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CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACK GROUND

Introduction

Salinity has a dual effect on plant growth via an osmotic effect on plant water

uptake, and specific ion toxicities. By decreasing the osmotic potential of the soil

solution, plant access to soil water is decreased, because of the decrease in total soil

water potential. As the soil dries, the concentration of salt in the soil solution

increases, further decreasing the osmotic potential. In order to maintain water uptake

from a saline soil, plants must osmotically adjust. This is done either by taking up

salts and compartmentalizing them within plant tissue, or synthesizing organic

solutes. Plants which take up salts generally have a higher salt tolerance and greater

ability to store high salt concentrations in plant tissue without affecting cell

processes, and are know as halophytes. Plants which synthesise organic solutes are

known as glycophytes, and they try to prevent excess salt uptake because they can

tolerate much lower concentrations of salt in plant tissues before cell processes are

adversely affected.

In most cases glycophytes tend to be salt sensitive, although this is not always

the case (Bernstein 1975; Marschner 1995; Orcutt and Nilsen 2000). While these are

the two extremes, most plants utilize a combination of these strategies, and

differences exist between varieties (Chhipa and Lal 1995; Saneoka et al. 1999). Even

with complete osmotic adjustment, a reduction in growth may occur due to the
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metabolic demands of maintaining osmotic adjustment (Bernstein 1975; Marschner

1995). While increased uptake of salts may contribute to osmotic adjustment,

Na+ and Cl- toxicity may result. A range of symptoms have been described, with

chlorosis on the tips of older leaves, developing to necrosis, followed by death of

leaves, common across many species (Eaton 1966; Grundon 1987; Kurniadie and

Redmann 1999; Xu et al. 2000).

Accumulation of excess Na+ may cause metabolic disturbances in processes

where low Na+ and high K+ or Ca2+ are required for optimum function (Marschner

1995). A decrease in nitrate reductase activity, inhibition of photosystem II (Orcutt

and Nilsen 2000), and chlorophyll breakdown (Krishnamurthy et al. 1987) are all

associated with increased Na+ concentrations. Cell membrane function may be

compromised as a result of Na+ replacing Ca2+, resulting in increased cell leakiness

(Orcutt and Nilsen 2000).

While symptoms of Cl- toxicity are frequently documented (Grundon et

al. 1987; Manchanda and Sharma 1989; Kurniadie and Redmann 1999; Xu et

al. 2000), much less information regarding the specific effects of high Cl- is

available. High concentrations of Cl- in leaf tissue may disrupt photosynthetic

function through the inhibition of nitrate reductase activity (Xu et al. 2000). Once the

capacity of the cell to store salts is exhausted, salts build up in the intercellular space,

leading to cell dehydration and death (Munns 1993).

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A better understanding of the dominant effects involved in plant response to salinity

will facilitate development of improved varieties and crop management practices.

Background of the Study

We came with this study because, we would like to know whether water salinity can

help on plant growth. Plant is one of our sources of food so we made a study to find

out if water salinity (A clear, colorless, odorless, and tasteless liquid, H2O, essential

for most plant and animal life and the most widely used of all solvents. Freezing

point 0°C (32°F); boiling point 100°C (212°F); specific gravity (4°C) 1.0000; weight

pergallon (15°C) 8.338 pounds (3.782 kilograms) ). Really could help in plant

growth. We use two plants to our experiment which is Sili also known as

“Capsicum” (capsicum is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family

Solanaceae. Its species are native to the Americas, where they have been cultivated

for thousands of years. Following the Columbian exchange, it has become cultivated

worldwide, and it has also become a key element in many cuisines. In addition to use

as spices and food vegetables, Capsicum species have also been used as medicines

and lachrymatory agents).One of the plant use water salinity while the other one is

not we will observe if there’s any effect of water salinity on plant.

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STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Salinity is becoming an increasing problem along waterways, on irrigated land,

deserts and other areas worldwide.

RESEARCH PROBLEM

Many plants are more sensitive to excess salinity in their formative stages, while
germinating and initial growth. With a bit of help to reduce salinity at this stage; such
as keeping well watered to dilute the salinity, some plants can tolerate more salinity
once they have developed more. You can also give your newly planted seeds or
plants a surrounding bed of potting mix or other low salinity soil, to ease their way
while they become stronger
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Scope and Delimitation

This study focused on the effectiveness of water salinity to the plant growth.

