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NETWORKS
LAB MANUAL
06CSL77
For
CONTENTS
Sub Code : 06CSL77
Note : Student is required to solve one problem from PART-A and one problem
from PART-B. Both the parts have equal weightage.
1. Simulate a three nodes point-to-point network with duplex links between them.
3
Set the queue size vary the bandwidth and find the number of packets dropped.
2. Simulate a four node point-to-point network, and connect the links as follows:
4
n0-n2, n1-n2 and n2-n3. Apply TCP agent between n0-n3 and UDP n1-n3.
Apply relevant applications over TCP and UDP agents changing the
parameter and determine the number of packets by TCP/UDP.
3. Simulate the different types of Internet traffic such as FTP a TELNET over
5
a network and analyze the throughput.
4. Simulate the transmission of ping messaged over a network topology
6
consisting of 6 nodes and find the number of packets dropped due to congestion.
5. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using N-nodes(6-10), change error rate and data
7
rate and compare the throughput.
6. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using N nodes and set multiple traffic nodes and
8
determine collision across different nodes.
7. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using N nodes and set multiple traffic nodes
9
and plot congestion window for different source/destination.
8. Simulate simple ESS and with transmitting nodes in wire-less LAN by
10
simulation and determine the performance with respect to transmission of packets.
PART B
The following experiments shall be conducted using C/C++.
PART A
Simulation Exercises
Aim: To observe the effect of congestion by setting the parameters like, varying the
queue size and link bandwidth.
Topology:-
Sender:-
stcp –p 2000 –l 1024 1.0.1.2
Receiver:-
rtcp –p 2000 –l 1024
Results:
AIM: To compare the throughputs of TCP and UDP protocol and ensure that TCP
provides reliable service.
Topology:-
Sender:-
stcp –p 3000 –l 1024 1.0.1.3
stg –u 1024 1.0.1.3
Receiver:-
rtcp –p 3000 –l 1024
rtg –u 3000
Results:
Set bandwidth to 100 Mbps and Queue size as 50 on both TCP and UDP links
Output Throughput N1-P1= 348-1100
Input Throughput N2-P2=320-1100
AIM: To analyze the throughputs of Application layer protocols FTP and TELNET.
3. Simulate the different types of Internet traffic such as FTP, TELNET over a
network and analyze the throughput.
Topology:-
Sender:-
For FTP
stcp –p 21 –l 1024 1.0.1.3
For Telnet
stcp –p 23 –l 1024 1.0.1.3
Receiver:-
For FTP
rtcp –p 21 –l 1024
For Telnet
rtcp –p 23 –l 1024
Results:
Set bandwidth to 10 Mbps and Queue size as 50 on both FTP and TELNET links
Output Throughput N1-P1= 680-1097
Input Throughput N3-P3=680-1097
AIM: To observe the effect of congestion while transmitting Ping messages over a
network.
Topology:-
Sender:-
stcp –p 2000 –l 1024 1.0.1.4
Receiver:-
rtcp –p 2000 –l 1024
Command Console:-
Goto tools-> simulation time and change Simulation time to 100. During run
mode, double click host 2 and then click command console. And execute the
following command.
ping 1.0.1.4
Results:
While pinging with the same bandwidth on either side of the link, the Time field of
the ping message is observed, and it takes much time to reach destination when the
bandwidth of the destination link is reduced.
AIM: To compare the throughput of the Ethernet by varying the Data rate and Error
rate
5. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using N nodes (6-10), change error rate and data
rate and compare throughput.
Topology:-
Sender:-
stcp –p 2000 –l 1024 1.0.1.4
Receiver:-
rtcp –p 2000 –l 1024
Results:
6. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using N nodes and set multiple traffic nodes and
determine collisions across different nodes.
Topology:-
AIM: To analyze the effect of collision due to Multiple traffic by plotting congestion
window.
7. Simulate an Ethernet LAN using N nodes and set multiple traffic nodes and
plot congestion window for different source/destination.
