Chapter 1

Complex Numbers

1.1 Introduction
The notion of complex numbers arises when the system of real numbers fail to solve
all the algebraic equations. We have already known that the real numbers which
satisfy an algebraic equation are called solution of that equation. As x2 −x−6 = 0
has the solution 3, −2. It is no doubt our known numbers- called real numbers.
2
But when we are trying√ to solve x + 1 = 0, we face problem to find the solution,
as in this case x = −1. Obviously this is not a real number, √ also not known
earlier at all. So, we introduce a new symbol i to denote −1 so that i2 = −1.
This i is called fundamental imaginary unit.

1.2 Some definitions

Def. 1.2.1 (Complex Number) An expression of the form a + ib, where a and
b are real numbers, is called a complex number.

Usually, the complex number is expressed by z, i.e., z = a + ib.

Def. 1.2.2 (Real Part of a Complex Number) The real part of complex num-
ber (a + ib) is a and is written as Re(a + ib).

Def. 1.2.3 (Imaginary part of complex number) The imaginary part of the
complex number (a + ib) is b and is written as Im(a + ib).

1
2 Classical Algebra

Def. 1.2.4 (Conjugate complex number) A complex number z ∗ is said to be

conjugate to a complex number z = a + ib if Re(z ∗ ) = Re(z) and Im(z ∗ ) =
−Im(z), i.e. the conjugate of the complex number z is z ∗ = a − ib. The conjugate
of a complex number is usually denoted by z or z ∗ .

1.3 Properties of complex numbers

Property 1.3.1 If a + ib = 0, a and b being real, then a = 0 and b = 0.

Proof. We have a + ib = 0.
a + ib = 0
or, a = −ib
or, a2 = −b2
or, a2 + b2 = 0.
Therefore, a = 0 and b = 0, Since a and b are real. 

Property 1.3.2 If a + ib = c + id then a = c and b = d.

Proof. We have a + ib = c + id
or, (a − c) + i(b − d) = 0.
Hence, by the Property 1.3.1, we have a − c = 0 and b − d = 0, whence a = c and
b = d. 

Property 1.3.3 The algebraic sum of two complex numbers is a complex number.

Proof. Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers be such that z1 = a1 + ib1 and
z2 = a2 + ib2 .
Then,
z1 + z2 = (a1 + ib1 ) + (a2 + ib2 )
= (a1 + a2 ) + i(b1 + b2 )
= A + iB,
where A = a1 + a2 and B = b1 + b2 are both real. Hence the result follows. 

Property 1.3.4 The algebraic difference of two complex numbers is a complex

number.

Proof. Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers be such that z1 = a1 + ib1 and
z2 = a2 + ib2 .
Then,
z1 − z2 = (a1 + ib1 ) − (a2 + ib2 )
= (a1 − a2 ) + i(b1 − b2 )
= A + iB,
where A = a1 − a2 and B = b1 − b2 are both real. Hence the result follows. 
 Complex Numbers 3

Property 1.3.5 The algebraic product of two complex numbers is a complex num-
ber.

Proof. Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers be such that z1 = a1 + ib1 and
z2 = a2 + ib2 .
Then,
z1 z2 = (a1 + ib1 )(a2 + ib2 )
= (a1 a2 − b1 b2 ) + i(a1 b2 + b1 a2 ) [∵ i2 = −1]
= A + iB,
where A = a1 a2 − b1 b2 and B = a1 b2 + b1 a2 are both real. Hence the result follows.


Property 1.3.6 The algebraic division of two complex numbers is a complex

number.

Proof. Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers be such that z1 = a1 + ib1 and
z2 = a2 + ib2 .
Then,
z1 a1 + ib1
=
z2 a2 + ib2
(a1 + ib1 )(a2 − ib2 )
=
(a2 + ib2 )(a2 − ib2 )
a1 a2 + b1 b2 a2 b1 − a1 b2
= 2 2
+i 2
a2 + b2 a2 + b22
= A + iB,
a1 a2 + b1 b2 a2 b1 − a1 b2
where A = 2 2
and B = are both real. Hence the result fol-
a 2 + b2 a22 + b22
lows. 

1.4 Geometrical representation of a complex number

Let us consider XOX ′ and Y OY ′ be two mutually perpendicular axis, namely
x-axis and y-axis, such that they represents real axis and imaginary axis respec-
tively, O being the origin. In this 2-dimensional coordinate system a point P (x, y)
represents a complex number z = x + iy. We showed a pictorial representation of
a complex number as a point in the complex plane (also known as Argand Plane)
in Figure 1.1.
The point P ′ whose cartesian co-ordinates are (x, −y) represents the complex
number z = x − iy, which is the conjugate of (x + iy).
In the Figure 1.1 (called Argand Diagram) the distance between O and P is
denoted by r and the line OP makes an angle θ with the positive x-axis. These r
and θ are called the modulus and amplitude of the complex number represented by
P respectively. In the consequence (r, θ) be the polar co-ordinates corresponding
4 Classical Algebra

Figure 1.1: A point in Argand Diagram

to the cartesian co-ordinates (x, y) of the point P . Obviously, from the Figure
1.1, x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ. This is the relation between cartesian and polar
co-ordinates.
Then the polar form of the complex number z = x + iy is z = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

Def. 1.4.1 (Modulus) Let z = x + iy be a complex number whose polar form is

the modulus of the complex number z is denoted by |z|
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ). Then √
and is defined by |z| = r = x2 + y 2 .

Def. 1.4.2 (Amplitude) Let z = x + iy be a complex number whose polar form

is z = r(cos θ + i sin θ). Then the amplitude (or argument) of the complex number
z is denoted by amp(z) or arg(z) and is defined by arg(z) = θ.

The arg(z) has infinitely many values differing by multiples of 2π. It is common
practice to establish a convention in which θ is defined to lie within an interval of
length 2π. The most common convention1 , which we adopt in these notes, is to
take −π < θ ≤ π. With this definition, we identify θ as the so-called principal value
of the argument, which we denote by Arg(z) (note the capital A). On the other
hand, in many applications, it is convenient to define a multi-valued argument
function,
arg(z) = Arg(z) ± 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . .
However, the principal value of arg(z) of a complex number z can be computed
by the Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3, by determining the quadrant in which the point
lies.
Through these notes, unless otherwise stated, by the amplitude of a complex
number, we mean its principal value, which is unique.
1
Another common convention adopted in some books is to take 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
 Complex Numbers 5

Figure 1.2: Formulae for the argument of a complex number z = x + iy

Figure 1.3: Formulae for the argument of a complex number z = x + iy when z is

purely real or imaginary.

1.5 Examples
Example 1.5.1 Express the following in the form A + iB:
1 + cos α + i sin α
.
1 + cos α − i sin α

Solution. Let
1 + cos α + i sin α
z =
1 + cos α − i sin α
2 cos2 α2 + i2 sin α2 cos α2
=
2 cos2 α2 − i2 sin α2 cos α2
( )
2 cos α2 cos α2 + i sin α2
= ( )
2 cos α2 cos α2 − i sin α2
cos α2 + i sin α2
=
cos α2 − i sin α2
( )2
cos α2 + i sin α2
=
cos2 α2 + sin2 α2
= cos α + i sin α.
This is of the form A + iB.
6 Classical Algebra

1.5.1 Similar Problems

1. Express the followings in the form A + iB:
(i) cos β − i sin β (ii) sin β + i cos β (iii) 1 + sin α + i cos α (iv)
1 + cos α + i sin α 1 z+1
(v) (vi) , where z = x + iy
1 + cos α − i sin α 1 − (cos θ + i sin θ) z−1
1 i
(vii) i + (viii) .
i 1−i
Example 1.5.2 Find the conjugate of the complex numbers:
√
1. −1 + 3i
( )
2. 1 + i tan 3π
5
√
Solution.√1. Let z = −1 + 3i. Then the conjugate of the complex number z is
z = −1 − 3i.
( 3π )
2. Let z = (1 +) i tan 5
. Then the conjugate of the complex number z is
z = 1 − i tan 3π
5
.

1.5.2 Similar Problems

1. Find the conjugate of the complex numbers:
(i) cos β − i sin β (ii) sin β + i cos β (iii) 1 + sin α + i cos α (iv)
1 + cos α + i sin α 1 z+1
(v) (vi) , where z = x + iy
1 + cos α − i sin α 1 − (cos θ + i sin θ) z−1
1 i
(vii) i + (viii) .
i 1−i
Example 1.5.3 Find the modulus and amplitude of complex numbers
√
1. −1 + 3i
( )
2. 1 + i tan 3π
5
√
Solution.
√ 1. Let z = −1 + 3i
√
|z| = (−1)2 + ( 3)2 = 2.
Now, to find the principal value of the argument of z, we take help of the Figure
1.2 (keeping in mind that the√point z lies in Quadrant II). So, Principal value of
arg(z) is Arg(z) = π − tan−1 3 = 2π 3
.
( )
2. Let z = 1 + i tan 3π .
√ 5
|z| = ± 1 + tan2 ( 5 ) = − sec( 3π
3π
5
), [as sec( 3π
5
) itself a negative number.]
Now, 1 + i tan( 3π
5
) = 1 + i tan(π − 2π
5
) = 1 − i tan( 2π
5
). So, the point z lies in
Quadrant IV.
Therefore, from Figure 1.2, Principal value of arg(z) is Arg(z) = − 2π5
.
 Complex Numbers 7

Example 1.5.4 If z = 3 + 4i, find z 2 and the modulus and amplitude of z 2 .

Solution. Given z = 3 + 4i. Then z 2 = (3 + 4i)2 = 9 + 24i + 16i2 = −7i + 24i

[Since, i2 = −1] √
Now, the modulus of z 2 is |z 2 | = | − 7 + 24i| = (−7)2 + 2
( 24) = 625.
−1 24
The amplitude or argument of z is arg(z ) = π − tan
2 2
7
.