The scope of this research is the used of water salinity to fertilized the Chili Pepper.

The soil used for this experiment was a loamy soil. While a soil of this kind is not

generally associated with salinity problems, it was used for this study because adding

NaCl would not alter the physical properties of the soil and no dispersive response to

NaCl was observed. Therefore were looking to the effectiveness of water salinity on

Chilli Pepper.

Significance of the Study

The result of the study will be most valuable to the following:

Farmer- To improve the quality of the capsicum in an affordable and convenient

way.

Seller- Awareness in formation of competition due to the discovery of new

alternative fertilizer

Co- Researcher- May be used as reference for future research and development of

new product

Concerned Readers- The ideas presented may be used as reference data in

conducting new researches or in testing the validity of other related findings.

Researcher- Application of gathered information in real life (in order to improve the

quality of one's way of living.)

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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Local Literature

According to Turfgrass Tolerance (2011), High levels of soluble salts in the turf

root zone are detrimental to most turf grasses. Excess salts can affect growth by

osmotic inhibition of water uptake (physiological drought). Other effects can include

reduced top growth, and reduced nutrient uptake; root biomass may increase

adaptively to improve water absorbing ability. Sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) reduce

growth by interfering in photosynthesis (also noted by Harivandi et al. 1992).

Salinity affects different species in different ways and the effects can vary according

to the age of the plant. Effects are generally greater at germination and planting than

in the mature plant. Salinity tolerance is related to the plant species’ ability to reduce

sodium chloride (NaCl) uptake. It is essential that the golf course manager have a

good understanding of the complete soil/turf/drainage system to ensure long-term

sustainability.

According to Brown, Paul and Jim Walworth (2011), The consequences of

excess salinity can include poor turf performance, reduced water infiltration (Dickey:

this is due to poor cation balance [excessive Na], not salinity per se), and the

appearance of a new turf disease, rapid blight. The two main causes of high salinity

are inadequate leaching and inherited (Dickey: water supply) salinity. When water

supply is insufficient, salinity levels rise and turf performance and/or soil structure

declines (Dickey: structural decline should not be related to drought). There is a well-
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established body of literature that quantifies the amount of leaching required based

on water quality and salinity tolerance of turf grass species (e.g., Ayers and Westcot

1989, Mass 1984, Carrow and Duncan 1998). For most species, an additional three to

six inches on water in excess of ET is required on an annual basis. Increasing the

amount of water available for turf irrigation is one means of addressing salinity-

related problems. Future water duties (depth of water allocated for irrigation) should

be revised to incorporate this additional water need. In the interim, there are two

options: applying the leaching allotment or blending with higher quality water. Other

options include capturing runoff, improving irrigation application uniformity, and

improving infiltration.

According to Dickey, John, Plan Tierra (2014), Impacts of salinity to irrigated

systems that are most often cited reductions in soil quality brought about by

inadequate removal of salt from the root zone, which in turn affects plant growth.

The nexus with water supply is the process of salt removal, which is almost

exclusively with excess applied water and precipitation (see later discussion of

leaching). In general, more applied water is required to remove a greater mass of salt.

The mass of salt that must be removed depends on 1) how much is being added, and

2) the sensitivity of the plants, and thus the salt concentration that must be achieved

in the root zone. The sensitivity of landscape and agricultural systems in the region is

therefore central to the question ,whether and how reductions in imported water

supply salinity could feasibly influence volumes of applied water. The other major

determinant of how applied water amounts can be influenced by applied water

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salinity lies in the extent to which irrigation practices accurately reflect leaching

requirements. Irrigators must respond to more dilute water by reducing leaching

requirements for water conservation to be realized. See the later section on water

management. Increasingly, there are viable techniques to help guide irrigation

decisions at the landscape level, allowing irrigators to understand not only average

conditions in irrigated areas, but also to locate and diagnose variability. These

include ground-based remote sensing to assess soil salinity (previously discussed), as

well as aerial and satellite based sensors. The diversity, as well as the spatial and

temporal resolution of these data, and our capacity to interpret them, have all

increased. At the same time, their cost relative to other costs (for example, of water)

has generally declined. For example, estimates reference evapotranspiration have

historically been based on climatic parameters. We then estimate landscape ET with

the help of coefficients. Actual ET can also be measured by observing the energy

balance at the surface of the earth, something that can be done by satellite. The same

