RUN AWAY SPEED

The run away speed of a turbine is the maximum speed attained by the runner under
maximum head at full gate opening, when the external load (generator) is disconnected from
the system. All rotating parts must be designed to withstand the runaway speed which varies
among the manufacturers with the design of turbine and generator.

Runaway speed for various types of turbines is generally as follow:

Turbine Runaway speed

Pelton turbine 1.8 to 1.9 N

Francis turbine 2 to 2.2 N

Kaplan turbine 2.5 to 3 N

The exact value of runaway speed of any turbine can be predicted from the model tests in
the laboratory.

2.7.12 DRAFT TUBE THEORY

A pipe of gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the outlet of the turbine to
tail race is called the draft tube. One end of the draft tube is connected to the outlet of the runner
and other end sub-merged below the level of water in tail race, draft tube, in addition to serve a
passage for water discharge, has the following two purposes also.

1. The turbine may be placed above the tail race and hence turbine may be inspected
properly.

 v2 
2. The kinetic energy   rejected at the outlet of the turbine is converted into
 2g 
useful pressure energy.
 2
Runner
Outlet

Hs
Draft tube

Pa (Tail Race)

h2

h3
Draft tube
3
Outlet

h4
Datum Level

Fig. 2.22. Draft tube arrangement of reaction turbine

h2 = height of runner from datum level.

Hs = suction height.

V2,V3= velocity of fluid at inlet and outlet section of draft tube

h4 = height of outlet of the draft tube from datum level.

h3 = height of outlet section od draft tube from tail race.

Applying the Bernoulli’s theorem between (2) inlet and (3) outlet of the draft tube.

P2 V22 P3 V32
  h2    h4 …(24)
g 2g g 2g

P2 P3  V 2  V32 
= - ( h2- h4 )-  2 
 …(25)
g g  2 g 

P3 Pa
= + h3
g g
P2 Pa  V22  V32 
= -( h2-h3 –h4)-   …(26)
g g  2g 
 

From the Fig.2.22.

h2-h3 –h4 = Hs

P2 Pa  V 2  V32 
= -  Hs  2  …(27)
g g  2 g 


Hs= static suction head

 V22  V32 
 
 2 g  = dyanamic suction head.
 

If frictional losses in the draft tube is hf

P2 Pa  V 2  V32 
So = -  Hs  2  + hf
g g  2 g 


P2 Pa   V 2  V32  
= -  Hs   2   hf 
g g   2g   …(28)
   

Draft tube efficiency is defined as ratio of actual conversion of kinetic head into pressure head in
the draft tube to the kinetic head at the inlet of the draft tube. Hence

  V22  V32  
    hf 

Draft tube efficiency (ηd ) =   
2g  …(29)
 V22 
 
 2g 
CAVITATION

Cavitation definition and other basic theory explained in the Centrifugal pump unit. Turbine
parts should be properly designed in order to avoid Cavitation because damaging the metallic
surface, Cavitation also decrease the efficiency of the turbine. Cavitation depends upon:

 Vapour pressure (Pv) which is a function of temperature of flowing water.

 Barometric pressure (Pb) due to the location of turbine above the sea level.
 Suction pressure (Hs) which is the height of runner outlet above tail race level.
 Absolute velocity of water at outlet. Prof. Thoma (1881-1943) suggested a Cavitation
factor (  ) to determine the zone where turbine can work without being affected from
Cavitation.
(Hb - Hs ) (Hatm - Hv - Hs )
Critical Cavitation factor (  crit) =  … (30)
H H

Where Hb= barometric pressure in metre of water = Ha – Hv

Ha= Atomspheric pressure in metre of water

Hv = Vapour pressure in m of water

Hs = Suction pressure in m of water

H= Working head.

According to the Prof. Thoma, Cavitation can be avoided if the value of  are not less
than the critical value given above. Prof. Rogger suggested the following empirical relation for
Francis turbine.

2
N 
 crit = 0.0317  S  … (31)
 100 

The maximum permissible specific speed can be calculated by

 crit Hb - Hs
Ns = 100 = 562 …(32)
0.0317 H
 η

σ crit
σ
Fig. 2.24. Graph Efficiency vs Cavitation
factor.

Method to Avoid Cavitation

 turbine installed below the tail race level

 Outlet pressure of turbine (P2 )

P2 Pa  V 2  V32 
= -  Hs  2  hf 
g g  2g 

Means outlet pressure of turbine is the function of suction head (Hs). if the Hs decrease than
the PQ pressure at the outlet of turbine increase and  value will increase so that chance of
Cavitation minimize which means the turbine work in the safe zone so that suction heat
decrease to negative value means turbine installed below the tail race level. Other method of
avoid the cavitation explained in the centrifugal unit.

 design cavitation free runner

 selection of speed
 use of machining
CHARACTERSISTICS CURVES OF HUDRAULIC TURBINE
Characteristics curves of a hydraulic turbine are the curves, with the help of which the exact
behaviour and performance of turbine under different condition can be known. These curves are
plotted from the results of the test performed on the turbine under the different working
condition.