1.5.3 Similar Problems

1. Find the modulus and amplitude of the complex numbers:
(i) cos β − i sin β (ii) sin β + i cos β (iii) 1 + sin α + i cos α (iv)
1 + cos α + i sin α 1 1 i
(v) (vi) i + (vii) .
1 + cos α − i sin α 1 − (cos θ + i sin θ) i 1−i
2. Find the modulus and the principal amplitude of the complex number
( )
3π 3π 3π
1 − sin sin + i cos .
5 5 5
[V.H.1997]

In our real number system we have seen that all the numbers are ordered, i.e.,
· · · < −3 < −2 < −1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < 3 < · · · This the only order relation in real
number system. But there are too many ways to order the numbers of the complex
number system. One of the ways is the lexicographic ordering. Lexicographic
ordering is defined by the Def. 1.5.1.

Def. 1.5.1 (Lexicographic ordering) An order relation in complex number sys-

tem C is denoted by ’<’ (read: less than) and is defined by: a + ib < c + id if
and only if either a < c or a = c and b < d. This ordering is known as the
lexicographic ordering.

Def. 1.5.2 (Law of Trichotomy) Let us consider any two elements a and b of
a set S with the order relation ’<’. Then the set S holds Trichotomy law if one
and only one of the three relations stated below holds in S.

(i) a < b

(ii) a = b

(iii) b < a

It is to be noted that, the order relation defined on set of complex numbers is

not equivalent to the order relation defined on real number system.

Example 1.5.5 If (a1 + ib1 )(a2 + ib2 ) · · · (an + ibn ) = A + iB, then show that

1. (a21 + b21 )(a22 + b22 ) · · · (a2n + b2n ) = A2 + B 2

8 Classical Algebra

b1 b2 bn B
2. tan−1 + tan−1 + · · · + tan−1 = tan−1
a1 a2 an A

Solution. Given
(a1 + ib1 )(a2 + ib2 ) · · · (an + ibn ) = A + iB (1.1)
1. Taking modulus to both sides of (1.1) we get
|(a1 + ib1 )(a2 + ib2 ) · · · (an + ibn )| = |A + iB|
or, |a1 + ib1 ||a2 + ib2 | · · · |an + ibn | = |A + iB|
or, (a21 + b21 )(a22 + b22 ) · · · (a2n + b2n ) = A2 + B 2 .
2. Taking arguments to both sides of (1.1) we get
arg {(a1 + ib1 )(a2 + ib2 ) · · · (an + ibn )} = arg(A + iB)
or, arg(a1 + ib1 ) + arg(a2 + ib2 ) + · · · + arg(an + ibn ) = arg(A + iB)
b1 b2 bn B
or, tan−1 + tan−1 + · · · + tan−1 = tan−1 .
a1 a2 an A

Example 1.5.6 If z be the conjugate of the complex number z then show that

1. z1 + z2 = z1 + z2

2. z1 z2 + z1 z2 ≤ 2|z1 ||z2 |

Solution. Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 , where x1 , x2 , y1 and y2 are real

numbers.
Therefore, z1 = x1 − iy1 and z2 = x2 − iy2 .
1. By adding two complex numbers z1 and z2 we have,
z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 )
⇒ z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) − i(y1 + y2 ) (1.2)
Again by adding the two conjugates of the complex numbers we have,
z1 + z2 = (x1 − iy1 ) + (x2 − iy2 )
= (x1 + x2 ) − i(y1 + y2 ) (1.3)
From (1.2) and (1.3) we have
z1 + z2 = z1 + z2
2. The left hand side of the expression is
z1 z2 + z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 − iy2 ) + (x1 − iy1 )(x2 + iy2 )
= 2(x1 x2 + y1 y2 ). (1.4)
 Complex Numbers 9

And the right hand side of the expression is

√ √
|z1 ||z2 | = x21 + y12 x22 + y22
√
= (x1 x2 )2 + (x1 y2 )2 + (x2 y1 )2 + (y1 y2 )2
√
= (x1 x2 + y1 y2 )2 + (x1 y2 − x2 y1 )2
√
≥ (x1 x2 + y1 y2 )2 [See Figure 1.4]
or, 2|z1 ||z2 | ≥ 2(x1 x2 + y1 y2 )
or, 2|z1 ||z2 | ≥ z1 z2 + z2 z1 [From (1.4)]
or, z1 z2 + z2 z1 ≤ 2|z1 ||z2 |.

Figure 1.4: Comparison of two real numbers

1.5.4 Similar Problems

1. If z be the conjugate of the complex number z then show that z1 − z2 =
z1 − z2 .
Example 1.5.7 If the sum and product of two complex numbers are both real,
then show that the two numbers must be either both real or conjugate to each
other.
Solution. Let the two complex numbers be z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 ,
where x1 , x2 , y1 and y2 are real.
Then the sum and product of two complex numbers are
z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 )
z1 · z2 = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x2 y1 + x1 y2 ).
Since the sum and product of two complex numbers are both real, we have
y1 + y2 = 0 (1.5)
and x2 y1 + x1 y2 = 0 (1.6)
from (1.5), y2 = −y1 (1.7)
Putting the value from (1.7) in (1.6), we get
x2 y1 − x1 y1 = 0
y1 (x2 − x1 ) = 0
⇒ y1 = 0 | x2 = x1 .
10 Classical Algebra

When y1 = 0,
From (1.7), y2 = 0. Therefore, both the numbers are real.
When x2 = x1 ,
From (1.6), y2 = −y1 (∵ x1 ̸= 0.)
Then z2 = x2 + iy2 = x1 − iy1 = z1 . In this case, the two numbers are conjugate
complex numbers.
Combining the above two cases, result follows.

1.5.5 Similar Problems

1. If z1 and z2 be two complex numbers, z1 and z2 are their conjugates and if
z1 + z2 and z1 z2 are both real, then show that either z1 and z2 are both real
or z2 = z1 .

Example 1.5.8 If z = x + iy then prove that

3(x2 + y 2 ) = 4x, if 2|z − 1| = |z − 2|.

Solution. We have √ z = x + iy. √

Therefore, |z − 1| = (x − 1)2 + y 2 and |z − 2| = (x − 2)2 + y 2 .
From the given condition 2|z − 1| = |z − 2|, we have,
2|z − 1| = |z − 2|
√ √
2 (x − 1)2 + y 2 = (x − 2)2 + y 2 .
Squaring both sides we get
4(x2 + y 2 − 2x + 1) = x2 + y 2 − 4x + 4
⇒ 3(x2 + y 2 ) = 4x.

1.5.6 Similar Problems

1. If z = x + iy then prove that |z − 1| = 2|z − i| represents a circle.

2. If z = x + iy then prove that the point z lies on the circle whose centre is
at the point (−3, 0) and radius is 2, if |z + 3| = 2.

3. If z = x + iy then prove that |z − 8| + |z + 8| = 20 represents an ellipse.

z−1 π
4. If z = x + iy then prove that arg = represents a circle.
z+1 4
z−1 π
5. If the amplitude of the complex number is , show that z lies on a
z+1 4
fixed circle whose centre is at the point i. [V.H. 2010]

Example 1.5.9 Show that if z1 and z2 be any two complex numbers, then
( )( )
|1 − z1 z2 |2 − |z1 − z2 |2 = 1 − |z1 |2 1 − |z2 |2 .
 Complex Numbers 11

Solution. Let r1 and r2 be the modulii, and θ1 , θ2 be the amplitudes of the

complex numbers z1 and z2 respectively. Then the polar forms the two complex
numbers are
z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )
z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ).
Now we have the following results:
1 − z1 z2 = 1 − r1 r2 (cos θ1 − i sin θ1 )(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
= 1 − r1 r2 {cos (θ2 − θ1 ) + i sin (θ2 − θ1 )}
= 1 − r1 r2 cos (θ2 − θ1 ) − ir1 r2 sin (θ2 − θ1 ) .
|1 − z1 z2 | =
2
{1 − r1 r2 cos (θ2 − θ1 )}2 + {r1 r2 sin (θ2 − θ1 )}2
= 1 − 2r1 r2 cos (θ2 − θ1 ) + r12 r22 .
z1 − z2 = (r1 cos θ1 − r2 cos θ2 ) + i(r1 sin θ1 − r2 sin θ2 ).
|z1 − z2 |2 = r12 + r22 − 2r1 r2 cos(θ1 − θ2 ).
Using all these results, the left hand side of the given expression is
|1 − z1 z2 |2 − |z1 − z2 |2 = 1 − r12 − r22 + r12 r22
( )( )
= 1 − r12 1 − r22
( )( )
= 1 − |z1 |2 1 − |z2 |2

1.5.7 Similar Problems

1. Show that if z1 and z2 be any two complex numbers, then

( )( )
|1 + z1 z2 |2 − |z1 − z2 |2 = 1 + |z1 |2 1 + |z2 |2 .

z−i
Example 1.5.10 If be purely imaginary, then show that the point z lies
z−1
1 1
on the circle whose centre is at the point (1 + i) and whose radius is √ .
2 2

Solution. We have z = x + iy.

z−i x2 + y 2 − x − y 1−x−y
Then = +i .
z−1 (x − 1) + y
2 2 (x − 1)2 + y 2
Since this is purely imaginary, then we have
x2 + y 2 − x − y
=0
(x − 1)2 + y 2
or, x2 + y 2 − x − y = 0
( )2 ( )2
1 1 1
or, x− + y− =
2 2 2
( )2 ( )2 ( )2
1 1 1
or, x− + y− = √ .
2 2 2
12 Classical Algebra

1 1 1
This shows that the point z lies on a circle whose centre is at the point + i · = (1 + i)
2 2 2
1
and radius is √ .
2

1.5.8 Similar Problems

z−i
1. If the ratio be purely imaginary, then show that the point z lies on
z+i
the circle whose centre is at the origin and whose radius is 1.
ω
2. If the imaginary part of ′ be zero, then show that ω and ω ′ lie on a straight
ω
line through the origin.

3. If ω and ω ′ be two complex numbers with a non-real ratio, then show that
ω and ω ′ cannot lie on a straight line through the origin.
 
z − i
4. If z be a variable complex number such that    = k, k being a constant.
z + 1
Show that z lies on a circle in the complex plane, if k ̸= 1. Find the centre
and the radius of this circle. Also show that z lies on a straight line, if k = 1.

5. Show that the points representing the complex numbers z for which |z + 3|2 − |z − 3|2 = 6
lie on a straight line.

Example 1.5.11 Let z1 , z2 and z3 be three complex numbers such that |z1 | =
|z2 | = |z3 | = 1 and z1 + z2 + z3 = 0. Show that these numbers are the vertices of
an equilateral triangle inscribed in the unit circle with the centre at origin.

