Delta Star Transformation

To convert a delta network to an equivalent star network we need to derive a transformation

formula for equating the various resistors to each other between the various terminals. Consider
the circuit below.

Delta to Star Network.

Compare the resistances between terminals 1 and 2.

Resistance between the terminals 2 and 3.

Resistance between the terminals 1 and 3.

This now gives us three equations and taking equation 3 from equation 2 gives:

Then, re-writing Equation 1 will give us:

Adding together equation 1 and the result above of equation 3 minus equation 2 gives:
From which gives us the final equation for resistor P as:

Then to summarize a little about the above maths, we can now say that resistor P in a Star
network can be found as Equation 1 plus (Equation 3 minus Equation 2) or Eq1 + (Eq3 – Eq2).

Similarly, to find resistor Q in a star network, is equation 2 plus the result of equation 1 minus
equation 3 or Eq2 + (Eq1 – Eq3) and this gives us the transformation of Q as:

and again, to find resistor R in a Star network, is equation 3 plus the result of equation 2 minus
equation 1 or Eq3 + (Eq2 – Eq1) and this gives us the transformation of R as:

When converting a delta network into a star network the denominators of all of the
transformation formulas are the same: A + B + C, and which is the sum of ALL the delta
resistances. Then to convert any delta connected network to an equivalent star network we can
summarized the above transformation equations as:

Delta to Star Transformations Equations

If the three resistors in the delta network are all equal in value then the resultant resistors in the
equivalent star network will be equal to one third the value of the delta resistors, giving each
branch in the star network as: RSTAR = 1/3RDELTA

Delta – Star Example No1

Convert the following Delta Resistive Network into an equivalent Star Network.

Star Delta Transformation

Star Delta transformation is simply the reverse of above. We have seen that when converting
from a delta network to an equivalent star network that the resistor connected to one terminal is
the product of the two delta resistances connected to the same terminal, for example resistor P is
the product of resistors A and B connected to terminal 1.

By rewriting the previous formulas a little we can also find the transformation formulas for
converting a resistive star network to an equivalent delta network giving us a way of producing a
star delta transformation as shown below.

Star to Delta Transformation

The value of the resistor on any one side of the delta, Δ network is the sum of all the two-product
combinations of resistors in the star network divide by the star resistor located “directly
opposite” the delta resistor being found. For example, resistor A is given as:

with respect to terminal 3 and resistor B is given as:

with respect to terminal 2 with resistor C given as:

with respect to terminal 1.

By dividing out each equation by the value of the denominator we end up with three separate
transformation formulas that can be used to convert any Delta resistive network into an
equivalent star network as given below.

Star Delta Transformation Equations

One final point about converting a star resistive network to an equivalent delta network. If all the
resistors in the star network are all equal in value then the resultant resistors in the equivalent
delta network will be three times the value of the star resistors and equal, giving:
RDELTA = 3RSTAR

Star – Delta Example No2

Convert the following Star Resistive Network into an equivalent Delta Network.

Both Star Delta Transformation and Delta Star Transformation allows us to convert one type
of circuit connection into another type in order for us to easily analyse the circuit. These
transformation techniques can be used to good effect for either star or delta circuits containing
resistances or impedances.

Superposition Theorem
Superposition theorem states that in any linear, active, bilateral network having more than one
source, the response across any element is the sum of the responses obtained from each source
considered separately and all other sources are replaced by their internal resistance.The
superposition theorem is used to solve the network where two or more sources are present and
connected.

Contents:

 Explanation of Superposition Theorem

 Steps for Solving network by Superposition Theorem
In other words, it can be stated as if a number of voltage or current sources are acting in a linear
network, the resulting current in any branch is the algebraic sum of all the currents that would be
produced in it, when each source acts alone, all the other independent sources are replaced by
their internal resistances. It is only applicable to the circuit which is valid for the ohm’s law (i.e.,
for the linear circuit).

Explanation of Superposition Theorem

Let us understand the superposition theorem with the help of an example. The circuit diagram
shown below consists of a two voltage sources V1 and V2.