The important parameters which are varied during the test on turbine are :

1. Speed (N) 2. Head (H)

3. Discharge (Q) 4. Power (P)

5. Overall efficiency (η0) 5. Gate opening

Out of the above six parameters, three parameters namely speed (N), Head (H) and discharge
(Q) are independent parameters. Out of the three independent parameters (N,H,Q), one of the
parameter is kept constant (say H) and variation of other four parameters with respect to any one
of the remaining two independent variables (say N and Q ) are plotted and various curves are
obtained. These curves are called characteristic curves. The following are important.

Characteristics curves of a turbine:

1. Main Characteristics Curves or Constant Head Curves.

2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves.
3. Muschel Curves or Constant Efficiency Curves.

2.8.8.1 Main Characteristics Curves or Constant Head Curves

Main characteristics curves are obtained by

maintaining a constant head and a constant gate
opening (G.O.) on the turbine. The speed of the
turbine is varied by changing load on turbine.
For each value of the speed, the corresponding
value of the power (P) and discharge (Q) are
obtained. Then the overall efficiency (η0) for
each value of speed is calculated. From these
reading the value of unit speed (Nu ), unit power
(Pu) and unit
discharge(Qu)
are
determined. By
changing the gate opening, the values of Qu , Pu and η0 and Nu are determined and taking Nu as
abscissa, the values of Qu , Pu and η0 are plotted. Fig. 2.46 shows the main characteristics curves
for reaction (Francis and Kaplan) turbines.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig.2.46 Main Characteristic curves of Pelton turbine
Fig 2.47 Main Characteristic curves of Reaction turbine

2.8.8.2 Operating Characteristics Curves or Constant Speed Curves

Operating Characteristics Curves are plotted when the speed on turbine is constant. In case of
turbine, the head is generally constant. There are three independent parameters namely N, H and
Q. For operating characteristics N and H are constant and hence the variation of power and
efficiency with respect to discharge Q are plotted. The power and efficiency curves are slightly
away from the origin X-Axis, as to overcome initial friction certain amount of discharge will be
required. Fig. 8.10 shows the variation of power and efficiency with respect to discharge.

Fig 2.48 Operating Characteristic Curves

2.8.8.3 Efficiency Curves or Muschel Curves or ISO-Efficiency Curves

 Fig 2.49 Constant efficiency curve
These curves are obtained from the speed vs. efficiency and speed vs. discharge curves for
different gate openings. For a given efficiency from Nu vs. η0 curves, there are two speeds. From
the Nu vs. Curves corresponding to two values of discharge. Hence for given efficiency there are
two values of discharge for a particular gate opening. This means for a given efficiency there are
two values of speed and two values of discharge for a given opening. If the efficiency is
maximum there is only one value. These two value of speed and two values of discharge
corresponding to a particular gate opening are plotted as shown in Fig. 2.49

The procedure is repeated for different gate openings and the curves Q vs. N are plotted. The
points having the same efficiency are joined. The curves having same efficiency are called iso-
effeciency curves. These curves are helpful for determining the zone of constant efficiency and
for predicting of the turbine at various efficiencies.

2.8.9 DERIAZ TURBINE

A Deriaz machine is similar to a Kaplan machine but has inclined blades. It is particularly
suitable for head range between Kaplan and Francis turbines. It utilized the idea of Kaplan
Turbine in which maximum efficiency is attained at variable loads condition, the use of movable
blade runner. In a Deriaz runner the blades instead of being at right angles to the hub will be
inclined at an angle of 45º, it is stated that a runner of this type can be used for a head upto
200m.
 Fig 2.50 Deriaz turbine

2.8.9.1 Bulb (Tabular Turbine)

Aron Fischer in 1973 developed in Germany a modified axial flow turbine which was known as
tabular turbine. The turbo-generator set using tabular turbine has an outer casing having the
shape of bulb. Such a set is now termed as bulb set and the turbine used for the set is called a
bulb turbine. The bulb unit is a water tight assembly of turbine and generator of horizontal axis,
submerged in stream of water. Such a revolutionary concept has led to complete modification of
the usual arrangement of various elements that constitute a low head unit. The axis of rotation
coincides with the axis of the passage of the water, which is generally straight. The economical
harnessing of fairly low heads on major rivers is now possible with high-output bulb turbines.
The idea of such axial flow rectilinear draft tube machine is quite old, but its application could
not be developed until the electrical engineering succeeded in producing a highly compact and
alternator and hydraulic experts took full advantage of bulb turbine forms to increase output and
specific speed.