Solution. Let the vertices of the triangle be A(z1 ), B(z2 ) and C(z3 ) with
z1 = x1 + iy1
z2 = x2 + iy2
z3 = x3 + iy3 .
Since
√ |z1 | = |z
√2 | = |z3 | = 1,
√ we have
x21 + y12 = x22 + y22 = x23 + y32 = 1
⇒ OA = OB = OC = 1 where O is origin.
⇒ △ABC is inscribed in a circle of unit radius with centre at origin.
Again z1 + z2 + z3 = 0 gives
x1 + x2 + x3 + i(y1 + y2 + y3 ) = 0
⇒ x1 + x2 + x3 = y1 + y2 + y3 = 0 (1.8)
Now, the length of a side of the triangle △ABC is
√
AB = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2
√
= 2 − 2(x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) (1.9)
 Complex Numbers 13

Figure 1.5: The triangle ABC inscribed in the circle of unit radius

From equation (1.8), x1 + x2 = −x3 and y1 + y2 = −y3

Squaring both the results
x21 + x22 + 2x1 x2 = x23
y12 + y22 + 2y1 y2 = y32
Adding these two results
2 + 2(x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) = 1
or, 2(x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) = −1
√ √
Putting this value in equation
√ (1.9), we get AB = 2 + 1 = 3.
Similarly, BC = CA = 3. Therefore, AB = BC = CA and hence the triangle is
equilateral.

Example 1.5.12 In the complex plane, if z1 , z2 and z3 be the vertices of an

equilateral triangle, then prove that
1 1 1
+ + = 0.
z2 − z3 z3 − z1 z1 − z2

Solution. Let A(z1 ), B(z2 ) and C(z3 ) be the vertices of an equilateral triangle
△ABC with
z1 = x1 + iy1
z2 = x2 + iy2
z3 = x3 + iy3 .

√ △ABC is an equilateral √
Since triangle then BC = CA = AB. √
⇒ (x2 − x3 ) + (y2 − y3 ) = (x1 − x3 )2 + (y1 − y3 )2 = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
2 2

or, (x2 −x3 )2 +(y2 −y3 )2 = (x1 −x3 )2 +(y1 −y3 )2 = (x2 −x1 )2 +(y2 −y1 )2 = k(say)
14 Classical Algebra

Figure 1.6: The equilateral triangle ABC

Now,
1 1 1
L.H.S. = + +
z2 − z3 z3 − z1 z1 − z2
1 1 1
= + +
x2 + iy2 − x3 − iy3 x3 + iy3 − x1 − iy1 x1 + iy1 − x2 − iy2
1 1 1
= + +
(x2 − x3 ) + i(y2 − y3 ) (x3 − x1 ) + i(y3 − y1 ) (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − y2 )
(x2 − x3 ) − i(y2 − y3 ) (x3 − x1 ) − i(y3 − y1 ) (x1 − x2 ) − i(y1 − y2 )
= + +
(x2 − x3 ) + (y2 − y3 )
2 2 (x3 − x1 ) + (y3 − y1 )
2 2 (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2
(x2 − x3 ) − i(y2 − y3 ) (x3 − x1 ) − i(y3 − y1 ) (x1 − x2 ) − i(y1 − y2 )
= + +
k k k
1
= × 0 = 0.
k

1.5.9 Similar Problems

1. If z1 , z2 , z3 are distinct complex numbers such that |z1 | = |z2 | = |z3 | = 1 and
z2 z3 + z3 z1 + z1 z2 = 0, show that they are vertices of an equilateral triangle
in the complex plane. [V.H. ’04]

1 √ √
Example 1.5.13 Show that the points −1, i, −i, ( 2 + i 2) are con-cyclic
2

Solution. Let the cartesian co-ordinates of the given points in the Argand dia-
gram are
1 1
A(−1, 0), B(0, 1), C(0, −1), D( √ , √ ) respectively.
2 2
Let the equation of the circle through the points A, B, C is
x2 + y 2 + ax + by + c = 0. (1.10)
 Complex Numbers 15

This is possible since through every non-collinear points a circle can be drawn.
Satisfying the points A, B, C in (1.10) we get three equations in three variables.
1−a+c=0 (1.11)
1+b+c=0 (1.12)
1−b+c=0 (1.13)
Solving the three equations (1.11), (1.12) and (1.13) we get a = 0, b = 0, c = −1.
Then the equation (1.10) of the circle becomes
x2 + y 2 − 1 = 0. (1.14)
( )2 ( )2
1 1
As √ + √ − 1 = 0, the point D satisfies the equation (1.14). Hence
2 2
the four points A, B, C, D are con-cyclic and result follows.

1.5.10 Similar Problems

√ √
1. Show that the points 2 + 2i, −2 − 2i, −2 3 + 2 3i are the vertices of an
2(−1 + i) √
equilateral triangle whose centroid is √ and area is 8 3 square units.
3
2. Show that the points −2 + i, 1 + 2i, 4 + 5i, 1 + 4i are the vertices of a paral-
lelogram.

3. Show that the points a + bi, −1 + bi, −a − bi, a − bi are the vertices of a
rectangle.

4. Show that the points 2 − 2i, 5 + i, 2 + 4i, −1 + i are the vertices of a square.

Example 1.5.14 If c is real, b = p + iq, z = x + iy and b, z are the conjugates

of b, z respectively, then show that the equation
b(z + z) + b(z − z) + c = 0
represents two straight lines in the xy-plane and find the angle between them.
Also show that the equation zz + +bz + bz + c = 0 represents a circle in the
complex plane.

Solution. We have
z = x + iy and b = p + iq
∴ z = x − iy and b = p − iq.
Then the given equation b(z + z) + b(z − z) + c = 0 gives
(p + iq)(x + iy + x − iy) + (p − iq)(x − iy − x − iy) + c = 0
or, 2x(p + iq) − 2iy(p − iq) + c = 0
or, 2px + 2iqx − 2ipy − 2qy + c = 0
or, (2px − 2qy + c) + i(2qx − 2py) = 0 + i · 0
16 Classical Algebra

Equating real and imaginary parts from both sides we have

2px − 2qy + c = 0 (1.15)
and 2qx − 2py = 0, i.e., qx − py = 0 (1.16)
both of which being of first degree equation in x and y represent straight lines.
Hence the given equation represents two straight lines in the xy-plane.
p q
The gradients of two straight lines are and respectively. Let θ be the angle
q p
between the two straight lines.
p
q
− pq p2 − q 2
Then tan θ = =
1 + pq · pq 2pq
p −q
2 2
or, θ = tan−1 , which is the required angle between the two straight lines.
2pq
Now the given equation zz + +bz + bz + c = 0 gives
(x + iy)(x − iy) + (p + iq)(x − iy) + (p − iq)(x + iy) + c = 0
or, x2 + y 2 + px + qy + iqx − ipy + px + qy + ipy − iqx + c = 0
or, x2 + y 2 + 2px + 2qy + c = 0
Since coefficient of x2 = coefficient of y 2 , the equation represents a circle and
hence the result follows.

1.6 De Moivre’s theorem and its applications

Theorem 1.1 For all integral values of n, the value of (cos θ+i sin θ)n is (cos nθ+
i sin nθ) and for all fractional values of n, one of the values of (cos θ + i sin θ)n is
(cos nθ + i sin nθ).
Proof.
Case I: When n is a positive integer.
This is proved by the method of induction.
Let P (n) : (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ be a statement on n.
For n = 1, (cos θ + i sin θ)1 = cos θ + i sin θ, so the statement P (n) is true
for n = 1.
For n = 2, (cos θ + i sin θ)2 = cos 2θ + i sin 2θ, so the statement P (n) is true
for n = 2.
Let us assume that the statement P (n) is true for n = k. Then we have
(cos θ + i sin θ)k = cos kθ + i sin kθ. (1.17)
Now we have
(cos θ + i sin θ)k+1 = (cos θ + i sin θ)k (cos θ + i sin θ)
= (cos kθ + i sin kθ)(cos θ + i sin θ) [by (1.17)]
= cos(k + 1)θ + i sin(k + 1)θ.
Thus the statement is true for n = k, it is also true for n = k + 1. But
it is proved that the statement is true for n = 1, 2. So it is also true for
 Complex Numbers 17

n = 2 + 1 = 3, then for n = 3 + 1 = 4 and so on. Hence the statement is

true for all positive integral values of n.

Case II: When n is negative integer.

Let n = −m, where m is a positive integer.
Then we have
(cos θ + i sin θ)n = (cos θ + i sin θ)−m
1
=
(cos θ + i sin θ)m
1
= [by Case I]
cos mθ + i sin mθ
cos mθ − i sin mθ
=
(cos mθ + i sin mθ)(cos mθ − i sin mθ)
= cos mθ − i sin mθ
= cos(−n)θ − i sin(−n)θ
= cos nθ + i sin nθ
Thus the statement is true for all integral values of n.

Case III: When n is a fraction, positive or negative.

p
Let n = , where q is a positive integer and p is any integer, positive or
q
negative. ( )q
θ θ
Then we have cos + i sin = cos θ + i sin θ, by Case I.
q q
Extracting the q-th root of both sides, we see that one of the values of
1 θ θ
(cos θ + i sin θ) q is cos + i sin .
q q { }p
1
Raising both sides to p-th power, one of the values of (cos θ + i sin θ) q ,
p p p
that is, of (cos θ + i sin θ) q is cos θ + i sin θ.
q q
Putting n = pq , we can say that one of the values of (cos θ + i sin θ)n is
cos nθ + i sin nθ.

Thus the theorem holds good for all rational values of n. This theorem is known
as De Moivre’s theorem, named after its discoverer Prof. Abraham de Moivre. 

Note 1.6.1 The theorem actually holds for all real values of n. If n be irrational,
then the total number of values of (cos θ + i sin θ)n will be infinite, but one of the
values of (cos θ + i sin θ)n is cos nθ + i sin nθ.

Theorem 1.2 Prove, for any positive integer n,

(cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) . . . (cos θn + i sin θn )
= cos(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θn ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θn ).
Hence deduce De Moivre’s theorem for positive integral index.
18 Classical Algebra

Proof. We proof this theorem by mathematical induction.

