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BIOLOGY
BANSAL CLASSES
MODULE – 01
For – NEET/AIIMS
Contents Module - 1 (Plant Diversity)
Chap. 1
The Living World 1 – 25
Theory 1 – 13
Exercise – 1 14 – 16
Exercise – 2 17 – 20
Exercise – 3 21 – 23
Exercise – 4 24
Quick Review Table 25
Chap. 2
Biological Kingdoms
I. Monera – Protista 26 – 70
Theory 26 – 51
Exercise – 1 51 – 55
Exercise – 2 56 – 59
Exercise – 3 60 – 66 Carl Linnaeus (1707 – 1778)
Exercise – 4 67 – 69 (Carl von Linné)
Quick Review Table 70
INTRODUCITON
Life is a precious gift of nature. Life can be explain by its way of working. This universe has living and non
living intities. Viruses are connecting link between living and non living. The nature around us is full stuff of living
and non living objects. Now it is very essential to know the difference between living and non living. Living
organisms are self replicating, evolving and self regulating system, capable to respond the external stimuli.
To see the digram an idea about living being develops in our mind.
Of course the objects by itself exhibiting birth, death, life span,
consciousness, growth, metabolism are known as living being.
Mountain Human
CHARACTERISTIC OF LIVING BEING
All living being share certain characters which are listed below :
1. Growth 2. Reproduction 3. Metabolism 4. Consciousness
5. Respiration 6. Cellular organisation
1. Growth : Numerical and structural inhansment in the object is termed as growth. It can be explain on
the basis of catabolism and anabolism.
1. Anabolism > Catabolism = Growth
2. Catabolism > Anabolism = Degrowth
All though growth also notice in non living objects, but the growth of non living is extrinsic (by accumulation of
materials on the surface)
Conclusion :
1. Growth is not a defining property of living being because a dead organism does not grow.
2. Growth of non living is extrinsic and of living being is intrinsic.
3. Growth of plant is indefinte and of animal is definite.
2. Reproudction : The ability to produce new individuals called reproduction. New individuals are
similar to their parent. Reproduction may be of asexual or sexual type. In unicellular organism (Procaryotes and
Eucaryotes) reproduction and growth are same phenomenon. There are many living organisms where reproduction
is all together absent. e.g. mule, bee worker.
Conclusion :
1. Reproduction is not defining property of living being.
2. No non living object is capable of reproduction.
3. We are not clear about growth and reproduction
Bread Piece (Starch)
phenomenon in unicellular organisms.
Ptyline enzyme
3. Metabolism : ···· ·
··· ··
·····
··· Glucose
Algae Lichens
About 15,000 new organisms are discovered every year. It is quit difficuilt to know the character of every new
living organism. A clear understanding of this huge varitey of organism can be studided by dividing them in to small
groups or sub groups. These group comprises a category. This method of placing organisms into groups (category)
on the basis of similarities and dissimilarities called classification. The science of study of classificaiton is known
as Taxonomy.
TAXONOMY
This word was proposed by A.P.DeCandolle in his book ‘’Theories elementaire de la botaniqe’’ (Theory of
elementary botany).
Systematics
Branch related with taxonomy. It includes description of morphological characters of plants or living
organisms. e.g., Morphological characters of Root, Stem, Leaves, Flowers etc. This description is used
to know inter-relationship between living organisms.
THE LIVING WORLD [2]
NOMENCLATURE
Polynomial system :
According to this system name of any plant consists of many words.
For e.g., Caryophyllum Caryophyllum saxatilis folis gramineus umbellatis corymbis
Trinomial system :
Proposed by Huxley and Strickland. According to this system name of any plant or species is composed
of three names -
Generic name, Specific name, Subspecific name (Name of variety)
When members of any species have large variations then trinomial system is used. On the basis of
dissimilarities this species is classified into sub species.
e.g., Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (Cauliflower)
Brassica oleracea var. capitata (Cabbage)
Brassica oleracea var. caulorapa (Knol-Khol)
Binomial system :
Binomial system was first proposed by Gaspard Bauhin in his book - “Pinax Theatre Botanica”.
Linnaeus is the founder of binomial system. Linnaeus proposed scientific name of plants in his book
“Species Plantarum”. It was published on 1 May, 1753. So any name proposed (for plants) before this
date is not accepted today. Linnaeus proposed scientific name of animals in his book “Systema Naturae”
(10th edition) was published on 1 August, 1758. So initiation of binomial system for animals is believed
to be started on 1 August, 1758.
HERBARIUM
The collection of dried plant specimens is known as Herbarium.
PREPARATION OF HERBARIUM
Pressing of Specimens :
The specimen should be carefully displayed on the pressing sheet.
Drying of Specimens :
For drying, the press containing specimens is placed in
the sun. The press is opened after 24 hr., the specimens
are rearranged, placed between the fresh. The wet
blotters removed should be dried usually by placing them
in the sun.
Mounting of Specimens :
After drying, the specimens are ready for mounting. They
are mounted on herbarium sheets. Herbarium sheets are
usually made up of heavy hand-made card sheets which
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
are very durable. Several adhesives are used for attaching ................................................
FIELD NO.....................................
KEY
A scheme for identification of plants and animals is known as a Key. Taxonomic keys are based on the
contrasting characters (Similaraties and dissimilaraties). Key help in taxonomy by acceptance of one and
rejection of other (contrasting character use always in pair - out of which acception or rejection done).
Separate taxomic keys are required for each taxonomic category like family, genus or species. These
are more useful in indentification of unknown organisms. Key help in prepration of Flora, Manual,
Monograph, Catalogue etc.
1. Flora : Flora contains the actual details of habitat and distribution of plants of a given area. e.g., Flora
of British India by J.D. Hooker.
2. Manuals : Manuals are collection of information which is useful for indentification of a specimen in an area.
3. Monograph : They provide information about a single taxon in a particular area. e.g., member of a particular
family.
SPECIES CONCEPT
Jon Ray : - Proposed the term and concept of species. Different concepts has been proposed to explain
the species concept.
BIOLOGICAL CONCEPT
1. Ernst Mayer proposed this concept
2. All the members that can interbreed and produce fertile offsprings in a natural environment are belong to same
species.
. . . . . . . .. Can interbreed
Vairous type
of species
. . . . . . . .. Can interbreed
.. .. .. .. Can interbreed
Can not interbreed
That is why .. belong to one species and , belong to Sperate species. species is group of closely related
organisms which are sharing a common gene pool. Biological species is a reproductive confind system.
Exception :
1. Tigon – Tiger × +
Lion
3. Mule – Donkey × +
Horse
Cross is natural but progenies are sterile
4. Hinny – Horse × +
Donkey
5. Biological concept of species only applicable on sexually reproducing organism
Cryptogamia Phenerogamia
Those plants in which reproductive Those plants in which reproductive
organs are not visible. organs are visible
3 divisions 2 divisions
Carl woese : Six kingdom / Three Domain system of classification given by Carl Woese (1990).
Archaebacteria separated from eubacteria on the basis of some major differences. As the absence of
peptidoglycan in the cell walls of the Archebacteria and the occurrence of branched chain lipids (a
monolayer instead of a phospholipid bilayer) in the membrane.
Based on the sequence of 16S ribosomal RNA genes, Woese found that the six kingdoms naturally
cluster into three main categories. he called these categories as domains. These domains are Bacteria,
Archae and Eukarya,
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 1 4 1 3 4 2 3 4 2 4 3 2 2 4 3 3 4 1 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 1 2 2 4 2 3 1 4 2 2 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 3 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Ans. 4 4 1 1 3 3 4 1 1 4
THE LIVING WORLD [16]
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 4 4 1 2 3 1 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 4 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 2 3 1 4 4 2 3 2 1 3 4 4 2 3 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 1 2 2 3 3 1 3 3 3 2 4 2 3 4 1 2 4 4 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68
Ans. 1 2 2 1 4 2 4 1
THE LIVING WORLD [20]
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 3
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 1 2 3 2 3 1 1 1 3 5 2 2 1 3 4 1 1 2 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 4 1 1 1 3 1 1 4 1 1 2 1 4 2 2 4 2 1 1
Ques. 41 42 43
Ans. 4 2 3
THE LIVING WORLD [23]
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 4
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 3 1 4 1 2 2 1 1 3 3
COLUMN : A COLUMN : B
Exercise # 1
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 4
Other Exercise
Advantages
1. It is advised to the students that they should prepare a question bank for the revision as it is very difficult to
solve all the questions at the time of revision.