Topology:-
Topology:-
Click on “access point”. Goto wireless interface and tick on “show transmission range
and then click OK.
Mobile Host 1
ttcp –t –u –s –p 3000 1.0.1.1
Mobile Host 1
ttcp –t –u –s –p 3001 1.0.1.1
Host(Receiver)
ttcp –r –u –s –p 3000
ttcp –r –u –s –p 3001
Part B Programs
Experiment No 1:
Theory:
It does error checking via polynomial division. In general, a bit string
bn-1bn-2bn-3…b2b1b0
As
As
X10 + X7 + X5 + X3 + X2 + X1
All computations are done in modulo 2
Algorithm:-
1. Given a bit string, append 0S to the end of it (the number of 0s is the same as the
degree of the generator polynomial) let B(x) be the polynomial corresponding to
B.
2. Divide B(x) by some agreed on polynomial G(x) (generator polynomial) and
determine the remainder R(x). This division is to be done using Modulo 2
Division.
3. Define T(x) = B(x) –R(x)
Program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{
void mod();
clrscr();
for(i=0;i<=16;i++)
gen[i]='0';
gen[0]=gen[5]=gen[12]=gen[16]='1';
printf("prog calculate CRC\n");
printf("enter msg polynomial(20 bits)\n");
scanf("%s",in);
strcpy(temp,in);
for(i=0;i<(strlen(gen)-1);i++)
zero[i]='0';
zero[i]='\0';
strcat(temp,zero);
mod();
strcpy(out,in);
strcat(out,temp);
printf("CRC poly is\n");
printf("%s",out);
printf("enter new frame\n");
scanf("%s",temp);
mod();
for(i=0;temp[i]!='\0';i++)
{
if(temp[i]!='\0')
flag=1;
}
if(flag)
printf("error in recieved frame\n");
else
printf("no error in recieved frame\n");
return(0);
}
void mod()
{
l1:if(strlen(temp)>=strlen(gen))
{
if(temp[0]=='0')
{
for(i=0;temp[i]!='\0';i++)
temp[i]=temp[i+1];
goto l1;
}
else
{
for(i=0;i<strlen(gen);i++)
{
temp[i]=(char)(((int)temp[i]-48)^((int)gen[i]-48))+48;
}
goto l1;
}
}
}
Output
Case 1:
Enter the Message polynomial
1111
The CRC Polynomial is
11110111100011111111
Enter the New Frame
11110111100011111111
No Error in Received Frame
Case 2:
Enter the Message polynomial
1111
The CRC Polynomial is
11110111100011111111
Enter the New Frame
11110111100011111011
Error in Received Frame
Experiment No 2:
Theory:
The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the Data link layer
adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame.
Each Data link layer has its own frame format. One of the fields defined in the format
is the maximum size of the data field. In other words, when datagram is encapsulated in a
frame, the total size of the datagram must be less than this maximum size, which is
defined by restriction imposed by the hardware and software used in the network.
IP Datagram
Program:
#include<stdio.h>
struct frame
{
int fslno;
char finfo[20];
};
struct frame arr[10];
int n;
void sort()
{
int i,j,ex;
struct frame temp;
for(i=0;i<n-1;i++)
{
ex=0;
for(j=0;j<n-i-1;j++)
if(arr[j].fslno > arr[j+1].fslno)
{
temp=arr[j];
arr[j]=arr[j+1];
arr[j+1]=temp;
ex++;
}
if(ex==0) break;
}
}
int main()
{
int i;
system("clear");
printf("enter the number of frames\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("enter the frame seq num and frame contents\n:");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf("%d%s",&arr[i].fslno,&arr[i].finfo);
sort();
printf("the frames in sequence\n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("0111110 %d\t%s 01111110\n",arr[i].fslno,arr[i].finfo);
printf("1-----------------------------\n");
}
}
Output
3 Packet
2 Segment
4 Frame
1 Datagram
1 Datagram
2 Segment
3 Packet
4 Frame
Experiment No 3
Write a program for distance vector algorithm to find suitable path for
transmission.
