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Introduction
Dams are structures controlling the flow of a river by completely blocking the valley of a given
river or drainage system. Through the blockage, storage is formed, which can be utilized for
various water resources development or water control purposes. Thus, retained body of water is
RESERVOIR, the retaining structure whether earth/rock/concrete is the dam.
The preliminary purpose of a dam may be defined as to provide for the safe retention and
storage of water. The specific main functions /advantages of dams and reservoirs are:
Temporal and quantitative balancing between available water and demand.
Water storage for days, weeks, months, years, and over years for power generation
and sediment control
Water supply (municipal, industrial or community water supply, irrigation
purposes)
Flood control
Regulation/balancing of river flow (such as navigation, low flow augmentation)
Recreation
Multipurpose
The presence of a dam with its storage reservoir interferes with the natural system. Associated to
this, the main disadvantages include:
Distraction of fauna and flora in the dam valley
Interference in the landscape through dams and reservoirs
Change of ground water level
Strong influence on sediment balance
Change in water temperature
Influence on fish
Structure related to dams include: the dam structure, reservoir, diversion structure, appurtenant
structures such as spillways, bottom outlets, intakes and gates as well as service roads and
bridges. The schematic diagrams of the components are shown below.
1. Reservoir
2. Dam
3. Service Intake
4. Bottom outlet
5. Spill structure
6. Diversion structure
7. Service road
Storage Components
The reservoir volume is sub divided in to the following parts, when seen in its vertical section.
Reservoirs
Reservoir parameters
The most important reservoir parameters are reservoir volume (storage) – S (m3), the reservoir area
– A (m2) which can be related to the elevation or water level in the reservoirs. These parameters
can be computed with the help of topographic maps or surveying. The reservoir surface area can be
computed using planimetery related to a given contour height.
Based on the derived elevation-area curve and depth, elevation-volume can be computed using
various methods:
I. Average area or trapezoidal method
A Ai 1i
Si hi
2
II. Simpson’s 1/3 rule method
A 4 Am Ai 1i
Si hi Where Am= mean area between Ai & Ai+1
6
Classification of Dams
Dams are numerous types and there are various ways of classifications.
Classification Based on Purpose
a) Storage Dams
i) Flood control
ii) Water supply: domestic, municipal, industrial, irrigation
iii) Hydroelectric power
iv) Recreation storage
v) Pollution control
b) Stage control Dams
i) Diversion
ii) Navigation
iii) Check
c) Barrier Dams
i) Levees and dykes
ii) Coffer dams
d) Multipurpose Dams
Dam
Concrete Embankment
Arch-Gravity Combination
Embankment Dams are dam constructed of natural materials excavated or obtained near the dam
site. They are of relatively (compared with concrete dams) soft and elastic structures. Loads are
transmitted in to the dam body. The foundation requirement is lower compared to gravity dams.
Most of the dams of today (more than 60%) are embankment dams.
Disadvantages:
Sensitive to wave action
Higher free board is needed (3-4m)
Overtopping is not allowed (intake structures and spillways should be constructed
separate from the dam structure & adequate spillway size should be ensured )
Erosion danger on the down stream sides unless bermes are provided
Construction material and construction progress are affected by weather
Huge mass volume (large transportation, settlement)
This indicates type of dam constituting more than 50% compacted earth fill. An earth fill
dam is constructed primarily of engineering soils compacted uniformly and intensively in
relatively thin layers and at controlled moisture contents (see Figure 2.5 for principal
variants). They are designed to resist loads by gravity and by mechanisms of embankment
stability. They are strictly non overflow types.
This indicates type of dam constituting more than 50% compacted rock fill. The section
includes a discrete impervious element of compacted earth fill or a slender concrete or
bituminous membrane. Rock fill embankments employing a thin upstream membrane of
asphalt concrete, reinforced concrete or other non natural material are referred to as ‘
decked rock fill dams’
Concrete dams are hard, none yielding and rigid structures. Loads are transmitted through
the dam body and to the foundation. It requires strong and more or less uniform rock
foundation.
Many early dams were constructed as rubble masonry or random masonry. From about
1900, mass concrete, initially without formed transverse contraction joints, began to
displace masonry for the construction of large non embankment dams. From about 1950
mass concrete increasingly incorporated bulk material additives such as slags or pulverized
fuel ash (PFA), in order to reduce thermal problems and to contain escalating costs.
Good for narrow valleys. Except arc or cupola, also suitable for wide valleys.
Smaller construction fill volume (compared to embankments)
Construction can takes place irrespective or weather condition
Smaller free board (1-1.5m)
Can be constructed as overflow dam, i.e. can accommodate spillway, hence cost for
separate spillway reduced.
Outlet pipe work, valves and other ancillary works can be provided within the body
of the dam
Disadvantages:
Concrete gravity dam is designed so that its stability is maintained on it own mass. Its
profile is essentially triangular, to ensure stability and to avoid over stressing of the dam or
its foundation. It may be straight or curved in plan.
There are member of less common variant of the major types of concrete dams, which also exist.
They include hollow gravity, decked buttress, flat slab (ambursen) buttress, multiple arch (multiple
cupola) dams.
Civil Engineering Department 1-8
By Fikru F.
Chapter
1 – Elements of Dam Engineering
1.8.1. General
A dam and reservoir site must satisfy certain functional and technical requirements.
Whether these requirements are satisfied can be found out through site investigations and
technical evaluations
Functional: the functional suitability of a site is governed by the balance between its natural
physical characteristics and the purpose of the dam/ reservoir. The catchment hydrology,
available head and storage volume etc, must be matched by the operational parameters
needed of the project.
