..

Edited by
:~·•' . · Jolm Fauvel and Jan van Maanen

.... _. _·-........
 Ne\\" ICl\ II Study Series
History in Mathematics Education
The ICMI Study
Pt!l·li~h~d Uthkr Ih<' au~pkc:~ ,,f the lnr.:rn:ttil,nal ClHnrnis~il'll tm ~1ath~maticnl
ln~tm.:tl,,n unJ.:r 1heo gen~ral êditor~hip uf

H~ mon B:1ss. President

OcrnanJ R. Hodgson. Sccrcrury
Edtredby

JOHN FAUVEL
Tlle Ope11 University,
United Kingdom
and

JAN VAN MAANEN

Universlty o[Groningen,
Tire Nerherlands

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KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS

Df"lRDitl'CIIT I BOSTON I I.ONDON
li
l ,\ C.I.P. (alale>guc record for this bock is 3\'3ilablc frorn thc Library o f Cons rcss.
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ISB:>: O· -;q~:-f.39q.:'\
~ ...........................,.................................................................................... 1
r u;,lishcd by KIU\\e~ .-\CJtk mic l'ubl i~hcrs,
PO. B,,, 17. ;300 AA DNdrccht. The Ncthcrbnds.
~,,·J anJ diHuhncJ m :-;,, uh. l'c ntrll :~nd South :\mcricl
t-y Kluwcr Aclclerni• Put>lishcrs.
ll'l l'hilip Oril(. :-\Nwcll.lll:\ 0~0{1 1. U.S..·\.
~~~ lll t' thcr Ct'untri c$. sCIIJ and dimi!:>~tcd
t-,· Klu"cr Acadcmi~ l'ut-li~hcrs.
P.0. 13t'X ;~~- ;}00 .U I DNdrcdu. Thc Ncthcr!Jnds.
Prmrd on ocid-j'rc~ poper
:\11 Ri~hts Rm" cd
~· :tlll(l Kluwcr AcaJcmic l'ublishcrs
~,, p.1n ,,f thc mat,·ml prt'lcctcd l>y lhts cCipyrighl nolicc may bc rcproduccd or
ut•lizcd in :my fl'lmt ,,, t-y any nlcans. dcclronic or mechnnicnl.
mdudin:; phNNt'r~ 1ng. rcc('rding Cll \:ly any infonnalion storagc :md
rclric,al ;~stcm. witi:c-ut wri ncn pcnn1ssion from lhe copyrighl owncr.
Contents
lntroduction ..............- ...................................................................... xi
1. The political context
1.1 lntroductlon ........................................................................ _......................... 1
1.2 Whnt -part does history of mathematics currently occupy in national
curricula? .......................................................................................................2
::~:~ ~~:~~~~~.:·::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:·.: : ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~
1.2.3 Bratil ........................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.4 Chinu ............................................................................................................................ 4
1.2.5 Denmark .......................................................................................................................5
1.2.6 France ..........................................................................................................................7
1.2.7 Greece ..........................................................................................................................8
1.2.8 Israel ......... ...................................................................................................................9
~:th ~E~=~~::: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : =: : : :=::: : : ~:·: : : :·: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :·:~
1.2.12 New Zealand ............................................................................................................... l2
1.2.13 Norway ..................................................................................................................... 14
1.2.14 Poland ..................................................................................................................... 15
1.2.15 United Kingdom ......................................................................................................... 16
1.2.16 Unhed SI ates of Ame rica ............................................................................................ 18
1.3 History of mathemntics in curricula nnd schoolbooks: a case study of
Poland ........................................................................................................... 19
!.3.1 History o f mathematics in mathematics curricula .......................................................20
1.3.2 History of mathematics in mathematics school· books................................................ 2 1
1.3.3 Final remarks ..............................................................................................................28
1.4 Policy and politics In the advocacy ora hlstorical compohent................. 29
1.4.1 Polilical authorities (at ali levels} ................................................................................ 3 I
1.4.2 T~cher associations ................................................................................................... 3 1
1.4J Professional mathematics associations ....................................................................... 32
1.4.4 Teniary teachers .........................................................................................................32
1.4.5 Pnrents ................................................................ .................................................... 33
1.4.6 Textbook authors ........................................................................................................33
1.5 Quotations on the use or hislory of mathemutics in mathematics teaching
and lcarning .................................................................................................33
\ I
.!. l' hilosophical, multic ultural nnd intcrdisciplinary iss ucs
........................................................................................................... 39
~.I lntrotluction ·····-·······"·· .............................................................................. 39
1.~ Philosophical issues...................................................................................... -10
~ . :.1 Hi~INÍC:rf Ín\~~~~~:IIÍC>n. e\'Íd~nce anu interprct:olie>n ..................................................lO
Phik~C'rh~ cof mllhcno:uics. old anJ nc" .................................................................... <12
Thc enJ ~ C' f tht ~J:'(CHUm . .... ............................ ............ .... ............ ....... ........................ 44
:\I ulticulturnl issues .....................................................................................46
: •.': 1 lnlre>duction ................................................................................................................ 46
... ~ ..
\ lulticultur3lism inside lhe history or mathematic~ ................................................... .47
..lA \l~them:ltics ~s a hum:tn enterpri~e ............................................................................5()
lnterdisciplinary íssues ................................................................................52
:.J.f fntre>Juction ..................................................................... ,..........................................52
: ..1.: Hhtt'~ cof mathematin aml the MuJy of history ......................................................... 53
: . J.~ Hi~t<>r: <>f mathem3tics linking topic~ "ithi11 mothematks ........................................ 53
:.J.J Hi ~tC'ry <'f m;nhem3tin linking mathem:llics "ith other tlisci plines ...........................S5
Conclusion .................................................................................................... 61
J. lntcgrnting hislory: rcl'e:nch perspcctiHs
........................................................................................................... 63
·'3.2·' l ntr oducfion .................................................................................................63
3.3
The historical dimension: frorn tencher to lenrner ...................................66
The indirect genetic appronch to calculus ................: ................................71
J..l Stoch~stics tcaching and cognith·e de,·elopment .......................................74
,:\.6
Ancient problems for the deHiopment of strntegic th!nking ...................78
Difficullles wlth sc rics in hlsto r y nnd in thc cl:1ssroom ............................ll2
,:\,7
~.8
On potcntlalities. limits and risks ...............................................................86
Suggestions for future r esenrch ..................................................................90
·t Histor~· ofl\lnthematics for Trninee Teachers
........................................................................................................... 91
-1.1 Earlier vlews on histo11· in !encher education ........................................... 91
.u lnler notional o\·en·iew ................................................................................93
-I.J
.1}.1
.u .:
E:~;ampll's of current practice .................................................................... IIO
C'urmll pr:tl'tice in initi:rlteacher trnining ............................................................-.110
C'umnr rncti~e in in·~ef\ ice tr~ining ...................................................................-.131
-IA lssues o f Concern ....................................................................................... 140
vi i
5. Historical fo~mation and studcn t und ers tandi ng of
mathernatics..................................................................................... l43
S. I lntroductio n ............................................................................................... 143
5.2 The role of historicnl onalysis in predicting and interpreting stutlents'
·tlifficultres in mnthemntics ........................................................................ 149
S.3 Thc relevance o f historicnl stu<lies In dcsigning and anal~·sing classroom
activit!cs ...................................................................................................... l54
5.3. 1 Brinl!inu historicaltexts into thc classroom: the ·,okes und ech<Xs' pmcs ............ 155
5.3.2 lntJi;ec; use or hiStOricul Untl epistemological StuJies in the uesign of iiCtivitics ror
stooents..................................................................................................................... 156
5.3.3
5.3.4
The exnmple of linear algebra ................................................................................... l57
T11e Cl\:tlllple or·caJcuiUS........................................................................................... 159
SJ.5 Rescarch on the methodology or history·b;~Seu design of activi ties for stu<lcnts ...... 160
.5.4 Eplstcmologicol nssumptions framing intcrprclations of students
or
undcrstnnding mnthcmalics ................................................................. !62
5.4.1 Tire ·eplstemologic:rl obstacles· perspective ............................................................. l62
5.4.2 A socio·cultural pe~pective ..................................................................................... 163
5.4.3 The ·vokes and cchoes· pcrspcctive ......................................................................... l65
5.5 Conclusions: guidelincs nnd suggcstions for future rcsearcll ................ l61l
!
6. History in support of divcrsc educational requircm cnts -
I lí.l
opp ortunities for change..........................- ................................... 17l
l ntr oduction ...................................................._ ........................................ 171
6.2 Educulionnl, culturnl, social nnd economic diversity in primary,
I 6.2.1
6.2.2
sccondary and tertiary settings ................................................................. l72
Primary education :rnd the use or m:rthcm:rtics hi~tory in thc cl:rmoom .................. 172
Undcr·served (limitcd rcsources) stmlcnts ................................................................ l74
I 6.2.J Ahemutive educational pathwoys: atluh le;~mers muming to mathematics education.
vocational education and training ............................................................................. f79
6.2.4 Minority school populations ..................................... _ ............................................. 184
} 6.2.5 Students having educational chaflenges...................- .............................................. 187
I 6.2.6 M:rthematicolly giftcd and taiented students ............- ....... :...................................... 188
6.3 Opportunitles for chnnge .............................- ......................." ................ 195
6.3. 1 Tead rer education .....................................................- .............................................. 195
6.4 Condusion .................................................................................................. 199
.
7. lntegrating history of mathcmatics in the clnssroom:an analytic "·
survey ........................................................~...................................... 201
7.1 lnlroductlon ............................................................................................... 20 I
7.2 \\'h,. shoulcl histor\' o f malhcmutics he int e~rntc<l in mathc m util:~
~du~ntinn·~ ...............:.................................................................................. 21\2
\ 111
7.J llo" tnny history of m:uhcrn:lllcs' be lnlegrntcd In mothcmat!cs
edue~tion?
....................................................- ............................................ 208
- .~.1 OirtCI hi;t;.-ricJl infom1Jtic-n .. ................................................................................... 208
- ) .:! A 1pchin~ ~ppro:~ch inspircd by history .............. - .................................................. 208
~ lall~em~t ic:~l J\\~rcncss ........................................................................................... 21 1
7 .... ldens nud csmnplc~ for cl:lSsroom implcmcntat ion ................................ 213
~ ..l.J ltí~Oficat s,,;rr<ts ....................................................................................................214
" .J.~ Studcm rr>c~rch rrt'jtCIS l':!S~J on hiS4ory lt:\lS ............................... ........................ 2 15
" .J .} Prim~ Sc-urcc~ ....................................................... - .............................................. 216
- J .J \\ crl.shcet s ....................................................- ·---................................................. 216
- .J5 His1cricll p~~l:3~e~ ......................................................- .......................................... 217
..- ..lJ. Tal:ín! 3J,·:mt3~<' ~,f error~. ah~m~ti\c conccptions. chan~e of pcrspcrliw. rcvision of
imrt~it :~.;sumrti.:>n>. imuith~ :1rguments ctc ........................................................... 219
- ..!.1 Hi s\C"fitl) r~l'l~m~ ................................... - ..... .....- ..... - ................................................ 224
- .J.S ~ltíh:lnic-.31 lnslrunltnts ····················-····----··--······ ..- -···--...........................227
- ..!.9 E\poYntbl m::uhtm3tic31 Jclivilies ........... ---··--- -··· ... -· ..........................._.............. 228
- . ~ .l (l Pll~· - ......................................................................................................................229
-.-1.11 Filnu JnJ Nh~r 'isual me:ms ................................................................... ~ .............. 230
- .J.l! Ot1tJNr ('\~ri<ncts ......................................................................................................... 231
- .J. I} The \\'W\\" ......................................................... - .................................................... 232
8. Historical support for particular subjects
..........................................................................................................241
8.1 lntroduction ..........................................- - . -...........- .....- ...................... 241
8.:! Tracbing projrc ts inspired lly hislury-..................................................... 243
s .:.l E\3111pks from algebra and an;llysis .......................- ..............................................243
s.:.:! A hruri~tic introduction lO an:~l~ sis implicilly inspircd by ÍlS historical
Jc,dopment ............................................................................................................. 245
5.:.~ How may his1ory hdp tht teaching of probabilistic concepts? ................................. 248
s .:.-1 Tri~oaome1ry in tht historie;~! ordcr ......................................................................... 252
8.3 Cultur al nspects o r mathematícs in a hislorical pcrspective .................. 253
:'.:.1 ~um~r ~~ ~tem~ :md 1heir reprc~ntalions ................................................................ 253
~.: .: TI1t P~lh;\!!t'l't'3n lhro~tn in Jiift rent ruhurts ...- ....................................................... 258
~.: ..l ~k:!..~rin~ distanccs: Hcron \ ' S. Liu Hui ................................................................... 262
8..1 D~tailcd trealmcnt of particular csamples .........____ ............................. 264
S.J.I hm,-.Jucin~ comf'k ' numl't'rs: ;1r1 cxpcrim~nt... .........- ...........................................264
3.J .2 lrucrN inin~ J m:uhtmaticalaoric with othcr (non-l mathcmaticallopics ................ 265
~ .J .~ SIU'\ (_~ c r~ . ['f<'l"IC'nllo. ....................... ........... .. ..... ................ .. .............. ..................... uooo . .
' . .: J n~:--...r~ \'f rrt'r~"t1h'"U ,lll\1 :h\• ~~·._'m;."tl~ \'Í .lf(;~ ..................................... .................. 276
~ -~} D(Jni1Í H '< inlu>IÍ\ ~ thin!..in~: .tn c';llllJ'IC frl'lll ti" c;lk\llus ................................ 279
"' --.. T:.!;in~ th:.· c.'-.": , .., tt: ..· .!t" ... ::.:...·s •· .'rh."\'1'' \"( .1 't'l. ... - ............ ..................... .. .... ...... .. ... 2~ l
'.;- [)· ,.:~::~· :;-•. :~~:--· .. !~..-.... :·~ .'\.1::·:.. ·-: . ... ......... ..................................... ... ....................... :!~ ~
IX
8.5 Improvlng mat hematlcal awareness through the hislory uf
mathematics~........._ .........___ .......- .•.•- ............. _._ ......- .................... 21if,
8.5.1 Hlstory o f mathemalics education.. __ .................................................... 2tl(>
8.5.2 Teaching second:uy m:~themalics in a historical perspecth-e.~ ................................. 28K
8.5.3 Adul1s: mathematlcs education:~l historics_ ......... - ................................................. 21W
9. Tbe use o f original sources in the mathem at ics classr oom
................................................................- .•- ................................. 29 1
9.1 Introductlon ............................................................. _................................29 1
9.2 Motivatlons, aims nnd uses ...................................- .................................292
9.2.1 The specific value and qualily of primary sources..................... ............................ 292
9.2.2 Underst:mding lhe evolulion of ideas................................ ................................ 294
9.23 Experiencing lhe rclaúvily of truth and lhe human dimension of mathcmatlc~l
activity....................................................- ........- .......- .......................................... 295
9.2.4 Relalions between mathemalics and philosophy -:... .".................................................296
9.2.5 Simplicity, molivalion and didaclics ......................................................................... 291
9.2.6 Perspectives on mathcmatics educa1ion .................................................................... 291
9.2.7 Local Mathemalics.................................................................................................... 298
9.3 Sources, hermencut:ics and language ....................................................... 2!-IH
9.4 l ntegrnting or iginal sources in pre-service tcncher educalion ............... 2~9
9.4. 1 Example I: Egypli:m measures o f :mgles................................................................. l \1?
9.4.2 Ex.ample 2: complex numbm in gcometry and algebra ........................................... 301
9.5 lntegrnting O riginal Sourccs In lhe Cl:lssroom....................................... J07
9.5.1 Ellample I: Greek surveying: lhe 1unnel o f Samos ........_ ....................................... 30/
9.5.2 Example 2: An l81h cemury lreatise on conic sec1ions .............................................J tO
9.6 Didnctlcul strntcgics for inlcgrating sourccs ..... _ ..................................] 13
9.6.1 The triad: lext • context· reader................................................................................ 3 IJ