Theory
Routing algorithm is a part of network layer software which is responsible for deciding
which output line an incoming packet should be transmitted on. If the subnet uses
datagram internally, this decision must be made anew for every arriving data packet since
the best route may have changed since last time. If the subnet uses virtual circuits
internally, routing decisions are made only when a new established route is being set up.
The latter case is sometimes called session routing, because a rout remains in force for an
entire user session (e.g., login session at a terminal or a file).
Routing algorithms can be grouped into two major classes: adaptive and nonadaptive.
Nonadaptive algorithms do not base their routing decisions on measurement or estimates
of current traffic and topology. Instead, the choice of route to use to get from I to J (for all
I and J) is compute in advance, offline, and downloaded to the routers when the network
ids booted. This procedure is sometime called static routing.
Two algorithms in particular, distance vector routing and link state routing are the
most popular. Distance vector routing algorithms operate by having each router maintain
a table (i.e., vector) giving the best known distance to each destination and which line to
get there. These tables are updated by exchanging information with the neighbors.
The distance vector routing algorithm is sometimes called by other names, including
the distributed Bellman-Ford routing algorithm and the Ford-Fulkerson algorithm, after
the researchers who developed it (Bellman, 1957; and Ford and Fulkerson, 1962). It was
the original ARPANET routing algorithm and was also used in the Internet under the RIP
and in early versions of DECnet and Novell’s IPX. AppleTalk and Cisco routers use
improved distance vector protocols.
In distance vector routing, each router maintains a routing table indexed by, and
containing one entry for, each router in subnet. This entry contains two parts: the
preferred out going line to use for that destination, and an estimate of the time or distance
to that destination. The metric used might be number of hops, time delay in milliseconds,
total number of packets queued along the path, or something similar.
The router is assumed to know the “distance” to each of its neighbor. If the metric is
hops, the distance is just one hop. If the metric is queue length, the router simply
examines each queue. If the metric is delay, the router can measure it directly with special
ECHO packets hat the receiver just time stamps and sends back as fast as possible.
To see how fast good news propagates, consider the five node (linear) subnet of
following figure, where the delay metric is the number of hops. Suppose A is down
initially and all the other routers know this. In other words, they have all recorded the
delay to A as infinity.
A B C D E A B C D E
_____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ Initially 1 2 3 4 Initially
1 ∞ ∞ ∞ After 1 exchange 3 2 3 4 After 1 exchange
1 2 ∞ ∞ After 2 exchange 3 3 3 4 After 2 exchange
1 2 3 ∞ After 3 exchange 5 3 5 4 After 3 exchange
1 2 3 4 After 4 exchange 5 6 5 6 After 4 exchange
7 6 7 6 After 5 exchange
7 8 7 8 After 6 exchange
:
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
Many ad hoc solutions to the count to infinity problem have been proposed in the
literature, each one more complicated and less useful than the one before it. The split
horizon algorithm works the same way as distance vector routing, except that the
distance to X is not reported on line that packets for X are sent on (actually, it is reported
as infinity). In the initial state of right figure, for example, C tells D the truth about
distance to A but C tells B that its distance to A is infinite. Similarly, D tells the truth to E
but lies to C.