2. Using above index you can prepare and maintain the questions for your revision.
KINGDOM MONERA
The Kingdom Monera includes all prokaryotes. Monerans are the most primitive forms of life,
originating from more ancient living stock termed progenote.C.B. Van Neil divided the living organisms
into prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
ARCHAEBACTERIA
These are belived to have evolved immediately after the origin of life on earth, as even now these are
living under extremely adverse conditions like very high temperature (hot-water springs) and high salt
concentration (salt marshes). These are termed as oldest “Living fossils”. All archaebacteria are obligate
anaerobes
Cell wall :
It is made up of complex polysaccharides but not of peptidoglycan like that of eubacteria.
Cell membrane :
Cell membrane of archaebacteria is composed of a single layer of branched chain molecules of lipids
while the lipids present in the cell membrane of eubacteria are straight chain molecules. Due to the
branched chain structure, archaebacteria have more resistance ability as compared to eubacteria.
Archaebacteria are not effected by high temperature, high salinity, radiations and change in pH. In
archaebacteria sequence of nucleotide in 16s-rRNA is differ from other prokaryote. These posses
introns in DNA. Their ribosomal proteins are highly acidic. These prokaryotes possess histone proteins
different from that of eukaryotes.
TYPE OF ARCHAEBACTERIA
METHANOGENS
Methane producing bacteria. These bacteria convert CO2 of swampy areas (Marshy) into methane
(CH4). e.g.,, Methanobacterium, Methanococcus, Methanomicrobium. These bacteria convert the
organic substance (cellulose) present in cow dung into methane by fermentation (Gobar gas fermenter).
e.g.,, Methanobacterium, Methanococcus, Methanomicrobium
An archaebacterium is found in the rumen of cattle, where it digests the cellulose by fermentation and
convert it into methane. e.g., Rumenococcus.
THERMO-ACIDOPHILES
These are chemoautotrophs. These archaebacteria are found at those places where temperature is
approx 80ºC and medium is acidic [pH = 2]. They are found in hot sulphur springs. These can also
survive at 100ºC temperature. They oxidise sulphur to H2SO4 and obtain energy. This energy is used
to prepare food. Due to conversion of sulphur to H2SO4 the medium (water) becomes acidic in nature.
Hot water sulphur springs are found in the Himalayan region. Exceptionally these archaebacteria are
obligate aerobes. e.g., Thermus aquaticus, Sulpholobus, Thermoplasma
EUBACTERIA
HISTORY
Bacteria are cosmopolitan and occur in every habitat wherever living or dead organic matter is present.
Anton von Leeuwenhoek discovered in rain water which had been allowed to stand for many days
and tartar scrapped from teeth. In 1695, he published his work ‘‘The Secrets of Nature discovered by
Anton von Leeuwenhoek’’.
F.J. Cohn and Ehrenberg first of all coined the name ‘’Bacteria’’
Lister :
Lister developed “culture technique”. He also developed the “sterlization technique” to sterlize the
surgical instruments. He discovered, the antiseptic nature of carbolic acid. Lister first of all cultured
bacteria artificially.
Louis Pasteur :
He proposed “germ theory” and called the bacteria “germ”. He discovered the “Pasteurisation technique’’
(it is a process which means heating of drinks to make bacteria free). It is carried out a 60°C
temperature and for 30 minutes duration.
Robert Koch :
Koch first obtained pure culture of bacteria. He discovered the Anthrax, T.B. and Cholera causing
bacteria. Koch gave some rules to prove that the bacteria are the cause of disease. These rules are
known as ‘’Koch postulates’’. He awarded ‘’Nobel Prize’’ for his work. Koch postulates do not
applicable on obligate parasite (e.g., Mycobacterium leprae).
SIZE
Smallest eubacteria :
Dialister pneumosintes (0.15 to 0.3 m)
Haemophilus influenzae (0.2 – 0.3 × 0.5 – 2.0 m)
Longest/Largest eubacteria :
Epuloepiscium fishelsoni (600 m or 0.6 mm )
Thiomargarita namibiensis
Largest/longest Filamentous bacterium : Beggiatoa mirabilis (few mm)
SHAPE
Bacteria have variation in their shape. On the basis of their shape bacteria are of different types.
PILI
Bacterial cell wall is covered by numerous hair like structure called pili. Pili are smaller than flagella.(Plu
pili Sing. - Pilus). They are of two types - (A) Longer pili, (B) Shorter pili. Longer pili is also known
as ‘F’ pili or ‘sex’ pili. Longer pili occurs in only donar (F+ or male) bacteria and help in conjugation.
These are absent in recipient bacteria or female.
Structure - Every pilus is cylindrical hollow structure and composed of protein monomers. Each monomer
is made up of ‘pilin’ protein. Pilin is non-contractile protein.
Note : Pili have been reported only in Gram negative E. coil bacteria.
STRUCTURE OF BACTERIAL CELL
Capsule or Glycocalyx or Slime layer -
When bacteria is surrounded by capsule, it is called capsulated bacteria. Formation of capsule is done
by cell membrane. Capsulated bacteria are mostly pathogenic. Capsule is made up of dextran, dextrin
and lavan polysaccharides and polypeptides. Capsule protects the bacteria from W.B.C. and also helps
in colony formation.
Plasmid
Conclusion : NAM and NAG joined together by -1, 4 linkage. Chain of amino acid (Tetrapeptide) that link the
layers of polyracchride NAM and NAG. Gram positive bacteria has diaminopimelic acid instead of L- lysin.
Cell wall is useful for staining purpose.
GRAM STAINING
Gram staining develop by Hans Christian Gram a Danish physician in 1884. It is also known as differential
staining because it enable to separate two different type of organisms.
Flow chart of differential staining (Gram staining) :
Bacterial smear
Air drying
Gram negative
Monera – Protista [30]
3 Cell wall of peptidoglycan (20 - 80 nm) Cell wall of peptidoglycan is (8-12 nm)
6 Ba sa l body of the flagellum contains 2 rings Basal body of the flagellum has 4 rings (L,
(S & M ) P, S & M )
8 A fe w pathogenic bacteria belong to Gram- Most of the pa thoge nic bacteria belong to
positive group Gram-negative group
L-FORM BACTERIA
Bacterial cell wall can be dissolved by lysozyme enzyme. When bacterial cell wall is removed artificially
then bacteria are surrounded by only cell membrane. These bacteria are called L-form (Lister form).
Listor form - It is first developed by Klieneberger in lister laboratory London.
Cell membrane-
Bacterial cell membrane is made up of lipoprotein like the eukaryotes membrane.
It is Specifically resembles to mitochondria inner membrane (respiratory enzymes and succinate
dehydrogenase).
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
(A) Mesosomes - [Chondroid]
Mesosome was discovered by F. James. The cell membrane of bacteria invaginates in cytoplasm at
different places and form mesosomes. These are functionally mitochondria like structures as oxidative
enzymes are found in mesosome. On the basis of position and function mesosome are of two types:
(a) Peripheral mesosome - They are situated near the cell membrane in peripheral part and their main
function is cell respiration and cell wall secretion.
(b) Central mesosome - They are situated deep in cytoplasm and their main function is providing help in
DNA replication and cell division. These are connected with nucleoid.
NUTRITION IN BACTERIA
Most of the bacteria are heterotrophic but some are autotrophic. On the basis of nutrition bacteria are
classified into following categories.
Nutrition of Bacteria
(2) HETEROTROPHS
Most of the bacteria are heterotrophic i.e. they can not manufacture their own food. They receive their
own food from dead organic matter or living organism. These are following types :
(A) Saprotrophic bacteria : These bacteria obtain food from dead and decaying organic matter. These are
of two types
(a) Obligate saprotrophic - These bacteria obtain food only from dead organic matter. These are completely
saprotrophic. e.g., Bacillus vulgaris, Clostridium botulinum
(b) Facultative parasite - These are normally saprotrophic in nature, but in the absence of dead organic
matter they can become parasitic. e.g., Pseudomonas, Staphylococus
(B) Parasitic bacteria : These bacteria obtain food from living organism. These are of two types
(a) Obligate parasite - They always remain parasitic. e.g., Mycobacterium leprae
(b) Facultative Saprotrophic - They are normally parasitic in nature but in the absence of living host. they
may become saprotrophic. e.g., Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(C) Symbiotic
These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds like Amino acid, NO3 or Salts
of ammonia. e.g., Rhizobium
Note : Some nitrogen fixers are free living and aerobic are Azotobactor, Beijerinckia, Kelebsiella.