For n = 1 the statement is obviously true. Now for n = 2 we have
(cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
= (cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + i(cos θ1 sin θ2 + sin θ1 cos θ2 )
= cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 ).
Therefore the theorem is true for n = 2 also.
Let us assume that the theorem is true for n = k. Then we have
(cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) . . . (cos θk + i sin θk )
= cos(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θk ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θk ). (1.18)
Now,
(cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) . . . (cos θk + i sin θk )(cos θk+1 + i sin θk+1 )
= {cos(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θk ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θk )} (cos θk+1 + i sin θk+1 ) [by (1.18)]
= {cos(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θk ) cos θk+1 − sin(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θn ) sin θk+1 }
+i {cos(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θn ) sin θk+1 + cos θk+1 sin(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θk )}
= cos(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θk+1 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θk+1 ).
Thus, if the theorem be true for n = k, the theorem is also true for n = k + 1.
But it is proved that the theorem is true for n = 1, 2. So it is also true for
n = 2 + 1 = 3, then for n = 3 + 1 = 4 and so on. Hence the theorem is true for
all positive integral values of n.
Now when θ1 = θ2 = · · · = θn , the given relation reduces to De Moivre’s theorem.


Example 1.6.1 If n be a positive integer and (7 + 2i)n = a + ib, then prove that
a2 + b2 = 53n . Hence express 533 as the sum of two squares.

Solution. Given (7 + 2i)n = a + ib

Now let 7 + 2i =√ r(cos θ + i sin θ)−1 2
Therefore, r = 53 and θ = tan 7 .
Then√(7 + 2i)n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ) and then a + ib = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ), where
r = 53, θ = tan−1 27 .
⇒ a = rn cos nθ and b = rn sin nθ.
∴ a2 + b2 = (rn cos nθ)2 + (rn sin nθ)2 = r2n = 53n .
This relation is true for all n. Therefore for n = 3, 533 = a2 + b2 and (7 + 2i)3 =
a + ib
⇒ a = 259, b = 286
Hence, 533 = (259)2 + (286)2 .

Example 1.6.2 Find the roots of the equation z n = (z + 1)n and show that the
points which represent them in the Argand diagram are collinear. [V.H.’99, ’04]

Solution. The given equation is z n = (z + 1)n .

 Complex Numbers 19

Then we have
z n = (z + 1)n
( )n
z+1
or, =1
z
( )n
z+1
or, = (cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ) [k = 0, 1, 2, . . .]
z
z+1 2kπ 2kπ
or, = cos + i sin [k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (n − 1)] [By D.M.T.]
z n n
1 2kπ 2kπ
or, = −1 + cos + i sin [k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (n − 1)]
z n n
1 kπ kπ kπ
or, = −2 sin2 + i2 sin cos
z n n n
1
or, z=
−2 sin2 kπ
n
+ i2 sin kπn
cos kπ
n
1
or, z= ( kπ )
−2 sin kπ
n
sin n − i cos kπ n
sin kπ + i cos kπ
or, z = (n n )
−2 sin kπ
n
sin2 kπ
n
+ cos 2 kπ
n
1 1 kπ
or, z = − − i cot [k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (n − 1)].
2 2 n
This shows that the points which represent the values of z in Argand diagram lie
on the straight line x = − 12 . Hence the result.

Example 1.6.3 Solve the equation (1 + x)n = (1 − x)n .

Solution. Given equation is (1 + x)n = (1 − x)n .

20 Classical Algebra

Then we have
(1 + x)n = (1 − x)n
( )n
1+x
or, =1
1−x
( )n
1+x
or, = cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ [k = 0, 1, 2, . . .]
1−x
( )
1+x 2kπ 2kπ
or, = cos + i sin [k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (n − 1)]
1−x n n
( )
1+x−1+x cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ −1
or, = n n
[k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (n − 1)]
1+x+1−x 2kπ 2kπ
cos n + i sin n + 1
−2 sin2 kπ n
+ i2 sin kπn
cos kπ
n
or, x = 2 kπ kπ kπ
2 cos n + i2 sin n cos n
( )
i2 sin kπ
n (
cos kπ
n
+ i sin kπn)
or, x =
2 cos kπ
n
cos kπ
n
+ i sin kπn
kπ
or, x = i tan ,
n
where by putting k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (n − 1), we shall get the n roots of the equation.
Example 1.6.4 Solve the equation x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 = 0.
x6 − 1
Solution. We have = x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 = 0.
x−1
⇒ x6 − 1 = 0(x ̸= 1).
Now,
x6 − 1 = 0
or, x6 = 1
or, x6 = cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ [k = 0, 1, 2, . . .]
kπ kπ
or, x = cos + i sin [k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
3 3
Note that x = 1 is not a solution of the given equation although it is a solution
of x6 − 1 = 0. Hence the solution of the given equation is
kπ kπ
cos + i sin [k = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
3 3

1.6.1 Similar Problems

1. Solve: x5 = 1
2. Solve x8 = (x + 1)8 . [V.H.1997]
3. Express all four roots of x4 + (1 − x)4 = 0 in polar form.
4. Show that the equation x3 = 8(1 − x)3 has three distinct roots and find the
distinct roots.
 Complex Numbers 21

5. Find the roots of the equation (1 + x)6 = x6

6. Solve the equation x8 + x5 − x3 − 1 = 0.

Example 1.6.5 Show that the sum of the 99-th powers of the roots of the equa-
tion x5 = 1.

Solution. Given equation is x5 = 1. This equation gives

x5 = 1
or, x5 = cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ [k = 0, 1, 2, . . .]
2kπ 2kπ
or, x = cos + i sin [k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]. (1.19)
5 5
2π 2π
Let α = cos + i sin be a root of the given equation. Then we have α5 = 1.
5 5
Then, by using De Moivre’s theorem, from (1.19) we see that 1, α, α2 , α3 , α4 are
the five roots of the given equation.
We are to prove that 1 + α99 + (α2 )99 + (α3 )99 + (α4 )99 = 0, i.e., to prove that
1 + α99 + α2×99 + α3×99 + α4×99 = 0. This is a finite geometric series with common
ratio α99 . Then we have
(α99 )5 − 1
1 + α99 + α2×99 + α3×99 + α4×99 = 1 ·
α99 − 1
(α ) − 1
5 99
=
α99 − 1
1−1
= 99
α −1
2 × 99π 2 × 99π
= 0 [∵ α99 = cos + i sin ̸= 1.]
5 5
Hence the sum of the 99-th powers of the roots of the given equation is zero.

1.6.2 Similar Problems

1. Prove that the sum of the n-th powers of the roots of the equation x7 = 1,
n being an integer not divisible by 7, is zero.

Example 1.6.6 If α and β be the roots of the equation x2 − 2x cos θ + 1 = 0,

then find the equation whose roots are αn and β n .

Solution. The given equation is

x2 − 2x cos θ + 1 = 0 (1.20)
The equation (1.20) gives
√
2 cos θ ± 4 cos2 θ − 4 2 cos θ ± 2i sin θ
x = =
2 2
= cos θ ± i sin θ.
22 Classical Algebra

Since α and β are the roots of the equation (1.20), let us take
α = cos θ + i sin θ
β = cos θ − i sin θ
Then by De Moivre’s theorem we have
αn = cos nθ + i sin nθ
β n = cos nθ − i sin nθ
Therefore αn and β n are the roots of the equation
x2 − (αn + β n )x + αn β n = 0
or, x2 − (cos nθ + i sin nθ + cos nθ − i sin nθ)x + (cos nθ + i sin nθ)(cos nθ − i sin nθ) = 0
or, x2 − 2x cos nθ + 1 = 0.

1.6.3 Similar Problems

1. Find the equation whose roots are the n-th powers of those of the equation
x2 − 2x + 4 = 0.
nπ
Show that the sum of the n-th powers of the roots is 2n+1 cos .
3

2. Show that the roots of the equation x7 = 1 are the multiples of a, where
2π 2π
a = cos + i sin . Also prove that the roots of the equation x2 +x+2 = 0
7 7
are a + a2 + a4 and a3 + a5 + a6 .

1 1 1
Example 1.6.7 If x + = 2 cos α, y + = 2 cos β, z + = 2 cos γ, then prove
x y z
that
∑
1. sin α cos α = 0
∑
2. sin(β + γ) = 0
∑
3. cos(β + γ) = 0
∑
4. sin 4α = 2 sin 2(β + γ)
∑
5. cos 4α = 2 cos 2(β + γ),

provided that x + y + z = 0.

1
Solution. 1. We have x + = 2 cos α.
x
⇒ x − 2x cos α + 1 = 0 and then x = cos α ± i sin α.
2
 Complex Numbers 23

Similarly, y = cos β ± i sin β and z = cos γ ± i sin γ.

Taking all the positive signs in the sign of ambiguity, we have
x = cos α + i sin α
y = cos β + i sin β
z = cos γ + i sin γ.
Given relation is
x+y+z =0 (1.21)
⇒ cos α + cos β + cos γ + i(sin α + sin β + sin γ) = 0
Equating real and imaginary parts to both sides we have
cos α + cos β + cos γ = 0 (1.22)
sin α + sin β + sin γ = 0 (1.23)
Now,
1 1 1 yz + zx + xy
+ + =
x y z xyz
yz + zx + xy
= x−1 + y −1 + z −1
xyz
= (cos α + i sin α)−1 + (cos β + i sin β)−1 + (cos γ + i sin γ)−1
= cos α + cos β + cos γ − i(sin α + sin β + sin γ) = 0 [Using (1.22) and (1.23)]
⇒ yz + zx + xy = 0 (1.24)
We have x + y + z = 0. Squaring both sides we get
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2(xy + yz + zx) = 0
or, x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 0 [Using (1.24)] (1.25)
From the relation (1.25) we get,

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 0
or, (cos α + i sin α)2 + (cos β + i sin β)2 + (cos γ + i sin γ)2 = 0
or, cos 2α + cos 2β + cos 2γ + i(sin 2α + sin 2β + sin 2γ) = 0.
Equating real and imaginary parts to both sides we get
cos 2α + cos 2β + cos 2γ = 0 (1.26)
and sin 2α + sin 2β + sin 2γ = 0 (1.27)
From (1.27) we have,
sin 2α + sin 2β + sin 2γ = 0
or, sin α cos α + sin β cos β + sin γ cos γ = 0
∑
or, sin α cos α = 0
1
2. We have x + = 2 cos α.
x
24 Classical Algebra

⇒ x2 − 2x cos α + 1 = 0 and then x = cos α ± i sin α.