First, take the

source V1 alone and short circuit the V2 source as shown in the circuit diagram below

Here, the value of

current flowing in each branch, i.e. i1’, i2’ and i3’ is calculated by the following equations.
The difference between the above two equations gives the value of the current i3’

Now, activating the voltage source V2 and deactivating the voltage source V1 by short circuiting
it, find the various currents, i.e. i1’’, i2’’, i3’’ flowing in the circuit diagram shown below

Here,

And the value of the current i3’’ will be calculated by the equation shown below

As per the superposition theorem the value of current i1, i2, i3 is now calculated as
Direction of current should be taken care while finding the current in the various branches.

Steps for Solving network by Superposition Theorem

Considering the circuit diagram A, let us see the various steps to solve the superposition theorem

Step 1 –
Take only one independent source of voltage or current and deactivate the other source.

Step 2 – In the circuit diagram B shown above, consider the source E1 and replace the other
source E2 by its internal resistance. If its internal resistance is not given, then it is taken as zero
and the source is short circuited.
Step 3 – If there is a voltage source than short circuit it and if there is a current source than just
open circuit it.

Step 4 – Thus, by activating one source and deactivating the other source find the current in each
branch of the network. Taking above example find the current I1’, I2’and I3’.

Step 5 – Now consider the other source E2 and replace the source E1 by its internal resistance r1
as shown in the circuit diagram C.

Step 6 – Determine the current in various sections, I1’’, I2’’ and I3’’.

Step 7 – Now to determine the net branch current utilizing the superposition theorem, add the
currents obtained from each individual source for each branch.

Step 8 – If the current obtained by each branch is in the same direction than add them and if it is
in the opposite direction, subtract them to obtain the net current in each branch.

The actual flow of current in the circuit C will be given by the equations shown below

Read more: http://circuitglobe.com/what-is-superposition-theorem.html#ixzz4fzeeZ5bK

Reciprocity Theorem
Reciprocity Theorem states that – In any branch of a network or circuit, the current due to a
single source of voltage (V) in the network is equal to the current through that branch in which
the source was originally placed when the source is again put in the branch in which the current
was originally obtained.This theorem is used in the bilateral linear network which consists
bilateral components.

Contents:

 Explanation of Reciprocity Theorem

 Steps for Solving a Network Utilizing Reciprocity Theorem
In simple words, we can state the reciprocity theorem as when the places of voltage and current
source in any network are interchanged the amount or magnitude of current and voltage flowing
in the circuit remains the same. This theorem is used for solving many DC and AC network
which have many applications in electromagnetism electronics.Their circuit does not have any
time varying element.

Explanation of Reciprocity Theorem

The location of the voltage source and the current source may be interchanged without a change
in current. However, the polarity of the voltage source should be identical with the direction of
the branch current in each position.

The Reciprocity Theorem is explained with the help of the circuit diagram shown below

The various
resistances R1, R2, R3 is connected in the circuit diagram above with a voltage source (V) and a
current source (I). It is clear from the figure above that the voltage source and current sources are
interchanged for solving the network with the help of Reciprocity Theorem.

The limitation of this theorem is that it is applicable only to single source networks and not in the
multi-source network. The network where reciprocity theorem is applied should be linear and
consist of resistors, inductors, capacitors and coupled circuits. The circuit should not have any
time-varying elements.

Steps for Solving a Network Utilizing Reciprocity Theorem

Step 1 – Firstly, select the branches between which reciprocity has to be established.

Step 2 – The current in the branch is obtained using any conventional network analysis method.

Step 3 – The voltage source is interchanged between the branch which is selected.

Step 4 – The current in the branch where the voltage source was existing earlier is calculated.
Step 5 – Now, it is seen that the current obtained in the previous connection, i.e., in step 2 and
the current which is calculated when the source is interchanged, i.e., in step 4 are identical to
each other.

Read more: http://circuitglobe.com/what-is-reciprocity-theorem.html#ixzz4fzeuRIMh

Thevenin’s Theorem

In the previous three tutorials we have looked at solving complex electrical circuits using
Kirchoff’s Circuit Laws, Mesh Analysis and finally Nodal Analysis but there are many more
“Circuit Analysis Theorems” available to choose from which can calculate the currents and
voltages at any point in a circuit. In this tutorial we will look at one of the more common circuit
analysis theorems (next to Kirchoff´s) that has been developed, Thevenin’s Theorem.

Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several voltages and resistances
can be replaced by just one single voltage in series with a single resistance connected across the
load“. In other words, it is possible to simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to
an equivalent two-terminal circuit with just a single constant voltage source in series with a
resistance (or impedance) connected to a load as shown below.

Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in the circuit analysis of power or battery systems and
other interconnected resistive circuits where it will have an effect on the adjoining part of the
circuit.

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

As far as the load resistor RL is concerned, any complex “one-port” network consisting of
multiple resistive circuit elements and energy sources can be replaced by one single equivalent
resistance Rs and one single equivalent voltage Vs. Rs is the source resistance value looking
back into the circuit and Vs is the open circuit voltage at the terminals.

For example, consider the circuit from the previous section.

Firstly, to analyse the circuit we have to remove the centre 40Ω load resistor connected across
the terminals A-B, and remove any internal resistance associated with the voltage source(s). This
is done by shorting out all the voltage sources connected to the circuit, that is v = 0, or open
circuit any connected current sources making i = 0. The reason for this is that we want to have an
ideal voltage source or an ideal current source for the circuit analysis.

The value of the equivalent resistance, Rs is found by calculating the total resistance looking
back from the terminals A and B with all the voltage sources shorted. We then get the following
circuit.

Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

The voltage Vs is defined as the total voltage across the terminals A and B when there is an open
circuit between them. That is without the load resistor RL connected.

Find the Equivalent Voltage (Vs)

We now need to reconnect the two voltages back into the circuit, and as VS = VAB the current
flowing around the loop is calculated as:

This current of 0.33 amperes (330mA) is common to both resistors so the voltage drop across the
20Ω resistor or the 10Ω resistor can be calculated as:

VAB = 20 – (20Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts.

or

VAB = 10 + (10Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts, the same.

Then the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit would consist or a series resistance of 6.67Ω’s and a
voltage source of 13.33v. With the 40Ω resistor connected back into the circuit we get:

and from this the current flowing around the circuit is given as:

which again, is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchoff´s circuit law in the
previous circuit analysis tutorial.

Thevenin’s theorem can be used as another type of circuit analysis method and is particularly
useful in the analysis of complicated circuits consisting of one or more voltage or current source
and resistors that are arranged in the usual parallel and series connections.

While Thevenin’s circuit theorem can be described mathematically in terms of current and
voltage, it is not as powerful as Mesh or Nodal analysis in larger networks because the use of
Mesh or Nodal analysis is usually necessary in any Thevenin exercise, so it might as well be
used from the start. However, Thevenin’s equivalent circuits of Transistors, Voltage Sources
such as batteries etc, are very useful in circuit design.

Thevenin’s Theorem Summary

We have seen here that Thevenin’s theorem is another type of circuit analysis tool that can be
used to reduce any complicated electrical network into a simple circuit consisting of a single
voltage source, Vs in series with a single resistor, Rs.

When looking back from terminals A and B, this single circuit behaves in exactly the same way
electrically as the complex circuit it replaces. That is the i-v relationships at terminals A-B are
identical.
The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Thevenin’s Theorem is as follows:

 1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.

 2. Find RS by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current sources.
 3. Find VS by the usual circuit analysis methods.
 4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL.

In the next tutorial we will look at Nortons Theorem which allows a network consisting of linear
resistors and sources to be represented by an equivalent circuit with a single current source in
parallel with a single source resistance.

Nortons Theorem

Nortons Theorem
In some ways Norton’s Theorem can be thought of as the opposite to “Thevenins Theorem”, in
that Thevenin reduces his circuit down to a single resistance in series with a single voltage.

Norton on the other hand reduces his circuit down to a single resistance in parallel with a
constant current source.

Nortons Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several energy sources and
resistances can be replaced by a single Constant Current generator in parallel with a Single
Resistor“.

As far as the load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance, RS is the value of the
resistance looking back into the network with all the current sources open circuited and IS is the
short circuit current at the output terminals as shown below.

Nortons equivalent circuit.

The value of this “constant current” is one which would flow if the two output terminals where
shorted together while the source resistance would be measured looking back into the terminals,
(the same as Thevenin).

For example, consider our now familiar circuit from the previous section.

To find the Nortons equivalent of the above circuit we firstly have to remove the centre 40Ω load
resistor and short out the terminals A and B to give us the following circuit.
When the terminals A and B are shorted together the two resistors are connected in parallel
across their two respective voltage sources and the currents flowing through each resistor as well
as the total short circuit current can now be calculated as:

with A-B Shorted Out

If we short-out the two voltage sources and open circuit terminals A and B, the two resistors are
now effectively connected together in parallel. The value of the internal resistor Rs is found by
calculating the total resistance at the terminals A and B giving us the following circuit.

Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

Having found both the short circuit current, Is and equivalent internal resistance, Rs this then
gives us the following Nortons equivalent circuit.

Nortons equivalent circuit.

Ok, so far so good, but we now have to solve with the original 40Ω load resistor connected
across terminals A and B as shown below.

Again, the two resistors are connected in parallel across the terminals A and B which gives us a
total resistance of:

The voltage across the terminals A and B with the load resistor connected is given as:

Then the current flowing in the 40Ω load resistor can be found as:

which again, is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchoff´s circuit law in the
previous tutorials.

Nortons Theorem Summary

The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Nortons Theorem is as follows:

 1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.

 2. Find RS by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current sources.
 3. Find IS by placing a shorting link on the output terminals A and B.
 4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL.

In a circuit, power supplied to the load is at its maximum when the load resistance is equal to the
source resistance. In the next tutorial we will look at Maximum Power Transfer. The application
of the maximum power transfer theorem can be applied to either simple and complicated linear
circuits having a variable load and is used to find the load resistance that leads to transfer of
maximum power to the load.

Maximum Power Transfer

Maximum Power Transfer

We have seen in the previous tutorials that any complex circuit or network can be replaced by a
single energy source in series with a single internal source resistance, RS. Generally, this source
resistance or even impedance if inductors or capacitors are involved is of a fixed value in Ohm´s.

However, when we connect a load resistance, RL across the output terminals of the power source,
the impedance of the load will vary from an open-circuit state to a short-circuit state resulting in
the power being absorbed by the load becoming dependent on the impedance of the actual power
source. Then for the load resistance to absorb the maximum power possible it has to be
“Matched” to the impedance of the power source and this forms the basis of Maximum Power
Transfer.

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is another useful circuit analysis method to ensure
that the maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance when the value of
the load resistance is exactly equal to the resistance of the power source. The relationship
between the load impedance and the internal impedance of the energy source will give the power
in the load. Consider the circuit below.

Thevenins Equivalent Circuit.

In our Thevenin equivalent circuit above, the maximum power transfer theorem states that “the
maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance if it is equal in value to the
Thevenin or Norton source resistance of the network supplying the power“.

In other words, the load resistance resulting in greatest power dissipation must be equal in value
to the equivalent Thevenin source resistance, then RL = RS but if the load resistance is lower or
higher in value than the Thevenin source resistance of the network, its dissipated power will be
less than maximum.

For example, find the value of the load resistance, RL that will give the maximum power transfer
in the following circuit.

Maximum Power Transfer Example No1.

Where:
RS = 25Ω
RL is variable between 0 – 100Ω
VS = 100v

Then by using the following Ohm’s Law equations:

We can now complete the following table to determine the current and power in the circuit for
different values of load resistance.

Table of Current against Power

RL (Ω) I (amps) P (watts) RL (Ω) I (amps) P (watts)

0 4.0 0 25 2.0 100
5 3.3 55 30 1.8 97
10 2.8 78 40 1.5 94
15 2.5 93 60 1.2 83
20 2.2 97 100 0.8 64

Using the data from the table above, we can plot a graph of load resistance, RL against power, P
for different values of load resistance. Also notice that power is zero for an open-circuit (zero
current condition) and also for a short-circuit (zero voltage condition).

Graph of Power against Load Resistance

From the above table and graph we can see that the Maximum Power Transfer occurs in the
load when the load resistance, RL is equal in value to the source resistance, RS that is:
RS = RL = 25Ω. This is called a “matched condition” and as a general rule, maximum power is
transferred from an active device such as a power supply or battery to an external device when
the impedance of the external device exactly matches the impedance of the source.

One good example of impedance matching is between an audio amplifier and a loudspeaker. The
output impedance, ZOUT of the amplifier may be given as between 4Ω and 8Ω, while the nominal
input impedance, ZIN of the loudspeaker may be given as 8Ω only.

Then if the 8Ω speaker is attached to the amplifiers output, the amplifier will see the speaker as
an 8Ω load. Connecting two 8Ω speakers in parallel is equivalent to the amplifier driving one 4Ω
speaker and both configurations are within the output specifications of the amplifier.

