal will be inverted as a result the
output signal will be positive and in the negative half cycle will remain zero
as a result of the process in the circuit the output waveform will be positive
half wave.
24
Full Wave Rectifier
rectifier. The outputs of the two rectifiers are then joined to a common load.
For the positive half cycle the diode in the output will turns on and the diode
in the feedback will turns off and the op-amp will act as an inverting amplifier
the input signal will be inverted as it pass though the inverting summer
25
amplifier (op-amp 2) and the output signal will be negative and passing
output signal and it has the same value of the input signal. In the negative
half cycle the diode in the output will turns off and the op-amp 1 will also
turns off, the input voltage coming from the op-amp 1 will be removed
resulting to have a single input voltage coming directly in the input source
and the inverting summer amplifier will now act as an inverting amplifier only.
As the negative input voltage will pass through the op-amp 2 it will invert the
26
Positive Clipper
A positive clipper is a clipper that clips only the positive portion of the
input signal. a sinusoidal input voltage signal is applied to the inverting terminal
of the op-amp. The value of the reference voltage can be chosen by varying
resistance of the potentiometer. If the value of the input voltage is less than the
value of the reference voltage. Therefore, the output voltage of the circuit will
be same as that of the input voltage. If the value of the input voltage is greater
than the value of reference voltage. Therefore, the output voltage of the above
27
Figure 4.5 Wave Form of Positive Clipper
28
Figure 4.7 Schematic Diagram of the Project
The circuit design of the project can operate precision full wave rectifier,
precision half wave rectifier and a clipper circuit. This schematic diagram can
operate under 700mV or the forward voltage of a diode. The circuit use three
(3) LM741 general purpose op-amps, two (2) 1N4001 rectifier diode, resistors,
4.3. Computations
𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 0 −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
=
150𝑘 150𝑘
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑉𝑖𝑛
(−𝑉𝑖𝑛) − 0 −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
=
300𝑘 300𝑘
−(−500𝑚𝑉) = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎𝑽
Diode 2 is off,
Vout = 0 V
𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 0 −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
=
150𝑘 150𝑘
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑉𝑖𝑛
29
Positive Half Cycle Op-Amp 2
−500𝑚𝑉 − 0 500𝑚𝑉 − 0
300𝑘( + ) = −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
150𝑘 300𝑘
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 500𝑚𝑉
𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 0
= −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
300𝑘
−(−500𝑚𝑉) = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 500𝑚𝑉
Positive Clipper
(1.5𝑘)(12)
𝑉𝑐𝑐 = = 1.565 𝑉
(150𝑘 + 1.5𝑘)
(150𝑘 + 1.5𝑘)(12)
𝑉𝑐𝑐 = = 12
(150𝑘 + 1.5𝑘)
Component Power
Voltage Drop Current Across
Type Consumption
150k ohm resistors
500 mV 3.33 uA 1.665 uW
(Input)
150k ohm resistors
200 mV 1.33 uA 266 nW
(Feedback)
300k ohm resistors
500 mV 1.67 uA 835 nW
(Input)
300k ohm resistors
500 mV 1.67 uA 835 nW
(Feedback)
1N4001 Diode 1 700 mV 3.33 uA 35 uW
1N4001 Diode 2 700 mV 3.33 uA 35 uW
OP-AMP 1 12 V 1.5 mA 18 mW
30
OP-AMP 2 12 V 1.5 mA 18 mW
TOTAL POWER CONSUMPTION: 36.07 mW
Component Power
Voltage Drop Current Across
Type Consumption
150k ohm resistors
500 mV 3.33 uA 1.665 uW
(Input)
150k ohm resistors
200 mV 1.33 uA 266 nW
(Feedback)
150k ohm resistors
500 mV 3.33 uA 1.665 uW
(Input OP-AMP 2)
300k ohm resistors
500 mV 1.67 uA 835 nW
(Input)
300k ohm resistors
500 mV 1.67 uA 835 nW
(Feedback)
1N4001 Diode 1 700 mV 50 uA 35 uW
1N4001 Diode 2 700 mV 50 uA 35 uW
OP-AMP 1 12 V 1.5 mA 18 mW
OP-AMP 2 12 V 1.5 mA 18 mW
TOTAL POWER CONSUMPTION: 36.08 mW
Positive Clipper
Component Power
Voltage Drop Current Across
Type Consumption
150k ohm resistors
500 mV 3.33 uA 1.665 uW
(Input)
150k ohm resistors
500 mV 3.33 uA 1.665 uW
(Feedback)
300k ohm resistors
500 mV 1.67 uA 835 nW
(Input)
300k ohm resistors
500 mV 1.67 uA 835 nW
(Feedback)
OP-AMP 1 12V 1.5 mA 18 mW
OP-AMP 2 12V 1.5 mA 18 mW
TOTAL POWER CONSUMPTION: 36.005 mW
31
Figure 4.8 CAD Design of Project Casing
32
Figure 4.10 CAD Design and Legends of Top View of the Project
33
reverse current is 5uA which is negligible. It
can withstand reverse voltage peak up to
50V.
