CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL:

In the early times before the advancement in the geotechnical

engineering, the only chance for the foundation engineers was to design
the foundation matching to the sub soil conditions at the provided site.

But now a day due to the improvements in geotechnical techniques

and with the help of latest technology it is possible for us to modify the
weak foundation soil to the strength and compressibility characteristics to
suit the foundation of our choice. Thus these geotechnical processes of
improving the quality of the foundation soil to our desired quality are
called as ground improving techniques. The changes made through the
process are permanent and are not affected with the passage of time or
due to change in the weathering condition. The main objective of these
processes is to increase the density and shear strength parameters and to
decrease the compressibility, permeability and the settlement, which
makes the soil more water resistant, durable and stable. You can’t build
or expand a road, railway or embankment over soft soils without ground
improvement measures.

1.2.GROUND IMPROVEMENT:

Ground improvement is defined as “Ground improvement in its

largest sense is the change in any property of a soil or rock to improve its
engineering performance”.

And is also stated as, “The process in which in-situ soils are
improved for support of the foundation is known as ground improvement.”

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 The various techniques of ground improvement are available to
improve bearing capacity, shear strength, reduce compressibility, and reduce
permeability or to improve ground water conditions. Basically, these techniques
involve modifications of mechanical, hydraulic, physical, cementing and
chemical properties of the ground.

Any technique can be accepted and generally applied provided

comprehensive specifications, workable technical standards and field examples
are available. In the field of ground improvement technique adequate, standards
and specifications are available and this field has been recognized as an
important and rapidly expanding one. The rate of growth and overwhelming
information already resulted in a demand for complication of information in the
subject.

1.3 NECESSITY OF GROUND IMPROVEMENT:

The rapid urban and industrial development pose an increasing

demand for land reclamation, utilization of unstable and environmentally
affected ground and safe disposal of wastes .In order to meet these demands,
ground improvement techniques have been evolved which now emerged as a
major part of the civil engineering practice.

When structure or building is constructed on block cotton soil,

loose soil, fully saturated soil, and soil having low bearing capacity as we
required to structure. In that case civil engg face the problem against foundation
design, so he repair the ground improvement technique as first option to
improve properties of ground or site

1.3.1 ALTERNATIVE OPTION TO GROUND IMPROVEMENT:

1. Deep foundation

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 2. Remove poor material or treatment
3. Improve the soil properties
4. Redesign the structure

1.4. FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN SELECTING SOIL

IMPROVEMENT METHOD:

1. Soil type- sand, clay, organic etc.

2. Area & depth of treatment

3. Soil properties-strength, compressibility

4. Proposed structure & settlement criteria

5. Availability of skills equipment, material

6. Permissible total & differential settlement

7. Material availability : stone, sand, water, admixture.etc

8. Environmental condition: waste disposal,erosion, water pollution.etc

9. Economics

1.5. GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES:

1. Compaction
2. Soil nails.
3. Drainage method.
4. Grouting
5. Geosynthetics
6. Stabilization using admixtures
7. Reinforcement

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 i) Vibro compaction

ii) Vibro stone column

iii) Deep dynamic compaction

1.5.1. COMPACTION GROUTING:

The basic concept of compaction grouting techniques is that of

injecting an expanding bulb of high viscous grout with high internal friction into
a compressible soil or into a soil mass containing large voids. The injected grout
as a radial hydraulic jack which compresses the surroundings soil and thus
achieving controlled densification. This is also called a displacement grouting.

It is essential to distinguish between conventional penetrating

grouting and compaction grouting. Conventional penetrating grouting basically
involves in filling openings in soils and rocks by a fluid grout, to reduce
permeability or to increase strength. Compaction grouting does not depend
upon grout entering opening but involves displacement and compaction of soil
as a result of the intrusion of a mass of thick grout.

Fig 1.1 COMPACTION GROUTING

1.5.1.1. ADVANTAGES OF COMPACTION GROUTING:

1. Dandifies soil

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 2. Increases lateral stress
3. Minimum disturbance to structure and surrounding ground during
repair.
4. Minimum risk during construction.