Improper impedance matching can lead to excessive power loss and heat dissipation. But how
could you impedance match an amplifier and loudspeaker which have very different impedances.
Well, there are loudspeaker impedance matching transformers available that can change
impedances from 4Ω to 8Ω, or to 16Ω’s to allow impedance matching of many loudspeakers
connected together in various combinations such as in PA (public address) systems.

Transformer Impedance Matching

One very useful application of impedance matching in order to provide maximum power transfer
between the source and the load is in the output stages of amplifier circuits. Signal transformers
are used to match the loudspeakers higher or lower impedance value to the amplifiers output
impedance to obtain maximum sound power output. These audio signal transformers are called
“matching transformers” and couple the load to the amplifiers output as shown below.

Transformer Impedance Matching

The maximum power transfer can be obtained even if the output impedance is not the same as
the load impedance. This can be done using a suitable “turns ratio” on the transformer with the
corresponding ratio of load impedance, ZLOAD to output impedance, ZOUT matches that of the
ratio of the transformers primary turns to secondary turns as a resistance on one side of the
transformer becomes a different value on the other.

If the load impedance, ZLOAD is purely resistive and the source impedance is purely resistive,
ZOUT then the equation for finding the maximum power transfer is given as:

Where: NP is the number of primary turns and NS the number of secondary turns on the
transformer. Then by varying the value of the transformers turns ratio the output impedance can
be “matched” to the source impedance to achieve maximum power transfer. For example,

Maximum Power Transfer Example No2.

If an 8Ω loudspeaker is to be connected to an amplifier with an output impedance of 1000Ω,
calculate the turns ratio of the matching transformer required to provide maximum power
transfer of the audio signal. Assume the amplifier source impedance is Z1, the load impedance is
Z2 with the turns ratio given as N.
Generally, small transformers used in low power audio amplifiers are usually regarded as ideal
so any losses can be ignored.

In the next tutorial about DC circuit theory, we will look at Star Delta Transformation which
allows us to convert balanced star connected circuits into equivalent delta and vice versa.

Mesh Current Analysis

Mesh Current Analysis

Circuit Analysis

In the previous tutorial we saw that complex circuits such as bridge or T-networks can be solved
using Kirchoff’s Circuit Laws. While Kirchoff´s Laws give us the basic method for analysing
any complex electrical circuit, there are different ways of improving upon this method by using
Mesh Current Analysis or Nodal Voltage Analysis that results in a lessening of the math’s
involved and when large networks are involved this reduction in maths can be a big advantage.

For example, consider the electrical circuit example from the previous section.

Mesh Current Analysis Circuit

One simple method of reducing the amount of math’s involved is to analyse the circuit using
Kirchoff’s Current Law equations to determine the currents, I1 and I2 flowing in the two
resistors. Then there is no need to calculate the current I3 as its just the sum of I1 and I2. So
Kirchoff’s second voltage law simply becomes:

 Equation No 1 : 10 = 50I1 + 40I2

 Equation No 2 : 20 = 40I1 + 60I2

therefore, one line of math’s calculation have been saved.

Mesh Current Analysis

An easier method of solving the above circuit is by using Mesh Current Analysis or Loop
Analysis which is also sometimes called Maxwell´s Circulating Currents method. Instead of
labelling the branch currents we need to label each “closed loop” with a circulating current.

As a general rule of thumb, only label inside loops in a clockwise direction with circulating
currents as the aim is to cover all the elements of the circuit at least once. Any required branch
current may be found from the appropriate loop or mesh currents as before using Kirchoff´s
method.

For example: : i1 = I1 , i2 = -I2 and I3 = I1 – I2

We now write Kirchoff’s voltage law equation in the same way as before to solve them but the
advantage of this method is that it ensures that the information obtained from the circuit
equations is the minimum required to solve the circuit as the information is more general and can
easily be put into a matrix form.

For example, consider the circuit from the previous section.

These equations can be solved quite quickly by using a single mesh impedance matrix Z. Each
element ON the principal diagonal will be “positive” and is the total impedance of each mesh.
Where as, each element OFF the principal diagonal will either be “zero” or “negative” and
represents the circuit element connecting all the appropriate meshes.