Advantages of Bulb set over the use of Kaplan turbines

 The bulb sets can be employed at very low head sites.

 The width of plant is less because of absence of spiral casing.
 Reduction of cost up to 30% as compared to conventional Kaplan installation is possible.
 A high speed of rotation can be secured through suitable gearing and thus the size of the
generator unit and consequently that of the bulb can be reduced.
 Maximum turbine efficiency is increased by about 30% due to almost straight flow and
straight draft tube.
 Under equivalent conditions of head, the runner diameter and efficiency, the bulb units
are capable of passing higher discharge than the conventional Kaplan turbine.
  In view of 4, 5 and 6 stated above, the specific speed of bulb turbine is higher than the
Kaplan turbine.
 There is reduced loss of efficiency at part loads.
 The unit is better suited for operation on widely varying loads.
Disadvantages of Bulb set over the use of Kaplan turbines

 Since the bulb set is completely submerged under pressure, water leakage into the
generator chamber and condensation are source of trouble. Although improvements in
water-proofing and sealing techniques have reduced this problem considerably, this can
still become maintenance problem due to high humidity inside the chamber resulting in
gradual deterioration of electrical insulation.
 The electrical techniques also involve considerable amount of double handling of
equipments and it is doubtful whether any saving is the erection time can be effected as
compared to the conventional Kaplan type.
Field of Application of Bulb Set

 On the higher head, it is limited to about 15m, beyond this head, bulb turbines have
little advantage over Kaplan type.
 On the low head, bulb set can offer the greater benefits; the limit is economic in
character. The large unit discharge at low head resulting in very low rotational speed
and excessive plant cost. The higher rotational speed can be obtained by subdividing
the discharge in number of bulb set.
 The profitability limit for bulb set is in the region of few hundred HP
For 2m head and10,000 to 30,000 HP for 5 to7 head.

2.8.10 SPECIFIC QUANTITIES AND UNIT QUANTITIES

(a) Specific Flow rate : Flow a centrifugal pump or reaction turbine.

Q = (п D B) Vm

Where width (B) is the function of the D (diameter)

Or B = K1 D

θ = п k1 D2 V m

and Vm α √ H

Q α п K1 D2 √H

Q α D2 √H ……………….(26)

Q = Qs D2 √H ……………(27)

Where Qs is the constant and is known as specific flow rate

 Qs = Q / D2 √H ……………(28)

If D=1 H=1

Qs = Q

So for unit head, unit dia. Of runner required flow rate is called specific flow rate.

(b) Unit flow rate : Equation (26) given below

Q α D2 √H

If D = Const.

Qα√H

Q = Qu √ H …………………(29)

θu is known as unit flow rate.

Qu = Q / √ H

(c) Specific power : Power(p) α QH

Q α D2 √H

p α D2 √H H

p α D2 √H3/2 …………(30)

p = Ps D2 H2/3 …………(31)

specific power (Ps) = P/(D2 H3/2)

(d) Unit power : Equation (30) given below.

P α D2 H3/2 if D = Const.
 P α H3/2

P = Pu H3/2 …………(32)

Unit power Pu = P / H3/2

(e) Specific force : F = ρQ (Vu2 – Vu1)

Or F = ρ Q D Vu

Q α D2 √ H and Vu2 α √ H

F α d2 h ………..(33)

F = Fs D2 H ………..(34)

Specific force Fs = F /D2 H

(f) Unit force : Equation (33) given below.

F α D2 H (If D = Const.)

Fαh

F = Fu H

Unit force Fu = F / H

(g) Unit Speed : For a turbine or centrifugal pump.

Blade velocity (V) = п D N /60

or N α U /D

and U α √H, N α √H / D if D = const.

 N α √H

N = No √H

Where Nu = unit speed

Unit speed Nu = N /√H

(h) Specific speed of turbine

Blade velocity (V) = п D1 N / 60

u α √H

D1 α √H

From the equation

p α D2 H 3/2

p α (√ H / N)2 H3/2 , p α HH5/2/N2

N α √ (H5/2 / p)

N = Ns √H5/2 / √Pt

Or Specific speed (Ns) = N√Pt / h 5/4

Specific speed of turbine is defined speed of turbine working under unit head and delivering unit
horse power output.

If H = 1 and p = 1 H.P.

Ns = N