RESPIRATION
On the basis of respiration bacteria are of two types :
(A) Aerobic bacteria : These are of two types
(a) Obligate aerobic - These are completely aerobic and die in the absence of O2.
e.g., Azotobacter, Bacillus subtilis, Beijerinckia, Kelebsiella
(b) Facultative anaerobic - These are normally aerobic but can survive in the absence of O2 also have
capacity of anaerobic respiration. e.g., Acetobacter aceti, Pseudomonas, Clostridium, tetani
(B) Anaerobic bacteria : These are of two types
(a) Obligate anaerobic - These are completely anaerobic bacteria and do not have capacity of aerobic
respiration. e.g., Clostridium botulinum
(b) Facultative aerobic - These are normally anaerobic but also have capacity of aerobic respiration. e.g.,
Fermentation bacteria except Acetobacter aceti
REPRODUCTION
Bacteria reproduce by three methods :
(A) Vegetative reproduction; (B) Asexual reproduction ; (C) Genetic recombination
Structure of endospore -
(i) Exosporium Lipid Protein
(iv) R-II (living) + S - III (heat killed) bacteria Healthy mice Mice died.
(But R-II is not virulent and S-III lost its virulent capacity upon heating).
Conclusion -
On the basis of this experiment grifith concluded that some material of S-III strain transformed the R-
II into S-III. But Griffith could not indentify the material responsible for transformation. It was later
indentified by Avery, Macleod and mc Carty as DNA.
(b) Conjugation : Lederbeg and Tatum (1946)
Conjugation was discoverd in E.coli. Both were awarded Nobel prize for their work. Detail study was
carried out by Wollman and Jacob in E.coli.
Conjugation between F+ and F– :
First of all donor cell (F+) is attached to recipient cell (F–) with the help of sex pili. Sex pili functions
as conjugation tube. The ‘F’ factor (F plasmid) now replicates and the repilca moves to F– through
conjugation tube. Both the cells are then separated. Due to transfer of ‘F’ factor F– bacteria now
becomes F+ bacteria
(ii) Butter - It is made by churning cream that has been soured by lactic acid bacteria Streptococcus lactis
or Streptococcus cremoris.
Direct formation by
Milk Churning cream Streptococ
cus latics or
Butter
mechanical method Streptococcus cremoris
(iv) Cheese - It is made by curd with the help of Streptococcus lactis and Lactobacillus lactis.
Milk Streptococ
cus lactis
Curd Lactobacil
lus lactis
Cheese
Streptococcus lactis
(c) Antibiotics -
Term antibiotic was given by S.A. Waksman. First discovered antibiotic was Penicillin it was obtained
from fungi Penicillium notatum. First discovered antibiotic from bacteria was streptomycin. Many
substances produced by microorganism which inhibit the growth of other micro-organism are called
antibiotic substances. These antibiotic medicine cure the disease through the competitive inhibition.
Bacteria Antibiotics
Bacillus licheniformis - Bacitracin
Bacillus polymyxa - Polymyxin
Bacillus brevis - Gramicidin
Bacillus subtilis - Subtilin & Bacitracin
Streptomyces griesus - Chloromycetin (chloramphenicol)
Streptomyces aureofaciens - Aureomycin (Chlorotetracycline) & Tetracycline
Streptomyces aureofaciens - Terramycin (oxytetracycline)
Streptomyces fradiae - Neomycin
(d) Industries -
Many bacteria are used in industries
Alcohol formation : Ethanol is formed with the help of yeast (fungi) or bacteria (Sarcina ventriculi)
by the process of fermentation.
C6H12O6 Sarcina
ventriculi
Alcohol (Ethanol)
Vinegar formation (Acetic acid) -
Acetobacter aceti
Ethanol Acetic acid
C6H12O6 Clostridiu
m acetobutyl icum
Butyric acid
Fermentation
(e) Retting of fibers - Controlled microbial decomposition of cell wall and middle lamella.
e.g., Clostridium perfringenes , Butyric acid bacteria, psedomonas fluroresence
(f) Flavouring of tea and tobacco leaves -
e.g., Bacillus megatherium (Tobacco), Micrococcus condiscence (Tea)
(g) Cleaning of hides - Any saprotrophic bacteria
(h) Production of Vitamins -
Clostridium butylicum produces Riboflavin (Vit. B2)
Propionibacterium and bacillus megatherium produce Vit.B12 (cynocobalomine)
E.coli produces Vit. E., Vit. K. and in alimentary canal of human beings
(i) Decomposing bacteria - Some bacteria decompose the harmful chemicals.
Flavobacterium 2,4 - D; Acetobacter DDT
(j) Bacteria for specific pests - Bacteria are use to kill specific pests, e.g.,(Bacillus popilliae - Japaneese
Beetle) (Bacillus sphaericus - Anopheles)
(k) Purity of Ganga water - In Gangatic water a bacteria Bdellovibrio bacterovorus is found, it kill the
other water pollutant bacteria.
(l) Pollution indicating bacteria : Water in which E.coli bacteria are present known as polluted water.
E.coli are very much in noumber the water will be highly polluted. So the E. coli is known as pollution
indicating bacteria.
(m)Oil Clearing bacteria or carbon disposal : e.g., Pseudomonas putida
(n) Bacteria for genetic engineering - e.g., E.coli and Agrobacterium
TO BE REMEMBERED
INTRODUCTION
B.G.A. was included in class Cyanophyceae or Myxophyceae but now it is included in Kingdom Monera,
becuase it is a prokaryotic cell. The name cyanobacteria was suggested by ICNB [Internal Code of
Nomenclature for Bacteria] in 1978. Cyanobacteria are Gram negative photosynthetic prokaryotes.
(1) T hey have membrane bound structure Photosynthetic pigments are scattered in
thylakoids. photosynthetic pigments are groups in the cytoplasm, these groups are
present on the surface of these thylakoids known as chromatophore.
Chromatophores are membranous structure
||||
||||
vacuole
|||||
|||||||||||||||||||||||||
Cell membrane
||||||||||||||
|||| ||||
|||
|||
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Thylakoids
|||
||
|||
|||| |||| Central cytoplasm
|||| |||| |||||
|
|||||||||||||
||||||||||||| |
-Granules
-Granules
The cytoplasm of prokaryotes lacks membrane bound cell organelles but exceptionally in B.G.A. two
membrane bound structure are present. Gas vacuole provides the buoyancy to the B.G.A. in water.
Photosynthetic pigments are present on Thylakoids surface. Exceptionally gas vacuoles are also present
in purple and green photosynthetic bacteria.
Stored Food
(a) - granules - They are made up of cyanophycean starch. It is structurally similar to glycogen.
(b) - granules - They are made up of fat droplets.
Monera – Protista [41]
REPRODUCTION
In BGA reproduction is done by two main processes (Sexual reproduction absent)
1. Vegetative 2. Asexual
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
Binary fission : This is the most common method of reproduction in prokaryotes. The daughter cells
formed by amitotic division and separate immediately after the division.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
It is method of protection from unfavourable conditions.
(a) Heterocysts : Under special conditions, the heterocysts germinate to form new filaments.
(b) Hormogonia : Due to the formation of biconcave, mucilage filled dead cells called necridia, in between
living cells of trichome, the filament breaks into hormogonia.
(c) Akinetes : Vegetative cells are transformed into thick walled akinetes due to the deposition of food
material followed by the thickning of wall. On the arrival of favourable conditions, they germinate to
form new filaments.
Note : In B.G.A. genetic recombination first discovered by H.D. kumar
Conidia Sporangiospores
Sporangium
B
Mycellal
Bacterium Arthrospores or Oidia
C
A
Modes of asexul reproduction in
Actinomycetes (A) Conidia, (B) Sporangiospores
(C) Anthrospores or oidia
e.g., Streptomyces, Mycobcterium, Beggiatoa, Frankia, Nocardia, Corynebacterium
Frankia can fix N2 symbiotically by root nodule formation in non legumes like Alnus, Myrica and
Casuarina.
RICKETTSIA
They are also called as bacteria because they are similar to eubacteria in structure. These are Intracellular.
These are non motile. Diseases caused by Rickettsia in humans are Typhus fever – Rickettsia prowazekii
and Rocky mountain spotted fever – R.rickettsii. Root knot disease of vegetable is caused by
Meloidogyne javanica.
Note : Barophilic prokaryotes – Prokaryotes which grow and multiply in very deep marine sediments.