First we need to understand that when dealing with matrices, for the division of two matrices it is
the same as multiplying one matrix by the inverse of the other as shown.
having found the inverse of R, as V/R is the same as V x R-1, we can now use it to find the two
circulating currents.
Where:

 [ V ] gives the total battery voltage for loop 1 and then loop 2
 [ I ] states the names of the loop currents which we are trying to find
 [ R ] is the resistance matrix
 [ R-1 ] is the inverse of the [ R ] matrix

and this gives I1 as -0.143 Amps and I2 as -0.429 Amps

As : I3 = I1 – I2

The combined current of I3 is therefore given as : -0.143 – (-0.429) = 0.286 Amps

which is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchoff´s circuit law in the previous
tutorial.

Mesh Current Analysis Summary.

This “look-see” method of circuit analysis is probably the best of all the circuit analysis methods
with the basic procedure for solving Mesh Current Analysis equations is as follows:

 1. Label all the internal loops with circulating currents. (I1, I2, …IL etc)
 2. Write the [ L x 1 ] column matrix [ V ] giving the sum of all voltage sources in each
loop.
 3. Write the [ L x L ] matrix, [ R ] for all the resistances in the circuit as follows;

o R11 = the total resistance in the first loop.
 o Rnn = the total resistance in the Nth loop.
o RJK = the resistance which directly joins loop J to Loop K.
 4. Write the matrix or vector equation [V] = [R] x [I] where [I] is the list of currents to
be found.

As well as using Mesh Current Analysis, we can also use node analysis to calculate the
voltages around the loops, again reducing the amount of mathematics required using just
Kirchoff’s laws. In the next tutorial relating to DC circuit theory, we will look at Nodal Voltage
Analysis to do just that.

Nodal Voltage Analysis

Nodal Voltage Analysis

As well as using Mesh Analysis to solve the currents flowing around complex circuits it is also
possible to use nodal analysis methods too. Nodal Voltage Analysis complements the previous
mesh analysis in that it is equally powerful and based on the same concepts of matrix analysis.
As its name implies, Nodal Voltage Analysis uses the “Nodal” equations of Kirchoff’s first law
to find the voltage potentials around the circuit.

So by adding together all these nodal voltages the net result will be equal to zero. Then, if there
are “n” nodes in the circuit there will be “n-1” independent nodal equations and these alone are
sufficient to describe and hence solve the circuit.

At each node point write down Kirchoff’s first law equation, that is: “the currents entering a
node are exactly equal in value to the currents leaving the node” then express each current in
terms of the voltage across the branch. For “n” nodes, one node will be used as the reference
node and all the other voltages will be referenced or measured with respect to this common node.

For example, consider the circuit from the previous section.

Nodal Voltage Analysis Circuit

In the above circuit, node D is chosen as the reference node and the other three nodes are
assumed to have voltages, Va, Vb and Vc with respect to node D. For example;

As Va = 10v and Vc = 20v , Vb can be easily found by:

again is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchoff’s Circuit Law in the previous
tutorial.

From both Mesh and Nodal Analysis methods we have looked at so far, this is the simplest
method of
solving this particular circuit. Generally, nodal voltage analysis is more appropriate when there
are a larger number of current sources around. The network is then defined as: [ I ] = [ Y ] [ V ]
where [ I ] are the driving current sources, [ V ] are the nodal voltages to be found and [ Y ] is
the admittance matrix of the network which operates on [ V ] to give [ I ].

Nodal Voltage Analysis Summary.

The basic procedure for solving Nodal Analysis equations is as follows:

 1. Write down the current vectors, assuming currents into a node are positive. ie, a (N x
1)
matrices for “N” independent nodes.
 2. Write the admittance matrix [Y] of the network where:
o Y11 = the total admittance of the first node.
o Y22 = the total admittance of the second node.
o RJK = the total admittance joining node J to node K.
 3. For a network with “N” independent nodes, [Y] will be an (N x N) matrix and that Ynn
will be positive and Yjk will be negative or zero value.

 4. The voltage vector will be (N x L) and will list the “N” voltages to be found.

We have now seen that a number of theorems exist that simplify the analysis of linear circuits. In
the next tutorial we will look at Thevenins Theorem which allows a network consisting of linear
resistors and sources to be represented by an equivalent circuit with a single voltage source and a
series resistance.