9.6.2 Ctassroom strategics .................................................................................................)I 3
9.7 Evaluation, rcsearch qucstions and issucs o f concern ............................ 316
10. Nou·standar d media and olher resources
......................................................... -----~ ....................................329
10. 1 lntro<.luction .........................................................................:.....................32?
10.1.1 Why other mtdia? .................................................................................................... .32?
273
10.1.2 And which media? .................................................................................................... :no
10. 1.3 Afrect and dfecl .................................- ...................................................................33 1
10.1.4 Media and cognitive :upc:cts of le~ming ................................................................... 333
-10.1.5 Media and :usessmcnt ...............................................................................................33•t
10.2 Learning lhrough hi.s tory and non·standard media ................................ 335
10.2.1 M3thematical 0ral"!l;ltisation ..................................................................................... })5
I 0.2.2 Ancicnt instruments in the modem ctassroom .......................................................... 3•13
 X
lnquirins m;uhematics with history anti soflwarc .....................................................35 1
10 .::..:
IO.J Rcsourccs for histor~· of mathematics on the World \Vide Weh ............JSS
ll\.:.1 Tcachcrs. kamcrs Jntlthc \\'orltl Witle Web ............................................................ 358
H1..~.: 1\'~t> histcrkal rcH'tJTCcs for 1~ m.,thcm:nk~ tc:~chcr ..............................................362
11. Bibliography for further work in the nrea
......................................................................................................... 37 1
11. 1 lntroduction .............................................................................................-371
-.11.1 Chinese................................................................................................ - .....373
11-' Danish ......................................................................................................... 383
l l.-1 Dutch........................................ , ,-··-··-·-·····-·····
..........................................._..... .386
11.5 English ........................................................................................................389
I 1.6 French .........................................................................................................404
1 I. i Germ:m .......................................................................................................405
11 .8 G~k ..........................................................................................................411
11 .9 ltalian............................. -- - -.
.............. . . . . . . ....................................................... 4l4
11.1 O Collt'ctions or orticles lspecial issues) ....................................................... 416
11.10. 1Joum:~IH~~ci31 is~c~l... ............... ... .
11.10.~ Bc.)k$.._,,......................................~.~.:.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::~:::=:::~
7\otes on contributors ............. _., ....................................................419
lndcx............................ ................................ ..........................._...........429
lntroduction
John Fauvel & Jnn v;m Maancn
When the English mathematician Henry Briggs leamed in 16 I 6 o f the invcntion o f
logarithms by John Napier, he determined lo travei the four hundred miles north to
Edinburgh to meet lhe discoverer and talk to him in person. The meeting of Briggs
and Napier is one of the great talcs in the history o f mathematics. According to
William Lily, who had it from Napier's friend John Marr, it happened when Napier
had given up hope of seeing his long-awaited southem guest:
lt happened one day as John Man anti Lord Napicr werc: speaking of Mr. Briggs ~A h John".
saith Marehiston, "Mr. Briggs will not come." At the vcry instant one knocks at thc gatc.
Jobn Marr hastened down, and it proved Mr Briggs. to his grent contentmcnt. He brinr,s Mr.
Briggs to my Lord's chambcr, where :Jlmost one quartcr of an hour was spcnt cach beholding
lhe othcr with admiration, before one spoke: ai last Mr. Briggs began: "My lord. I havc
undcrtakcn this long Journey purposely to sec your Person. and to know by what Engine of
Wit or Jngcnuity you came first to think of this most exccllent Help unto Astronomy. vi:.. the
Logarithms; but, my Lord, bcing by you found out, 1wonder nobody else found it out bcforc.
when now known il ls so easy." He was nobly entcrtained by Lord Napicr. and evcry summer
al\er this, during Lord Napicr's being ative, lhis venerable man. Mr. Briggs. wenl to Scotland
to visit him.
The ma ny layers o f signiticancc o f this story makc ir an invaluable resource for
mathematics teachers at ali leveis. For younger pupils, the idea of two grown men
sitting looking at each other in silence for tifteen minutes on first meeling is
sufficiently strange to provoke mirth and a vivid sense of how important
mathematical ideas were to them. Pupils need no knowledge of logarithms to
recognise from this that mathematics is something which has been invented hy
people at particular stagcs of history, not something which has always been thcrc.
Questions :trise for young pupils too aboul the practicalities of life in old times.
about travelling long distantes as well as how before the days o f photographs and
television people gencrally had no accurate idea o f wha~ each other !ooked !ike
unless they met in the flesh. Some may notice that in ancient times pcople were
sometimes called by tlleir m:me (' Napier') and sometimes by where they lived
('Marchiston'), as Napier lived in a castle called Merchiston Castle. lt is in
. elementary and middle school, too, that teachers can introduce pupils to another of
Napier's inventions, his ' rods' or ' bones' for speeding up mu!tip!ication. Thcse lay
bare the structure ofmulliplying in the decimal place-valuc numeral system (Hindu·
Arabic numbers, as wc call the m) in a way which dccpens studcntundcrstandinc aml
mcmorisation of lhc proccss.

.rli !ntroduction
Older pupJis who are beginning lo learn about logarilhms are reinforeed in
understanding 61eir imponançe. through reflecting on lhe lengths to which Briggs
"~"'in w:mti~ to meet and admire thcir discovem-. Or were logarilhms invenlcd.
not discot>erecP- Teachers can explain how arduous calculations could be bcfore
logarithms. ~ tcll pupils o f Kepler's remark that thanks to Napier the astronomer's
lif~·srln.'\h~d t>cen doubled. TI1is im ention is a microcosm o f the activity of
math~mancms down the ages: the point of mathcmatics is to make things happen
more easily ad to save people trouble. (This revclation will be quite surprising to
>onlc pupils!~r at least to their parents with unhappy memories of their school
mJthcmatics ~sons.) The possible benefits of tbe story work on a number of
k\els. Oncc Siudents know, for example, how happy the astronomer was when
-roulliplicatian of two ten-<ligits numbers reduccd to a simple addition, they will
ne,er have-etyoblem in remembering which is lhe concct rule: log ab =Ioga+
log />. not log{~b) = log a" log b.
Scnior stWcr1ts will begin to recognise jusl how significant logarithms are: that a
de,ice for GSing the activity of calculating tums out lo be one of lhe most
innuemial ald far·reaching of ideas in ali of mathematics, a function of immense
r<'" er and rt3Ch which pulls tog.ether idcas from different arcas of mathematics.
This illuminzfCS another general trulh about the arnazing power o f mathematics, the
"ay differel:l parts of it reinforce cach other. Here, it is little short of miraculous
ho" idcas fan:n ancient Greece (curves from slicing cones, called conic sections),
from e:~rly~nteenth century Scotland. and fTom later in the scventcenth century
(a general 'lllldhod for finding the areas bounded by curves) ali come together to
gcn~rate a ccmplex o f mathematics of great power, and the student who is trained to
underst:~ndm sharc in lhcsc idcas is immcnscly cmpowered as a rcsuh.
Trainceteachers rcnectin~ on the story can absorb ali these resonances and also
nmice "hm thc story o f Briggs's meeting with Napier tells us about the psychology
oi learnin! ma~hemat ics : it is e\'cry pupil's experience that once some difficult idea
has t>een lc:amed it secms so natural that you cannot understaod why you did not
understand ít' beforc! The concept o f an "Engine of Wit or lngenuity'' is a very deep
one. The apparent tension in this phrue between mechanical and psychological
images is cbaracteristic of the seventccnth ccntury, prefiguring perhaps the
'mcchanicai philosophy' promoted by Renê Descartes and othcrs a few decades
late r.
Th~re 2R kssons for those designing mathcmatics education syllabuses too. The
curriculum designer will apprcciate that an apparently straightforward observation
madc by se'·eral mathemalicians frorn Archimedes onwards, lhat multiplying
numbcrs can correspond to adding powers o f another number, or more simply that
geometrical and arithmetical series can run in parallel, took many centuries to be
recognised as a key perception to build upon for calculational purposes. The
curricular implications may be (put in a rather general way) that what seems simple
after ll'te evtnt can pose difficultics for students untilthey are prepared for new ways
of looking al things.
This t'~ shon talc from four centurics ago can in this way h(: seen to lay the
:;r!'unding f~r a mm1!:>er of ,·aluable interactions between teacher and student in the
mathcmatics classroom o,·er se' cral school years. A teacher 'able to support,
xiii
lntroduction
'·
encourage and lead students in this way through lheir school career is a !Jellcr ·
teacher. bener prepared. better rcsourced, more empowered. H.istory, we .might s~y.
is an Engine of Mathematital Wit. This story, and the pedagog1tal reflecuons wh•:h
it generates, are 10 this extc~t a microcosrn o f what we hope the present book Wtll
achieve. ·
Thc background to this study
Does history of mathematics have a role in mathematics education? This ~ook has
been made by people who believe that the answer is positive, that thc ~story ~f
mathematics can play a valuable role in mathematical tcaching and leam•ng. I~ IS
lhe report o f a study instigated by the lnternational Commission on Mathemattcal
lnstruction (ICMI). We describe later how thc study was carried out. but first sketch
the problem sening of the study, lhe general ba<:kground o f concems from severaI
quarters which have led to a flourishing of work in this area in recent decades.
Mathematicians hislorians and educators in many countries have long thought
about whether mathematics education can be improved through incorporating the
history of mathematics in some way. Tilis arises from lhe recognition that
mathematics education does not always meet its aims for ali pupils, and that so long
as some students emerge from their education with less understanding ~f
mathematics than might be use fui for them, or indeed with an actual fear or phob1a
about mathematics, then it is wonh exploring possible avcnues for improving lhe
process. Nor have lhey only thought about the possi~ility of usin~ history; man.y
teachers in classrooms across the world have tned out vanous pedagogtc
possibilitics. lt soon emerges that thcrc is a widc range o f views and experienc.es ~f
how history of mathematics can help. Some educators bclievc that ~alhem~ttcs IS
intrinsically historical: so leaming the subject must involve its htstory, JUSt ~
studying art involves lcarning about art history. Others see a number of ways m
which history can a.id the teather's, and thus the leamer's, task, from the appare~tly
banal (such as giving more information about the names students may meet-whtch,
by the way, are often wrong attributions in any case, as in the cases of Pascal's
triangle and L'Hôpital's rule, not to speak of Pythagoras' theorem) to a deeper way
ofleachiog mathematics in a historical veio.
1t is not only teachers who are conccmed with perceived failings in school a.nd
college mathematics. Parents, employers and politicians ali vie rep~tedly in urgi~g
attention to the system's ability to detiver enough students passmg n:athematt~s
examinations. Whatcver thc truth behind such fears and conccms, resolvmg them ts
evidently a política! matter, and thus adoption of the contribution offered by ~bis
Study, lo improve mathematics cdu::ation through the provision and use o f histoncal
resources, is a política! choice to be made or influenced at any or ali o f the severa!
layers of decision-makin g in complex modem societies.
Tlu: ICMI Study
ICMI the lntcrnational Comrnission on Mathematicallnstruction. was established in
1908 'at thc lntemational Congress of Ma!hematicians held in Romc, ils first chair
being Felix Klein. Al\er an interruption o f activily between the two World Wars.' it
was reconstituted in 1952 as a commission o f the lnternational Mathemaucal Un1on
 ,til'
\li\IU). The IMU itself was formed at the 1920 lntemational Congress of
lntroduction
~ lathematicians. held in Strasbourg. The histcry o f these international bodies is thus
'
!
closely linked with twentieth century intemationalisation of mathematical ac!ivity,
in rartictllar with the efforts of mathematicians to re-energise international co-
operation after major wars. as parto f the healing and reconcilialion process and in a
$pirit of optimism about building a better future for everyone. In 1972, at thc second
lntemational Congress on Mathematical Education in Exeler, UK. lhe idea was
Óe\eloped of an lntemational Study Group on lhe Relations between Hislory and
Ptdagogy of Mathematics. which was formally affiliated to ICMI ai the 1976
lntemational Congress (ICME-3) at Karlsruhe, Germany. HPM has continued ever
since to explore and advise on lhese relations through the activities o f its members,
-."h o are mathematics educators. tcachers and historians across thc world., who are
mathematics educators. teachers and historians across the world.
Since the mid 1980s ICMI has engaged in promoting a series of studies on
cssentii!l topics and key issucs in mathematics education, to provide an up-to-date
presentation 3nd analysis of lhe statc ofthe art in thilt arca. The tenth ICMI Study,
"h<'se report is presented in the present volume. was conceived in lhe early 1990s in
Ndcr to tease out the diiTerent aspects ofthe relations between history and pedagogy
"f mathcmatics. in rec<'gnition of how the cndeavours o f how thc Hl'M Study Group
h:Jd cncouraged ilnd retkcted a climate of greater intemational interest in the value
l'f histN)' of mathematics for mathematics educators, teachers and leamcrs.
(',,ncems throughout the intemational mathematics education community began to
focus on sue h issues as the many different ways in which history of mathematics
might be useful. on scientific studies of its effectiveness as a classroom resource
and on the política! process of spreading awareness of these benefits through
curriculum objectives and design. lt ''·as judged that an ICMI Study would be a
gc-od way or bringing discussions of these issues together and broadcasting lhe
results. with benefits. it isto be hoped. to mathematics instruction world-wide,
1011 Studies typically fali into lhree parts: a widely distributed Discussion
Dorumeru to identify the key issues and themes o f the sludy; a Struiy Conference
"here the issues are discussed in greater depth; and a Study Volume bringing
together the work o f the Sludy so as to make a permanent contribution to the field.
The current study has followed this panem.
The Discussion Documrnt \\'35 drall'n up by the two people invited by ICMI to
co-chair the Study, John Fauvel (Open Univmity, UK; HPM chair 1992-1996) and
Jan van Maanen (University of Groningen. Netherl:mds; HPM chair 1996-2000),
"ith thc ~ssistance of thc lcading scholnrs who formcd the lnlemational Programme
C<'mminee: Abrahilm Arcil\'i (Israel). Evelyne Barbin (France), Jean-Luc Dorier
l France), Florence Fasanelli (US. HPt-.1 Chair 1998-1992), Alcjandro Garciaqiego
thtexico). Ewa Lakoma (Poland), Mogens Niss (Denmark) and Man-Keung Siu
tHong. Kong). The Discussion Documcnt was widely published, in for example the
/C.\1/ Bulltr/n 42 (June I997). 9-16. ilnd was translated in to severa I other languages
including French. Grcck and ltalian. From the responses and from othcr contacts,
some eigh~· scholars \\ere invited to a Study Conference in lhe spring of 1998, an
im·itation which in the event between sixty and seventy were able to accept.
.
lntroductlon
The Study Conference look place in thc sot:th o f France, atlhe splendid country
retreat ofthe French Mathematical Society, CIRM Luminy (near Marseillc). from 20
to 25 April 1998. Local organisation was in lhe hands of Je~n-:..~"; :';L•rier
éuniversity of Grenoble). The scholars attending were from a varicty c:>!'
backgrounds: mathematics educalors, teachers, mathematicians, hi~!orians of
I· mathematics, educational administrators and others. This rich mix of skills and
I
I experiences enabled many fruitful dialogues and contributions to the developing
I
.study. ·
The means by which the Study was advanced, through the mechanism of the
Conference, is worth description apd comment. Most participants in the Conference
had submined papers, either fresh ly wrinen or recent position papers, for the others ·
to read and discuss, and severa! studies were made available by scholars not abte to .
anend the meeting. These, together with whatever personat qualities and
experiences each participant was bringing to the Conference, formed the basis for
the work. Apart from a number of plenary and special sessions, lhe bulk of the
Conference's work was done through eteven working groups, corresponding. in the
event, to the eleven chapters of lhe Study Volume. Each participant belonged to two
groups, one meeting in lhe momings and one in the aftemoons. Each group was lcd
by a convenor, responsible for co·ordinating the groop's activities and playing a •·
major part in the editorial activity leading to the eventual chapters of the book. Each
group's work continued for severa! months after the Conferente, with almosl
everyone participating fully in writing, criticai rcadíng, bibliographical and other
editorial activities.
This way of group working for a sustained period tow:uds the production o f a
book chapter was a fresh experiente to many participant.s, since lhe pattcm of
individual responsibility for separate papers is a more common feature of such
meetings and book productions. In this instance the participants proved remarkabty
adept at using the new structures to come up with valuable contributions to the
development of the field, ali the more valuable for their being lhe results of
consensual discussions and hard-written contributions, which have been edited and
designed ínlo the present Study Book. ·
Authorship of contributions
As just explained, this ICMl Study adopted a style of collective group work in
which intemational teams worked together on the various issues, each led by a
convenor, whosc reports form the basis of the chaptcrs in this book. Wc have
experienced this as a very usefut and productive w;ry of working for the teachers,
educators and researchers invotved, who were able to share~nsights, experiences and
ideas, and develop strategies togelher for fulure progress in the field. lt follows
from the working style that it is not quite as straigl!tforward as usual to attribute
responsibility and authorship to particular sections of text. As will be seen, each
..chapter is credited to a team, listed in alphabetical order, headed by the name of the
chapter co-ordinator. Within thc chapters, sometimes names may appear as
responsible for subsections and some times not. In lhe construction o f the book some
sections retained individual responsibility (while commented on and modified by the
help ofthe rest ofthe group), and others were by theend ofthe processa genuinely
 lntroduction /ntroduction .rvii

~roup or sub-group col!Jboration twhi le initi~lly draficd by an individual, as is chapter but can be seen to fonn a sentcncc or paragraph in a story which as in some
almost always the case). Victorian novel can be seen as uThe Argument OfThís Book".

The argumtnt o f this book