The LM741 series are general-purpose
operational amplifiers which feature
improved performance over industry
standards like the LM709. The amplifiers
offer many features which make their
application nearly foolproof: overload
LM741
protection on the input and output, no
Operational 3
latch-up when the common-mode range is
Amplifier
exceeded, as well as freedom from
oscillations. The LM741C is identical to the
LM741 and LM741A except that the LM741C
has their performance ensured over a 0°C
to +70°C temperature range, instead of
−55°C to +125°C.
A device that opens and closes an electric
circuit. It uses a lever that is moved up and
Pole toggle switch 2
down. Switching from one circuit to
another.
A manually adjustable, variable resistor with
three terminals. Two terminals are
connected to a resistive element, the third
10k Potentiometer 1 terminal is connected to an adjustable
wiper. The position of the wiper determines
the output voltage. Resistance can be
adjusted from 0 – 10k ohms.
A device used in an electrical circuit for
Fuse 2 protecting electrical devices against overloads
and short circuit.
A passive electronic component that stores
1000uF 2 energy in the form of an electrostatic field.
Can store 1000 uF of charge.
A passive electronic component that stores
10uF 2 energy in the form of an electrostatic field.
Can store 10 uF of charge.
A 12V voltage regulator that can provide
local on-card regulation, eliminating the
distribution problems associated with single
point regulation. Each type employs internal
current limiting, thermal shut-down and
safe area protection, making it essentially
LM7812 1
indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1.5 A output
current. Although designed primarily as
fixed voltage regulators, these devices can
be used with external components to obtain
adjustable voltage and currents.
34
A negative 12V voltage regulator that can
provide local on-card regulation,
eliminating the distribution problems
associated with single point regulation.
Each type employs internal current
limiting, thermal shut-down and safe area
protection, making it essentially
LM7912 1
indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1.5 A
output current. Although designed
primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these
devices can be used with external
components to obtain adjustable voltage
and currents.
A light-emitting diode (LED) is
a semiconductor device that emits visible
light when an electric current passes
LED 2
through it. The output from an LED can
range from red (at a wavelength of
approximately 700 nanometers)
device for opening and closing electrical
Single Switch 2 circuits under normal load conditions,
usually operated manually
A static electrical machine which
transfers AC electrical power from one
circuit to the other circuit at the
Transformer (12V) 1 constant frequency, but the voltage
level can be altered that means
voltage can be increased or decreased
according to the requirement.
Chapter Five
clipper using operational amplifier with dead-zone circuits, the project operates
in two modes, switching to precision rectifier mode and precision clipper mode
35
A 500 mV will pass through the whole circuit as an input. Switching on the
Half-wave rectifier the input signal will pass through the 1st op-amp which will
give an inverting or negative output in the positive half cycle and a 0 output on
the negative cycle, and the output signal will serve as input signal in the 2 nd op-
amp which is another an inverting amplifier which will make the output a positive
signal in the positive half cycle and the negative half cycle will stay the same as
it pass through. Switching on the Full-wave the input signal will also pass through
the 1st op-amp and 2nd op-amp but in the positive full-wave rectifier the positive
and negative half cycle will be have a positive output signal. Switching on the
Positive Clipper the input signal will be the same as the output signal but having
a potentiometer on the Vcc of the circuit will control the amplitude of the signal.
Adjusting the potentiometer to its maximum will give you a clipped output signal.
the input, generates the output and OP amp reduces the voltage drop of diode
and the Positive Clipper for designing and creating the circuit, also for the
troubleshooting of the circuit. Using the laboratory equipment the project can be
For the future research, the researchers of this project recommend to use
to use a 1N4148 for its characteristics, fast recovery time and it also use if fast
36
switching are involve, it can be used as a protection to the device, it can prevent
LIST OF REFERENCES
N. H. Sabah, Electronics Basic Analog and Digital with PSpice, CRC Press, Taylor
and Francis Group, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway : NW Suite Boca Raton,
2010.
37
O. N. Pandey, Electronic Engineering, 4821 Parwana Bhawan: Darya Ganj,
Ansari Road, New Delhi, India, 2010.
A. Malvino & D. Bates, Electronic Principles, 8th Edition United States: Mc Graw-
Hill Companies, Inc. 2016.
38
APPENDIX A: DATA SHEETS OF INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS USED
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
APPENDIX B: COMPANY PROFILE OF
MANUFACTURERS
Texas, United States. TI is one of the top ten semiconductor companies worldwide,
ON Semiconductor
and standard logic devices. The company is a Fortune 500 semiconductors supplier
company. Products include power and signal management, logic, discrete, and
54