MYCOPLASMA
E.Nocard and E.R.roux (1898) – Two French Scientists, discovered these organisms from pleural
fluid of cattles suffering from pleuropneumonia. These are pleomorphic and were called PPLO
(Pleuropneumonia Like Organisms) or Jokers of plant Kingdom.
Structure : These are unicellular, simplest free living prokaryotes. They do not have cell wall so they are
highly pleomorphic and can assume various shapes like spherical, granular, filamentous, coccoid etc.
NUTRITION
Mode of nutrition in protist is different types
(a) Holophytic or Photosynthetic : They prepare their own food through photosynthesis. (Chloroplast and
pigments present) e.g., Diatom
(b) Holozoic : Some protist have holozoic mode of nutrition, which is similar to animals i.e. food is first
ingested and then digested. e.g. Noctiluca (Dinoflagellates)
(c) Absorptive : Some protists obtain their food from dead organic substances. These protists secretes
some extracellular enzymes. These enzymes convert the complex organic substances into simpler
substances. Now these simple substance can be easily absorbed through the body surface.
(d) Mixotrophic : Some Protists have both holophytic and holozoic type of nutrition. e.g. Ceratium,
Englena
REPRODUCTION
Asexual Reproduction : This is the most common method of reproduction in protists. Asexual reproduction
takes place in favourable condition. It is of following types
(a) Binary Fission : Two daughter cells are formed by the division of one mother cell.
(b) Spore Formation : Some protists have special structure known as sporangia. Spores are formed in this
sporangia.
Sexual Reproduction : Sexual reproduction was first of all seen in protists. In sexual reproduction two
haploid gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote. This process is known as syngamy. Syngamy is of three
types :
(a) Isogamy : In isogamy the fusing gametes are morphologically (i.e. shape, size structure) similar but
physiologically ( functionally or genetically) they may be similar or dissimilar. When fusing gametes are
physiologically dissimilar process is called physiological anisogamy.
Anisogamy : The fusing gametes are morphologically and physiologically dissimilar (smaller – motile, larger
- immotile).
Oogamy : It is the developed form of anisogamy. Male gamete is small and motile while female gamete
is large and immotile. This female gamete is known as egg. In it the formation of male & female
gametes take place in sex organs.
Adult Mitosis
N N gametes
Zygotic meiosis
Fertilization
Haplontic life cycle
2N Zygote
Meiosis
Diplontic Life :
When protists is diploid and meiosis takes place during gametes formation, then it is called gametic
meiosis. In this type of life cycle only gametic phase is haploid and remaining all phases are diploid so
this type of life cycle is known as diplontic life cycle. e.g., Noctiluca, Diatoms, Acellular slime
moulds.
Meiosis
2N
Growtn
N N gametes
Gametic meiosis
Fertilization
Diplontic life cycle
2N Zygote
Mitosis
DINOFLAGELLATES -
Division – Pyrrophyta
Class – Dinophyceae
They are Biflagellated protist. Dinoflagellates are golden brown photosynthetic protists. Dinoflagellates
are mainly marine. They are found on the surface of water.
Structure :
The body is enclosed by a rigid coat called theca or lorica consisting of 2 to many articulated plates
of cellulose and pectin, hence are also called armoured dinoflagellates. Dinoflagellates have two flagella-
Monera – Protista [46]
Some Dinoflagellates
Noctiluca : It is an exception in Dinoflagellates because it is colourless. Chloroplast is absent therefore it
has holozoic mode of nutrition. Exceptionally Noctiluca is diploid so it reproduce by Gametic meiosis,
therefore its life cycle is diplontic type. It is also known as ‘sea - ghost’ because it glows in night.
But yet it is placed in Dinoflagellates because two flagella are present and plated cell wall. It is also
classified in protozoa due to its holozoic mode of nutrition and colurless body.
Ceratium : It is also an exception because, mode of nutrition is mixotrophic in it.
Reproduction :
Mainly Asexual reproduction takes place by Binary fission.
Sexual reproduction is very rare in them. Dinoflagellates are haploid so they reproduce by zygotic
meiosis. Therefore their life cycle is haplontic type. (Exception-Noctiluca)
Special Features of Dinoflagellates :
(i) Maximum Dinoflagellates (e.g., – Noctiluca, Gonyaulax, Procystis) show ‘Bioluminescence’. Their
protoplasm has photogenic granules. These granules are made up of luciferin protein.
(ii) Energy is released by the oxidation of luciferin. This energy is liberated in the form of light during
night. This is known as ‘‘Bioluminescence.
(iii) These dinoflagellates are also known as ‘night light / Fire algae’
(iv) Gonyaulax spreads on the surface of sea water, due to which the sea water appears red. It is called
as red tide.
(v) Both Gymnodinium & Gonyaulax are toxic. They secrete toxins, which are known as ‘‘Saxitoxin’’.
(vi) These toxins cause paralysis in human beings. Humans acquire these toxins through food chain. These
protist affect the marine animals.
EUGLENOIDS
Division – Euglenophyta
Class – Euglenophyceae
Previously euglenoids were placed in plant kingdom due to their photosynthetic ability. But due to the
absence of cell wall and animals like nutrition some scientists placed them in animal kingdom. But Now
according to five kingdom classification they are included in Protista.
Monera – Protista [48]
STRUCTURE
Cell wall is absent around them. They are surrounded by a cell membrane which is made up of
lipoprotein and is covered with pellicle. Pellicle is made up of lipoprotein and it is elastic in nature. At
the anterior end of Euglenoids, a cavity is present, which is known as reservoir.
Flagellum is orginated from the base of reservoir. Euglenoids have only one functional flagellum. They
have a contractile vacuole. These contractile vacuoles helps in osmoregulation.
NUTRITION
Euglenoids have a haploid nucleus and chloroplast. Chloroplast has following pigments : Chl. ‘a’ Chl. ‘b’
and Xanthophyll (Zeaxanthin).
Stored food – Paramylum and fat.
Paramylum is a carbohydrate stored in the forms of paramylum granules which are chemically
-1, 3-glucans. Euglenoids are motile. They are of two type - flagellated and Non-flagellated. Wriggling
movement is due to wave motion of the pellicle. Non flagellated euglenoids are also motile as they
locomote by wriggling movement which is also called as Euglenoid movement.
REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction by longitudinal binary fission During unfavourable conditions, palmella stage and
cysts are formed for perennation.
SLIME MOULDS
Division – Mastigomycotina
Class – Gymnomycota
They are known as Consumer – Decomposer Protist. These organisms develop a slimy mass at the time
of their vegetative phase, therefore they are called slime moulds. They are also called as false fungi.
They are found on decaying stem, leaves etc, so these ae saprophyte.
Slime moulds have characters of both animals & fungus therefore they also called Fungus animal.
Scientist Anton De Bary placed them in Mycetozoa by relating them with animals.
While mycologist ‘Ainsworth’ placed them in Myxomycota by relating them with fungi.
Structure :
On the basis of structure they are of two types :
Acellular or plasmodial slime moulds : Their body is made up of wall less multinucleated protoplasmic
mass. This type of body is known as plasmodium. (Plasmodium = wall less coenocyte). Entire plasmodium
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 3 2 2 3 4 1 4 1 3 2 4 4 1 1 3 2 1 2 2
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 2 3 2 1 2 3 3 2 3 2 1 2 2 4 1 2 3 1 4
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 1 3 2 2 2 4 1 1 3 4 3 2 1 2 4 1 2 1 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 1 2 4 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 1 3 2 1 3 4
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 3 3 1 2 3 2 3 4 4 4 2 1 3 3 3 2 4 1 3 1
Monera – Protista [55]
(4) They are non living Q.18 Taxonomically the most controversial group is-
Q.9 Slime-moulds includes in which class of protista (1) Dinoflagellates (2) Diatoms
kingdom - (3) Euglenoids (4) Prokaryote
(1) Myxomycota (2) Eumycota Q.19 Decomposer protists are -
(3) Gymnomycota (4) Myxomycophyta (1) Diatoms (2) Dinoflagellates
Q.10 ‘’Keiselgurh’’ a heat resistant material is (3) Slime moulds (4) Euglenoid
obtained from- Q.20 The dead remains of diatoms are known as-
(1) Red Algae (2) Brown Algae (1) Coenobium (2) Sporangia
(3) Diatoms (4) Fungi (3) Kieselgurh (4) Sporocarp
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 1 3 3 3 2 4 3 1 2 1 3 3 3 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 2 1 1 4 2 3 3 2 3 1 2 2 3 2 4 2 1 1 1
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 3 1 1 3 1 2 2 3 2 2 1 4 2 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. 4 2 4 3 2 1 4 1 1 1 4 2 2 2 1
Monera – Protista [59]
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 3
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 1 3 3 4 2 1 1 1 3 1 2 2 1 2 4 3 1 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 2 1 4 5 2 2 1 3 4 3 2 4 1 1 1 4 3 5 4
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 4 3 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 3 2 4 3 3 2 3 2 3 1
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 2 4 4 1 1 1 4 5 1 2 1 4 2 2 2 3 3 2
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 2 2 3 2 2 3 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104
Ans. 3 3 2 3
Monera – Protista [66]
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 4
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Ans. 4 4 3 4 3 1 4 4 1 4 2 2 2
Ques. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Ans. 4 4 4 4 1 2 3 3 3 1 2 1
COLUMN : A COLUMN : B
Exercise # 1
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 4
Other Exercise
Advantages
1. It is advised to the students that they should prepare a question bank for the revision as it is very difficult to
solve all the questions at the time of revision.