Program
/* program for distance vector algm to find suitable path for transmission */
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 10
#define INFI 9999
return j;
}
int main()
{
int cost[MAX][MAX],dist[MAX],i,j,n,v,v1,v2;
printf("\nEnter the number of nodes :");
scanf("%d",&n);
shortpath(v,cost,dist,n);
printf("\nThe cost of shortest path from node %d to other nodes of the n/w is \n",v);
for(j=1;j<=n;j++)
if(j!=v)
printf("\n%2d->%2d=%d\n",v,j,dist[j]);
}
Output
The cost of shortest paths from Node 1 to other nodes of network are:
1 ->2 = 1
1 -> 3=2
1-> 4=3
1-> 5= 3
Experiment No 4
Program
/* inet.h */
#include<sys/types.h>
#include<sys/socket.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#include<netinet/in.h>
#include<arpa/inet.h>
#include<fcntl.h>
/*Server*/
#include "inet.h"
sockfd=socket(AF_INET,SOCK_STREAM,0);
bzero((char*)&serv_addr,sizeof(serv_addr));
serv_addr.sin_family=AF_INET;
serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr=htonl(INADDR_ANY);
serv_addr.sin_port=htons(SERV_TCP_PORT);
bind(sockfd,(struct sockaddr*)&serv_addr,sizeof(serv_addr));
listen(sockfd,5);
for(;;)
{
bzero((char*)&buff,sizeof(buff));
bzero((char*)&buff1,sizeof(buff1));
bzero((char*)&buff2,sizeof(buff2));
cli_len=sizeof(cli_addr);
newsockfd=accept(sockfd,(struct sockaddr*)&cli_addr,&cli_len);
if((chpid=fork())<0)
{
printf("\n fork error");
exit(0);
}
if(chpid==0)
{
n=recv(newsockfd,buff,sizeof(buff),0);
buff[n]='\0';
fd=open(buff,O_RDWR);
if(fd!=-1)
{
strcpy(buff2,"s#");
n=lseek(fd,0,SEEK_END);
lseek(fd,0,SEEK_SET);
read(fd,buff1,n);
buff1[n]='\0';
strcat(buff2,buff1);
send(newsockfd,buff2,strlen(buff2),0);
}
else
{
send(newsockfd,"f#",strlen("f#"),0);
}
}
close(newsockfd);
}
}
/*Client*/
#include"inet.h"
main(int argc,char **argv)
{
struct sockaddr_in serv_addr;
int sockfd,n,i,j=0;
char buff[2048],buff1[2048],buff3[2048];
sockfd=socket(AF_INET,SOCK_STREAM,0);
bzero((char*)&serv_addr,sizeof(serv_addr));
serv_addr.sin_family=AF_INET;
serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr=inet_addr(SERV_HOST_ADDR);
serv_addr.sin_port=htons(SERV_TCP_PORT);
connect(sockfd,(struct sockaddr*)&serv_addr,sizeof(serv_addr));
strcpy(buff3,buff);
buff[strlen(buff)]='\0';
send(sockfd,buff,sizeof(buff),0);
bzero((char*)&buff,sizeof(buff));
n=recv(sockfd,buff,sizeof(buff),0);
buff[n]='\0';
i=2;
while(i<n)
{
buff1[j++]=buff[i++];
}
buff1[j]='\0';
if(buff[0]=='s')
{
printf("Contents of the file is :%s\n",buff1);
}
else
{
printf("\n File%s is not present\n",buff3);
}
}
Experiment No 5
Program
/* ourfile.h */
#include<sys/types.h>
#include<sys/stat.h>
#include<fcntl.h>
#include<unistd.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
#define PERMS 0666
#define FIFO1 "/tmp/fifo1.h"
#define FIFO2 "/tmp/fifo2.h"
if(fd!=-1)
{
n=lseek(fd,0,SEEK_END);
lseek(fd,0,SEEK_SET);
read(fd,buff1,n);
write(writefd,buff1,n);
}
else
{
write(writefd,"File doesnt exist",strlen("file doesnt exist"));
}
}
void client(int readfd,int writefd)
{
char filen[255],buff[20000];
int n;
printf("enter the filename");
scanf("%s",filen);
filen[strlen(filen)]='\0';
write(writefd,filen,strlen(filen));
n=read(readfd,buff,32767);
buff[n]='\0';
write(1,buff,n);
}
/*Server*/
#include "ourfile.h"
main()
{
int readfd,writefd;
mknod(FIFO1,PERMS|S_IFIFO,0);
mknod(FIFO2,PERMS|S_IFIFO,0);
readfd=open(FIFO1,0);
writefd=open(FIFO2,1);
server(readfd,writefd);
close(readfd);
close(writefd);
exit(0);
}
/*Client*/
#include "ourfile.h"
main()
{
int readfd,writefd;
writefd=open(FIFO1,1);
readfd=open(FIFO2,0);
client(readfd,writefd);
close(readfd);
close(writefd);
}
// Server is running//
Output (Client) open another terminal and run the following commands
Experiment No 6
Write a program for simple RSA algorithm to encrypt and decrypt the
data.
