Exercise 7

Climbing

Aim

To learn how to attain and maintain a trimmed and balanced climbing flight attitude for any given
combination of speed, direction, configuration and rte of climb.

Definition

Climbing is a condition of flight whereby an aircraft gains potential energy by virtue of the
elevator, due to the expenditure of propulsive energy above that required to maintain straight and
level flight.

Newton’s Laws

Lets look at initiating a climb. Firstly you will have to pull back on the controls which in turn will cause the
elevator to move upwards, causing the aircraft’s nose to pitch upwards. This will result in an increase of the
angle of attack increasing the lift, causing the aircraft to climb.

Newton 1: Inertia must be kept in mind when initiating the climb and levelling off from the climb. You will
need to anticipate the target altitude by 10% of the rate of climb i.e. if your rate of climb is 500ft/min then
you would have to start levelling off at 50ft before the reaching target altitude. Give the aircraft time to
settle after making changes to the attitude during the climb. ( Don’t chase the airspeed. )

Forces Acting On An Aircraft During The Climb

 T/L Force

Lift

Lift is less than weight

Thru
st Thrust is more than Drag
RAF Weight Apparant Drag

Drag

Climb angle
The greater the climb
angle the greater the
WAD

Lift acts perpendicular to the relative airflow and weight acts vertically downwards. A component of weight
is added to the drag opposing the climb. This drag can be explained as that force which will pull a car
backwards when parked on an uphill. This drag force is opposed by the lift apparent thrust caused by the
tilted lift and the total reaction.
Thus all the forces are in equilibrium during a steady climb: Thrust = drag and lift = weight.

Best Rate of Climb (Vy)

Rate of climb is a reference of the amount of altitude gained per unit time. An aircraft’s rate of climb is
determined by its excess power available to over come the weight of the aircraft.

P Avail.

POWER
eq.
PR

Vy
Max. Excess
Power

Airspeed
The best rate of climb speed can be read off where the power available curve is the furthest away from the
power required curve. This is where the excess power is maximum.
The best rate of climb speed (Vy) is usually higher than the minimum drag speed (Vimd) due to propeller
efficiency.

Best Angle of Climb

Best angle of climb is the amount of altitude gained per unit distance. Best angle of climb speed (Vx) is
lower than the best angle of climb speed (Vy) because ground speed becomes a factor. Climbing at Vx will
result in a reduced rate of climb at and lower ground speed giving you a steeper angel of climb.

Fig trust to drag

Factors Affecting the Climb

Speed: Looking at the power curve one can see that any deviation from Vy will result in a decrease of
excess power available negatively effecting the angle of climb. Deviation from Vx will have the
same negative effect on the angle of climb.

Weight: An increase in weight will move the power required curve upwards decreasing the excess power
available. Therefore decreasing rate and the angle of climb.

Power: Power is what makes us climb. If power was reduced during the climb the rate and angle of climb
will decrease because of the decreased excess power available and visa versa.
Note: During the climb the slipstream and torque effect will be prominent due to the high power
setting and low airspeed. Correct it by using right rudder to keep the aircraft in balance (ball in the
centre.)

Configuration: Flaps add drag, moving the power required curve upwards, decreasing the excess power
available thus decreasing the rate and the angle of climb.

Altitude: As you climb the air becomes less dense. This will cause the power available curve to move
down, because of the lose in power as you climb with a normally aspirated engine.(Less air less
power.)
The power required curve moves up because of the decrease in air density which is a factor in the
lift formula. If density decrease velocity must increase requiring more power i.e. more power is
needed to develop the same amount of lift. Thus you can see that as you climb the excess power
becomes less which will continuously decrease the rate of climb. Eventually the power available
curve will touch the power required curve this will result in zero excess power, meaning zero rate
of climb. This altitude is known as the absolute ceiling of an aircraft.

Wind: What will happen to the rate and angle of climb when climbing into the wind?
The rate of climb will stay the same because the wind does not affect the power curve ( excess
power available.)
The angle of climb will be improved because you will be climbing at a lower ground speed,
gaining more height over a shorter ground distance.
Service Ceiling and Absolute Ceiling

The Absolute ceiling is that altitude where the rate of climb is zero.
The Service ceiling is that altitude where the rate of climb is 100 ft/min. It is a more useful and practical
figure. It will take fore ever to climb to the absolute ceiling because the slightest disturbance will cause the
aircraft to descend.