2. Using above index you can prepare and maintain the questions for your revision.
Fungi are found mostly in humus rich soil. But in the presence of moisture, these can grow on leather,
wood, pickle and bread. Some fungi live parasitically in plants, animals and human body. Chloroplast is
absent in fungi, so fungi are heterotrophs. Fungi obtain their own food from dead organic matter or living
organisms.
On the basis of source of food fungi are of two types :
(a) Saprophytic : These fungi obtain their own food from dead organic matter such as bread, rottening
fruit, vegetable and dung etc. Nutrition is absorptive type in saprophytic fungi
(b) Parasitic : These obtain their own food from living organism such as plants, animals and human
beings. They obtain nutrition with the help of haustoria.
(c) Symbiotic : Some fungi are found symbiotically associated with algae and form lichens. Some fungi
are found symbiotically in the roots of higher plants and form mycorrhiza.
STRUCTURE
The body of fungi is called Mycelium. Mycelium is composed of filaments called hypha. The body is
haploid (n) and thalloid. The hyphae may be aseptate and multinucleate, but in most of the fungi, the
mycelium is septate. The septum has a pore through which continuity of the cytoplasm of the adjoining
cells is maintained. The septum may have simple central pore as in ascomycetes, but in higher fungi
(class basidiomycetes), the septum has dolipore septum. In septate mycelium, individual cell may contain
single nucleus (monokaryotic – feature of primary mycelium) or an intermediate phase of two nuclei
(dikaryotic – feature of secondary mycelium). Hypha
Cell wall is present around fungi, which is made up of
chitin or fungal cellulose. Some quantity of proteins, lipids
and cellulose also present with chitin.
Note : (i) Cell wall of the members of class-oomycetes is
mainly made up of cellulose.
(ii) In fungi the stored food remains in the form of
glycogen and oil.
(iii)They are multicellular except Yeast and Synchytrium.
Mycelium
DIFFERENT FORMS OF MYCELIUM
(a) Plectenchyma : When hyphae of a mycelium grow together like plates and intertwine with one another
forming a thick woven structure, it is called plectenchyma. Plectenchyma may have :
(b) Prosenchyma : Loosely interwoven structure whose hyphal components lie more or less parallel to
each other and are recognizable, is known as prosenchyma.
Fungi [71]
Fungal tissues
(d) Sclerotia (Singular Sclerotium) : In some fungi like Claviceps the mycelium may pass into a dormant
or resting stage by the formation of hard resting bodies resistant to unfavourable conditions.
(e) Rhizomorph : When the fungal hyphae aggregate together below surface they behave as an organized
unit to form a root like strand with a thick hard cortex. It also develops a growing tip somewhat
resembling that of a root tip, e.g., Agaricus.
(f) Appressorium : Terminal swollen structure of germ tube for attachment and penetration.
(g) Haustoria : Terminal swollen structure for absorption of food, e.g., Albugo.
Most of the fungi, posses two distinct phases in the life cycle, the vegetative and the reproductive phase.
On this basis fungi are of two types :
(a) Holocarpic Mycelium : Fungal bodies in which entire cell gets transformed into reproductive structures
in unicellular yeasts, the same cell performs both vegetative and reproductive functions.
(b) Eucarpic Mycelium : In which a part of mycelium is used up in the development of reproductive
structures.
On the basis of the mycelium nature fungi are of two types :
(a) Heterothallic species
Those species in which fertilization takes place between two genetically different gametes are called as
heterothallic species. In heterothallic condition, the fertilizing gametes are formed on different thallus
(mycelium). e.g., Mucor, Rhizopus, Albugo, Puccinia & Mostly fungi.
(b) Homothallic Species :
Those species in which fertilization takes place between two genetically similar gametes are called as
homothallic species. In Homothallic condition, the fertilizing gametes are formed on same thallus. e.g.,
Chaetomium.
REPRODUCTION
Vegetative reproduction :
(a) Fragmentation : Some times the fungi filament (mycelium) breaks into
small pieces due to any reason. Now these pieces form a new fungal
filament and starts working like normal filament. Fragmentation
(b) Budding : Some times a bud like protuberance is formed in non-mycelial fungus. Now this bud,
separates from the mother fungi and functions as young fungi. At the time of separation of bud from
its mother cell or fungi, the nucleus of mother cell divided mitotically (or amitotically - in yeast) into two
parts. Out of these two nuclei, one remains with in the mother cell while the other migrates to the bud.
e.g., Saccharomyces (Yeast)
Fungi [72]
Note : Reproduction through bud formation and fission takes place only in nonmycelial form.
Asexual reproduction :
Asexual reproduction takes place by the formation of different types of spores. These spores are formed
by mitotic division.
Types of spores :
(a) Sporangiospores :
They are formed in sporangia and sporangia is formed at the tip of fungal filament. Those fungal
filaments on which sporangia are formed is called as sporangiophore. Numerous spores (sporangiospores)
are present in the sporangia, that comes out by rupturing of sporangia and germinate to forms fungal
filaments. The formation of sporangiospores takes place endogenously. e.g., Rhizopus, Mucor.
Fungi [73]
(e) Oidia : Sometimes in plenty of food, the cells of fungal hyphae gets seperated and starts working like
spores. Now these cells are called oidia. May produced under sugar rich conditions in medium.
Sexual Reproduction :
In fungi specific and reduced type and takes place by fusing gametes. The structure in which gametes
are formed are called gametangia. Sexual reproduction in fungi completes in three steps.
N N
Plasmogamy
N NN Dikaryon
Synkaryon
Meiosis
2N
(a) Plasmogamy : This is the first stage of sexual reproduction. In this stage two sex cells fuse with each
other but their nuclei do not fuse, due to which a single cell has two nuclei. This binucleate stage is called
dikaryon
(b) Karyogamy : In this stage the nuclei present in the cell fuse with each other (delayed in Fungi) to form
a diploid nucleus which is known synkaryon.
(c) Meiosis : In this stage, meiosis takes place in the diploid nucleus due to which again haploid nuclei or
haploid cells are formed.
Method of Sexual Reproduction :
(a) Planogametic Copulation :
In this process whole mycelium (vegetative cell) starts as a sex cell i.e. whole cell starts working as
gametangia. Each nucleus of gametangia behaves like gametes. After that the gametangia ruptured and
its nuclei (gametes) becomes free. Now these gametes fuse with each other to form zygote. Now
meiotic division takes place in zygote. As a result of which haploid spores are formed. Now each spore
germinates and gives rise to a new mycelium.
e.g., Chytridiomycetes, plasmodiophoromycetes.
Mycelium
Gametangia
Mycelium (N)
Germination
gametes gametes
Fungi [74]
Mycelium Mycelium
Antheridium Oogonium
Zygote (Oospore)
(2N)
Meiosis
Spores
Germination
Mycelium
Germination
Gametangia Zygote Meiosis Spores Mycelium
(Zygospore)
Fungi [75]
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI
Fungi divided into following classes on the basis of structure of mycelium & sexual reproduction–
• PHYCOMYCETES • ASCOMYCETES
• BASIDIOMYCETES • DEUTEROMYCETES
PHYCOMYCETES
All the fungi included in this class are called as lower fungi. The fungal filament (mycelium) of all the
fungus included in this class are coenocytic and aseptate. Alexopolus was a mycologist did not
consider Phycomycetes as a class. He dissolved phycomycetes into four different classes.
(a) Chytridiomycetes : e.g. Synchytrium endobioticum causes ‘‘Black hert of Potato’’ or ‘‘Wart of
Potato’’ disease.