Theory
Cryptography has a long and colorful history. The message to be encrypted, known as
the plaintext, are transformed by a function that is parameterized by a key. The output of
the encryption process, known as the ciphertext, is then transmitted, often by messenger
or radio. The enemy, or intruder, hears and accurately copies down the complete
ciphertext. However, unlike the intended recipient, he does not know the decryption key
and so cannot decrypt the ciphertext easily. The art of breaking ciphers is called
cryptanalysis the art of devising ciphers (cryptography) and breaking them
(cryptanalysis) is collectively known as cryptology.
There are several ways of classifying cryptographic algorithms. They are generally
categorized based on the number of keys that are employed for encryption and
decryption, and further defined by their application and use. The three types of algorithms
are as follows:
1. Secret Key Cryptography (SKC): Uses a single key for both encryption and
decryption. It is also known as symmetric cryptography.
2. Public Key Cryptography (PKC): Uses one key for encryption and another for
decryption. It is also known as asymmetric cryptography.
3. Hash Functions: Uses a mathematical transformation to irreversibly "encrypt"
information
Public-key cryptography has been said to be the most significant new development in
cryptography. Modern PKC was first described publicly by Stanford University professor
Martin Hellman and graduate student Whitfield Diffie in 1976. Their paper described a
two-key crypto system in which two parties could engage in a secure communication over
a non-secure communications channel without having to share a secret key.
Generic PKC employs two keys that are mathematically related although knowledge
of one key does not allow someone to easily determine the other key. One key is used to
encrypt the plaintext and the other key is used to decrypt the ciphertext. The important
point here is that it does not matter which key is applied first, but that both keys are
required for the process to work. Because pair of keys is required, this approach is also
called asymmetric cryptography.
In PKC, one of the keys is designated the public key and may be advertised as widely
as the owner wants. The other key is designated the private key and is never revealed to
another party. It is straight forward to send messages under this scheme.
The RSA algorithm is named after Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Len Adleman, who
invented it in 1977. The RSA algorithm can be used for both public key encryption and
digital signatures. Its security is based on the difficulty of factoring large integers.
Algorithm
1. Generate two large random primes, P and Q, of approximately equal size.
2. Compute N = P x Q
3. Compute Z = (P-1) x (Q-1).
4. Choose an integer E, 1 < E < Z, such that GCD (E, Z) = 1
5. Compute the secret exponent D, 1 < D < Z, such that E x D ≡ 1 (mod Z)
6. The public key is (N, E) and the private key is (N, D).
Note that we don't have to calculate the full value of 13 to the power 7 here. We can
make use of the fact that a = bc mod n = (b mod n).(c mod n) mod n so we can break
down a potentially large number into its components and combine the results of easier,
smaller calculations to calculate the final value.
Program
/* program for simple RSA algm to encrypt and decrypt the data */
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
#include <math.h>
void main()
{
long double p,q,phi,n,e,d,ms,es,ds;
clrscr();
do{
printf("\nEnter prime numbers p and q :");
scanf("%lf %lf",&p,&q);
}while((p==q) || !prime(p) || !prime(q));
n=p*q;
phi=(p-1)*(q-1);
do{
printf("\nEnter the relative prime value of e :");
scanf("%lf",&e);
}while((gcd(e,phi)!=1) || e>phi);
for(d=1;d<phi;++d)
{
if(fmod((e*d),phi)==1)
break;
}
printf("\n decryption key = %lf",d);
printf("\n message is \n");
scanf("%lf",&ms);
ds=modexp(es,d,n);
printf("\n dc mes is %lf",ds);
getch();
}
Output
Experiment No 7
Write a program for Hamming Code generation for error detection and
correction
Theory
Hamming codes are used for detecting and correcting single bit errors in transmitted
data. This requires that 3 parity bits (check bits) be transmitted with every 4 data bits. The
algorithm is called A(7, 4) code, because it requires seven bits to encode 4 bits of data.