5. Ground water not affected.

6. Supports all portion of structures.
1.5.1.2. DISADVANTAGES OF COMPACTION GROUTING:

1. Ineffective for small depths (<6 meters) – grout pressures can heave
ground surface
2. Grouting adjacent to unsupported slope may be ineffective

1.5.2 SOIL NAILING:

The fundamental concept of soil nailing consists of reinforcing the

ground by passive inclusions, closely spaced, to create in-situ soil and
restrain its displacements. The basic design consists of transferring the
resisting tensile forces generated in the inclusions into the ground through
the friction mobilized at the interfaces.

Fig 5.2 C/S OF SOIL NAILING

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1.5.2.1. ADVANTAGES OF SOIL NAILING:

1. Stabilization of railroad and highway cut slopes

2. Tunnel portals in steep and unstable stratified slopes

3. Construction and retrofitting of bridge abutments with complex

boundaries involving wall support under piled foundations.

1.5.3 JET GROUTING :

Jet grouting is a general term used by grouting contractors to

describe various construction techniques used for ground modification or
ground improvement.

In Grouting use ultra high-pressure fluids or binders that are

injected into the soils at high velocities. These binders break up the soil
structure completely and mix the soil particles in-situ to create a
homogeneous mass, which in turn solidifies.

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 CHAPTER: 2

GROUND STREGTHENING TECHNIQUES

SUMMARY

CONDITION TECHNIQUE APPLICATION

Low grades Compacted Sand fill Minimize structure

settlements*

SOFT CLAYS
Shallow :- Excavate-backfill Mini structural settlement
Deep :- Geotextiles Support low embankment
Surcharge Reduce structural settlement
Geotextiles Support low embankment
Sand columns Reduce structural settlement
Lime columns Reduce structural settlement

Clays, surface Gravel admixture Base, sub base , low-quality

pavement
Stabilize roadway base and
Lime admixture sub base.
Freezing Temporary arrest of
settlement

LOOSE SILTS
Shallow :- Excavate-backfill Mini structure settlement
Deep :- Salts admixture Dust palliative
Surface compaction Increase support capacity
Stone columns Increase support capacity
Surcharge Reduce structure settlement

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 CONDITION TECHNIQUE APPLICATION

COLLAPSIBLE SOIL
Shallow :- Excavate-backfill Mini structure settlement
Deep :- Hydrocompaction Reduce structural settlement
Dyanamic compaction Increase support capacity
Stone columns Poor pressure relief
Increase support capacity
LOOSE SANDS
Shallow :- Surface compaction Increase support capacity
Deep :- Cement admixture Base, sub base , low-quality
Bitumen admixture pavement
Vibrofloation Base, sub base , low-quality
Dynamic compaction pavement
Freezing Increase support capacity
Stone column Increase support capacity
Temporary stability for
excavation
Increase support capacity
EXPANSIVE SOIL Lime admixture Reduce activity in compacted
fill

COLLAPSIBLE SOIL
Shallow :- Excavate-backfill Mini structure settlement
Deep :- Hydrocompaction Reduce structural settlement
Dyanamic compaction Increase support capacity
Stone columns Poor pressure relief
Increase support capacity

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 CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 V. R. Raju (Keller Far East, Singapore) and Y. Hari Krishna (Keller
Ground Engineering (India) Pvt. Ltd.)

“GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES FOR INFRASTRUCTURE

PROJECTS IN MALAYSIA”

In this paper Ground improvement techniques utilizing Vibro

methods, Deep Soil Mixing and Grouting technologies are finding
increasing application in Malaysia to solve a broad spectrum of
geotechnical problems.

This paper will describe recent applications in Malaysia for four separate
projects –

1. Jet Grouting to form stable cutter-head interventions for a tunnel

project
2. Deep Soil Mixing to support deep vertical basement excavation with
limestone interface for a commercial complex.
3. Vibro Concrete Columns to found reinforced concrete tanks
informer domestic landfill for a sewage treatment plant.
4. Vibro Stone Columns to support high reinforced soil walls for a
highway project.
The importance of quality control measures are emphasized and available
proving methods are also discussed. The case histories presented demonstrate
that the techniques can provide effective solutions to challenging engineering
problems.