People nave studied, leamed and used malhematics for over four thousand years.
Decisions on what is to be taught in schools, and how. are ullimately political.
influenced by a number of factors including lhe experiente of teachers. expectations
of parents and employers, and the social context of debates about the curriculum.
The ICMI srudy is posited on the experiente o f many mathematics teachers across
lhe world that its history makes a difference: that having history of mathematics as a
resource for the teacher is beneficia!. School mathematics reflects the wider aspect
of mathematics as a cultural activity.
From lhe philosophical point of view, mathematics must be seen as a human
activity both done withi n individual cultu rcs and also standing outside any panicular
one. From the interdisciplinary point of view, students find their understanding both
of mathematics and their other subjects enriched lhrough the history of mnthematics.
From thc cultural poinl o f vicw, malhcntatical cvulntion cume~ frnm a ~lllll of many
contrilmtions ~rowing from t.liffcrcnt wltmcs.
The question of judgíng the effectivcness o f integrating historical resources into
mathematics teaching may not be susceptible to the research techniques of thc
quantitativc experimental scicntisL lt is bcttcr handlct.l through qualit~tivc rcsearch
paradigms such as those developed by ~nthropologists.
~'J :•::rr...·('l!l,:tr:t~l ,f:!o\-:t.f.J I('IIt •li :lt.~ IC.\11 s,,,~l' r:rmfrrt!tJCt ;, l.Jrnf;,l.Y. France: l'icky The movement to integrate mathcmatics history into lhe training of future
r.··::·• I lrc.·r:tu:.JJ. f\.mLf r.umfluf r/,.rn.Jl 1/urerrct Ftucmdil I(:SA ). Cltris ll'eel.s tcachers, and imo thc in-scrvícc training uf currcnt teachcrs, has bccn a them~: of
intemational concern over much of lhe last century. Examples of current practice
from many coumries, for training teachers at ali leveis, enable us to begin to leam
.--\mong the comid~:rations here are th~t readers oftcn find it easier and more lessons and press ahead bolh' wilh adopting good practices and also puning
"elc(lming to consider a particular te:-.t as wrinen by a person rather than a continued research effort into assessing the effects.
cc>lkctive: :1nd that a named author is able to use lhe word "I" in a text, which is a The use of history of malhematics in the teaching and leaming o f mathematics
u~er-friendly form of address. \\here ~ppropriate and natural. rath~r than the forced requires didactical reflection. A crucial area to explore aod analyse is the relation
third-person or first· person-plural s~ Ie o f scie ntific texts. Another consideration is, between how students achieve understanding in mathematics and lhe historical
<>f cc>urse. lhat indh idu:liS should r~ceh e credit for their contributions, particularly construction of mathematicalthinking. The needs o f students of diverse educational
in the institut íon:~l imp~:rati,es of today. But the overnll message to readcrs is that backgrounds for mathematical leaming are increasingly being appreciated. Using
thi$ 1-N'~ rcrrcscnts an ac t o f collectiH' schol:u-ship ali of whose contributors shared historical resources, teachers are beuer able to support the leaming of students in
in it~ rrNl!clÍl'll. such diverse situations as those returni ng to education, in under-resourced schools
lhe purpose of the ICi\11 Study and communities, those with educational challenges, and mathematically gifted
students.
This 1-oot: h:~s seH· r~I functions. na mel~ to An analytical survey of how history of mathematics has been and can be
ti) suney and assess the present Hat.: ofthc wll()le field: integrated in to lhe mathematics classroom provides a range of models for teachers
\i i) rro' ide :1 r~s0urce fN te~ch ... t~ and resc~rchers. and lor those involved with and mathematics educators to use or adapt. Further specific examples of using
caniculum d~\elc>rment: historical mathematics in the classroom both support and illustrate these arguments,
tiiil inJin!e line~ of future rese:mh act iYit~: and indicate the \Vays in which lhe teachíng of panicular subjects may be supported
t.i\·l gi'el;uid::tnce and inform~tion tCI policy-makers about issues relating to lhe use by the integrar íon o f historical resourccs.
(lf~li'J;' in rtdJl;Ogy. The study of original sources is the most ambitious of ways in which history
Thes~ funu:l'ns ~re '~r ious l~ c:~rried out through the <deven chapters which follow. might be intCl'' ~t ed into the teachíng of mathematics, but also onc o f the mos!
EJch chJ~u has a vcry short abslract. which is not only a summary of the ensuing rewarding f,,. 1 alcnts both at school and at tcachcr traini11g institutions. Thc
 !tirruduction

imq;r:ltiCin Clf histor;. is not confined to tr~dit i onal teaching delivery methods. but
.:an <'licn t-e 1-ctter achievcd through a varicty of mediQ which add to the resources
J1:li•.1rk fN lc.1mer Jnd t~acher. A cCinsid~rable :lmCiunt of work has been done in
rec~nt J~cades e>n the sur.icct o f this study. which is Itere summarised. in the formo f
.111 JtlllN:tted ri!-lio~r:lph~. for works appearing ÍIÍ eight !Qnguages of publicai ÍOn.

,.\ c I. no" lcdgcmcnts

In n~ enterrrisc sue h as this the suppon. vision and con!idence o f a number ofkind
•r.:,·r!e is im aluJ!-k fN 111Jking. the projw happen. As well as the contributors who Chapter 1
"''rl.ed so hard and \\Íthout whom this Study would not have happened. we want
here to th<lnk the former chairs o f HPM. Ubiratan D' Ambrosio and Florence The political context
FJ$.1ndli. fe>r their 'ision of such a study; the successive secretaries of ICMI,
.. \IC'~(ns ~iss and Bcmard llodg.son. for thcir continued support and enthusiasm for
th,· rr,'ject; JeJn·Luc Dorier for his faultlm and energetic organisation ofthe S1udy
C<'nfmnce: the Societê 1-lathematique de France for generously making available
tht t'~dlities of its spltndid conferente centre at Luminy for the Study Meeting: Joy Florence Fasanelli
CJrr ~nd Irene 'an den Reydt o f Kluwer for their nexible nnd constructive help in
t>muring the t-e>ok production took place so efficicntly; Liz Scarna of thc Open with Abraham Arcavi, Otto Bekken, Jaime Carvalho e Silva, Coralie Daniel,
L'ni' mity for he r sterlin~ electronic assistance behind the scenes: and ali friends Fulvia Furinghetti, Lucia Grugnetti, Bemard Hodgson, Lesley Jones, Jean-
.,nd f~milies cif ali the t<'ntributors for tolerating and encouraging a production Pierre Kahane, Manfred Kronfellner, Ewa Lakoma, Jan van Maanen, Anne
"h:.:h ''"'" ur mNc time than they m:ty haYe expected or welcomed. Michei-Pajus, Richard Millman, Ryo Nagaoka, Mogens Niss, João
Pitombeira de Carvalho, Circe Mary Silva da Silva, H~rm Jan Smid, Yannis
Thomaidis, Constantinos Tzanakis, Sandra Visok~skis, Dian Zhou Zhang

Abstracl: People havf studied, learned and used mothematics for over four thousand years.
Decisions on what is ro be raug/11 in sclrools. and ltow, are rJibttotely political. influenced by
a number of factors includlng tire e:rperlence of teacha:, e:rptctarlons of parrnrs ond
employers, and the social conte:rr af debates abaut the currkulrrm. The ICMI study is posited
on llrt aperience of many mathemotics teachers across tht world that its lristory maltes a
difJerence: thar having history ofmarlzematics as a resourufor thc ttaclrer is beneficiai.

1.1 lntroduction

People have studied, leamed and used mathematics for over four thousand years,
although it is only relatively recently that mathem311ics has been toughl. in most
countries, to a high proportion of the population. With the establishment of
universal education, more widespread attention has been focused on just what was
taughl and why. These decisions are ultimately p~itical , albcit influenced by a
number o f factors including lhe exper'ience of teacruss, thl!r.expectations of parents
and cmployers, and lhe social context of debates abootthe content and style of lhe
curriculum.
The present ICMI study is posited on the experience of many mathematics
teachers across the world that the history of mathelllatics makes a differcnce; ·that
having history of mathematics as a resource fer the teacher is beneficiai.
lncreasingly a number of local and national gCNemmcnts. and other bodies

Jolm fau\'el. Jan van Mannen (eds.). lfistcry in matlrelllJiícs tduc:ation: the ICMI srudy.
!)tlrdrccht· Kluwcr 20fl0. pfl. 1-JR
 The political context
re-spCinsible for c.urriculum design and expectations. are persuaded by the arguments
t>f these m:ul~emalics teachers thal il is worthwhile to incorporate history of
mathcmmiçs •i1hin m:nhematics education. D<:tailed consideration of these
arguments wiiJ be found l:ller in lhe book. The nexl see1ion (§ 1.2) in this opening
chlrter summuizes. 1herefore. the experiente of a number of countries across the
\\NIJ (six~co in ~11) in rclation to lhe political guidelincs govcrning inclusion of
lm1or~ o f mathcm3tio in thc ~chuolnw thcmatics curriculunt. A furthcr ~:ri1ical arca
is ''ha1 happtns in the tex1books \\Titten to deliver the curriculum. Section 1.3 is a
case study lo<*ing in detail at how curriculum and textbooks can absorb a hislorical
dimc nsion. inthc case of onc particular country. Poland. Oro3dcr issucs o f thc ways
in which historical information can be integrated into textbooks are looked at !ater in
~e rCICik (§ 7..U ). In 3Ssessing the curren~ role o f history in mathcmatics education
.1 runher arca of criticai imponance. o f coursc. besides curricula and textbooks, is
I\ hat happens in tcacher training colleges. Tllis is explored only brieny in this
chap1er as it is discussed in some detail in a !ater chapter (§4.2).
Scction I A prcscnts a policy statcmcnt around the inlroduction o f a greatcr
historic31 dimension in the mathematics curriculum. with some ideas for promoting
it funher. lt is imponant to bear in mind that ali o f the ideas discussed in the rest of
this (-(l(lk dcrend for 1hcir practical implemcntation on the developrnent of a political
C('n~ensu~ in the man~ countries and educational systems across the world. While
this 1011 Study volume is nota tcxt in practical political science, one ofthe aims of
the S1ud~ is 10 infom1 and guide po!icy-makers aboutthe incorporation of history in
redagog~. a task in '' hich ali readers. as conccmed cilizens as well as wearing a
range of other hn1s. may choose to become involved. The final section of this
op:ning chapter presents some quota1ions. illustrating how these maners have been
thought of ~· mathematicians. advisers and other opinion formers over the past two
centurics. to suprort the arguments for using the history of mathematics while
le~m ing and teaching mathem:llics at ali leveis.
1.2 What pnrt does history of mathematics currently
occupy in national curricula?
1.~.1 :\rg<'ntinn
In thc Educación Gcnaol Básica. thc curriculum laying down what is rcqui red for
ali rupils up lo the age of 1-1. thc Argentinian Ministry of Culture and Education
gi1 es eight foci for \1 hat m:uhematical studies at school are intended to achieve.
Thcse include conceptual cornprthension. pleasure in doing mathematics, the value
Clf new technolog:y. the internai cohesion of mathematics, lhe signilicance and
functi(lnalit~ Clf mathematks at work. the habit of sening and solving problems in a
1.2 The place ofhistory in national mathematics curricula 3
variety of settings, and finally "thc value o f mathematics in culture and society, in
history and the present." Nowhere in lhe official documents are there found
statements about utilising the history of mathcmatics within the curriculum.
·although teachers and faculty individually ex.press such an interest and hold annual
national meetings to pursue knowledge ofhistory.
1.'2.2 Austria
In the Austrian syllabus, the general teaching goals for grades 9-12 state that the
studcnts should "know about lhe changc o f mathcmatical conccpts in thc historical
development as well as in their personal development." More specifically, in the 9th
grade students should know about thc change o f the concept o f function ; in the lOth
grade they should know thc historical meaning o f logarithms and in grade I J they
should leam historical aspects ofthe calculus. Nane ofthis is compulsory, however.
In school books for grades 5 to 8, therc are historical notes, rangíng from a few Iines
up to severa! pages, in connection with trigonometry, complex numbers, and limits
of a sequence as well as with other topics. Thus some lines are included about
historical figures such as AI-Khwariuni, Archimedes, Cardano, Eratosthenes,
Galilco, Ornar K.Jmyyam, Pythar,oras, and Adam Rics.
1.2.3 Brazil
From 1931 to 1954, Brazil had a mandatory national curriculum for secondary
school mathematics, and from 1946 to 1954 a mandatory curriculum for elementary
school mathematics. From 1954 onward, lhe regulations were changed so that each
state can estabtish its own curriculum. Nevcrtheless, tradition, inertia, and the fact
that textbooks define, in practice, the actual curriculum assure a homogeneity among
the curricula of lhe individual states.
In 1997, after wide discussions and consultations, the ministry of education
issued 'parameters' for the first four years o f schooling. In 1998 similar parameters
were established in an analogous way, for grades 5 to 8, and for grades 9 to li of
secondary school. The parametcrs are not mandatory, but there have been in thc late
1990s a considerable number of requests, from state offices of education, for a
national curriculum for Brazil as a whole. The Ministry o f Education has chosen not
to establish a mandatory national curriculum, but the national paramcters havc to
some extent taken on this role.
In the parameters for grades I to 8, therc is a strong emphasis çn thc history of
mathematics, and on the fact that mathcmatics is not just a body of knowledge, bul
also ofprocesses and practices that wcre slowly created in response to hurnan needs
and curiosíty. The parameters also call attention to the fact that mathematics should
not be treated separately from other school subjects, nor indeed frorn broadcr
concems with the environment, health, etc. Within mathematics, too, teachers are
urged to try to foster integration of arithmctic, geometry, and measuremcms. Four
resources are listed for doing mathematics inside lhe classroom: problem solv:·
history of mathcmatics, information 1echnologies, and games. Specilir
relation to the history of mathematics the parameters say:
 The political context
I.
The hiftN~ <:>f ntathematics. b~ mcans of n proccss of didactic trnnsposition and togcther with
cth<r didactic Jnd methodological resourccs. can ol1cr an impo!1ant contribution to the
rr<'Cc~s of mathcmatics teoching nnd knrnins. lly revcnliog mathemMics 3S o human crention.
1-~ 5htmt~ nccc~~ities nnd prcoccupntions from cliffcrcnt culturcs in cliffcrcnt historical
rait>U~. t>y cstat>lishing compnrisons bct"c.:n mathematks conccpts and processes of past
nnd rre~cnl. the tca~hr~ has thc possibility of dcvdoping more fovorable nttitudcs nnd valucs
''' th~ ;mJ~nt f'acing m~thcmaticol knO\,Icdgc. In severa! sitttations. having history of
m?thcmJtiCS O$ a rcsCiurcc can darify mathcmatical idcas that are hcing constructcd by
>tuJcnt$. ~rcdally to ~i'~ answers to some qucstions and. in this way, contribute to the
ct'nstllution of a criticallook o' er thc objects of kno" lcdgc.
Thus teachers are told why it will be beneficiai to use history, but are given linle
~uidance on ho"· to do so.
l.U China
Once the Chinese people " 'On the ir real independence in 1949. the government
launched a mo\'ement of patriotism. and asked mathematical educators to foster
1-'~Pilf patriCIIic thought by means of incorporating more knowledge of Chinese
h •stN~ <'~ mathem:nics. This led to researches into the ancient history of
nllth(n\3ttcs. As a consequence. when Chinese historians of mathematics were
in\ ited to compile ne" tcxthooks. a number of mathematical rcsults could be re-
namt d after their ancient Chinese equivalents or the Chinese authors who discovered
them. For example. before 19-l9 thc Gou Gu Theorem was called Pythaooras
theNem. t~e Yang Hui Triangle was Pascal's Triangle. and thc Zu Geng Prin~iple
\\JS Cwal1cri's Principie.
In Ch!na. ClS percent of schools adopt the nation-wide unified mathematics
textl-C'oks (1996). in which 16 items are concemed with the history o f mathematics:
I. Decimais {-l-grade). Chinese ancient mathematics.
., ·pj' O-grade): Liu Hui (about 263). and Zu Chong Zhi (429-500).
' Equations ('i ·grade): lhe .\'ine clrapters nf aritlrmetic, a Chinese classical work
Clf lhe tirst c~ntul). ~xplained bv Liu Hui.
.I. Negati\'e number (7- grade): .\'fne drapt~rs vf aritltmetic
5. The origin ofgeomell)' l7-grade): Eg)'pt. Euclid, Mo Zi.
6. Parallo?1 a·dom (7-grade): Euclid. Lobachevsk\'.
-: !\ IJthcmatic:rl symbols O-grade): fo.lultiplic:llion sion tOughtred 163 1) decimal
poinqCla\'ius. 1593) " '
S. A SIOI)' ofGauss (7-grade)
<l. Gou Gu Theorem (8-grade): Zhao Shuang
10. The di~co,·el)· of irrational number (8· grade): school ofPythagoras.
11 . T~e h1story of quadratic equation (8-grade). Ni11e clrapters of arilhmetic,
DtC'ph:mtus. Yang Hui. Viete. Buddhist Yi Xing
Zu
I~- Pi (8-grade): Liu Hui. Chong Zhi. Ludolph van Ceulen. .
13. ~he area ~ ftria~gltqS-gradel: Qin Jiu Shao ( 1202-1261). Heron (about62)
l-1. Cl'n$tnrctron wrth ruks and compasses (9-!!.rade): Greek mathematics
15. Zu G~n Principie{.:. 50()\ ( 11 -l!ratlel ~ theses in the subject. there was no influcncc o f hist~on the tcaching and learning
I 6. l3inl'tnbl co.·tlíci.:ms ( 12-grad~): Yang Hui {about 1250)
1.2 The place ofhistory in national mathl!matics curricula j
Eight items in this list are from China. just half o f lhe total number. Few Chinese
teachers use the historieal material as aids to mathematic:s teaching in the classroom.
however, exccpt for some paragraphs dircctly conccmingeducation for patriotism.
In normal colleges and universilies, where teachers are trained, there is intended
to be an oplional c:ourse on thc history of mathematics (45 classroom hours).
Howcver, bccausc of thc lack o f mathcm~tical historians to tcach lhe subjcct, many
universities are unable to offer a course of mathematics hislory whcn the studcnts
elect to do il. Most knowledge o f history o f mathematics that Chinese teachers have
is from olhcr mathematics courscs. Rccently, however, lhe research of history of
mathematics has made rapid progress in China, and now more than one hundred
historians o f mathematics are working in inslitutions for ft'acher training.
A lol o f historical events lead teachers to formalism. abstraction and absolutism.
In China, Marxist philosophy is an important political CCI!lrse. In addition, Marx hnd
an unpublished work., his Mothematical monuscripts. in which many mathematlcnl
problems were explored. In particular, Marx talked about the logical basls of
Newton's calculus. In the curriculum of the Mastm degrce in mathema.tics
education, there is a basic course on philosophy aal history of mathem~ttcs.
Therefore many Chinese mathematicians and teacheG pay more attention to the
logical aspect of mathematics, and explore such topics as Russell's pamdox and
Cantor's settheory. A numbcr o f books cxplnin the hislorical context and dctails o f
three mathematical crises: the discovery of irratíooal numbers: infinitesimal
calculus; and the paradoxes of set theory; as well as dle familiar thrcc schools o f
1ogicism, formalism, and intuitionism. For lhis reasun many univcrsity studcn ts
name Kurt Gõdel as a mathematical hero. In conllast to their enthusia.sm for
formalism, abstraction and absolutism, history of matkmatícs textbooks in Chin:l
pay less attenlion to applicd mathematics. Maxwell"s equations, for example, are
usually ignored in histories which discuss the 19th c~.
Thc mathematics curricuhrm in China ma i ntaí~ the standards o f a formal,
rigorous, deductive system. Most mathcmatics teackrs believe that training in
logical thinking is the core o f mathematics teaching. ani that any informal approach
will be harmfulto pupils. In 1996, the Chinese Ed12ation Ministry published thc
programme of Mathematics Curricu1um. in which oniJ, one scntence concemed thc
history o f mathematics: "Aid by history o f mathematicst!o f~ter pupil's patriotism."
The Programme af mathematics teaclring and ll!lll'lfing which the Education
Ministry published in 1996 pointed out that " By presmting of ancient and modem
achievements in China, the pupil's scnse of national ~ide and patriotic thought is
aroused."
Jo • •
1.2.5 Denmark
The history of mathcmatics played a fairly minar llllc in o'anish mathematical
curricula at ali leveis up until lhe 1970s. Even tho. the history of mathematics