(b) Plasmodiophoromycetes : e.g. Plasmodiophora
(c) Oomycetes : e.g.,
(i) Phytophthora infestans – Causes ‘‘Late blight of potato’’. This disease is known as’’ Famine of
Ireland’’ (1845).
(ii) Pythium species – Causes ‘‘Damping off’’ disease in tobacoo & ‘‘Vegetable crops’’.
(iii) Sclerospora graminicola – Causes ‘‘Green ear disease’’ of Bajra. The main characterstics of this
disease is (Phylloidy – i.e. all the parts of flower are modified into green leaves).
(iv) Albugo candida or Cystopus candidus – It causes ‘‘White rust disease’’ in the members of cruciferae
family. It cause Hypertrophy of floral parts in Brassica. It is heterothallic fungi.
(d) Zygomycetes (Conjugation Fungi) e.g.,
(i) Pilobolus : It grows on dung, since it is dung loving fungi therefore it is called as coprophilous fungi.
It prefers to grow horse dung. It is also called as ‘‘Hat thrower’’ or ‘‘fungal shotgun’’. This name is
given on the basis of blasting of sporangium.
(ii) Rhizopus & Mucor : These are known as bread mold – They prefer to grow on bread. The tip of
mycelium of Rhizopus is black coloured. Therefore this fungus looks black coloured. So called black –
mucor produce citric acid
ASCOMYCETES (The sac fungi)
Mycelium : Uninucleate and septate. Septa are found in mycelium of ascomycetes. Pores are present
in septa. These pores allow cytoplasm to pass from one cell to other cell. Pores do not allow passing
of nucleus.
Asexual reproduction : Mostly by conidia formed on conidiophores.
Sexual reproduction : Mostly by ‘‘Somatogamy’’.
Ascospores are formed during sexual reproduction. On this basis they are named as Ascomycetes.
There are three stages in sexual reproduction of Ascomycetes. (Plasmogamy, Karyogamy, Meiosis) In
it two different mycelium come close to each other and fuse to form dikaryon. So there is delay in
Fungi [76]
Plasmogamy
Dikaryon
Germination
Ascogenous hypha
Ascogenous hypha
Ascus
Ascospores
Karyogamy
Diploid nucleus
Meiosis
Ascocarp
Ascus (fruiting body)
Ascospores
After the formation of ascospores, the mycelium grows around the ascus and forms a covering which
is called as fruiting body or ascocarp, 1 to 4 ascus are present in one ascocarp, 4 or 8 ascospores are
present in one ascus. By the rupturing of ascoarp & ascus, ascospores becomes free and each
ascospore forms a new mycelium.
Fungi [77]
Fungi [78]
Clamp connection : It is a tubular relationship between two neighbouring cells With the help of the
connection the nucleus of one cell can migrate to the neghbouring cell, due to which the other cell
becomes dikaryotic (binucleate). Clamp connection is used to change monokaryotic mycelium to dikaryotic
in basidiomycetes.
Sexual Reproduction :
Somatogamy :
This is the most common method of reproduction among the members of Basidiomycetes. e.g., Ustilago,
Agaricus, Polyporus, Lycoperdon
First of all, the two primary mycelium come close to each other. Now their apical ends fuse with each
other (Plasmogamy), as a result of which dikaryon is formed. Now, with the help of clamp connection,
all the cells of mycelium becomes binucleate or dikaryotic. Now both the nucleus of each cell fused with
each other (karyogamy), due to which each cell becomes diploid.
Now club shaped structure is formed on every cell, which is known as basidium. After that diploid
nucleus goes in to this Basidium and divides by meiosis, as a result of which four haploid spores are
formed on every basidium, which are known as basidiospores. (Exogenous in origin) Now the surrounding
fungal hyphae grows to form a fruiting body, which is known as basidiocarp. Now the basidiospores
becomes free from basidium and produce a new mycelium through germination. It is belived that
basidium is similar to ascus. because both of them produces spores but basidiospore is different from
ascopores because the origin of ascospores is endogenous and that of basidiospores is exogenous.
Fungi [80]
Fungi [81]
Fungi [83]
LICHENS
Lichens are dual (composite) organisms or entities which contain a permanent association of a fungus
partner or mycobiont and an alga partner or phycobiont. Mycobion is dominant partner and mostly belongs
to ascomycetes (Ascolichens -, e.g ., Graphis, Cladonia, Parmelia, Usnea, etc.) or sometimes basidiomycetes.
(Basidiolichens -, e.g., Corella, Cora, etc.). Phycobiont is a ember of Chlorophyceae (e.g., Chlorella, Trebouxia,
Protococcus, Palmella, etc.) or can be a BGA (e.g., Nostoc, Chlorococcus, Scytonema, etc.). The term
lichen was coined by Theophrastus (370 – 285 B.C .), as called Father of Botany. Lichens often grow in
most inhospitable and uninhabited places like barren rocks (saxicolous), soil (terricolous), icy tundra or alpines,
sand dunes, roofs, walls, wood (Iignicolous), tree ark (corticolous), leaves, etc. They commonly live under
humid and exposed conditions but can tolerate extreme desiccation. However, lichens, cannot tolerate air
pollution, especially due to sulphur dioxide (so are considered indicators of SO2 pollution).
Lichens are perennial. Their growth is slow. Lichens have greyish, yellowish, greenish, orange, dark brown or
blackish colouration.
Structure : Based upon external morphology, the lichens are of three types :
(i) Crustose : Crust like, closely appressed to the substratum and attached to it at several places, e.g. ,
Graphis, Lecanora, Rhizocarpon.
(ii) Foliose : The body of the lichen is flat, broad, lobed and leaf-like, which is attached to the substratum at
one or a few places with the help of rhizoid like structures called rhizines, e.g., Parmelia, Peltigera.
(iii) Fruticose : The lichen is branched like a bush and attached to the substratum by means of a disc, e.g.,
Cladonia, Usnea, Evernia, Bryonia.
Fungi [84]
Fungi [87]
(2) Pox virus/variola is the causal agent of small pox. These are among the largest of animal viruses, are
rectangular (brick shaped), 300 × 230 nm in size. Genome is dumbell shaped with central core of dsDNA.
The core has two enzymes RNA polymerase and ATP phosphohydrolase.
(3) AIDS virus consists of single stranded RNA. It has 2 copies of ssRNA. Outer cover has 5 layers i.e.,
outer most glycoprotein, followed by double lipid layer and the innermost has two protein layers.
(4) T4 Bacteriophage has a tadpole like structure with polyhedral head connected to a helical tail (binal). The
head consists of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat or capsid. Nucleic acid is double stranded
DNA. Tail is proteinaceous tube-like, core surrounded by sheath. At one end, tube is joined to the head by
thin collar. At the other end, it has a hexagonal base plate with six small tail pins and six tail fibres which
help in attachment of the phage to the host cell.
Sub Viral Agents : These are viruses which lack one of the essential component e.g. , viroids, virusoids,
prions
(1) Viroids (L. virus -poison, eidos -diminutive) They are the smallest self replicating particles which were
discovered by Diener (1971). Viroids are infectious RNA particles which are devoid of protein coat. They are
obligate parasites. Molecular weight of a viroid is low. The RNA is tightly folded to form circular or linear
structures. Viroids are known to causes diseases (some 20) in plants only, e.g., Potato spindle tuber,
Chrysanthemum stunt and Citrus exocortis.
(2) Virusoids
Discovered by Randle et. al., these are RNA viruses but inside he capsid of other larger virus. They
Fungi [88]
Animal viral diseases : Foot and mouth disease, Rinderpest, Ranikhet, Bird flu etc.
Nomenclature of viruses :
International committee of virus nomenclature has given a system of naming the virus. The system
consists of two parts. First part is common name of the virus and second part has the coded information about
the virus. This is called as Cryptogram.
In a cryptogram
(1) First pair : Represents type of nucleic acid 1 no. of strands in nucleic acid.
(2) Second pair : Represents molecular weight of nucleic acid 1 amount of nucleic acid/amount of nucleic
acid expressed as percentage.
(3) Third pair : Denotes shape of virus 1 shape of nucleoprotein.
(4) Fourth pair : Denotes type of host 1 carrier used in the transmission of virus.