Similarly, y = cos β ± i sin β and z = cos γ ± i sin γ.
Taking all the positive signs in the sign of ambiguity, we have
x = cos α + i sin α
y = cos β + i sin β
z = cos γ + i sin γ.
Given relation is
x+y+z =0 (1.28)
⇒ cos α + cos β + cos γ + i(sin α + sin β + sin γ) = 0
Equating real and imaginary parts to both sides we have
cos α + cos β + cos γ = 0 (1.29)
sin α + sin β + sin γ = 0 (1.30)
Now,
1 1 1 yz + zx + xy
+ + =
x y z xyz
yz + zx + xy
= x−1 + y −1 + z −1
xyz
= (cos α + i sin α)−1 + (cos β + i sin β)−1 + (cos γ + i sin γ)−1
= cos α + cos β + cos γ − i(sin α + sin β + sin γ) = 0 [Using (1.29) and (1.30)]
⇒ yz + zx + xy = 0 (1.31)
From the relation (1.31) we get
yz + zx + xy = 0
or, cos(β + γ) + i sin(β + γ) + cos(γ + α) + i sin(γ + α) + cos(α + β) + i sin(α + β) = 0
or, cos(β + γ) + cos(γ + α) + cos(α + β) + i {sin(β + γ) + sin(γ + α) + sin(α + β)} = 0
∑ ∑
or, cos(β + γ) + i sin(β + γ) = 0.
Equating real and imaginary parts to both sides we get
∑
cos(β + γ) = 0 (1.32)
∑
sin(β + γ) = 0 (1.33)
From (1.33) the result follows.
1
3. We have x + = 2 cos α.
x
⇒ x2 − 2x cos α + 1 = 0 and then x = cos α ± i sin α.
Similarly, y = cos β ± i sin β and z = cos γ ± i sin γ.
 Complex Numbers 25

Taking all the positive signs in the sign of ambiguity, we have

x = cos α + i sin α
y = cos β + i sin β
z = cos γ + i sin γ.
Given relation is
x+y+z =0 (1.34)
⇒ cos α + cos β + cos γ + i(sin α + sin β + sin γ) = 0
Equating real and imaginary parts to both sides we have
cos α + cos β + cos γ = 0 (1.35)
sin α + sin β + sin γ = 0 (1.36)
Now,
1 1 1 yz + zx + xy
+ + =
x y z xyz
yz + zx + xy
= x−1 + y −1 + z −1
xyz
= (cos α + i sin α)−1 + (cos β + i sin β)−1 + (cos γ + i sin γ)−1
= cos α + cos β + cos γ − i(sin α + sin β + sin γ) = 0 [Using (1.35) and (1.36)]
⇒ yz + zx + xy = 0 (1.37)
From the relation (1.37) we get
yz + zx + xy = 0
or, cos(β + γ) + i sin(β + γ) + cos(γ + α) + i sin(γ + α) + cos(α + β) + i sin(α + β) = 0
or, cos(β + γ) + cos(γ + α) + cos(α + β) + i {sin(β + γ) + sin(γ + α) + sin(α + β)} = 0
∑ ∑
or, cos(β + γ) + i sin(β + γ) = 0.
Equating real and imaginary parts to both sides we get
∑
cos(β + γ) = 0 (1.38)
∑
sin(β + γ) = 0 (1.39)
From (1.38) the result follows.
1
4. We have x + = 2 cos α.
x
⇒ x2 − 2x cos α + 1 = 0 and then x = cos α ± i sin α.
Similarly, y = cos β ± i sin β and z = cos γ ± i sin γ.
Taking all the positive signs in the sign of ambiguity, we have
x = cos α + i sin α
y = cos β + i sin β
z = cos γ + i sin γ.
26 Classical Algebra

Consider the identity,

2y 2 z 2 +2z 2 x2 +2x2 y 2 −x4 −y 4 −z 4 = (x+y +z)(y +z −x)(z +x−y)(x+y −z) = 0
[Since, x + y + z = 0.]
⇒ x + y + z∑
∑
4 4 4 2 2
= 2(y z + z∑ 2 2
x +x y ) 2 2
∑
cos 4α + i sin 4α = 2 cos 2(β + γ) + i2 sin 2(β + γ)
Equating real and imaginary parts to both sides we get
∑ ∑
cos 4α = 2 cos 2(β + γ)
∑ ∑
sin 4α = 2 sin 2(β + γ)
Similarly taking all the negative signs in the sign of ambiguity we shall get the
same result. Hence the result follows.
1 1 1
Example 1.6.8 If x + = 2 cos α, y + = 2 cos β, z + = 2 cos γ, then prove
x y z
that ∑
cos(β − γ) = −1, if x + y + z = xyz.

1
Solution. We have x + = 2 cos α.
x
⇒ x − 2x cos α + 1 = 0 and then x = cos α ± i sin α.
2

Similarly, y = cos β ± i sin β and z = cos γ ± i sin γ.

Taking all the positive signs in the sign of ambiguity, we have
x = cos α + i sin α
y = cos β + i sin β
z = cos γ + i sin γ.
From the given relation we get
x+y+z = xyz
cos α + i sin α + cos β + i sin β + cos γ + i sin γ = (cos α + i sin α)(cos β + i sin β)(cos γ + i sin γ)
(cos α + cos β + cos γ) + i(sin α + sin β + sin γ) = cos(α + β + γ) + i sin(α + β + γ)
⇒ cos α + cos β + cos γ = cos(α + β + γ) (1.40)
sin α + sin β + sin γ = sin(α + β + γ) (1.41)
Squaring both sides of (1.40) and (1.41), and then adding the result we get
(cos α + cos β + cos γ)2 + (sin α + sin β + sin γ)2 = cos2 (α + β + γ) + sin2 (α + β + γ)
or, 3 + 2 {cos(β − γ) + cos(γ − α) + cos(α − β)} = 1
or, cos(β − γ) + cos(γ − α) + cos(α − β) = −1
∑
or, cos(β − γ) = −1.
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
Example 1.6.9 If cos θ = a+ and cos ϕ = b+ , then show that
2 (a ) 2 b
1 1
cos(θ + ϕ) is one of the values of ab + .
2 ab
 Complex Numbers 27

Solution. We have
( )
1 1
cos θ = a+ (1.42)
2 a
( )
1 1
cos ϕ = b+ . (1.43)
2 b
From (1.42) and (1.43) we have
a = cos θ ± i sin θ
b = cos ϕ ± i sin ϕ.
Taking all the positive signs in the sign of ambiguity, we have
ab = cos(θ + ϕ) + i(sin θ + ϕ)
1
and = cos(θ + ϕ) − i(sin θ + ϕ)
ab
1
∴ ab + = 2 cos(θ + ϕ)
ab ( )
1 1
or, cos(θ + ϕ) = ab + .
2 ab
Here we have taken only the positive signs in the sign of ambiguity for the
( values)of
1 1
a and b. Taking all other values of a and b we get another values of ab + .
( ) 2 ab
1 1
Hence cos(θ + ϕ) is one of the values of ab + .
2 ab

1.6.4 Similar Problems

1 1 1
1. If x + = 2 cos α, y + = 2 cos β, z + = 2 cos γ, then prove that
x y z
cos 3α + cos 3β + cos 3γ = 3 cos(α + β + γ)
and sin 3α + sin 3β + sin 3γ = 3 sin(α + β + γ)
[V.H.2003]

2. If cos α + cos β + cos γ = sin α + sin β + sin γ = 0, then prove that

3
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ = .
2

Example 1.6.10 If (1 + x)n = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · , then prove that

nπ
a0 + a4 + a8 + · · · = 2n−2 + 2 2 −1 cos
n
.
4

Solution. Given
(1 + x)n = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · (1.44)
28 Classical Algebra

Putting x = i in (1.44) we get

(1 + i)n = a0 + a1 i + a2 i2 + a3 i3 + · · ·
{ ( )}n
√ 1 1
2 √ + i√ = a0 + a1 i − a2 − a3 i + a4 + a5 i − a6 − a7 i + · · ·
2 2
n
( nπ nπ )
2 cos
2 + i sin = (a0 − a2 + a4 − · · · ) + i(a1 − a3 + a5 − · · · ) (1.45)
4 4
Similarly putting x = −i in (1.44) we get
n
( nπ nπ )
2 2 cos − i sin = (a0 − a2 + a4 − · · · ) − i(a1 − a3 + a5 − · · · ()1.46)
4 4
Adding (1.45) and (1.46) we get
n nπ
2 2 cos = a0 − a2 + a4 − · · · (1.47)
4
Putting x = 1, −1 successively in (1.44) we get
a0 + a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 + · · · = 2n (1.48)
and a0 − a1 + a2 − a3 + a4 − a5 + a6 − a7 + · · · = 0 (1.49)
Adding (1.48) and (1.49) we have
a0 + a2 + a4 + a6 + · · · = 2n−1 (1.50)
Adding the results of (1.47) and (1.50) we get
nπ
a0 + a4 + a8 + · · · = 2n−2 + 2 2 −1 cos
n

4
Example 1.6.11 If (1 + x)n = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · , then prove that
1( n nπ )
a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · = 2 + 2 cos
3 3
Solution. We have
(1 + x)n = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · (1.51)
Putting x = 1 in (1.51) we get
2n = a0 + a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · (1.52)
Putting x = ω(ω is the cube root of unity) in (1.51) we get
(1 + ω)n = a0 + a1 ω + a2 ω 2 + a3 + · · · [Since ω 3 = 1]
(1 + ω)n = (a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · ) + ω 2 (a1 + a4 + a7 + ···)
(1.53)
Again putting x = ω 2 in (1.51) we get
(1 + ω 2 )n = a0 + a1 ω 2 + a2 ω + a3 + · · · [Since ω 3 = 1]
(1 + ω 2 )n = (a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · ) + ω 2 (a2 + a5 + a8 + ···)
(1.54)
√ √
1 3 1 3 π π
Now, 1 + ω = 1 − + i = +i = cos + i sin
2 √2 2 √2 3 3
1 3 1 3 π π
and 1 + ω 2 = 1 − − i = −i = cos − i sin
2 2 2 2 3 3
nπ nπ nπ nπ
n
Therefore, (1 + ω) = cos + i sin 2 n
and (1 + ω ) = cos − i sin
3 3 3 3
 Complex Numbers 29

Adding (1.53) and (1.54) we get

(1 + ω)n + (1 + ω 2 )n = 2(a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · )
+(ω + ω 2 )(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )
+(ω + ω 2 )(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · )
nπ nπ nπ nπ
or, (cos + i sin ) + (cos − i sin ) = 2(a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) − (a1 + a2 + a4 + · · · )
3 3 3 3
nπ
or, 2 cos = 2(a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) − (a1 + a2 + a4 + a5 + a7 + a8 + · · · ) (1.55)
3
Adding this result to (1.52) we get
nπ
2n + 2 cos = 3(a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · )
3
1( n nπ )
or, a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · = 2 + 2 cos
3 3
Hence the result follows.