was represented as personal choices o f topic in lhe pzst (and still is tO<Iay) at the
university levei where courses are taught, and quite a few students write Master's
of mathematics at large. At the school levei, no hÍlllrical component at ali was
6 The política{ context
gi,·en. .lpillt from names anached to theorems. Only in one text book system were
anecdotcs íncluded as spices to the diet. but not made the object of teaching or
leaming.
Chan~ began in 1972. when Roskilde University was established with the
rul'f'l'Se c.>it-ringing some inno1-ation in tertiary educ:uion in Denmark. The history
<'f •nati)enotics ,,·as included in the mathcm;uícs pro~mmme right from the
l'~~inni~t lt was. Jnd rcmains. an undcrlying idca in thc Roskildc programme that
mJth.:malin is a disciplin~ that exists. evolves. and is e:mcised in time and space;
,!m is. in listory and sotiety. Ralhe r than requiring students to take specific history
courscs. ~· are required to include historical considerations in 1hcir studies. lt
should be.mtcd th:ll tllese studies are strongly based on projects.
, In lhe<Jrid l QiOs. the ac:~demic upper secondary school system (grades lO to 12}
·;tnd~f',enta rapid exransion th:ll almost caused a crises as far as m:~thematics was
, "nccmed. lnstead of continuing. to address a rather limited elite of lO percent of
1
•< ~ outh mhon. aoout 30 percent were addressed. and this has now expanded to 50
.'~rcent. 1t 11as clear that such a great ponion of the population could not be
..;rected lJ SIIJIIo" the 1ery theoretical diet previously taught. During \979,
m:llhenuiits educawrs conducted a scries of meetings and in-service courses for
uachm tlr.oughout th~ country "hcre thcy presemed some ide as o f wh<~t could be
dC'ne to arer f<>r 1he much t>roader audience now enrolling in advanced secondary
~JurJti,'l!l. !lte>l;en~ ~iss suggested the 'historical aspw of mathematics', among
''th~r ::Sr=;tS. as J p:1n of ddining. the curriculum in dimensions of mathematics
rather lhJUthe l<>f'l<'.< ,,f a traditional syllabus.
:\ ICII of e:-.perim~ntatie>n was begun by schools. and by individuill teachers
thr,,ughrul! the cotu\1~. including Wa)'S to include the historical aspect of
mJthem:Jii:s in its te:lching and leaming. When. !ater in the 1980s. the Parliament
decided tt>esot>lish a general refonn ofthe s1ruc1ure o f the curriculum of the uppcr
seconda~· school. the :--tinistry of Education began to promete a slightly modified
fNm oftb:. St:!Od:lfd EJo.~rimentJI Curriculum. This is still in force (1999), with a
few mQiH!ic:~~ions in tbe organizational structure. The current curriculum document
includes -fiese statemems:
a~,1un~ l.m"' kJ~.: nf .:kmcnt$ t>f the hi~tory uf m:tthcm:ttics aml uf
::•uJ<'1ll5 Jh,.: 1<>
mathcnmtrS" it' cultural JnJ ~,,,ict31 C(lntcxt~ f.•. f Some uf lhe main (mathem:~tu:aiJ str:mds
ue 10 ("CI;ir.~Cihc !>~ considcring cknwus of thc hi~tory ofthc topics dcnll with. and-
1<' 3 lc~ ~~'lcnt-:~.•r<"~ of the cpoch. ' ollurc or sockt~· in which those lopics wcrc
Jc,clopo!
The !flct iliat the historical aspect of mathematics was made a compulsory
componcst of lhe urra sccond;uy curric ulum had implic:uions for lhe univcrsity
studies .a m;uhem:~tics th3t (ai Masters levei) prepare upper secondary school
tea,·h<r~. Jt s imrl~ t-ecam~ a requin:ment for the employment of a university
~rJJUJI< ÍÍl i11:1tll<:lli:III(S in ;111 uppn Sl'C<•Ildaty SdlUo( lha\ his Of hcr Ulli\Crsity
studies ~~ includ~d d~me nts of the history of mathematics. So ali Danish
unÍ\ er>ittrs uc re forced to imroduce sue h elemcnts in 1heir programmes (which
some of ê-em did onl~ rductJnll~ ~
1.2 The p/ace ofhistory in national mathemarics curricula 7
In lhe primary and lower secondary school leveis no historical el~ments are
included in the curriculum either officially or unofficially, and lh1s too has
con.sequenccs for thc education of tcachers for those leveis (which takes ~lac~ in
independent teacher training colleges). 11 is certainly not the case that the h1stoncal
aspect of mathematics is given prominent position in mathematics education at ali
leveis in Oenmark.
lhe reason why elements of thc history of mathematics were introduced, as a
non-negligible eomponent of upper secondary mathematics education, and later of
university mathematics programmes, was not that individuais or associations·óid a
\ot of tlever and efficient canvassing and \obbying to inOuence the authorities.
Instead, a combination of historical conditions and circumstances paved the way for
the changes which are described hcre. Two factors seem to have been essential:
flfStly, lhe task and role of the upper secondary school in general, and of
mathematics in particular, became subject to drastic changes that called for refonn.
Nobody be\ieved that things cou\d have continued unaltered. Secondly, mathematics
educators who had thought about new principies for lhe design of mathematics
cunicula and gained experiences from innovative teaching and leaming, were
available with idcas that might be explored as possible means to solve some of thc
problems encountered.
1.2.6 Fr ance
lhe main levei ofthe French syllabus in which history ofmalhematics is involved is
the tertiary levei. France has a centralizcd education system that officially
prescribes the various courses of instruction that students follow. In this system,
some 50,000 of the best students undergo their first two years of tertiary education,
at lhe end of which lhey sit competitive examinations. lhese gain them entry to
engineering schools, for the great majority, ar to lhe écoles normales superieure.s in
ordcr to become researchcrs and teachers at either the tertiary or secondary levei.
In mathematics, the same teacher teaches one class, of about 45 studcnts, for
some sixteen lo twenty hours a week. The basic class either works as a whole group
ar is dividcd into subgroups :tccording lo thc activi1y. for 1wo to livc hours a wcck,
the students work on exercises in groups of a half or a quarter of the class, with or
without the computer. One hour a fortnight they work in .groups of three for oral
qucstions.
This system underwent an imponant rcform in 1995 , affccting both its structurc
and its programmes of instruction. This refonn aims to reduce the imponance of
malhematics wilh regard to othcr disciplines, to bring more cohcrence wi1h physics
and engineering science into lheir leaming ilnd to develop a spirit of initiatlve in lhe
students. The malhematics syllabus is in lwo pans with accompanying commcn1s.
Thc lirst seis out general aims whilc thc olhcr dc.,Js with thc topics o f l in~~r all,!cbra. ·.
calculus, and geomelry. The studenls musl know how to use both calculators and
j,rograms which perform sy10bolic manipulations. There are differences m comcl\l.
according to lhe particular course of stud}'. but the educational obJeCti\C~ are •'
same. Mathematical education must "simuh:mcously devclop intuition. ima;;i:·
reasoning and rigour."
 I T/11! p1Jiitico/cw11<!XI
Tho: hi~to~ o f mathematics w:~s not neglectcd in this refonn:
h i; r:nr,•nJnl llrJt th~ ~uhurJI contcnt t•f nlJthcmatk~ ~hnuiJ not bc simpl)· sacriliccú tn its
tcd111k:sl ·'-'r~''' In rJnkubr. hi~tNicll tc~t~ ~ntl r.:ti:rcnccs :slluw th.: annlvsis nf thc
intcr:tW<•n \.ct"\'CI1 m:sthcm:stical problcms ant.l thc co~tructinn of conccpt~. a~ brings to
thc fN.: thc crnt r:~l rl'k rl.t~cd by ~cicnt ilic qucstit>ning in thc thcttrctic:~l tk"c:lopmcnt of
m.tthcrmtk~ :1-l<•rc<"cr. thc~ ~h'"' that thc sckncc~. and m:sthcm:stics in particular. are in
rcrrct uJI C'<•lutic>n :snd that JQ~matism is not ad\isa\>k
.-\nother inno\ation through these 1995 refonns \\'8S the introduction of project
"t•rk. The histo~ of mathcmatics is also mentioned in relation to this: "The study
l'f a sub,iw brings an increasing depth of theoretical undcrstanding together with
.p;p~rime ntal asp~cts and applications as well as the application of computing
m~th<'ds. h m:~~ includ~ Jn historie~! dimension:· In the lirst \e~r. students choose
their r r<'.iect frtel~ . In their second ~ ear they must tix thcir ;rea and subject in a
'e~ "ide frame'' N\... At their final assessrnent each student presents a page long
su mma~ and speaks for ::o minutes before two examiners. This projcct work
dllc"' s t~Jche rs the freedom to introduce the history of mathematics.
1.:!.-:' Grcccr
Th~ ~Jucotie>n:tl p<'l ic~ ad~•ptcd in Greece on the relation between lhe hislory of
m.llhcmJti.:; JnJ th~ t~Jching of rnathcnt~tics takes placc throu1;h severa!
in;tituiÍl'n;. Th~ ln5tit ut.: 1•f r~dagogy. an official institution of the Ministry of
Educ:ni<'n. has responsit>ility for planning. curricula :md producing textbooks for
p rimar~ and $C:condar~ educalion. Unlikc: in some other coontries, each subject
taught in Greek schools has only one official tcxtbook, so their content is of
ranicullr impe>nance. In secondan education. mathematics textbooks written
during the period 19S~-19Q3 are still in use in 1999. Almost every chapter in these
\:>.:-oks ends up \\ ith a hiswric:tl note. printed on a different colou r o f pape r. which is
strictl~ >eporated from th( r.:sl of the mathematical content o f the chapter. These
n0tes co,er in totol lO~ pages out of the :!!\00 pages of thc official mathematics
te:->tl>N'ks used in th~ six ~rndes o f secondarv education.
:\ccording to tht ·Guiddincs for Teaching Mnthematics' ~dited h)' the lnstitute
,,f Pcd~:;o:;~. th.: t•nicial aim or supplying te:-.tbooks with historicnl notes is to
;timu(;lte $tudents· int~rest :md lole for mathematics. Titere are also bricf
r~c,,mme ndati<'ns to the teachers for using thesc notes in the classroom and for
~n.:.•ur~:;in:; discussion ,,, th.:m. 13ut this tends not to happcn. Ahhoug.h teachcrs
C<'nsi1kr s<'me histurical notes very interesting. the tnct tha1 they nre presented in
i;,•l:ui,•n trom the rcst t'f thl' t<:xl mak~s thcm :~ppcar to bc ttsclcss nntl havinl!
nt•thin~ ''' do \I itlt th.: real rroblem of Wtchinl! and lenming mathematics. Th;
teachers themseh·es lta\e littk historical cxperie~ce or confide~1ce. since there is at
pres~nt 311 lltnost IN:! I :~t>;em:e of history of mathcmatics in either pre-scrvice or in-
i'Cf\Íú' c xreriw~..-s ,,ftcJdtcr.:. (But ~ce ~~.~.I.~ for discussion ofnn cxceptionto
~~~i~ ,:cner~l <:\pcri.:ncc. in·' rrim~r~ pre-~cr\ice conte~!.) This ncgativc practicnl
··~;:-,•. ,,_. trt'lll t.:.lchcr; h' ih,· hi$1\'ricalm't~> in r:urr~nt t>:x tbt'l'k~ ltas c:~ust:d some
'''tt.::~n "' thc ln;tnw.: ~·t' P.:Ja:;.t•:;~ ·s ,,l.lio:ials. \\h\• .u~ consiJcrin~ a pmposal for
~~:~::; :::_; ~,,.. rt•;!;:,•:: ,·f !ti;t<•ri.:al lti.Hc't'i:ll in t<:xtl'l'l'"" In ICICIO :\ llCI\
1.2 The place ofhistory in national mathematics curricula 9
mathematics tcxtbook for science-oriented students of age 17 was published, wi th
historical material incorporated into the various chapters as historie introductions
which wíll necessari!y be taught in the classrooms.
1.2.8 Israel
There is no recommcndation in official documcnts about the teaching o f ltistory oi
malhematics in lsraeli schools. Howcver, severa I initiatives have becn undertakcn by
universities and academic institutions to develop materiais suitable for both
classroom use and teacher erlucation courses, both pre-service and in-service. Thesc
materiais are used in tcacher college courses and in-service programs and some are
being slowly incorporated by teachers into their classrooms.
1.2.9 Italy
In ltaly the associalion of history with malhcmatics teaching has a long trndilion
This tradition is linked to the past innuence of important scholars in lhe field of
history of mathematics and epistemology, who were concemed both with problems
of mnthcmatical instruction and of tcachcr education. Evidcnce of lhis historicnl
tradition in teaching is seen in the publication in ltaly around 1900 of 0.
mathematical joumal for students in which the history of mathematics was onc o f
the basic to pies treated.
This ltalian orientation towards a historica\ perspectivc in teaching is olso
present in the new ltalian mathemalical programmes, which are very centrali1.cd and
have a national examination. For students aged 14-16 the official programme stales
that "At the end of the first two years o f upper secondary school lhe student has to
be able to put into a historical perspective some significant moments ofthe evotution
ofmathematical thinking." This has been in place since 1923. In 1985 there wu nn
experimental new programmc which included the following statement: KThc rcsults
of research in the historicaVepistemological field o!Ter the best inspiration for
stimulating students to create conjectures, hypotheses, problems on which the
teacher may develop his/her teaching." For lhe students aged 11-14 the concept
since 1979 has been that: "The teacher has to orient lhe student townrds a rcOcction
on the historical dimension of sciences." In 1990 a eompulsory two-yenr post·
graduate qualification for those aspiring to teach was set úp, requiring didactics,
history, and epistemology in the curriculum. There is support of thc reviv31 of
interest in historicat and epistemological themes from the Ministry of Universitic'
and the National Research Council.
In teachcr education, history of mathcmatics is not comq,ulsory, a!though in lho
post-laurcale courses where prospective teachers specializc; l:ourses in thc history
and epistemology of mathematics are on offcr. Allteachers, though, have deyees in
mathematics or physics, not pedagogy, and in the university, courses in history of
mathematics are often offered. These are usually very lechnical since they are
moslly aimed at forming researchers in the history o f mathematics.
In practice there are few books written in or translated into ltalian on the history
o f mathematics. TI1e result is thnt the teachers' historical culturc may be confined to
what is written as optional notes in thc students' te:-ctbooks. Nevcrthcless. a
 lO The political context
considerable amount of infonnation has been gathered about how and why teachers
use hiSiory in thcir classrooms in ltaly: to IJSC paradoxes for eradicating studcnts'
fal~c 1:-elicfs on mathem:nical conccpts: to discuss criticai conccpt.s of mathematics
starting from histo~· such as variablc; to investigate the students' bc:liefs about the
histcmcal de\'clopment of m:llhematics: to use original sourccs in geometry. 1t is
:~pr:~rent th:11 some teach~rs have clearly focused on cenain mathematical objectives
o f lhe ir tuching "hich c:m bc convcniently pursued through history.
1.2.10 Japan
School curricula in Japan from elementary schools up to senior high schools are
strictly cpntrolled by thc goHmment. through lhe Ministry of Educatíon and
.. Culture. The curriculum is reformed periodically, at least e\•ery ten years. In the
last curricular refl:'nn. in the mid 1990s. there was a major change in the basic view
of" hatthe compulso~· curriculum in ma1hema1ics should contain.
~ l:nhematical topics were di\'ided into two categoriC$: the basic compulsory core
subjects. and l:'ptional subjects which could be freely chosen. This opened paths of
free choirc in the Japane~e national currículum for the first time. although the
ortíons \\cre limitcd to sc,·cral predetcnnincd subjccts. Bu1 it had another and much
d~crer pedJ~cgic;~l efTect. lo mo\'e beyond the traditional way of piling up new
mJthem.aticJl knowledge upon old. Now. if some knowledge is indispcnsablc for
~d\ ing. l rrot-lcm. ~tudents :uc to g:lin that knowlcl.lgc :11 lhe stagc that thcy
thcmsrh cs recogni:tc thc need for ít. For example, if they come across a maximum-
mínimum problem of a function o f degrce more than four, they will realize they
nted to ó ctcrize a pol~ nomial of dcgrce more than three. They will then bc well
mo1h :lt.:d. or such is thc theory. to study thc basic factor theorcm or remainder
theNem of pol~ nomials. For this rcason the basic discussion o f formulae. including
m~ní rubtíons o f complex fractional fonnulae and fundamental exerciscs relatcd to
the thecry o f f:'OI~ nomials. is mo,·ed out of the core curriculum.
Olher topics were introduced in the core course: elementary probability theory
and discussion o f progressions. Another core topic was finite discrete mathcmatics,
introduud because o f its growing ímportance in the digital infonnation age. But the
most basic part of high school mathematics, numbers and fonnulae, was lransferred
imo the t>ptional catego~·.
S1' the new c:11cgorization between core and optional subjects regards the
impM:ux~ of rraditional subjects in a quite difTerent way. lt is true that the
rraditional systematic way of te:~chíng. impcllcd to :~n extent by logical efficicncy,
did not meet the nwis of ali leamers. and true too that school teachers will be
ínclined to teach in much lhe same way as before. Nevertheless, lhe changed
bal;mce gi,·es the ímpression of beíng rather too daring, of throwing away
fundamen101l \..no\\ ledgt from the core curriculum. li does not appear to be a
curriculom de' elopment framed in a histoncally alert way. If the reformers had had
a ~r~ ata kno" kdge llf the re"o lutiona~· si!?-nificance of algebraic symbolism
d i~co' en:d and de\'clored in the 17th centu ~·. and the immense influcnce it had in
th~ " ht>k c f mathem:~tics. the;: might ha,·e been a little more cautious about
1.2 The place ofhistory in national malhemalics curricula li
sceming to abandon the historical legacy of mathematics for fashionable topics of
the moment.
lt appears, then, as though not only does history of mathematics play very little
role in the explicít malhematics curriculum in Japan. it did not play as imponant a
role in the construction o f that curriculum as, it could be argued, is desirable. 1t is
argucd late.r in this book that historical awareness has an important role to play in the
construction of curricula even where therc is no explicit historical content in the
curriculum itsel f.
The ftrst generation o f studcnts educated under the new curriculum has already
entered university. There is a widespread feeling among university teachers that
these students, even those majoring in the exact sciences, have less understanding of
basic skills and concepts (such as equation, function), while beíng able to carry out
routine actions such as finding derivativcs and primitive functions. Such concerncd
teachers see the new curriculum as a factor contributing to the apparent weakeníng
in students' mathematical understanding. h remains to be seen whether the next
round of curricular reforms will absorb the lessons of this book and bring the
advantages o f a knowledge ofhistory to the constru~tion ofthe Japanese curriculum.
1.2.11 Netherlands
At prcsent history of mathcmalics has no structurnl postllon in mathcmatics
education in Outch secondary schools. Yet, thcre was a vivid tradition in the history
of mathematics during the twentíeth century. Severa! textbooks for secondary
schools had chapters on the history of the subject matter. The mathematics teacher
and historían of mathematics Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis promoted lhe history of
mathematics as a subject in the training of mathematics teachers, and at some placcs
history was cven an optional part o f the upper secondary levei curriculum. But in
present mathematics curricula, history of mathematics has no longer a place as a
subject in its own right
On the other hand, historical notes are found in some mathematics textbooks. in
the fonn of biographical informatíon or hístorical introductíons to topics. Most o f
lhe time history is perceived as an extra which can be left out (and probably is left
out by many teachers), much as an illustration with a caption but no textual
reference. In most texts referenccs to history are rare or totally absent. A survcy
done in 1992 on how four school texts treat Pytbagoras' theorem revealed that in
two of them (Exact Wislcunde and Wiskundelijn: Wiskunde is the Outch for
'mathematics') there was no historical refere.nce for this topic; onc (Modeme
Wiskunde) added the solitary remark "P}1hagoras was a Greek philosopher (about
500 B.C.)"; and one (Sigma) remarked of lhe theorcm "lt is thought that a Greck
mathematicían, Pythagoras (580·496 B.C.), was the first to prove it." While the
teXI-\ITiter clearly had a liule historical information, references of this kind sccm
somewhat pcrfunctory.
In the curriculá for primary education and lowcr secondary (general) education
nothi ng ís said abou t history of mathematics. One can safely say that it plays no
official role whatsoever. For upper secondary education (16-1 8 ycars of a!;c.
followed by about 35% of the population), a new programme ('Wiskunde B') h~\
 Tf•e política/ contexr 1.1 Tht! place of lristory in national mathematics currícula IJ