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 3.2 A.Kosho (A.L.T.E.A & Geostudio 2000, Durres, Albania)
In this paper containing,
For the first time he used in Albania country at Ferry Terminal of
Durres, which is the biggest harbour of Albania.
The vibro stone columns technique is one of the most used
techniques for ground improvement processes all over the world. In
recent years this technique is also used in Albania.In this case the
technique is used to reinforce silty clay and silty sand soils.
In Durres Ferry Terminal building and yard infrastructure
the dry method is used.
The paper outlines the technique, the ways of application
in different types of soil, and settlement and bearing capacity
calculations for this case

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 CHAPTER 4
VIBRO TECHNIQUES (METHODS)

4.1 INTRODUCTION:

Inertia forces become significant in comparison to static forces

when the applied loads on the soil mass changes rapidly causing excessive
deformation of soil. This characteristic behaviour could be used I any groud
improvement technique by way of adopting some from of vibration which could
bring in deformation and displacement resulting in densification. These for
compacting cohesionless soils, arranged in the order of decreasing effectiveness
are vibration, watering and rolling. In practice combinations of these techniques
have been used in improving the properties of in-situ soil. Static force is not
effective process for cohesionless soils but vibration and shock are helpful .

4.2 TYPES OF VIBRATORYTECHNIQUES:

The three primary deep vibratory techniques are;

1.Vibro compaction

2.Deep dynamic compaction

3. vibro stone column (replacement)

4.2.1 VIBRO COMPACTION:

Vibro compaction is a ground improvement technique that

densifies, clean, cohesionless granular soils by means of a down hole vibrator.
The vibrator is typically suspended from a crane and lowered
vertically into the soil under its own weight. Penetration is usually aided by
water jets integrated into the vibrator assembly. After reaching the bottom of the
treatment zone, the soils are densified in lifts as the probe is extracted. During
vibro compaction, clean sand backfill is typically added at the ground surface to
compensate for the reduction in soil volume resulting from the densification
process. The vibratory energy reduces the inter-granular forces between the soil
particles, allowing them to move into a denser configuration, typically
achieving a relative density of 70 to 85 percent. The treated soils have increased

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density, friction angle and stiffness. Compaction is achieved above and below
the water table.

Fig 4.1 Vibro compaction

The improved soil characteristics depend on the soil type and
gradation, spacing of the penetration points and the time spent performing the
compaction. Generally, the vibro compaction penetration spacing is between 6
feet and 14 feet, with centers arranged on a triangular or square pattern.
Compaction takes place without setting up internal stresses in the soil, thus
ensuring permanent densification.
The use of clean sand backfill during vibro compaction allows the original site
elevation to be maintained. However, on sites where the planned final grade is
below the existing grade, lowering of the site elevation may be desirable. In
these instances, the ground surface is allowed to subside during the compaction
effort.
Vibro compaction permits the use of economical spread footings
with design bearing pressures generally of 5 ksf up to 10 ksf. Settlement and
seismic liquefaction potentials are reduced. The required treatment depth is
typically in the range of 15 to 50 feet, but vibro compaction has been performed
to depths as great as 120 feet. Examples of previously performed applications
include increasing bearing capacity, decreasing settlement and mitigating
liquefaction for planned structures, embankments, railways and roadways.
Vibro compaction rigs can be fully instrumented with an on-board computer to
monitor parameters during vibro compaction. Monitoring these parameters
allows the operator to correct any deviations in real-time during the construction
process to keep the vibro compaction within project specifications. Data from

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the Data Acquisition (DAQ) system such as amperage and lift rate are recorded
and displayed in real-time alongside specified target values on an in-cab
monitor.