Cruise Climb

The cruise climb is used when flying cross country. Climbing at a higher speed than Vy will result in a few
advantages. Rate of climb isn’t reduced much but forward speed is improved, reducing the time lapse and
fuel burn of a cross country flight. Forward visibility over the nose is improved allowing for a better look
out and navigation. Engine cooling will also be better because of the higher speed; reducing engine wear.

Aircraft Handling

For initiating a climb we follow the following sequins: P- POWER

A- ATTITUDE
S- SPEED
T- TRIM

For levelling off after the climb we use the following: A- ATTITUDE
S- SPEED
P- POWER
T- TRIM
 Exercise 8

Descending

Aim

To learn how to attain and maintain a trimmed and balanced descending flight attitude for any
given combination of speed, direction, configuration, and rate of descend.

Definitions

Descending is a reduction in altitude at a specific airspeed and or rate of descent using the
appropriate power settings, with the aircraft in balance maintaining a constant heading, with
reference to both visual and instrument attitude indicators.

Newton’s Laws

Newton 1: Inertia, the to change state, should be kept in mind when initiating the descend and when
levelling off. Levelling off should be commenced at a height of 10% of the rate of
descend before reaching the planned altitude. It must also be kept in mind when making
changes to the attitude during the descend, don’t chase the speed give the aircraft time to
settle after the change.

Newton 2: The changes made will be proportional to the amount of control input.

Forces Acting on an Aircraft During a Glide.

Gliding is a very basic form of descent which might require no engine and thus no fuel. In gliding flight
there is still drag, to maintain an airspeed energy must be expanded to overcome this drag. When the engine
is no longer working the source of energy is the potential energy of the aircraft in the form of height above
ground level.

Lift

Drag

tilted,
HT is AG
WEIG
st d ue to creased D R
ru
nt Th r the in
Appara pensates fo
A.T.
m
A.T. co

gle
Glide An
Weight

Because of the lower nose attitude a component of the weight replaces the thrust to balance the drag.
An aircraft in a steady descend is in equilibrium, a component of weight = drag and lift = the component of
weight which acts 90 to the flight path.
Minimum Angle of Descend

Descending at the minimum descend angle will result in the maximum range.
This is also the minimum drag speed (Vimd) which makes sense because if the drag, the force that is
holding you back, was at its minimum your distance must be at its maximum.

Minimum Rate of Descend

This will keep you in the air for the longest time possible on the altitude available. You will have more drag
( lower airspeed  grater angle of attack  more induced drag ) which means your gliding range will be
decreased. This is a dangerously low airspeed therefor we will rather use the best glide speed.
This speed is also the minimum power required speed.

Factors Affecting the Descend

Speed: From the curves we can see that any deviation from the best glide speed will increase
drag and the power required therefore increasing the rate and angle of descend. It is
therefor important to maintain the best glide speed.

Power: When a bit of power is added during the glide it will decrease the rate of descend and the
angle.
Imagine gliding at the best glide speed, now if power is added the airspeed will increase.
To maintain the best glide speed we will have to raise the nose of the aircraft. In doing
this we will be flying at a flatter angle and reduced rate of descend.
 This we call a power assisted descend and not a glide.

Weight: An increase in weight will have no effect on the angle of descend but the rate of descend
will increase. When weight is increased, speed will increase , increasing the lift and drag
accordingly. So that equilibrium is restored without changing the angle of descend. But
you will be flying at a higher air speed thus your rate of descend will increase.
The best glide speed published is for maximum weight and should be adjusted according
to the aircraft’s current weight to reach maximum distance when gliding.

Configuration: Adding flaps will add to the drag therefore increasing the angle and the rate of descend.
Imagine gliding at the best glide speed . Select flap. The speed will decrease and the nose
will have to be lowered to maintain best glide speed thus resulting in a steeper gliding
angle.

Wind: It has no effect on the rate of descend because it has no effect on the aerodynamics or the
forces acting on the aircraft. It only effects the ground speed. Thus gliding down wind
will decrease the gliding angle and against the wind it will increase the gliding angle.

Cruise Descend

Similar to the cruise climb it is used during cross country flights. In piston aircraft the cruise descend is at
relatively high power setting and at a higher than cruise indicated airspeed. It has two advantages. Firstly it
prevents shock cooling of the engine. (Suddenly reducing power or closing the throttle will cause a too
sudden drop in cylinder head temperature which will badly damage your engine.) Secondly it prevents a too
high rate of descend which can be a bad experience for passengers in unpressurised aircraft. Try not to
exceed 500ft/min descend with passengers.

Aircraft Handling

For initiating and leveling off from the descend we use the menemonic PAST:

P-power
A-attitude
S-speed
T-trim