Technical: Technical suitability is associated to the presence or absence of suitable site for a
dam, material of construction, and integrity of reservoir basin with respect to leakage.
Hydrological, geological/geotechnical characteristics of catchment and site are the
principal determinants establishing the technical suitability of reservoir site.
Principal stages involving site appraisal and leading to selection of optimum dam
site and type of dam are indicated schematically in Figure 1.7 (After Novak et al)
In order to meet the requirements of dam site investigation, design and construction,
a fully coordinated team of specialists is needed. A team of hydraulic, structural,
material, and geotechnical engineers, geologists, and hydrologists should ensure
that all engineering and geological considerations are properly integrated into the
overall design.
Some of the critical aspects of the analysis and design process that require
coordination are (US Army Corps of Engineers):
Valley form
The valley width at the dam site is required to be narrow and wide in the storage part. Figure 1.8
shows the various forms of valley shapes.
Slope: upstream of the dam site, the possible small slope and downstream of the dam site the
possible large slope (by hydropower scheme)
General Plan:
- Obtain a general plan of the catchment and project area from relevant sources (e.g.
EMA)
- Carry out limited survey to include additional information in this plan (aerial
reconnaissance, physical survey, walkovers)
- It must include: the dam site, spillway site, irrigable area/power house site,
catchment are of the stream, locality to be supplied with potable water (if any) Scale
may vary from 1:1000-1:10,000
Civil Engineering Department 1-11
By Fikru F.
Chapter
1 – Elements of Dam Engineering
These should be in the scale of 1:500 to 1:000 with contours as close as possible. These plans
should show:
Over banks
Location and elevation of all features such as buildings roads etc
Location and numbering of test pits and borings.
A geological map of the entire catchment and project area is essential. Investigation of geological
and geotechnical information of the origin, deposition, formation and physical characteristics of
the dam foundation and reservoir area are needed. As a basis for the investigation, if there is no
accurately describing geological map exists, such maps are produced on large scale for the dam
site and on small scale for reservoir area.
Reservoir Site
Earth quake
Here it is assumed that, adequate knowledge of the relevant engineering geology, soil
mechanics and geotechnical parameters are acquired.
Data regarding the following are required for water resources planning and reservoir design:
Catchment area (surface and subsurface0
Discharge (surface and sub-surface); daily/monthly volume of flow in the stream
and peaks of stream flow at or near dam site
Sediment carried by the stream
Maximum observed flood, report on damage caused by flood (extent of flood)
Data establishing water demand (number of people to be served, approximate
maximum and minimum daily requirement, irrigation water requirement, other
requirement for industries, livestock,, etc)
Meteorological data such as average temperature, average monthly rainfall,
maximum recorded storm intensities, rate of evaporation
Ground water level
Data on minimum downstream water requirement
Data such as agricultural, hydropower and other relevant data to the project purpose Eg. For
irrigation purpose, the following data are essential for the determination of water requirement:
Miscellaneous Data
- Materials data: soil, gravel and stone (for aggregate and riprap) are needed in good
quantity and quality for dam construction (possible borrow sites for these materials
should be identified), the borrow area should be within the reasonable distance from
the site. Selection of suitable borrow area is identified by:
Thickness of the top organic soil which has to be discarded
Content of organic matter in the rest of the soil
Civil Engineering Department 1-13
By Fikru F.
Chapter
1 – Elements of Dam Engineering
- Rock for aggregate and riprap has to pass the standard tests of specific gravity,
absorption, abrasion, soundness, etc.
- Erosion in the catchment area- identify sources of erosion
- Transport-Existing facilities and rates
- Local labor-availability and rates
- Information at the desk study stage
- Notes on site reconnaissance
Which are generally valid for site investigation for civil engineering purposes.
1.8.3. Investigations
The purpose of site or material investigation in the context of dam engineering is to determine the
suitability of the selected site for dam construction and reservoir storage as well as to describe the
geotechnical parameters necessary for the design and construction of the structures.
For such purposes, thus, general site exploration and investigations, in addition to the above data
collection, involve the following:
Field investigation
In situ tests/ Field tests
Laboratory tests
(See details of these soil mechanics and foundation engineering courses)
Influencing factors:
Influencing factors:
Topography (valley form see Figure 1.8 and 1.10)
Foundation (stability, impermeability)
Geology (layers, fishers)
Required height
Purpose of the dam
Climate (ice)
Flood spillway
Availability, quality (nature, state) of construction materials
Construction (Supply, transport, equipment, qualification of personnel)
Landscape
Cost (economics)
It is necessary to make open the possible alternative solutions until an optimum solution is found
w.r.t cost, construction program and available resource. Novak et al consider four cardinally
important points in selection of dam type as:
1. Hydraulic Gradient: the nominal value of hydraulic gradient I for seepage under,
around or through dam varies by at least one order of magnitude according to type
(0.5 for homogenous dam to 10 or more for buttress or coupola)
2. Foundation stress: nominal stress transmitted to the foundation vary greatly with
dam type (The notional maximum stresses due to dam height of 100m varies
between 1.8 to 10 MN/m2 for embankment to arch dams)
3. Foundation deformability: certain types of dams are better able to accommodate
significant foundation deformation /settlement without damage.
4. Foundation excavation: economic considerations dictate the excavation volume and
foundation preparation should be minimized.
Figure 1.10 illustrate examples of valley profile with suggested dam type and Table 1.3 provide
type characteristics with respect to choice of dams 9After Novak et al)