Example 1.6.12 If (1 + x)n = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · , then prove that

( )
1 n (n − 2)π
a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · = 2 + 2 cos
3 3

Solution. We have
(1 + x)n = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · (1.56)
Putting x = 1 in (1.56) we get
2n = a0 + a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · (1.57)
Putting x = ω(ω is the cube root of unity) in (1.56) we get
(1 + ω)n = a0 + a1 ω + a2 ω 2 + a3 + · · · [Since ω 3 = 1]
or,(1 + ω)n = (a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · ) + ω 2 (a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )
or,(1 + ω)n−2 (1 + ω)2 = (a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · ) + ω 2 (a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )
1
or,(1 + ω)n−2 = [(a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · )
ω ]
+ω 2 (a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · ) [∵ 1 + ω = −ω 2 ]
or,(1 + ω)n−2 = ω 2 [(a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · )
] 1
+ω 2 (a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · ) [∵ = ω 2 ]
ω
or,(1 + ω)n−2 = [(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · ) + ω(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )
]
+ω 2 (a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) (1.58)
30 Classical Algebra

Again putting x = ω 2 in (1.56) we get

(1 + ω 2 )n = a0 + a1 ω 2 + a2 ω + a3 + · · · [Since ω 3 = 1]
or,(1 + ω 2 )n = (a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω 2 (a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · ) + ω(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )
or,(1 + ω 2 )n−2 (1 + ω 2 )2 = (a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω 2 (a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · ) + ω(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )
1 [
or,(1 + ω 2 )n−2 = 2 (a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω 2 (a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · )
ω
+ω(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )] [∵ 1 + ω 2 = −ω]
[
or,(1 + ω 2 )n−2 = ω (a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω 2 (a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · )
1
+ω(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )] [∵ 2 = ω]
[ ω
or,(1 + ω 2 )n−2 = (a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · ) + ω 2 (a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )
+ω(a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · )] (1.59)
√ √
1 3 1 3 π π
Now, 1 + ω = 1 − + i = +i = cos + i sin
2 √2 2 √2 3 3
1 3 1 3 π π
and 1 + ω = 1 − − i
2
= −i = cos − i sin
2 2 2 2 3 3
n−2 (n − 2)π (n − 2)π
Therefore, (1 + ω) = cos + i sin
3 3
(n − 2)π (n − 2)π
and (1 + ω ) 2 n−2
= cos − i sin
3 3
Adding (1.58) and (1.59) we get
(1 + ω)n−2 + (1 + ω 2 )n−2 = 2(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · ) + (ω + ω 2 )(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )
+ (ω + ω 2 )(a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · )
( ) ( )
(n − 2)π (n − 2)π (n − 2)π (n − 2)π
or, cos + i sin + cos − i sin
3 3 3 3
= +2(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · ) − (a0 + a2 + a3 + · · · )
(n − 2)π
or, 2 cos = 2(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · ) − (a0 + a2 + a3 + · · · ) (1.60)
3
Adding this result to (1.57) we get
(n − 2)π
2n + 2 cos = 3(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · )
3 ( )
1 n (n − 2)π
or, a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · = 2 + 2 cos
3 3
Hence the result follows.

Example 1.6.13 If (1 + x)n = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · , then prove that

( )
1 n (n + 2)π
a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · = 2 + 2 cos
3 3

Solution. We have
(1 + x)n = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · (1.61)
 Complex Numbers 31

Putting x = 1 in (1.61) we get

2n = a0 + a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · (1.62)
Putting x = ω(ω is the cube root of unity) in (1.61) we get
(1 + ω)n = a0 + a1 ω + a2 ω 2 + a3 + · · · [Since ω 3 = 1]
or,(1 + ω)n = (a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · ) + ω 2 (a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )
or,(1 + ω)n+2 (1 + ω)−2 = (a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · ) + ω 2 (a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )
or,(1 + ω)n+2 = ω [(a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · )
]
+ω 2 (a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · ) [∵ 1 + ω = −ω 2 ]
or,(1 + ω)n+2 = ω [(a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · )
] 1
+ω 2 (a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · ) [∵ = ω 2 ]
ω
or,(1 + ω)n+2 = [(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · ) + ω(a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · )
]
+ω 2 (a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · ) (1.63)
Again putting x = ω 2 in (1.61) we get
(1 + ω 2 )n a0 + a1 ω 2 + a2 ω + a3 + · · · [Since ω 3 = 1]
=
or,(1 + ω 2 )n (a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω 2 (a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · ) + ω(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )
=
or,(1 + ω 2 )n+2 (1 + ω 2 )−2 (a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω 2 (a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · ) + ω(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )
=
[
or,(1 + ω 2 )n+2 ω 2 (a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) + ω 2 (a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · )
=
+ω(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )] [∵ 1 + ω 2 = −ω]
or,(1 + ω 2 )n+2 = [(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · ) + ω(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · )
]
+ω 2 (a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · ) (1.64)
√ √
1 3 1 3 π π
Now, 1 + ω = 1 − + i = +i = cos + i sin
2 √2 2 √2 3 3
1 3 1 3 π π
and 1 + ω = 1 − − i
2
= −i = cos − i sin
2 2 2 2 3 3
n+2 (n + 2)π (n + 2)π
Therefore, (1 + ω) = cos + i sin
3 3
(n + 2)π (n + 2)π
and (1 + ω )2 n+2
= cos − i sin
3 3
Adding (1.63) and (1.64) we get
(1 + ω)n+2 + (1 + ω 2 )n+2 = 2(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · ) + (ω + ω 2 )(a1 + a4 + a7 + · · · )
+ (ω + ω 2 )(a0 + a3 + a6 + · · · )
( ) ( )
(n + 2)π (n + 2)π (n + 2)π (n + 2)π
or, cos + i sin + cos − i sin
3 3 3 3
= 2(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · ) − (a0 + a1 + a3 + · · · )
(n + 2)π
or, 2 cos = 2(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · ) − (a0 + a1 + a3 + · · · ) (1.65)
3
32 Classical Algebra

Adding this result to (1.62) we get

(n + 2)π
2n + 2 cos = 3(a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · )
3 ( )
1 n (n + 2)π
or, a2 + a5 + a8 + · · · = 2 + 2 cos
3 3
Hence the result follows.

1.6.5 Similar Problems

1. Show that
nπ
n
1 − n C2 + n C4 − · · · = 2 2 cos
4
n nπ
and C1 − C3 + C5 − · · · = 2 2 sin
n n n
4
2. If (1 + x)n = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · , then prove that
n nπ n nπ
a0 − a2 + a4 − · · · = 2 2 cos and a1 − a3 + a5 − · · · = 2 2 sin .
4 4

1.7 Exponential and trigonometrical functions of a com-

plex variable
In this section, we know about some infinite series of a complex variable z. As
any real number can be treated as a complex number, so the following series are
also true for real as well as complex numbers.

z2 z3
ez = 1 + z + + + ··· (1.66)
2! 3!
z3 z5
sin z = z − + − ··· (1.67)
3! 5!
z2 z4
cos z = 1 − + − ··· (1.68)
2! 4!
Def. 1.7.1 (Periodic function) A function f is said to be periodic function
with period P if (for some non-zero constant P ) we have
f (x + P ) = f (x), (1.69)
for all values of x.
If there exists a least positive constant P with the property given by (1.69), it
is called the prime period. A function with period P will repeat on intervals of
length P , and these intervals are sometimes also referred to as periods. A function
that is not periodic is called aperiodic.
Everyday examples are seen when the variable is time; for instance the hands
of a clock or the phases of the moon show periodic behaviour. We have shown in
Figure 1.7 that movement of a variable point x terminates after a fixed length P ,
i.e., the shape terminates after a fixed length P .
 Complex Numbers 33

Figure 1.7: A periodic function with period P

Example 1.7.1 Define Loge z, where z is a complex number. Prove that Loge z1 +
Loge z2 = Loge (z1 z2 ) where z1 and z2 are two non-zero complex numbers.

Solution. If two complex numbers z and A are so related that eA = z, then A is

called the logarithm of the number z.
But we know that e2nπi = 1, n being zero or any integer, so that we may write
eA = eA · e2nπi = eA+2nπi .
Therefore we find that if eA = z, then eA+2nπi is also equal to z, n being zero or
any integer. Hence according to the definition it is found that the logarithm of a
complex number z(= A + 2nπi) is a many valued function and it is denoted by
“Loge z” and its value for n = 0 is called the principal value of the logarithm of
the complex number z and it is denoted by “loge z”.
Let z1 = eA1 and z2 = eA2
Therefore, z1 · z2 = eA1 +A2
Then by the definition of logarithm, we have
Loge z1 = A1 + 2pπi
Loge z2 = A2 + 2qπi
and Loge z1 z2 = A1 + A2 + 2rπi,
p, q, r being zero or any integer.
Thus
Loge z1 + Loge z2 = A1 + 2pπi + A2 + 2qπi
= A1 + A2 + 2(p + q)πi
= A1 + A2 + 2rπi, [putting r = p + q]
= Loge (z1 z2 ).