t-een in prepJratie>n. The curriculum proposals at different leveis ali nave one remark
in Ct'mmt'n: the studcnt should be able to " identify (historical) situations where
mathematics pla~ ed an important role" (lhe parentheses are in the original text). For
the more di!Ttcult wpics furthcr historie:~! intcgration is suggested: it is asked that the
5nJdent should ha\ e some knowledge about the historical de'velopment of lhe
calculus and t'f the historie ai rt'ots of geometry.
lt is not clear that how much influence these well·meaning remarks will have, ai
~ le3~t in the shC'n term: they are too general. and there is no guarantee that any
historical understanding ocquired by students will be reOected in tne contents ofthe
sme examinations. The srate examination form only half of the final examination,
however: the other half is done by the schools themselves. In these school
..examinations a new dimension has been prescribed: students should write papers.
c01lect material~. study relevant literature. gi\'e presentations. and so on. for
mJthtmatics as well as for other sub,jects. Mathematics teachers ore nol used to this.
andare rather \\('rried abe>ul it. History of mathcmatics can offer rich materiais for
the>~ kind ~·f ~cti\'ities. and so well·trained and resourced teachers have good
.:klsHt:'C'm C'r!=•t'nunities. But there remain no cen::~inties for the use of history in
nuthem:llics educatie>n.
Besides these curricular opponunitics there are further positive signs for the
future rt' le C' f hist0~· in mathematics education. Notably. resenrch into the area is
~~'ing ~'n. with som~ PhD studcnts at Dutch uni\'ersities. In summary: history of
mlthem:l!ics used tCI h:n.: ::1 stronger position in Dutch m::~thematics education than il
has cumntl~. but things are looking up.
Development Band o f the Curriculum. This band is an oflicial addition to the basic
curriculum. designed for use in enriching lhe mathematical experiences o f gifted and
talented sludents. Ministry of Education publications written in support of the
Dcvelopment Band recognisc and encoura~e an undcrstanding of the changes in the
ideas and practice o f mathematics that have occurred over time .
Some individual leachers of malhematics in New Zcaland are known for 1heir
enthusiasm in regard 10 utilising history of mathemalics as a part of their normal
method of teaching. Papers and workshops offered by them at conferenccs, for
example at the biennial conferences of the New Zealand Association o f Mathematics
Teachers, are regarded increasingly, by other conference participants. as interesting
and innovative. One o f lhe better known New Zealand mathematics publications,
the Mat!Jematical Digest, regularly carries historical information and suggestions for
ways of including history in teaching or thinking about the mathematics covered in
each of lhe Curriculum strands.
I Mt 11'1>hio te a~onga ki te tuJú i tt roonga atuo l~l.lhi louõro '""P"F"· k.a stqurntial palltnt
whokwhua lurt 1i;
• h• torotoro, he h.lng•, he wholcaahua, ht tuhí !to roanga atu otêblú
t>uin roupapo tau, od:Dt»> rlntt (Ml konoi l<a mONo te ~ng• tú to spaa
Jhua o te t.auira mui\Uls•·kore); Hd whok.at~uíra:
TAIMA lAIII'~ATAU: 2, J,J, 2, 1,3, 2,1, J, ...