imagery provides indices of plant stress, soil wetness, and weed infestations, all with

comparable spatial richness. Delivery of these types of data, along with

interpretations and recommendations that follow from them, is now greatly

facilitated in web-based services that resemble the Google Earth interface. These

images and estimates are far more detailed (spatially) so that irrigators can identify

and manage problem areas and the rest of the landscape in distinct and appropriate

ways. Sensing of soil salinity from above ground is analogous. Electromagnetic

properties of salt, water, and soil allow this to occur, resulting in detailed maps of
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salinity. This complements and greatly enriches knowledge gained from more

cumbersome and therefore more limited information from soil samples taken at

specific points in the landscape. Since the objective of irrigation is to manage soil

moisture and salinity in a manner that benefits the desired plant community, and to

do so in a time- and water-efficient manner, the more detailed knowledge provided

by these tools presents an as-yet lightly tapped opportunity.

Local Study

Paningbatan (2011), A rapid field test for estimating salinity level of soil and

water samples was developed. The test which measures colorimetrically the chloride

content of a solution gives estimate of salinity that is highly correlated with the

electrical conductivity of water samples and saturated extract of soil samples

collected in several salt-affected coastal areas in the Philippines. The test is

specifically useful in monitoring in the field periodic fluctuation of salinity and in

mapping salt-affected coastal areas in the country.

Teca (2012), The Philippines are among the most disaster prone countries in the

world. More than 200 climate-related natural disasters were recorded in the last two

decades. Alone in 2011, the country was hit by 33 disasters, claiming 1,430 lives.

Agriculture is the sector most affected by tropical cyclones causing a decline in

production and productivity which will possibly threaten the country's food security.

Due to the climate variability and other environmental changes, rice cultivation

especially in the typhoon prone areas are facing some challenges for farmers to adapt
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to saltwater intrusion in coastal areas. Salinity became one of the major soil problems

in many rice-growing areas in the world. About 48 million hectares of land in the

humid regions of South and Southeast Asia are technically suited to rice production

but remain idle or are grown with poor results due to salinity. Studies show,

however, that sustained and profitable production of crops specifically rice on salt-

affected soils is possible, if appropriate farm management practices are implemented.

Foreign Study

José Dinneny (2013), Washington, D.C. —Until now it has not been clear how

salt, a scourge to agriculture, halts the growth of the plant-root system. A team of

researchers, led by the Carnegie Institution’s José Dinneny and Lina Duan, found

that not all types of roots are equally inhibited. They discovered that an inner layer of

tissue in the branching roots that anchor the plant is sensitive to salt and activates a

stress hormone, which stops root growth. The study, published in the current issue of

The Plant Cell, is a boon for understanding the stress response and for developing

salt-resistant crops.

Salt accumulates in irrigated soils due to the evaporation of water, which leaves salt

behind. The United Nations estimates that salinity affects crops on about 200 million

acres (80 million hectares) of arable land and not just in developing countries, but

areas such as California as well. As Dinneny explained: “An important missing piece

of the puzzle to understanding how plants cope with stressful environments is

knowing when and where stressors act to affect growth.” Roots are intimately
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associated with their environment and develop highly intricate branched networks

that enable them to explore the soil. The branching roots grow horizontally off the

main root and are important for water and nutrient uptake.

Bright Hub (2013), Many plants cannot tolerate the presence of saltwater and

there are those that can endure the effects of saltwater in their system. Each plant

differs in their tolerance level for sodium. Although, they need salt to perform their

chemical procedure, too much of it can be fatal to terrestrial plants. So, what is the

effect of saltwater on plant growth? Here are some of the effects.

Carnegie Institution (2013), Until now it has not been clear how salt, a scourge

to agriculture, halts the growth of the plant-root system. Researcher found that not all

types of roots are equally inhibited. They discovered that an inner layer of tissue in

the branching roots is sensitive to salt and activates a stress hormone, which stops

root growth. The study is a boon for understanding the stress response and for

developing salt-resistant crops.

Foreign Literature

Landau alumnus Felix Sauer (2012), Salinization is deemed to be a global threat

for freshwater ecosystems. In Australia, salinization is mainly driven by two factors.