Example 1.7.2 Define az where a and z are complex numbers. Prove that the
34 Classical Algebra

′ ′
relation az · az = az+z where a > 0, but z and z ′ are complex, is not always true,
but is true only if the principal values are considered.

Solution. When a and z are complex numbers az is defined as az = ezLoge a .

Since Loge a is a multiple valued function az is also a multiple valued function.
Also
Loge a = 2nπi + loge a, where loge a is the principal value of logarithm of a
Therefore, az = ez(loge a+2nπi) , n being zero or any integer.
Now,
′ ′ ′
az · az = ez(loge a+2nπi) × ez (loge a+2n πi) ,
′ ′ ′
= e(z+z ) loge a+2(nz+n z )πi , (1.70)
n, n′ being zero or any integer.
Again,
′ ′
a(z+z ) = e(z+z )(loge a+2kπi)
′ ′
= e(z+z ) loge a+2(z+z )kπi , (1.71)
k being zero or any integer.
From (1.70) and (1.71) we see that
′ ′
ez+z ̸= ez · ez (in general)
But when we consider principal values only (by putting n = n′ = k = 0) we have
′ ′
az · az = e(z+z ) loge a
′
= az+z

Example 1.7.3 Prove the relations

eix + e−ix eix − e−ix
cos x = and sin x = ,
2 2i
where x is real or complex. Hence derive the De Moivre’s theorem.

Solution. We have
z2 z3
ez = 1 + z + + + ··· (1.72)
2! 3!
Putting z = ix in (1.72), we get
(ix)2 (ix)3
eix = 1 + ix + + + ···
( 2! 3!) ( )
x2 x4 x3 x5
= 1− + − ··· + i x − + − ···
2! 4! 3! 5!
= cos x + i sin x [by (1.67) and (1.68)]
Similarly, z = −ix in (1.72), we have
e−ix = cos x − i sin x
 Complex Numbers 35

Thus we have
eix = cos x + i sin x (1.73)
e−ix = cos x − i sin x (1.74)
Adding and subtracting the results of (1.73) and (1.74) subsequently, we get
eix + e−ix
cos x = (1.75)
2
eix − e−ix
sin x = (1.76)
2i
The expressions given by (1.75) and (1.76) are known as Euler’s exponential values
of cos x and sin x respectively. ( )n
Now, by the law of indices, we have eiθ = einθ , where θ is real or complex, then
(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ.
Thus De Moivre’s theorem holds good, whether θ is real or complex.

Example 1.7.4 If x and y be complex numbers then prove that

cos(x − y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y.

Solution. We have
cos x cos y + sin x sin y
eix + e−ix eiy + e−iy eix − e−ix eiy − e−iy
= · + ·
2 2 2i 2i
1 { i(x−y) }
= ×2 e + e−i(x−y)
4
ei(x−y) + e−i(x−y)
=
2
= cos(x − y).

1.7.1 Similar Problems

1. If x and y be complex numbers then prove that

(a) sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y

(b) sin(x − y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y
(c) cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y.

Note 1.7.1 Basically, it may be shown that, the trigonometric functions such as,
sin x, cos x, tan x, etc., x being a complex number, also satisfy all the relations of
trigonometric functions of real variable.

Example 1.7.5 Show that the functions sin x, cos x, ex are all periodic functions
with period 2π, 2π, 2πi respectively, for all x.
36 Classical Algebra

Solution. If n be any integer and x be real or complex, then we have

sin(2nπ + x) = sin 2nπ cos x + cos 2nπ sin x
= 0 · cos x + 1 · sin x = sin x.
Hence, sin x is a periodic function of x with period 2π. The graph of sin x is given
by the Figure 1.8.

-1

Figure 1.8: Graph of sin x

Similarly, cos x also is a periodic function of x with period 2π.

Now,
e2nπi+x = e2nπi ex
= (cos 2nπ + i sin 2nπ)ex
= ex .
Therefore, ex is a periodic function of x with period 2πi.

Note 1.7.2 You may try that tan x is a periodic function with period π. The
graph of tan x is given in Figure (1.9)

Figure 1.9: Graph of tan x

( )
1 2 2 −1 β
Example 1.7.6 Prove that Log (α + iβ) = log(α + β ) + i 2nπ + tan .
2 α
 Complex Numbers 37

Solution. Let Log (α + iβ) = x + iy.

Therefore,
ex+iy = α + iβ
[ ]
2 2 2 β
= r(cos θ + i sin θ) where r = α + β and tan θ =
α
= re = re · e
iθ iθ 2nπi

= elog r · ei(2nπ+θ)
= elog r+i(2nπ+θ) [where n = 0 or any integer]
∴ x + iy = log r + i(2nπ + θ)
√ ( )
−1 β
or, Log (α + iβ) = log α2 + β 2 + i 2nπ + tan
α
( )
1 2 2 −1 β
or, Log (α + iβ) = log(α + β ) + i 2nπ + tan .
2 α
Note 1.7.3 Putting n = 0 in the above formula we shall get the principal value
of the logarithm of the complex number α + iβ. Thus
1 β
log(α + iβ) = log(α2 + β 2 ) + i tan−1 .
2 α

Example 1.7.7 For the non-zero complex numbers z1 and z2 , prove that
Log (z1 z2 ) = Log z1 + Log z2 ,
but, in general, log(z1 z2 ) ̸= log z1 + log z2 .

Solution. Let z1 = eA1 and z2 = eA2

Therefore, z1 · z2 = eA1 +A2
Then by the definition of logarithm, we have
Loge z1 = A1 + 2pπi
Loge z2 = A2 + 2qπi
and Loge z1 z2 = A1 + A2 + 2rπi,
p, q, r being zero or any integer.
Thus
Loge z1 + Loge z2 = A1 + 2pπi + A2 + 2qπi
= A1 + A2 + 2(p + q)πi
= A1 + A2 + 2rπi, [putting r = p + q]
= Loge (z1 z2 ).
π
But, if z1 = −1 and z2 = i, then log(z1 z2 ) = log(−i) = − i, and
2
1
log z1 = πi, log z2 = πi. Therefore,
2
log(z1 z2 ) ̸= log z1 + log z2 .
38 Classical Algebra

Example 1.7.8 Find the logarithm of a negative number, i.e., find the value of
Log (−z) and that of log(−z).

Solution.
Log (−z) = Log {(−1) · z}
{ }
= Log e(2n+1)πi · z = log z + (2n + 1)πi.
Putting n = 0 in the above result we get log(−z) = log z + πi.

Example 1.7.9 Find the general values and the principal value of (−1 + i)i .
( )
√ 3π 3π
Solution. We have −1 + i = 2 cos + i sin .
( 4 )4
1 3π
Therefore, Log (−1 + i) = log 2 + i 2nπ + , n is zero or any integer.
2 4
Hence,
(−1 + i)i = eiLog (−1+i)
= ei{ 2 log 2+i(2nπ+ 4 )}
1 3π

= e−(2nπ+ 4 )+i·
3π 1
log 2
{ ( ) ( )}
2

−(2nπ+ 3π 4 )
1 1
= e cos log 2 + i sin log 2
2 2
Putting n = 0 in the above
{ result
( we)get the principal
( value of the given complex
)}
1 1
number, which is e− 4 cos
3π
log 2 + i sin log 2
2 2

Example 1.7.10 Find the real and imaginary parts of ez , where z = x + iy, 0 ≤
y < π. Also find |ez | and arg(ez ).

Solution. We have
ez = ex+iy
= ex · eiy
= ex (cos y + i sin y)
= ex cos y + iex sin y.
Therefore, ℜ(ez ) = ex cos y, the real part of ez and ℑ(ez ) = ex sin y, the imaginary
part of the complex number ez . √
Now, |ez | = |ex cos y + iex sin y| = (ex cos y)2 + (ex sin y)2 = ex ,
ex sin y
and arg(ez ) = arg(ex cos y + iex sin y) = tan−1 ( x ) = tan−1 (tan y) = y, since,
e cos y
0 ≤ y < π, the point (ex cos y, ex sin y) lies in first quadrant.

Example 1.7.11 If tan log(x + iy) = a + ib, where a2 + b2 ̸= 1, then prove that
2a
tan log(x2 + y 2 ) = .
1 − a 2 − b2
 Complex Numbers 39

−1 (a+ib)
Solution. We have tan log(x + iy) = a + ib ⇒ (x + iy) = etan . Then,
−1 (a+ib)
(x + iy) = etan (1.77)
tan−1 (a−ib)
∴ (x − iy) = e . (1.78)
Now, multiplying both sides of (1.77) and (1.78), we have
−1 (a+ib) −1 (a−ib)
(x + iy) · (x − iy) = etan · etan
−1 (a+ib)+tan−1 (a−ib)
or, x2 + y 2 = etan
−1 a+ib+a−ib
or, x2 + y 2 = etan ( 1−(a+ib)(a−ib) )
( )
2 2 −1 2a
or, log(x + y ) = tan
1 − (a2 + b2 )
2a
or, tan log(x2 + y 2 ) = .
1 − a2 − b2
Hence the result follows.