1.!.12 NewZealand
Tht ;-.;e\\' Zcal::~nd :"-tathematics Curriculum is designed around six specilied strands:
>:umt-er. :'-1e3surement. l\lathematical Processes. Statistics. Geometry and Algebra.
>:one of the strJnds ~xplicitly emphasises or encouragcs the inclusion o f history of
mathematics. Ho"e'cr. a real encouragement to include history as a part of the
rrC'cess of enabling students' mathematical nurturing is to be found in lhe
MATll'lK ~!.lHANA.
1. Ko Dp:l. tohu enei o nsa. wltih. I~ e tohu Huihui+. 'foltu
Tl.llgo-, Tohu ;\Vebewehe+. TQ~hu Wlakatinix. 'fohu rite=. • llellanga, llt tauiu lau tlruarva lú lt tllaital.

!.//·/!/ /111 1/111 1//1/l 11!111!-·1/1/llll·!lllll/11 /11111/11/ Figure 1.!: n 'tnuira raupnpa' fsequtntiol pallcrn). as included in the New Zealnnd
1 2 3 :4 6 ' G 7. 8 .9 lO Mnthemotics Curri('u/um
.!1. He .,..balcutu teoei i Le tilCJlltfl" o te ta.tau ""bilca.
· Local and inlernalional culturc-focuscd studics have bc!,:!m to inOucnce thc ways
(~) 11+/1/=/111/ i... (f•) ://+/lf/1/=/1/111//; he huihui tm.