Eg:
Bit String Parity Bit Verification
000 0 0+0+0+0 = 0
001 1 0+0+1+1 = 0
010 1 0+1+0+1 = 0
011 0 0+1+1+0 = 0
100 1 1+0+0+1 = 0
101 0 1+0+1+0 = 0
110 0 1+0+1+0 = 0
111 1 1+1+1+1 = 0
Parity types:
Even: - Even number of 1’s is present, i.e. the modulo 2 sum of the bits is 0.
Odd: - Odd number of 1’s is present, i.e. the modulo 2 sum of the bits is 1.
Given data bits D1, D2, D3 and D4, A (7, 4) Hamming code may define parity bits P1,
P2 and P3 as,
P1=D2+D3+D4
P2=D1+D3+D4
P3=D1+D2+D4
There are 4 equations for a parity bit that may be used in Hamming codes,
P4=D1+D2+D3
Valid Hamming codes may use any 3 of the above 4 parity bit definitions. Valid
Hamming codes may also place the parity bits in any location within the block of 7 data
and parity bits.
One method for transferring 4 bits of data into a 7 bit Hamming code word is to use a
4x7 generate matrix [G] defined to be the 1x4 vector [D1 D2 D3 D4].
Its possible to create a 4x7 generator matrix [G] such that the product modulo 2 of d
and [G] (D[G]) is the desired 1x7 Hamming code word.
For example each data bits can be represented with in a column vector as follows.
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
D1= D2= D3= D4=
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
And represent each parity bit with a column vector continuing a 1 in the row
corresponding to each data bit included in the computation and a zero in all other rows.
0 1 1
1 0 1
P1= P2= P3=
1 1 0
1 1 1
And
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0
G=
1 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 1
P1 P2 P3 D1 D2 D3 D4
Encoding
The process to encode the data value 1010 using the Hamming code defined by the G
matrix is as follows: -
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
[1010 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
] 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 1
Decoding
The first step is to check the parity bits to determine if there is an error. Arithmetically,
parity may be checked as follows: -
P1 = D2+D3+D4 = 0+1+1 = 0
P2 = D1+D3+D4 = 1+1+1 = 1
P3 = D1+D2+D4 = 1+0+1 = 0
Parity may also be validated by using matrix operation. A 3x7 parity check matrix [H]
may be constructed such that row 1 contains 1s in the position of the first parity bits and
all the data bits that are included in its parity calculation. Using this, matrix [H] may be
defined as follows: -
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
H= 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
rd
3 Bit Parity
nd
2 Bit Parity
1st Bit Parity
Multiplying the 3x7 matrix [H] by a 7x1 matrix representing the encoded data
produces a 3x1 matrix called the Syndrome.
If the syndrome is all 0’s the encoded data is error free. If the syndrome has a non-zero
value, flipping the encoded bit that is in the position of the column matching the
syndrome will result in a valid code word.
Ex: -
Suppose the data received is 1011011,
Then
1
0
(1*1)+(0*0)+(0*1)+(0*1)+(1*0)+(1*1)+(1*1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
)
(0*1)+(1*0)+(0*1)+(1*1)+(0*0)+(1*1)+(1*1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 = = 1
)
(0*1)+(0*0)+(1*1)+(1*1)+(1*0)+(0*1)+(1*1
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
)
1
1
Looking back at the matrix [H] the 7th column is all 1s so the 7th bit is the bit that has
an error.