Example 1.7.12 If tan(θ + iϕ) = tan β + i sec β, 0 < β < π, then show that
β π
e2ϕ = cot and 2θ = + β.
2 2

Solution. We have
tan(θ + iϕ) = tan β + i sec β, 0 < β < π (1.79)
∴ tan(θ − iϕ) = tan β − i sec β, 0 < β < π (1.80)
Now,
tan 2iϕ = tan {(θ + iϕ) − (θ − iϕ)}
ei(2iϕ) − e−i(2iϕ) tan(θ + iϕ) − tan(θ − iϕ)
or, =
i (ei(2iϕ) + e−i(2iϕ) ) 1 + tan(θ + iϕ) tan(θ − iϕ)
e−2ϕ − e2ϕ tan β + i sec β − tan β + i sec β
or, =
i (e −2ϕ −e ) 2ϕ 1 + (tan β + i sec β)(tan β − i sec β)
−2ϕ
e −e 2ϕ
−2 sec β −2 sec β
or, = =
e −2ϕ −e 2ϕ 2
1 + tan β + sec β 2 2 sec2 β
e−2ϕ − e2ϕ cos β
or, =
e −2ϕ −e 2ϕ 1
2e 2ϕ
1 + cos β 2 cos2 β2
or, = = [by Componendo and dividendo]
2e−2ϕ 1 − cos β 2 sin2 β2
β
or, e4ϕ = cot2
2
β β π β
or, e2ϕ = cot since 0 < < , i.e., 0 < β < π, cot ≥ 0.
2 2 2 2
40 Classical Algebra

Again,
tan 2θ = tan {(θ + iϕ) + (θ − iϕ)}
tan(θ + iϕ) + tan(θ − iϕ)
=
1 − tan(θ + iϕ) tan(θ − iϕ)
tan β + i sec β + tan β − i sec β
=
1 − (tan β + i sec β)(tan β − i sec β)
2 tan β
=
1 − tan2 β − sec2 β
2 tan β
= = − cot β
sec β − tan β − tan2 β − sec2 β
2 2
π
= tan( + β)
2
π
⇒ 2θ = + β.
2
(π y )
Example 1.7.13 If x = log tan + , then prove that
4 2
(π x)
y = −i Log tan +i
4 2
Solution. We have
(π y )
x = log tan +
4 2
(π y ) tan π4 + tan y2
∴ x
e = tan + =
4 2 1 − tan π4 tan y2
1 + tan y2
or, ex =
1 − tan y2
( )
1 + tan y2 − 1 − tan y2 ex − 1
or, ( ) = [by componendo and dividendo]
1 + tan y2 + 1 − tan y2 ex + 1
x ( x x)
y e 2 e 2 − e− 2
or, tan = x ( x x)
2 e 2 e 2 + e− 2
ei(i 2 ) − e−i(i 2 )
y y x x
ei 2 − e−i 2
or, ( y y) = −
i ei 2 + e−i 2 ei(i 2 ) + e−i(i 2 )
x x

y
ei 2 − e−i 2
y ( x) x
or, i y2 −i y2
= i −i tan i = tan i
e +e 2 2
i y2 1 + tan i 2 x π
tan 4 + tan i x2
2e
or, y = =
2e−i 2 1 − tan i x2 1 − tan π4 tan i x2
(π x )
or, eiy = tan +i
4( 2
π x)
or, iy = Log tan +i
4( 2 )
π x
or, y = −i Log tan +i .
4 2
 Complex Numbers 41

1.7.2 Similar Problems

1. For the non-zero complex numbers x and y, prove that
( )
x
Log = Log x − Log y.
y
( )
x
But log ̸= log x − log y, in general.
y
2. Prove that
Log xy = yLog x + 2nπi,
where x(̸= 0), y are two complex numbers and n = 0 or any integer.

3. Show that Log (−1) = (2n + 1)πi.

( )
4. Find the value of (a) i−i (b) cos log ii
( )
a − ib a 2 − b2
5. Prove that cos i log = 2 .
a + ib a + b2
( )
a − ib 2ab
6. Prove that tan i log = 2
a + ib a − b2

7. Express (x + iy)(a+ib) in the form A + iB.

8. Show that the values of ii are all real and they can be arranged so that they
form a G.P.

9. Show that xi = e−2nπ {cos(log x) + i sin(log x)} .

10. If iα+iβ = α + iβ, then prove that α2 + β 2 = e−(4n+1)πβ .

11. If a, b, p be real and |a + ib| = 1, then show that (a + ib)ip is purely real.
( √ )
1 3
12. Find the principal values of (a) Log(1 + i) (b) Log − − i .
2 2

13. Show that the ratio of the principal values of (1 + i)1−i and (1 − i)1+i is
sin(log 2) + i cos(log 2).

14. Find the general values and the principal values of ilog(1+i) .

15. If (1 + i tan α)1+i tan β can have real values, the show that one of them is
2
(sec α)sec β .
( )
to ∞ πA B
16. If i ii
= A + iB, then prove that tan = and A2 + B 2 = e−πB ,
2 A
by considering principal value only.
42 Classical Algebra

17. Show that the general value of (1 + i tan α)−i is

eα+2nπ [cos(log cos α) + i sin(log cos α)] .

18. Considering the principal values of the logarithms of both sides of the equal-
ity (a + ib)p = mx+iy , where a > b > 0, p > 0, m > 1, x > 0, y > 0, show
that [y ] 2ab
tan log(a2 + b2 ) = 2 .
x a − b2
19. If log sin(θ + iϕ) = α + iβ, then prove that
2 cos 2θ = e2ϕ + e−2ϕ − 4e2α
and cos(θ − β) = e2ϕ cos(θ + β).

Example 1.7.14 Show that the points az lie on the equiangular spiral
1
r = σ u (u +v ) · e− u θ ,
2 2 v

where z = u + iv and a = σ(cos ψ + i sin ψ), −π < ψ ≤ π.

Solution. We have
a = σ(cos ψ + i sin ψ) = σeiψ
∴ loge (a) = loge σ + iψ [considering principal value only]
Now, let
az = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = reiθ
∴ z loge a = loge r + iθ
or, (u + iv)(loge σ + iψ) = loge r + iθ
or, u loge σ − vψ + i(uψ + v loge σ) = loge r + iθ
⇒ u loge σ − vψ = loge r (1.81)
and uψ + v loge σ = θ (1.82)
θ − v loge σ
From (1.82), ψ =
u
Putting in (1.81)
vθ − v 2 loge σ
u loge σ − = loge r (1.83)
u
u2 + v 2 vθ
or, loge σ − · 1 = loge r (1.84)
u u
u2 +v 2 v
or, loge r = loge σ u − θ loge e (1.85)
u
+ loge e− u θ
1 2 +v 2 ) v
(u
or, = loge σ u (1.86)
{ 1 2 2 }
−uv
or, = loge σ u
(u +v )
×e θ
(1.87)
× e− u θ
1 2 +v 2 ) v
⇒ r = σ u (u (1.88)
z
Hence, the points a lies on the given equiangular spiral.
 Complex Numbers 43

1.8 Hyperbolic functions

The definition of hyperbolic functions are described as bellow:

Figure 1.10: Hyperbolic functions

sinh x = −i sin ix cosh x = cos ix tanh x = −i tan ix

coth x = i cot ix sech x = sec ix cosech x = i cosec ix
Table 1.1: Hyperbolic functions as imaginary circular angles

Example 1.8.1 If u + iv = cot(x + iy), then show that

u2 + v 2 − 2u cot 2x = 1
and u2 + v 2 + 2v coth 2y + 1 = 0.

Solution. We have
u + iv = cot(x + iy) (1.89)
∴ u − iv = cot(x − iy). (1.90)
Now,
cot 2x = cot {(x + iy) + (x − iy)}
cot(x + iy) cot(x − iy) − 1
=
cot(x + iy) + cot(x − iy)
(u + iv)(u − iv) − 1
=
u + iv + u − iv
u2 + v 2 − 1
or, cot 2x =
2u
or, 2u cot 2x = u + v 2 − 1
2

or, u2 + v 2 −2u cot 2x = 1

44 Classical Algebra

and
cot 2iy = cot {(x + iy) − (x − iy)}
cot(x + iy) cot(x − iy) + 1
=
cot(x − iy) − cot(x + iy)
(u + iv)(u − iv) + 1
=
u − iv − u − iv
u2 + v 2 + 1
or, −i coth 2y =
−2iv
or, −2v coth 2y = u + v 2 + 1
2

or, u2 + v 2 +2v coth 2y + 1 = 0

Example 1.8.2 If tan−1 (u + iv) = sin−1 (a + ib), then prove that

a2 + b2
u2 + v 2 = √ .
(a2 + b2 )2 − 2a2 + 2b2 + 1

Solution. We have
tan−1 (u + iv) = sin−1 (a + ib) (1.91)
∴ tan−1 (u − iv) = sin−1 (a − ib) (1.92)
Let sin−1 (a + ib) = θ. Then we have sin θ = a + ib. Now,
sin θ sin θ
tan θ = =√
cos θ 1 − cos2 θ
a + ib
or, tan θ = √
1 − (a + ib)2
a + ib
or, θ = tan−1 √ .
1 − (a + ib)2
a − ib
Similarly, from (1.92), θ = tan−1 √ .
1 − (a − ib)2
Now, from (1.91), we get
a + ib
tan−1 (u + iv) = θ = tan−1 √
1 − (a + ib)2
a + ib
or, u + iv = √ (1.93)
1 − (a + ib)2
Again from (1.92), we similarly get
a + ib
tan−1 (u − iv) = θ = tan−1 √
1 − (a − ib)2
a − ib
or, u − iv = √ (1.94)
1 − (a − ib)2
 Complex Numbers 45

Multiplying (1.93) and (1.94), we get

(a + ib)(a − ib)
u2 + v 2 = √ √
1 − (a + ib)2 1 − (a − ib)2
a2 + b2
= √
1 − (a + ib)2 − (a − ib)2 + (a + ib)2 (a − ib)2
a2 + b2
= √ .
(a2 + b2 )2 − 2a2 + 2b2 + 1

1.8.1 Similar Problems

1. If α + iβ = cos(θ + iϕ), then prove that
α2 β2 α2 β2
− = 1 and + = 1.
cos2 θ sin2 θ cosh2 ϕ sinh2 ϕ
In other words, show that cosθ and cosh2 ϕ are the roots of the equation
x2 − x(1 + α2 + β 2 ) + α2 = 0.

2. If x + iy = c cos(u + iv), then prove that

u = constant represents a family of confocal hyperbolas
and v = constant represents a family of confocal ellipses.

3. If u + iv = cosec(x + iy), then show that

u2 v2 u2 v2
(u2 + v 2 )2 = − = + .
sin2 x cos2 x cosh2 y sinh2 y
4. If x + iy = a cos(u + iv) + ib sin(u + iv), then show that
x2 y2
2
− 2 = a2 − b2 .
cos u sin u
5. If x + iy = tan−1 (tan ϕ + ı sec ϕ), 0 < ϕ < π2 , then prove that
π ϕ 1 1 + cos ϕ
x = nπ + + , y = log .
4 2 4 1 − cos ϕ
6. If cosh(x + iy) = cot(u + iv), then prove that
sinh 2v
= − tanh x tan y.
sin 2u