:J.
!l +' = 6 : 2-1-
Ki te meai 3 pene i roto i
6 = tl ;
t~ pa~ele o toh, e 4 pene: i rolo
in which those using thc Mathematics Curriculum rencc1 hiS'Iorical di ffcre nccs. Thc
incentive to adopt the changes in altitude thal this requires has been intensificd in
New Zealand by the legal rcquirement lhat ali official statements renect bi-culturall}
i lcta.hi atu pe\:e, e hia te huihuit. htonli~ r
scnsitivc nttitudcs. Thc lcnn 'hi-cultural' is uscd in Ncw 7.calaml to denote thc
000 + 0000=0000000 buil.sui.
rccognition nftht' lifc ;mú culturc ofthc lirst scttlcrs of1hc lanú. M<tori. in rclation to
3 -4- ..J 7.
more recent s.:ttler;.
•F, E.6 a.l::!.bereogi, !I 3 i bokana e au , ebia i toe? A. 2s. Thc prcscnt M:nhematics Curriculum. implcmcntcd in 199.1. nppcarcd in a :-.1anri
5. E 9 bipi a. tetahi t.u.g.lll, o ~ i pn.tua, ebla i toe 1 11.. 6. version (scc ligm~ 1.2) as wcll as in an ~nglish onc, but this s i mpl~ highliglttcd thc
•• • I "
 j.; Tile political conte.~I
lae1 tklt translation is not enough to make sense of a culture's historical
mJthea::uical expression. Policy makers and teachers alike are presently scarching
for ml'l'e appr<>priale ways of acknowledging lhe history and practice of Maori
matht'll:ttical needs and melhods. so that they. as well as the mathemalics of other
cuhuJ(S. will ha1 e a similar status to that presen1ly enjoyed by the mathema1ics
t~l~n;ning frl'm th~ histl'ry 0f the mathematic:-.1 nceds and mcthods of Europeans.
' .
l.!.ll Non,·ay
~atiaml curricula h;ne guided Norwegian school work in mathemalics since 1827.
:\ Cl'mpon~nt rcnwin~ culture and history has bcen madt:" more explicit in the most
rece111 NN\1 e~ian curricular reforms. those of 1994-98. through the efforts of
.,. ~CII"'c;ían researchers and mathematics educators inspired by the Danish thinking
J~s.,rited ~l'l'le ~~ I .~.J\. In the ncw 19Q4 curriculum for grau~ li (16-17 year
<'IJst fN Ín$1liiO:~. lhe cc>mmon goals (thosc dcscribing :lllitudcs, skills and
r~rsr..:cti1cs "hidt $h,,uld pcnctrale lhe wholc: coursc for ali s1udcnts) include lhe
r,,,h~~>ing:
G<'ll 3: :.lllh~mlti.:$ :1.~ ~uhur.~l herita~c. Pupils ~houhl gain insights inlo the hislory of
m~lbao~llr~ :md knl'" ;omc <'f its impomncc for our $0CÍ:l.l and cullural lifc. Pupils should
l.n<'" st'mc mJin 1hcme~ frt'm lhe hi~IN'Y of mJthemntic~. lhe roots Clf mathematics in
.lrlYmnt cuhur~;. !<•me 1~ rica\ t,,ols in the mJthcmatics of lhe se cuhures. lhe importancc of
m:t~lttr~ f<>r thc te,hno·scicntilic cullure. :md cx:unples of lhe intcrpla)' bctwccn
n>Jthan~lÍCS 3Ild 311 .
lt is intercsling to not~ thal the preliminary published version of this goal (dated
..~pril199}1 anracted some criticism in lhe media: "Something here is fundamentally
"r''r.;. The main rCiint of ma1hematics is. and should be, to solve mathemalical
rr,,hlems." Oth~r argumcnts advanced from tllis perspcctive werc that such a
;;enmlised goal \\J.s ..lin'icuh lo ass~ss. and that leachers were not trained to teach it.
On dK cther hand. the criticism was also an opportunity for counter-arguments to be
br~t forward: that history reflects an imponam part of the national heritage, that
it bc!ps explain how ma1hema1ics is lhe basis for o1hcr subjec1s, that pupils can
t>eu.:r unders1and features of the conceptual development o f malhematics, and that it
in$r\rCS pupils and hclps to humanisc the sub,icct inthcir cycs.
lhe nc"' ekmentary sdlC\~'1 curricula for ~radcs 1-1 O(pupils aged 6-16), brought
IONJtd in IQQ7, are :1lso allcnti\'e to the inclusion o f historical material. TI1e sixth
CllllllllC\11 gl'JI for m;uhcmalics is ''that pupils dcvclop insight in tlle history of
m:ultematics. and in lhe role o f nwtllcmatics h cuhurc nnd scicnce." Some specific
c:..o.ampks are !;iHn in lhe detailed spcll in g-~ .... of thc curriculum. ln grades 8-10,
f<>r \'Xample. pup1ls "should ha\'e some knol\·lcd~c about the main fcatures of
mnnNr s~ s1ems \IS(d hy diOimnt culll!res". and "should experience aesthctic
a>rc(tS , f gc,~mct r~ thr,,ugh rractical nampl~s in architccture. art and handicrafi,
an..l ;.~e this in J cultural and historical ccnr~ction."
The ruhlkati•'" ,,f tcxthCil'ks f0r thc 'l0r" q;.i<m rurriculum requircs national
.!r;'!•'' .11 :m..l the !li~!,'r~ {'r math~matk> is rt('t ~ et fully integrated into lhe live
.:urr~ntl~ -.1rrn'H.I tc--: t~. :\ hhou:;.h thcrc is some lip·sct "ice to historical and
.:uhur3l issues. for c:..ampk compnrin g thc Hindu-Arabic numeral system with thosc
1.2 The place ofhistory in !'ational mathematics curricula 15
of the Babylonians, Romans and Egyptians, the analysis is rather shallow and
pedagogical opportunities are \ost through not discussing comparative structural
advantages and disadvantages of the systems. The presentation is like s1oryte lling
and does not explain or discuss problematic issues. Anothcr theme treated
notionally but inadequately is the solution of equations: a!though pupils become
aware that solutions for different kínds of equation wcre developed in lhe past, there
i3 no discussion of the transition from verbal to symbolic solutions or the role o f
symbolism in facilitating the later expression of these solutions. The tcxtbook
writcrs seem lo underestimate the magnitude which the step from arithmelic to
symbolic algebra represents for each student, and not to understand lhe hclp which
historical parallels can present here for both teachers and pupils. These are but two
examples o f missed opportunities in the treatments scen in the textbooks. 1t is clear
that the historical aspect needs to be developed further to really become an
inlegrated are a of inspiration for teachers and pupils.
At the teacher education levei, reforms began to be implcmcn1cd in 1998 in
which the support for prospective teachers in relation to the historical/cultural
dimension of the curriculum was to be strcngthene1l Mathematics I, for example (a
course obligatory for ali student teachers, rcpresen1ing one half of their s1udies for
one year) contains the stalcment:
Mathematics has its hislory in ali cullurcs and socielíes. lt shows ils devdopment from
ancienl gcometry to fractais, from astronomical calculalions of tht Mayas 10 Newton's and
Einstein's mathcmatical modcls of lhe universe, and through lhe development of number
systems and ways ofreckoning. Historically, malhcmatics has developed in ínterchange with
problcms from other seienecs and stJbjcct areas of wciety. The licld also devclops on its own
premisses and by posin& its own problerns. Students should (e.g.)
• know the híslorieal developmcnt of numerais, numbcr systems and geomctry
• bc able to describe ethnomathematics as expressed in lhe daily li fc of some pcoplcs
• be able lo give examples ofhow malhcmalícs inOuenccs Norwegian sociely and cullure
• idcntify and explain mathematics in music, drama, an, a.rchiteclure and hand icraft.
1.2.14 Poland
In Poland, the school year 1999/2000 brought important changes to the system of
general education for pupils from the ages of7 to 19. Hitherto there was a '8 + 4'
sys1em: eight grades of elcmentary education (pupils 7-15 years old) followed by
four grades ofsecondary education (studcnts 15-19 ycars old). From 1999, this was
progressively replaced by a new '6 + 3 + 3' system: six grades of e\ement <:ry school
(pupils 7-13 years old), followed by thrcc wades ofgymnasium (pupils 13-16 years
old), and finally three grades of lycee (secondary school, for studcnts from 16 to 19
years old). The new system will be fully in place by 2004..
This reform was not rcstrictcd only 10 admínistralive changes, bul essential
changes of school curricula were introduccd. The new Curricu/um Basis r
General Education was claborated for every educalional stage. This dor·
from lhe Ministry o f National Education, specifies lhe basic knowled!!P
skills which are needed at a given educalional levei. This docum•
point of departure for constructing the curriculum for schoo'
 I(>
Tire political contexl
claboratin~ sumdarclJ of learning a11tcomts ai the end o f each educational levei. A
curriculum can be prepared by educators. subject e:~perts or teachers and must be
accepted b~ the 1\1 inistry of National Education. A te ache r can choose, tTom many
such proposa1s already prepared. whichever which seems the mosl suitable for their
I 1.1
pupils. Curriculum proposals are usually accompanied by suggestions about the
textbC'oks and l'arious didactical materiais. which help teachers to work with pupils
ml're eiTccti,·el~.
In t~e case. of mathematical education. this way of preparing and organising
''Nk wnh pup1ls !~as been developed over severa! years, especially at elemcntary
schoolfe,·ef-that 1s. creating mathematics curricula based on the common core and
prcparing school-books adequate to 1hem. In secondarv school there is little
~ dh ersity: this educational Je,·el is rathcr more traditioMI: mainly beca use of the
urgency of passing examinalions for the secondary-school certificate and then
unh ersi~ entrance exantinations.
. The main idea of lhe new educational changes was to place general education
w11h1~ .a framei\'O~k of what are called 'key competencies', such as: planning,
or~aniSing. evaluatmg one's own learning. effeclive intercommunication in various
~itualiC'ns. \\'Orking in a group. problem solving ability, efficient using of
rnfomm1on technology. In rc:lation to mathematical education, the Curriculum
Basi.<.for G,·nera/ Edrtcarion includes for every educational levei a list of essential
ntllhenutical sl.ills to de,·tfop and mathem:~tícal notions to form. those which are
.:leemed necessary th'm the point of view o f general education and of developing lhe
J..ey competencks. In this context there is no entry (key word) in this document
connected with history of mathematics. The imponant role of history of
mathem:llics in nmhematics educalion will happen on the levei o f the realisation of
the educ:ltk•nal aims.
There nre some len curriculum proposals for mathcmatics in thc new clemcntary
schC'ol and gymn~sium. p~eparcd on the new basis, mos! of which include a fairly
rerfunctor: ancnllon 10 luslory. The textbooks proposed to support these curricula
sim ilar!~ tend lo include ai best a few biographical notes and rather basic historical
infl'rmation. One curriculum proposal :~nd accompanying textbook series, however,
called .\lcuh,·mruh·s 1001. is an exception in including ralher more history and with a
mNe CC'nsidercd integra1ion ofhistorical and mathematicalleaming materiais.
1.2.1~ t tnitcrl Kingdum
Traditionally. schoC'Is and ceachers in the UK had autonomy about what to teach and
how to leJch it. e,·en lhoug.lt the examination system and lhe texl books dictate the
~~ 1131-u~ in sec(\ndar:· schools to some extem. There are severa! exJmination boards
eJch C' f '' hich is compcting for customers and increasingly the govemment have
enc(\uraged the notion of education as a markel place. Schools are funded on
numbers l'f students and parents are encouraged lo shop around for the besl school.
E~amiMt iC'n results frC'm each school must be published. li is therefore in the
school's financiai imerests 10 gain lhe besl possible exam results for their children.
Tl'l ensure lhe best resuhs teachers must decid€ which exam board to use. Many of
1hose ''orking in schools. however. would say that the home background of the
~--------
The p/ace oflristory in rtCJtiona/ mathemCJtícs curricula
children is what makes a big diiTerence to lhe results; it is certainly true that lhe
areas with high-priced housing seem to be very much over-represented in the
schools with the best exam results. Even under a state system of education there are
ways to buy better education for your children.
17
There is no requirement for history of malhematics to be included in the
syllabus. The word 'history' does not appear in lhe National Curriculum for
Reflecting on Chapter 8
What you should know
• how tlte wor't ol t:klalla eompotcs witlt lhll o f Piem: Fcmut
• evidence u( Descerlc.J's approach 10 nesauve and irnaginlll)' solutions of
equations
• how tKi!CWS ~clc1! 1 normal to a &iven CIUVe
• lhe relalionship betwcc:n ~Jebra Lnd ,comcby in l.G Glomirrit.
Pt9psring for your nexc tBviBw
• Brins y<:N.t .....,., ,o A~Yity 8.1 lo lhe mrlew togelhct with h.alf a page in yws
own wordlde..lcriblnJ lhe revolurionlll)' feature• of lA Olomltrit.
• Mlwer lhe foUowinc chcc:k quc:.ttions.
Prepar. 1 pnaCDWion explajnjng how lhe work oroe."'"""' wa3 ln!luenced by .
no Scboo~ Vi~ 1111d Fermst
% Use Occanm'a melht'd lo flnd lhe "Jll>tlon ofthe cwnnal to y1 a h ll (1.1).
Figure 1.3: From Nulfield's 'Hisrory of mathematics · oprlon (1994) rht
final quwion of Choprtr 8
mathematics. Text books are not vetted by any official body, and vary in lhe extent
to which they include hislory of mathcmatics, but there is very little histo!)' in any
set of text books. (An exception to this stntement is a option on the hislory of
mathematics which ran within lhe Nuffield 'A• levei scheme for some years during
the 1990s-but it stands out by its exceptionality.)
As in many olher countries, mathematics graduates are not keen to enter
teaching where the morale is low, as are pay and working conditions, whereas in
other fields of employment mathemalics graduates are found to be attractive and
paid accordingly. This gives the good mathcmatics student more of a choice than
that in some other disciplines. On the other hand, many departments o f education in
the universities are obliged to accept students with qualifications which are not the
best, with either low grades in their mathematics degree or graduates in other
disciplines (but who have studied some mathematics). The latter are required to take
a two-year post-gradua.te degree, whereas mathematics majors take a one-year
course. To become a teacher of mathematics for ages l.h 18 a student would be
expected to be a graduate with a post-graduatc teaching certificate. Once a teacher is
qualified 1here is the possibility ofteaching outside the discipline.
The 1998 National Curriculum for leacher training makes no mention of the
history of mathematics but is essentially concerned with the content of the
curriculum and teaching styles. lt is concerned with students' mathematical
anainment and requires the institution to carry out a subject audit for ali those on the
j
 JS
The política/ conte.tt
~ours.c md lo ensure lhal by 1ne end of the course ali students reach the required
>llndad... .FN s1udems aged 3 lO li leachers must have completed a subject sludy in
mathe1m1~cs and be able t~ demonslrate thal lhey can reach lhe required slandards in
mJJhenw~c al. undersl~ndtng. A.gain. there is no menlion of lhe history of
mlthcfDtiC~ In lhe N;J!J('Inal Cumcul um for Tcachcr Tr.tinillg.
U.Í~ l1nited States of Americn
In Ih~ I!SA. 1hcrc is a grca1 de; I of v;uiabilily sincc most cducational dccisions·are
1aken Jl a state levei: according lo a 1996 publicntion by the American Association
fN the Ad' ancemenl of Science.
.,. $1,Jic lq"3rlm~nls Clf c.ducJtÍ<'n or ~late ~ducntion agencies ~re conli nuously grappling with
h," I(' t:trllc lll c~uuark cducallon systcm thal includts 11exit>le policies nnd practices
"h,,.h t:il;c 1n1,, a.:count thc nc(Js ,,f cJch s1udcnt
In ~dlool rcform in mathematics. lhe stalc education agencies use the National
Ct'un~tl C'f Teachm of ~lathematics Standards; hold planning seminars for school
suren~~~endents and disrrict administrators. school principais and administrators,
l ~ad l~:rchc~s. and co~munity and business leaders; strengthening-service; and wri te
and dmemtnate curncula and guides for use in the plaMing an implementation of
curnccb t>~ schoC\I districts. 99 percent of high school oraduates had studied
math~tics in high ~cht'l'l between 19S2 and 1992. Howe~er, only 68.4 percent
st~d1ro <~lgel:>ra: -IS r erccnt geometry, 37 percent algcbra 11; 12 percent
!Tl gt'nomet~: and -1 percent calculus.
M~ing changcs in curriculum varies from state to slate. In Florida, for
t'\am(lle. ~~ thc top administrativc lcvelthc Statc Uoard of Educalion has to approvc
th~ ~urc SlanJarlls M 1-'ramcwork. Thc plan in place since 1996 is to have trainers
cc-me i~ 1~ ''wk in each dimict to align the local curriculum with the new standards.
Ali dectSIOns ('In usage are local. Florid;~tcachers are not rcquircd to havc majorcd in
mat~l,.ma~ics IC\ t~ach 1he su~ject. Other states. however, such as Michigan, have
centf~tauon requ1rcmen1s whtcn ensu re that new teachers are well prepared. 11 is lhe
colll'gts and. ~nh ersities '' hich makes higher impositions on graduating students.
Tbe posll10n of the various societies with regard to history of mathematics in
teacher educatk)n var ies. The posi1ion of the National Council of Teachers of
i\lathema1ics ~NCnl. with 120.000 membe rs) is that
~wJ,·nl$ >h,,ulJ .h~'~ nunlcr,,us Jnd 1·aricó ~;~.pericnccs rtlatcd 10 lhe cultural. historical. and
~' "nuf" c•olutH'II ,,r m3thcmatics so thcy can apprecíotc the role of malhcmatlcs in lhe
dc,etormcnt of our contcmj'Mary socicty and n plorc these rclalionships omong malhcmnlics
and lhe diSCiplines it ~en·cs . ... lt is lhe intcfll of th is goal-lcarning to Yaluc mathcmatics-
10 íoClU auemion (lf lhe nec~ for sludent awarcncss of lhe interaction bctwccn malhematics
and lhe hi~tl'lical situations from \\hich it h:lS dcnlopcd and the impacl thal imcraction has
''" ''UI cuhure anJ Ntr h1 cs.
This ,;~" i$ maJe e\plicit in regard to calculus:
:\S ;tuJcnl~ ~') 1 1'1( I h~ l<'ri.:~ f''<'f'\'I$(J in lhÍ~ ;tanJ Jrú. Íl is imporlanl lh~l lhcy !lcvclnp an
,)\\.Ut.."l~.. ~'1. •H'li ,\,'j'h'\.' l ,llh\11 f~lr, lhl' 111~hll i(',IJ 1.\JÍ~IIl:\ ;m\J lht: CUltural COntrihUUUU$ uf
.:.lkulU>.
/.2 The place ofhistory in national mathcmatics curricllla /9
The NCTM slandards have made a major impacl nationally and locally. The reviscd
standards will be published in 2000. The NCTM has long supported the
contribution history can make to mathematics education, notably in its celebrated
and inOucntial thirty-first ycarbook, thc 542 p:tge Historica/ topics for thc
mathernatics cfassroorn (NCTM 1969), in which a numbcr o f leading historians and
mathematics educators carne together to provide an overview and re ference resource
fo r mathematics sludents and teachers.
Thc Mathematical Association of America (MAA, with 18,000 members)
reeommended in I99 1 that teachcr education classes include lhe his1ory o f
mathematics, and it too has a long and distinguished rccord in promoting and
publishing books on the history of mathcmatics in relation to mathcmatics
education. (The second president of the MAA, indeed, was lhe historiao and
educator Florian Cajori.) Not ali organisations have been so supportive, however;
lhe Mathematical Scicnccs Education Board of the National Research Council did
not mention either history or cullure in their 1990 recommendations for reshaping
school mathematics.
1.3 History of mathematics in curricula and schoolbooks: a
case study ofPoland
Ewa Lakoma
The framework for current developmcnts in Polish school education is described
abovc (§ 1.2.14), whcrc it was notcd 1hat some tcn curriculum proposals for
mathematics in the new elementary school and gymnasium have been pul forward.
Generally lhese include only such quasi-historical entries as the Roman nolation of
numbcrs, or knowing and applying lhe Pylhagorean Theorem. Most textbooks
writtcn according to thcse proposals merely include some biographícal notes on'the
most famous mathematicians-Pythagoras, Euclid, Plato, Descartes- and
infonnation on the most famous historical facts conceming school mathematics:
who introduced lhe rectangular coordinates system, what is the Pythagorcan triple,
what are Platonic solids, and so on (see Nowecki 1996-9; Pawlak 1999). In lhe
Polish mathematics curriculum lhere are two theorcms which traditionally have lo be
considered at school levei: Pythagoras' theorem (direcl and opposite) and lhe
theorem of Thates (direct and opposite). (The lheorem of Thales is essentially
Euclid's Efements vi.2, that a line paral,lel to one side of a triangle cuts the other two
sides proportionally.) But lhe labels ' Pytha~;oras' and 'Thales' in tfiemselves do not
constitute history.
From among lhe variety o f proposals for the new mathematics curricul um il is
useful to look ata project called Mathematics 2001 . lts curriculum, tex tbooks, and
other didactical materiais include relatively more mathematical history 1han other
proposals (Dabrowski 1999a, 1999b). This project uses the history of mathemalics
John Fau\cl, J~n van Ma:UICO (cds.), /Jislory 111 mu1hcmurics cducu11on: tM /C,\1/ swdy.
Dordrechl: Kluwer 2000. pp. 19-29
 :o The politica/ context
as an origin. f~r di~actical situalions. which can be interesling for pupi!s, and as a
source of ongr~al sm1ple reasoninss. which cnn be readily undcrstood and also tum
out_to bc h~lpful for today·s pupils. The history o f mathematics serves as a source
of mforJTI~tiCin on ,·ariCius ways of mathemalicn! thinking nnd arguments. Besides a
hst Cl: ICirtcs to l~:~m. the curriculum M<ltlr.:mnlics 2001 prescnts n listo f lhe sludent
l~:1mrng ''utcCimes ~xrecled :li the given educ:uional levei. Moreover. il inc!udes a
h$1 of examples. of ~idact_ica! situations and concrete tasks to solve by pupils.
Among these dr?acucal suuations and outcomes wc can find rel:ltively many
elemcnts o f the hiStory of mathematics. I prescnt some examples below. first in th~
cur:rculu~ and then in the scho?lbooks for that curriculum. 10 illustrate lhe range of
lop~cs ".htch_ can dra,~· upon h•s.lory. General issues about lhe range of ways in
.,. "h teh hrstoncal matenal can be rncorporated into textbooks are looked at in a !ater
chapter ( §7 ..1.1 ).
1.3.1 History o f mathematics in mathematics curricula
- Elementar:· school(-llh ~trade):
Tori~ -111 . .\'ur~rb,·rs <~n,i !Ireir properlies: the authors propose. among examples
o f dtd~~ucal suuauons and tasks to solve. 1ha1 pupils could compare various systems
of "Tlltn!! numbers. for example a system with lhe base S and the Aztec numeral
system.
Tt'ric ~I:: AIJ;clritlmu <!f clrithm.:lic opamions: consider ways of calculating
numb~rs using Chinese abacus.
T(\ric ~ I J Prc>r,·nh·s (!f number.~. properries of divisibilitl': use graphica!
rcrr<"scnt~tlt'll~ oi' numbcrs (rows of stones. rec1angular sh~pes or notched
re.:tangles\ and manipula1e them in ordcr to justify discovered propenies of
numl:oc:rs.
Topic. J _15 .\"u~r&e~s nnd rlu•ir properlies: use tangrams. distinguishing their parts
and dc:>~nb•~g thCtr Sll.e. and adapt them to inlroduce the concept of fraction.
To~IC ·L J .1/ea.wre: tangrams are used in order to introduce melhods of
measunng an area.
- Elementar: school(5th grade):
TOpte. "'~ ·\ft?asure. area of lnangle,
. --- · quadrangle: build figures of various
sh~res usmg lhe s~mc ri~ccs of tnngr~ms. and exprcss their observ<~tions conccming
nn JrcJ.
- Elementar:· schN•l (lith grade):
T<',ric 6 I.\.rr(>rrrtic·.~ n,f mmrlnn. properlics of dil·isihili(t': considcr
f': lh:t~\,~Cln t~•r!cs. find ~cncr:llors. nnd senrch lor relalions wilh triang!es
lrropC'nton3~ tnples ,·ersus tnang!es wi1h similar shape). Also pupils can be 3$ked to
e:o.piNe .mag.tc ~quares. and describe ways of their transfomtations.
fl'pt,C (>~:: lJ\<>nt\trÍ(' lrcm.~(orm<ltÍ<liiS, i,~Omefi'ÍI!s; bui!d ÍSOt!ICiric figures,
:t.S$Cnll:-ltng r teces of tancrams.
T<'pic 66-t Algcbra. ~iiscot·ering & ,formulating regularities: use the algorithm
~"''"" ~s the ~it'\t' of Eratosthenes to tind ali prime numbers less than 100.
li~ mn:t~IUlll \I SI grJdd
History in curricula and schoolbooks, a case-study 11
UCltllowle mogliby:
• wllzowat r6!ne dowo4y mudlenia Pi~orasa Iuslmt, ~61t 1ricll ~ batdllel Pl2tkonuj~ce np.
D·~ ·~
Patrz! Lictl
• szuut w l~tn\11121 rólnydt dowodôw tMtrdzenia o~t $/adkoW)III WllÍ~)m om por6wnywat le:
• poszume luk Iuslerek wrô!nyth rorumowanlaclr,
Figure 1.4: "Bchold!" and "Calculllfe! ''
Topic I 06 Theorem, assuming. thesis. proof analyse and discuss various proofs
of the Pythagorean theorem. e.g. they can discuss lhe justifications involved in Look
ar 11! (Patrz! ) and in Calculare it! (Licz!}-see figure 1.4.
- Gymnasium (2nd grade):
Topic 232 Geometric figures and their properties, trlgonometric proportions:
find, in some materiais on history of mathematics. ~nrormation about how Thales
estimated from the sea coast a distante between ships on the sea.
Topic 251 Measure, I! numbcr, circumference, arca of a circlc: find out
information on n, i.e. on how the circumference o f a cirde was measured in lhe pasl.
Pupils can be a!so asked to find in literature how Emhostenes compu1ed a radius o f
the Eanh. and to compare his results with data known at present.
Topic 241 Homothety and simi/arity offigures: cOJISidcr lhe lheorcm of Thales
and justify it by means of similar triaogles.
1.3.2 History of mathematics in mathematics school-books
In ali books we can find some biographical notes on the most famous
mathcmnticians, <~nd notes cnnccming lhe origins ofvarious mathcmatical notations,
eg ofthe sign for equalíty, ofthe sign for squaring (ic: power 2), or ofthe square rool
sign. Moreover, many of them include brief notes on lhe historical development o f
mathematicat activitics or malhcmaticat !deas in a range of cultores, such as
Egyptian mathcmatics, Chincsc mathcmatics, Hindu mathemati cs, Grcek
mathematics, lhe schoot of Pythagoras, Euclid and lhe E/Jf!Je.nts, and lhe origins of
algebra.
The series of schoo!-books Maihematics 2001 (Lakoma 1996, !997a, 199&;
Zawadowski 1999) inc!udes, in comparison to other textbooks (eg Novecki 1996-9;
· Powlak 1999) a relatively large component ofhistory of mathematics. Firsl we look
at examp!es from lhe Mathematics 2001 series,. and then will illustrate some
examples from other textbooks.
- Elemcntary school textbook (4th grade):
 I.3 History in carricula and schoolbooks, a case-sludy 23
The political context