Dryland salinity as a result of the removal of the natural deep-rooted native

vegetation, which leads to a rise of saline ground water towards the surface, and

saline effluents from coal mining and coal seam gas extraction (Australia belongs,

behind China and the USA, to the largest coal producers of the world). Finally, both
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sources lead to increasing levels of salts in aquatic systems but their ionic

composition is often completely different, potentially modulating salt-induced effects

in freshwater ecosystems. In the present study, we assessed the effects of dryland

salinity and coal mining on the breakdown of coarse particular organic matter

(CPOM), which represents a key ecosystem function by fueling the heterotrophic

food web (see also a former post), while the focus was on the microbial contribution

to this function. We used a combination of field and laboratory experiments and both

revealed a decrease of breakdown rates with increasing salinity. Furthermore, we

observed strong indications that microbial leaf breakdown is modulated by the ionic

composition of the salts and that the microbial capacity to break down leaf litter

shows an inverted `U´-shaped relationship (optimum ≈ 500 µS/cm) instead of

decreasing monotonously with increasing salinity. In summary, our study clearly

shows that salinization is a threat for freshwater ecosystem functioning. Yet, the

underlying processes that impair microorganism-mediated leaf litter breakdown are

not fully understood and need further scrutiny.

Jhonson (20012), An examination literature concerning water management

problems in different parts of the world reveal a paucity of writing on the legal and

institutional aspects of salinity management. One of the basins where this problem

has been critical has been the Indus, where 6.5 million acresa of actually or

potentially cultured land were seriously affected by water logging and/or high

salinity, and several million additional acres were somewhat less adversely affected.

A number of authors have described the Indus problem, its impact on agricultural
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production, and proposed engineering solutions. The master plan for solving the

problem in Pakistan, for example, called for the installation of supplemental drainage

channels. However, little writing has occurred on the legal-institutional actions taken

to resolve the Indus problem. A careful analysis of legal-institutional approach to the

salinity problems in the Colorado River Basin might be of unique value because

information has been published and remedial actions are visible.

Mushtaque Ahmed and Salim A. Al-Rawahy (2011), Soil and groundwater

salinity has emerged as the most significant agricultural problem facing the Sultanate

of Oman. Scant rainfall, coupled with high temperature, is always conducive to the

accumulation of salts in soils. These conditions are predominant in Oman. Secondary

soil salinity has increased at a very rapid rate due to the persistent use of saline

groundwater, which, over time, has become more concentrated due to increased

pumping by farmers in the Batinah region - the country’s most important agricultural

area. The balance between total pumping and annual recharge that had existed prior

to the 1990s has been greatly disturbed, resulting initially in reduction of crop yields

and gradually in the abandonment of lands. Saline seawater intrusions are also

present in some areas of the region that are nearer to the sea as the result of over-

pumping. Salt-affected lands constitute about 44% of Oman’s total geographical area

and 70% of the agriculturally suitable area of the country. The annual losses due to

salinity have been reported as 7.31 to 13.97 million Omani Rials (2005 data, 1

Omani Rial = 2.58 USD). When salt-affected lands go out of cultivation, their

owners become unemployed - engendering a host of socioeconomic problems.

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Clearly, therefore, soil salinity poses a huge threat to the sustainability of agriculture

in Oman, especially in Batinah.

The research project “Management of Salt Affected Soils and Water for

Sustainable Agriculture,” prepared and approved by Sultan Qaboos University, was

undertaken to explore ways to mitigate soil and water salinity. The project focused

on four approaches: soil rehabilitation, bio-saline agriculture, fodder production, and

the integration of the fish culture into crop production that could have compensatory

economic returns to farmers. The project aimed at developing management

guidelines which are scientifically sound for farmers a) to sustain economically

viable agricultural production in salt-affected areas with saline groundwater, b)

improve food security of Oman, and c) combat desertification. The idea was not to

try to remove all salts from soil and groundwater but to learn to live with the

prevailing conditions by providing sufficient income to the farmers in the affected

areas through various means. The project was conducted with the active participation

of Omani government scientists, farmers, and international experts. The tasks

accomplished during the project include:

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Conceptual Framework

Input Process Output

Water Salinity  Measuring Plan of action to

effect the improve the growth

plant growth of Capsicum

- Observsation
of Capsicum

 The difference
in growth of two
capsicum

Feedback

Figure1. Paradigm of Study

The study made use of the input-process-output model. The input box includes the

topic of the study. The process box includes the measuring of the study through

obseration. The output box includes plan of actions to improve the growth of

Capsicum with and without using water salinity.