Program
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#include<stdio.h>
char data[5];
int encoded[8], edata[7], syndrome[3];
int hmatrix[3][7]= { 1,0,0,0,1,1,1,
0,1,0,1,0,1,1,
0,0,1,1,1,0,1};
void main() {
int i,j;
clrscr();
cout<<"Hamming Code --- Encoding\n";
cout<<"Enter 4 bit data : ";
cin>>data;
cout<<"Generator Matrix\n";
for(i=0;i<4;i++) cout<<"\t"<<gmatrix[i]<<"\n";
for(i=0;i<3;i++) {
for(j=0;j<7;j++)
syndrome[i]=syndrome[i]+(edata[j]*hmatrix[i][j]);
syndrome[i]=syndrome[i]%2;
}
for(j=0;j<7;j++)
if ((syndrome[0]==hmatrix[0][j])&&(syndrome[1]==hmatrix[1][j])&&
(syndrome[2]==hmatrix[2][j]))
break;
if(j==7)
cout<<"Data is error free!!\n";
else {
cout<<"Error received at bit number "<<j+1<<" of the data\n";
edata[j]=!edata[j];
cout<<"The Correct data Should be : ";
for(i=0;i<7;i++) cout<<edata[i]<<" ";
}
}
}
Output
Generator Matrix
0111000
1010100
1100010
1110001
Encoded Data : 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
Generator Matrix
0111000
1010100
1100010
1110001
Encoded Data : 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
Experiment No 8
Theory
The congesting control algorithms are basically divided into two groups: open loop
and closed loop. Open loop solutions attempt to solve the problem by good design, in
essence, to make sure it does not occur in the first place. Once the system is up and
running, midcourse corrections are not made. Open loop algorithms are further divided
into ones that act at source versus ones that act at the destination.
In contrast, closed loop solutions are based on the concept of a feedback loop if there
is any congestion. Closed loop algorithms are also divided into two sub categories:
explicit feedback and implicit feedback. In explicit feedback algorithms, packets are sent
back from the point of congestion to warn the source. In implicit algorithm, the source
deduces the existence of congestion by making local observation, such as the time needed
for acknowledgment to come back.
The presence of congestion means that the load is (temporarily) greater than the
resources (in part of the system) can handle. For subnets that use virtual circuits
internally, these methods can be used at the network layer.
Another open loop method to help manage congestion is forcing the packet to be
transmitted at a more predictable rate. This approach to congestion management is widely
used in ATM networks and is called traffic shaping.
The other method is the leaky bucket algorithm. Each host is connected to the network
by an interface containing a leaky bucket, that is, a finite internal queue. If a packet
arrives at the queue when it is full, the packet is discarded. In other words, if one or more
process are already queued, the new packet is unceremoniously discarded. This
arrangement can be built into the hardware interface or simulate d by the host operating
system. In fact it is nothing other than a single server queuing system with constant
service time.
The host is allowed to put one packet per clock tick onto the network. This mechanism
turns an uneven flow of packet from the user process inside the host into an even flow of
packet onto the network, smoothing out bursts and greatly reducing the chances of
congestion.
Program
#include<iostream.h>
#include<dos.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
#define bucketSize 512
void bktInput(int a,int b) {
if(a>bucketSize)
cout<<"\n\t\tBucket overflow";
else {
delay(500);
while(a>b){
cout<<"\n\t\t"<<b<<" bytes outputted.";
a-=b;
delay(500);
}
if (a>0) cout<<"\n\t\tLast "<<a<<" bytes sent\t";
cout<<"\n\t\tBucket output successful";
}
}
void main() {
int op, pktSize;
randomize();
cout<<"Enter output rate : "; cin>>op;
for(int i=1;i<=5;i++){
delay(random(1000));
pktSize=random(1000);
cout<<"\nPacket no "<<i<<"\tPacket size = "<<pktSize;
bktInput(pktSize,op);
}
}
Output
REFERENCES
5. http://nsl10.csie.nctu.edu.tw/