(a) Cryptogram of TMV (Tobacco Mosaic Virus)
R/1 : 2/5 : E/E : S/A
It can be explained as
Fungi [89]
Fungi [90]
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 1 2 4 1 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 3 4 4 2 1 2
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 4 4 1 3 2 2 2 3 3 1 3 3 4 4 2 2 1 3 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 4 2 4 3 4 3 3 2 2 1 3 2 3 2 1 1 4 3 2 2
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. 4 3 2 2 2 4 1 3 1 4 3 3 1 1 1
Fungi [94]
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 4 2 3 1 3 4 1 2
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 4 2 3 1 2 3 3 4 2 2 2 4 1 4 2 2 2 1 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 2 3 3 4 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 2
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. 3 2 4 2 4 2 1 2 1 4 1 1 1 2 1
Fungi [98]
Fungi [101]
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 3
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 2 1 4 4 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 1 5 3 4 1 1 4 2
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 2 4 1 2 1 4 2 1 2 3 1 3 4 1 1 1 4 2 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
Ans. 1 4 3 1 3 3 2 4 2 3 2 2 1
Fungi [102]
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 4
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 2 1 2 3 1 4 3 2 2 3
Fungi [103]
COLUMN : A COLUMN : B
Exercise # 1
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 4
Other Exercise
Advantages
1. It is advised to the students that they should prepare a question bank for the revision as it is very difficult to
solve all the questions at the time of revision.
2. Using above index you can prepare and maintain the questions for your revision.
Fungi [104]
Chlorophyll a,b Strach Cellulose 2-8, Isokont and anterior Fresh water
and -carotene position & salt water
Chlorophyll a,c, Mannitol, Cellulose 2, Heterokont, laterally Fresh water (rare)
fucoxanthin laminarin and algin inserted &
salt water
Chlorophyll a,d, Floridean Cellulose Absent Fresh water (some),
Phycobilins starch + &
(phyco-erythrin, Glycan salt water(most)
Phycocyanin) +
mannan
Brown algae are found in marine water. Brown algae are multicellular, Branched, filamentous in lower
form (Ectocarpus) and branched parenchymatous in higher form (Fucus, Macrocystis, Sargassum,
Laminaria). Brown algae are the largest in size (upto 60 - 100 meter in length). Largest brown algae
- Macrocystis
A. Cellular features
1. The plant body of brown algae is differentiated into following structures :
Lamina / Frond – Leafy part or photosynthetic part
Stipe / Stalk – Elongated tubes called trumpet hyphae are present for food
conduction in stipe. Trumpet hyphae are analogous to sieve
tubes of vascular plants.
Hold fast – For attachment to the substratum. Due to lamina and stipe
brown algae look like leaf (leafy algae)
2. Pigments :
Chlorophyll – Chl ‘a’, Chl ‘c’
Carotenoid – Only -carotene
Xanthophyll – Mainly Fucoxanthin
Note : The amount of Fucoxanthin is more in brown algae due to which algae is brown in colour.
(Xanthophylls are mostly yellow but fucoxanthin is brown)
3. Stored food :
Laminarin and mannitol : Both are derivaties of carbohydrates.
4. Phycocolloids / Hydrocolloid :
The cell wall of brown algae contain some gelatinous coating of colloid substance like fucinic acid,
alginic acid and fucoidin in outer layer which are known as phycocolloids. Phycocolloids protects brown-
algae against dessication and shocks. Phycocolloids are used in ice-cream to make them more viscous.
Alginates, salts of alginic acid used for dentury measurement. The cells of brown algae have chloroplast,
centrally located vacuole and nucleus.
B . Reproduction
Vegetative - By fragmentation
Asexual - Mostly by Zoospore (Biflagellated) produced in Zoosporangia Sporangia
is specifically two types :
(a) Unilocular – Produced haploid spore
(b) Plurilocular – Produced diploid spores.
Zoospore are Pear Shaped. Two unequal flagella which are Laterally attached.
Sexual - Isogamous, anisogamous and oogamous type. Gametes are Pear shaped
Biflagellated and hapellr are Laterally attached.
C. Life cycle
Mostly Diplo-haplontic and Diplontic (Fucus)
Special Name :
1. Postelsia : It is known as Sea palm.
2. Ancyclonema : It is called Ice bloom because it grows on marine ice.
3. Sargassum : It is known as Gulf weed because Sargassum is a free floating algae. It grows rapidly
in North Atlantic ocean and covers thousands of hectares of area. Therefore this region is called
as sargasso sea.
Jacket cells
Wall of sporophyte
Amphithecium
Sporogenous cells Endothecium
The germination of spores in Mosses is indirect. i.e. a multicellular filament is formed after the germination
of spore. This filament is known as protonema. Now buds are formed on every cells of protonema. Each
bud develops into a gametophyte plant. Indirect germination is best for survival. Mosses are gregarious
in nature because they appear in group.
Importance of Bryophyta
1. Sexual reproduction in bryophytes is oogamous type and life cycle is haplo-diplontic type. In Bryophyta
the sporophyte is depend on gametophyte. (May be completely or partially) This is a unique character
of broyphyta.
Gametophyte
The sporophyte of liverworts made up of foot, seta and capsule. [Except Riccia sporophyte is made up
of only capsule). In this class formation of spores and nurse cells takes place by the cells of endothecium.
Cells of amphithecium form only wall of sporophyte.
Amphithecium = Wall of sporophyte
Endothecium = sporogenous cells = spore mother cells nurse cells
Elaters are present in sporophyte of some members of liverworts. (e.g. Marchantia - In Marchantia
nurse cells are modified in to elaters). Elaters are diploid, hygroscopic structures with spiral thickenings
bands which help in spore dispersal. eg. - Riccia, Marchantia, Cryptothallus, Riella, Pellia
Porella (Leafy thallus have two rows of leafy appandages on stem like structure)
Note : In Bryophytes, sporophyte of Riccia is the simplest.
Q.5 Sea lettuce is the name given to - (1) Rhodophyta and Xanthophyta
(1) Laminaria (2) Fucus (2) Rhodophyta and Pyrophyta
(3) Sargassum (4) Ulva (3) Pyrophyta and Cyanophyta
Q.6 Fertile cells are not enclosed by sterile cells in (4) Rhodophyta and Cyanophyta
the group- Q.16 Which of the following plant groups have
(1) Thallophyta (2) Spermatophyta similar pigment composition -
(3) Pteridophyta (4) Bryophyta (1) Rhodophyta and phaeophyta
Q.7 ‘’Red rust of tea’’ is caused by parasitic- (2) Chlorophyta and phaeophyta
(1) Algae (2) Fungi (3) Rhodophyta and cyanophyta
(3) Bacteria (4) Bryophyta (4) Xanthophyta and euglenophyta
Q.8 No Zoospores formation has been observed in Q.17 Polyuronic acid and polysulphate esters are
the Algae members belonging to - characteristic in cell wall of -
(1) Chlorophyceae (2) Xanthophyceae (1) Brown Algae (2) Red Algae
(3) Phaeophyceae (4) Cyanophyceae (3) Dinoflagellates (4) Diatoms
Q.9 Which pigment is found in phaeophyceae- Q.18 Stone wort is common name of -
(1) Chl. a,c and fucoxanthin
(1) Chara (2) Chlorella
(2) Chl. a, d and violaxanthin
(3) Laminaria (4) Polysiphonia
(3) Carotene and phycocyanin
Q.19 Irish moss, is a -
(4) None of these
(1) True moss (2) Lichen
Q.10 Food reserve in Rhodophyta is -
(3) Algae (4) Bryophyte
(1) Floridean starch
Q.20 Flagellated cells are absent in -
(2) Mannitol
(1) Red algae (2) Blue green algae
(3) Leucosin
(4) All of the above (3) Higher plants (4) All the above
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 3 3 2 4 1 1 4 1 1 2 3 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 2 4 1 3 1 4 4 2 2 3 1 4 1 4 4 2 4 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 4 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 4 1 4 1 1 2 2 4 3 2 2 2
Ques. 61 62 63
Ans. 1 3 1
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 4 3 1 1 1 4 2 1 3 4 4 1 1 2 4 1 4 3 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 1 2 2 4 4 2 2 4 2 2 3 3 2 2 1 4 2 4 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 3 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 3 4 4 1 4 3 4 3 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65
Ans. 2 2 2 4 1
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1 1 3 1 3 3 3 2 2 4 3 1 2 2 4 2 2 3 4 1
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
2 2 1 3 1 1 3 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 5 1 5 2 4 3
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56
2 5 1 2 2 4 1 4 3 3 2 1 3 1 3 4
Algae & Bryophyta [127]
Q.1 The thallus of Volvox is called Q.11 A mature ligule is having a prominent basal portion,
(1) Coenocyte (2) Filament which is called
(3) Heterotrichous (4) Coenobium (1 ) Trichocyst (2) Heterocyst
Q.2 Triphasic life cycle is found in (3) Rhizophore (4) Glossopodium