4.1.2 VIBRO STONE COLUMN (REPLACEMENT):

Vibro Replacement is a technique of constructing stone columns

through fill material and weak soils to improve their load bearing and settlement
characteristics

4.1.2.1 BENEFITS OF VIBRO STONE COLUMN TECHNOLOGY:

 Increased shear resistance

 Increased bearing capacity

 Reduced settlement

 Cost & time savings over conventional system (pile)

 Uniformity of site after treatment

 In situ treatment , thus avoiding excavation & replacement

 Achievement of specific degree of improvement required by project

 Can be applied close to existing structures

4.1.2.2 PROCESS OF INSTALLATION OF STONE COLUMN:

1. The vibrator located on ground at the stone column position as per design
2. The skip travels up the leaders and automatically discharge stone into
reception chamber at top of the vibrator.
3. The vibrator penetrate in the weak soil to the design depth under a
action of vibration and compressed air pull down
4. When vibrator reach required depth then stone is released and compacted
by small movement of the vibrator the pull down being employed on the
downward compacting action.

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 5. With stone being added to the system as necessary at any stage of the
construction procedure, a stone interlocked with sourrounding soil is built
up to ground level

4.1.2.3 STONE COLUMN:

i. A cylindrical vertical hole is made and stone is placed into a hole in

increments and compacted by suitable device.
ii. The stone column also known as granular piles.
iii. These columns result in considerable vertical load carrying capacity and
improved shear resistance in the soil mass.

4.1.2.4 DESIGN OF STONE COLUMN:

1.Determination of the Basic Improvement Factor

The fairly complex system of vibro replacement allows a more or less
accurate evaluation only for the well defined case of an unlimited load area on
an unlimited column grid. In this case a unit cell with the area A is considered
consisting of a single column with the cross section AC and the attributable
surrounding soil.
Furthermore the following idealized conditions are assumed:
• The column is based on a rigid layer
• The column material is uncompressible
• The bulk density of column and soil is neglected
Hence, the column can not fail in end bearing and any settlement of the load
area results in a bulging of the column which remains constant all over its
length
The improvement of a soil achieved at these conditions by the existence
of stone columns is evaluated on the assumption that the column material shears
from the beginning whilst the surrounding soil reacts elastically. Furthermore,
the soil is assumed to be displaced already during the column installation to
such an extent that its initial resistance corresponds to the liquid state, i. e. the
coefficient of earth pressure amounts to K = 1. The result of the evaluation is
expressed as basic improvement factor n

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2. Area Replacement Ratio :
Area Replacement Ratio find by the column spacing (Figure 4.3 )
The area replacement ratio is defined as Ac/A,
where Ac is the cross-sectional area of one column and
A is the total cross-sectional area of the ‘unitcell’ attributed to each
column (Figure 4.2).
Ac/A is geometrically related to the column radius (r) and column spacing (s)
according to:

where k is π or 2π/√3 for square or triangular column grids, respectively.

Fig 4.2 Typical column arrangements, triangular grid(left) and square grid
(right)

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 Fig 4.3 “n” Vs “reciprocal area improvement ratio”

4.1.2.5 TESTS ON STONE COLUMN:

 Standard penetration testing (SPT)

 Cone penetrometer testing (CPT)

 Dilatometer testing (DMT)

 Load sharing

 Shear wave velocity profiling

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 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION

 Stone column techniques are better than conventional pile

foundation. In the marine soil the improvement of soft
cohesion less soil by vibro stone column is very good and
economical as well as densified.

 This is one of the best opportunity to civil engineer to do

work with vibro stone column

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 REFERENCES

BOOKS:

1. Ground improvement techniques-Dr.P.Purushothama Raj

2. Soil mechanics and foundations -Dr. B.C.Punmia
WEB SITE :

1. GOOGLE

2.NPTEL

3. YOU TUBE

JOURNALS:

1.GROUND IMPROVEMENT USING THE VIBRO-STONE COLUMN

TECHNIQUE

A. Kosho(A.L.T.E.A & Geostudio 2000, Durres, Albania)

2.PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF GROUND IMPROVEMENT”

• Raju V.R.(Managing Director, Keller Far East)

• Sridhar Valluri (Geotechnical Engineer, Keller India)

Conference on ENGINEERING OF GROUND & ENVIRONMENTAL

GEOTECHNIQUES (S EG2), HYDERABAD, 29th Feb., – 1st March, 2008.

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