(1) Chondrus (2) Laminaria Q.12 Primitive types of stomata are found in the
(3) Polysiphonia (4) Macrocystis (1) Apophysis of capsule
Q.3 Homworts are represented by (2) Leaves of moss plants
(1) Hepaticopsida (2) Bryopsida (3) Axis of the moss plant
(3) Anthocerotopsida (4) Psilopsida (4) All of these
Q.4 Which of the following is not a correct match? Q.13 Elater mechanism for spore dispersal is exhibited
(1) Cord moss-Funaria by
(2) Maiden hair fern-Ginkgo (1 ) Riccia (2) Dryopteris
(3) Walking fern-Adiantum (3) Funaria (4} Marehantia
(4) Bog moss-Sphagnum Q.14 Find the correct match
Q.5 Single filament of Nostoc without mucilage sheath Column I Column II
is known as a. Royal fern (i) Adiantum
(1) Mycelium (2) Colony b. Sun fern (ii) Osmunda
(3) Trichome (4) Hyphae c. Grape fern (iii) Pteridium
Q.6 Bryophytes are not characterised by d. Walking fern (iv) Botrychium
(1) Vascular tissues (1 ) a(iv), b(ii), c(iii), d(i)
(2) Well-developed reproductive system (2) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
(3) Alternation of generation (3) a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(iv)
(4) Presence of chlorophyll
(4) a(iii), b(ii), c(iv), d(i)
Q.7 Algae are useful because they
Q.15 Red algae shows resemblance with bryophytes
(1) Are large in number in having
(2) Are used in alcoholic fermentation
(1) Flagellation
(3) Purify the atmosphere (2) Dependent gametophyte
(4) Are used in study of photosynthesis
(3) Nature of male gametes
Q.8 The plant body of moss (Funaria) is (4) Female gametangia shape
(1) Completely sporophyte Q.16 Phycocolloidal substances having haemostatic
(2) Predominantly sporophyte with gametophyte properties and useful in the treatment of shock;
(3) Completely gametophyte are obtained from the cell wall of
(4) Predominantly gametophyte with sporophyte (1) Sargassum and Stigeoclonium
Q.9 In Ulothrix meiosis takes place in (2) Macrocystis and Microcystis
(1) Cells of the filament (2) Holdfast (3) Gracilaria and Char a
(3) Zygote (4) Zoospores (4) Laminaria and Macrocystis
Q.10 Mossess and ferns are found in moist and shady INSTRUCTIONS FOR Q. NO. 17 TO 20
places because both In the following questions (6 to 7), a statement of
(1 ) Require presence of water for fertilization assertion (A) is followed by a statement of
(2) Do not need sunllbht for photosynthesis\ reason (R).
(3) Depend for their nutrition on microorganisms (1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the
which can survive only at low temperature reason is the correct explanation of the assertion,
(4) Cannot compete with sun-loving plants then mark (1).
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 4
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 23 24
Ans. 4 3 3 2 3 1 3 4 3 1 4 3 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 3 1 1 1 2
Algae & Bryophyta [129]
COLUMN : A COLUMN : B
Exercise # 1
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 4
Other Exercise
Advantages
1. It is advised to the students that they should prepare a question bank for the revision as it is very difficult to
solve all the questions at the time of revision.
2. Using above index you can prepare and maintain the questions for your revision.
Fertilization takes place by zoodiogamy and zygote is formed as a result of fertilization. Zygote develops
mitotically and forms an embryo. Now this embryo develops and forms a sporophytic plant with root,
stem, leaf.
Points to be remember
1. Type of sexual reproduction in pteridophyta is oogamous. Their life cycle is diplo-haplontic type.
2. The unique character of life cycle of Pteridophyte is - Independent alternation of generation. i.e.
sporophyte and gametophyte are separate to each other and morphologically different.
3. In some heterosporus species female gametophyte retained on parent sporophyte and develop embryo
on same sporophyte eg. Selaginella. This event is precursor to seed habit in evolution.
CLASSIFICATION
Pteridophyta is divided in to 4 classes
Zygote (2N)
Mitosis Diploid
Embryo
Seed Germination (Seed = Ovule + Embryo
i.e. ovule enclosing embryo)
Sporophyte (2N)
GENERAL CHARACTERS
1. Flowering plants or angiosperms are the most recent and highly evolved plants.
2. Sporophylls are aggregated in flowers. It is their most striking feature. therefore, angiosperms are also called
flowering plants.
3. Stamen (male sex organ) consists of a filament and an anther. carpel (female sex organ) is rolled and partly
sterilised to produce a stigma, style and ovary, containing ovules.
4. Pollination occurs through several agecies, but most prominent amongst them is by animals, especially insects.
5. pollen grains or microspores reach stigmatic surface found at the tip of carpal or megasporophyll
(indirect pollination).
6. Female gametophyte or embryo sac is highly reduced and generly develops upto 8-nucleate stage prior to
fertilization.
7. Archegonia are absent. Instead, there is one egg surrounded by two specialised synergid cells that attract the
pollen tube. The latter brings two naked non-flagellate male gametes.
8. There occurs double fertilization. One produces zygote, hence embryo. the other forms primary endosperm cell.
9. Endosperm is formed through triple fusion and is generally triploid.
10. Fertilized ovules ripen into seeds. The seeds are coverd by ovary wall. A fruit is technically a ripened ovary.
Fruit not only protect the seeds but also help in their dispersal.
11. Xylem contains vessels.
12. Phloem possesses sieve tubes and copanion cells.
13. Aniosperms are divided into two sub-groups-dicotyledons and monocotyledons, mainly on the basis of number
of embryonic leaves or cotyledons. The two are commonly called as dicots and monocots.
Differences Between Dicots and Monocots
Dicots Monocots
1. Seeds usally have two cotyledons. 1. The seeds contain one cotyledon.
2. Flowers are generally pentamerous 2. Flowers are usually (floral parts in
or tetramerous (floral parts in sets sets of three or its multiples).
of 5 and 4 or their multiples).
3. Leaves are net-veined with reticulate 3. The leaves possess paralle venation
venation with a few exceptions. with a fewexceptions.
4. Primary root often long lived, 4. Primary root short lived.
forming tap root system. Adventitious Instead adventitious roots are found.
roots occur in some cases.
5. Vascular bundles of the stem are 5. Vascular bundles are found scttered.
arranged in a ring.
6. Vascular bundles of the stem possess 6. Cambium is absent
cambium (vascular bundle open), so (vascular bundle open).
that secondary growth is possible.
Seed and its Seed absent Seed absent Seed naked Seed with
coverings (without covering) covering
Zygote
Sy
ei
ng
(2n)
M
Spores
am
(n)
y
Sporophyte
(2n)
(iii) Diplontic : It is characterized by the dominance of
diplophase. The plant body is sporophyte which is
independent and free living. The gametophytes are Diplontic
extremely reduced and are dependent physically as Life Cycle
well as nutritionally on the sporophyte. The major part
of the life is enjoyed by the sporophyte, e.g., all
gymnosperms and angiosperms; Diatoms; some
Zygote (2n)
brown algae, viz. Fucus and Sargassum. Gametogenesis
y
gam
n
Sy (n)
(ii)
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 2 3 2 4 1 3 3 4 1 2 1 1 4 2 2 1 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
Ans. 4 2 3 4 4 2 4 2 4 1 2 2 1 1 3 3 2 1
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 3 1 4 4 1 2 2 4 1 2 3 4 3 4 1 1 1 1 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 3 4 2 1 3 4 3 1 3 1 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 4
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 4 4 3 3 1 3 3 3 2 4 4 1 3 1 3 1 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
Ans. 1 4 2 3 2 4 4 2 4
Pteridopyta, Angiosperm, Gymnosperm [150]
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 3
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 1 2 3 1 3 1 1 4 2 1 1 1 2 1 3 3 2 1 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 3 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 1 4 4 3 2 1 3 1 3 3 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 1 1 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 2 1 4 3 1 5 2 3 2 1 3
Ques. 61 62 63
Ans. 4 3 3
Pteridopyta, Angiosperm, Gymnosperm [154]
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 4
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 2 4 2 3 3 4 3 3 1 2
COLUMN : A COLUMN : B
Exercise # 1
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 4
Other Exercise
Advantages
1. It is advised to the students that they should prepare a question bank for the revision as it is very difficult to
solve all the questions at the time of revision.
2. Using above index you can prepare and maintain the questions for your revision.
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