~ (l,J~~·frllj. j:~kin to lic7.by i zapisr. i'~ slu1qmi:

:~\m11 dl
111 nm ~tl11J:)l:)~rr
0\aczego len sposúu mno7.eni~ jest llobry?
t1) ll Przyjrzyjmy siç ra1. jcs7.Clo:e.
bl nrm ~~ 1 rrr11 "" 237x4
...u
-·V' 1z dzíesiqlck
\
dlitt~ht1k1
}tedn otci 10 120.
1 a 8 ~tlick
X 2 :1 7 lo/100!

l ./Í •' ·"3 •7

F:g:tr< 1..' Fromth,• module '/(ow dtd Egl'pflatu C'a/rulate' • 2 ..·Li•'~ 26
., 3 c .· 9 ~I 120

Moouk :!: ··How did Eg~ ptians calculate?" (se e figure 1.5). Topic Numbers and I 4 /B ~-·2 ~·til I + 600
948
th,·tr rropmi.:s. ?upils get acquainted with Egyptian symbols of numbers notation, 8 12 ZB
andare askd to disco1er wa~s o f IITiting numbers by means oflhesc symbols. They
~ to answer: "hlt 1135 the Egyptian system of writing numbers? What is a syslcm
!
k'kL
JJM ~r-..hmS.d
dli«!J~ll.:k
c'f llfllingnumt-ers t(ldJ~ ~
~le>dult 11 : "Calculating slicks" (see figure 1.6}. Topic Numbers and their A jak mnoiymy ch.i~?
rn•rmi.".r. thc al!;Nithm 0f muhiplicalion by 'calculating sticks' is prescnted here Moina lalc.: lub tak: lub tak:
a;. ebt'<'fill(<l t>y John ~apicr in the 17th ccntury \Often ca\led 'Napier's rods' or 1 l.
'"laric:r's bones· lo make multiplying numbcrs an easicr process. Pupils are asked Z.?J'fxlt:::. 2. 3 1 2.37
te> disco1·a how thís works. and to analyse and understand lhe algorithm of X ~ L-i_
muhirlicaúon. Then they consider contempomry algorithms for multiplication and :::. 2.00 't + j 0 X 4 + f 4:::. .2 8 9~ 6
choose the most suitabl~ for them.
\ X X
12 o
:::.800+1.ZO+Z8:::.9~8 ... 800
- El(mei\Qry school te~tbook l5'h grade):

:'lll1ÔUlc :::. "Bo11 JiJ Hindu multiply numbcrs?". Topic Numbers and their
rre>r<rrtcs. The subject serves as a point of depanure to develop a skill of
multipl~ iag numbers. Pupils are askcd to discover the Hind11 algorirlrm, lo analysc
it anJ to fmd pros and cons ofthis way ofmultiplying.
Modulr 4: ''Numbe r sieve". Topic Properties of mmrbers, propcrties of
di,·istf.dif)·. Pupils are a5ked to find numbers which are divisible by 2, 3 and so on.
In this "ay t hc~· gct kno'' thc mcthod of lindin~; prime nurnbcrs known as
· ErathCIStcoes' si e~e·.
Modult 15: "Pros Clf muhiplication lable". Topic: Nwubm: adúing and
.trd·trucring ;;acrions. Pupils bccoml! acquainted with Egyplian fractions and are
asked to rresent some fr:lctions as sums o f Egyptian fractions.
t.lc>dule I 9: "What are nwches for?". Topic Gcvmelric figures: equilateral
triangk isoscde.s rriat~gl.:. Pupils rcad about some discovcries o f Thalcs: The two
angles atthe base of an isosceles triang!e <1re equal; two intersecting straight Iines
fomt two rairs oi equal angles: the diamcter of a circle divides it into two equal
pans. In this conte:-.t pupils are askcd to discover and analyse some funher
prop~nies of triangles.
I - Elemerua~· school te~tl:>ook (6<J. grade):
:--ICidule :!i: "Time for a puz.zle". Topic Oisco\·ering regulcrities. Pupils are
3$ked lo disco1 er lnd anal~ se regularities of mathematical activities, using various
I
9~ 6
1
Figure 1.6: Evaluation o/ merhods for mu/tiplicclion based on c cornparison
with Ncpier 's rodJ
graphical representations of numbers, they also disçuss Pythagorean triples (a.s was
suggested in the curriculum).
In modules 29 and 30, pupils have the opportunity to do simple examples of
classic geometrical constructions by means o f compasscs anda ruler.
- Gymnasium schoolbook (1st grade):
Reader \: "What is a theorem?" Topic Theorem, assumplion, thesis, proof
Pupils read a text with information aboul the earliesttheorems, mainly from G~eece.
Theorema means 'that which is seen•. so the first proofs servcd as tools, leadrng to
catching a sight; meeting with an illumination. As an example Greek ' pebble
arithmetic' is shown, for justifying propenies of numbers.
Module 7: "Secants and langents". Topic Geometrlc jig11res: pupíls are asked to
make a poster presenting the mathematical fact, discovered by Thales. that a rriangle

\
 I Tlre polirica/ conrexr
1. Napi\ na o~groblu Oiofantou z Alekwldtii:
PM 1!'1:1 nngroh~i(1>1 sporr;rn Dio(nnl - a dzi(tí
prudzil(ftej szluct z11111rlrgo tei& jtgo tdmdzi Ci lt11 gllu: x=
eM.~
. pruz .~tq C%#é tycitl pottJSII'.l B6g mu X
pclrolil, 6 whicb can be interested and unders!andable for a pupil a!lhis educational levei.
lito polcrillJ mu znS, l:ittlr dhrtn.sla mó10 a#i iycia mu X
mi~ + f2
G z:!Oltll gdJ ]Jr..(/Jfl. siódmq, m/odq ~ 1C @m +.!.
dobru rrprvtr!uf.til mu B6g, 7 Diobrias Jt4
+5 ipracr:tdw
klóra. fdy pi{é lnl millflo. maltgo mu porila synka.
Alehlnc!niw
dntgitj~m
rlk okrolny los dada/. te twy sy11 WIC'ie tciá Ojra
r JOOrril osiJtgnql, pomr mbrol go Hodu
+..!
1 wiel:u n. t. Jqo
pncr~
K.?jçr ogtiJfllny sroj bót sn&nll>ia(m:t riród liczb jeszr.u +4 Ji: do I01'MJja
pr:a r:úTy lntn porilday, ai roulnJ si{ ziJdem. ~~-
Taki nasr0bny na~is OU)W3 sit epiúflum. Z~iszlo epitafium- zagadlce
"' p..">Sta<i rtMnania. Upro~~ je. Spra1\df, te Oiofantos tyl 84 lata.
Fr$:11··· i • Tlr.- oltll'IOII rrr::h· oftfrr lifr spcm ofDiophnmtu is (1}1 ~xcrlltlll opportunitv
:;•r $/Uol i i:IS I(> Joft·t/inrllr \r(>rt/ probfems. . languages, history, philosophy, psychology, fine arts etc. Although this book wu
"hr.<.- '<rt:.-<.< '''' .tilll.lt<'d 011 a cire/e, 1rir/r one of irs sides a diamerer of tht cire/e,
i.< rigirt-IJtlgi.:J.
Module 18: "From a problem 10 an equation" (see figure 1.7). Topic Algebraic
l:!r~ua~e. An:sl~ sing problems of DioplranrQS. and of Bhaskara is a point of
~ermure ~or gaining a ,·ery imponant skill. to expressa ma!hematical word problem
m a_tgebr.nc symbols. Prescming old ways of !hinking helps pupils to analyse
r:uucubr stcrs rof the process of this trans!alion. Pupils already know examples of
~impk cqu:llh'n~ . NtH\' th1·y dt\'Cit'l' !hcir skitls 10 read mathcnullical !exts and
e:-.rress a problem in symbols. le:sding to an algebmic cqualion.
~~t'du!c ~.::!: "Lct's cut a squ:sre!" Topic Pyrlragorns · tlreorem. Pupi!s are asked
to butld a puuk. TIIanb to i! !h~y are able lo discover Pylhall.oras' !heorem. This
imp(lt1:lnl !heorem is rrcscnled. and anal~ scd. In module 23 pupils nrc also asked to
consida some situatit'ns coming from every tlay life in which it is useful lo apply
this thet-rem {e.g. parking a car). They also try to discover a me!hod of finding
s~gments "hose length is a square roe>t. Uow to gct :t squarc rool of 10, of 17 as
'llll<'l.l) :\$ I'I'SSI!-k'~
Reader ?: "Th~ P~th:~goreJn legend-. Topic Properties of nwubers. disco•·tring
r,·srti.:-ui<.<. Thi; is a sle>ry about m:nhema!ic:tl ideas associ:~ted wilh lhe
~ th:lgNe:ms. Thr :ti~Nitlun of :tlt(m:ni' e subtracting. 10 find common divisor of
/.J History 111 curric11la and scltoolboolc.f, a cnst·studJ' 25
cwo numbers, is prcsen!ed. · Whcn applicd to a side and a diagonal of lhe regular
pcntagon, this algorithm does not stop, leading to lhe conclusion that the side and
diagonal of a regular pentagon are incommensurable: lheir lengths are numbers
which are irntional. This story leis pupils become a:quaintcd with imponanl
problems of ancient mathemalics. The aim of lhe readcr is to let pupils know a
fascinating adventure in the history o f mathematics and to presen! ways o f lhinking
- Elemcntary school textbook (8th grade. old structure;lakoma 1997 b):
Module 40: "Trousers ofThales". Topic Thtorem ofThales. Pupils are uked to
analyse a sequence of figures, which illustrate succeedíng steps of mathematical
reasoning leading to lhe proof ofThales' theorem.
Module 7: "Squaring of a circle" Topic Measure, area of a circle. Pupils
become acquainted wilh an information on a classic poblem o f squaring of the
circte. This information is a point of depanure for eslimatl_~ and discovering a
me!hod of calculating an area of a circle. l•
In this book we can also find examples of classíc g.eometrical constructions by
means only of ruler and compasses. Pupíls have also oppanunity to analyse Platonic
solids.
Other examples of school-books including history of lltltbematics
- Secondary school textbook (4th grade. old structure; tlalat L990):
Al!hough !his book is out of print, being reptaced by ather series o f textbooks, it
is worth presenting the main ideas and 10 show examples of historical elements
included in it. 1t was addressed to s!uden!s preferrin&. humanislic subjects, like
written according to the curriculum of the old secondary school, which did not
included elemen!s of mathematics history, it was decided by the author~ to present
one third o f mathema!ical ma!erial in a form of historic:af invesligations. In this part
o f lhe book students could find a lot of old malhematical texts, written in original
language or !ransla!ed into Polísh. Students usually wcre uked to read a text, to
analyse it and to follow lhe argumen!, o r 10 apply it in SOme situations. They were
often asked to compare old mathemalical methods witb lbese methods in use !oday.
The historical texts chosen for the studenls to have opportunity to read werc
fundamental to lhe historical developmcnt of mathematics. Scudents could read
frngmcnts of thc following works:
Euclid. Elements, book i, some of books ii and ii, written in old Polish (a
!ranslation from I 817).
Cllrd:~no, passages conceming lhe tlcvelopment o f ;l'gebra. Students were uked
to interprel his algebraic description and lo translate i i~o today's language of
algebraic symbols.
Rene Descartes, põlss:tgcs from La génmhrie. Stut!CIIIS wcre asked to analyse thc
. rule o f signs, which gives information about che numbennd the position of the roots
of a polynomial equation, and to apply it in some simplé cases. They also had the
opportunity to read lhe first book of La géomérrie in french or in parallcl Polish
translation. Studen!s could follow thc method of mathrmatical reasoning proposed
 --.......-- . --------

Tlle political context 1.3 History in curricula and schoo/books, a case-study 27

t>~ Descanes. The authors bricOy e:o<plained the maio ideas ofthis method just above
the origin:ll tc.-~t. Students wcre asked to understand Dcscanes' way of solving
quadr.:~tic equ:uions using ruler and comp3sscs.
Nkola.us Copemicus. e)(tracts from DI! revolutionibus orbium coelesrium Je*eli czworobok wpiaany zootanie w kolo, to
proatok~t rozpoatarty na przok~tnych, · równy
presented in Latin {figure 1.8) with parallel Polish translation (figure 1.9). Studcnts jaat tY= (sumia tych}, które rozpoatarte a~
gN h.'l ~"~" t~e th:orem of Ptolemy: the product of diagonais of a quadrangle na przeoiwleclych bokach. Niech b~zie zatem
mscnbe6tn 3 Clrcle ts cqual to the sum of products o f the opposite sides. Thcn they czworobok wpiaAny w kolo ABCD, twierdz•, ~e
"ere ask~d to work out why Pythagoras' theorem can bc dcduccd from the thcorem ten (pr oatoK~t) który na AC i OS J •at
of Ptolem~ . rozpoatarty , równy jest tym (aumie tych),
które ·~ na AB, CD, & na AO, BC. Utwór%3y
Studcots could also find a lot of old mathematical mcthods from the traditional zatem k~t ABR, równy temu, ktOry
(rozpo~ciara) CBD. B~z1a w1~ caly k~t ABO,
calemu k'towi EBC r6wny, przyjmuJ~c. te EBD,
Thcorcma fccunt!um. jaat dla obu wspólny. K~ty rozpoatarte na
ACB & BOA aoble nawzaJam a~ równ• (bo
S lq~Udrilmrum circulo infcriptum fucric, rclbngulum fub
di~gonijs comprzhcnfum, :cqu;lc clt tis,qu:rfuo lmribus
chwytaJ') ten sam aecment kola (.)
tróJk~ty podobne BCR, BOA, maJ~
Oba
boki
appofids cõtincntur.Eilo cním quadrilatrrum infaiprum cir• proporcJonalne, jak BC do BD, tak XC do AO,
ca!o A a cn,aio,quod fub A c Oi o a diag.:m~scontincrur,~qua• & (st'd proatok,tl rozpostarty na EC & BD
!c~ eis qu:.: fub.u, co, & [ub Ao, a c.raci, " równy jeat temu który na BC & AO . Lecz i
tróJk~ty ABR & CBD a~ (tak utworzone, te
2mus cnim:mgulum A a l! 1 :rqualcd qui fub
e,) róune, & to (k~ty) na BAC, & BOC ten aam
no. E_ntcrgo totus As o an;ulu•, to ti.u o ~ "\ (kawalek) obwodu kola chwytaJ~ce ·~ równa.
xqulht,aífumpto 1111 n,urns; commum.An ~ Zatam jak uprzednio AB do BO tak Jak Ai do
gvliquocpfubAc•, &a nA Gbi inuícc funt ..a."----_.;::.{rl CO, 1 ten (prostok,t) na AB & CO równy jest
.zqualctln codcm cirrulifcgm c.nto,&idcir• temu na AE & BO. Lecz ju~ zostalo
a bina triangu1l ümília a c •, ao o~~,habc• powiedziana, ~e ten na AO, BC· taki Jeot
jak na BD, & EC (.) Razem zatem ten który
l:amhtcn propordonalil, uta cad ao, fie te adAo,&quod (rozpoatarty jest) na BD & AC równy jest tym
l1tb I atG o ~qulfccíhi. quodfub I cOlAo. Scd lt ttíangu• które (aumie tych którc rozpostarte a~) na
lu l 1 lt c a o limilia funt, co qudd anguli qui fub u • , & c a AO, BC & na AB, CO. Co . pokaza~ trzeba
·Dfaai funt::z:q~nlu, &qui fub • Ac, &ao c candcmdrculi cir• bylo.
mmfcrcntiam iufcipicntu !unl:tqualu. Fít rurfumuadao, Kopernik przedstawia tu dowõd twierdzenio Ptolemeuszo o tym, ~
Ecu1 A • adco,Ol quod fubu &co fqualcci,quodfubA a& ao. dia czworo~tów wpisanych w k.olo iloczyu prz.ek~tnych r6wna s1ç
~cd i i dccbmÚcfl,quod fubA D,l eraniU cffc, qu2n1Ü fubao • swnie iloczynõw prz.eciwleglych boków. Odcinlc.i K~pernik oznac:z.a
I< H Coniun{tim igicurquod fubao&A c::z:qualccllcis, quz: zawsze dwoma duiymi l.iterami, a zamiast ·:rwrotu ,,iloczyn prz.ekqt-
LbA o,a c,~ fub A a,c o, Quod oficndiiTc fucriropor1unumc nych" uiywa zwrotu ,prostok:jt z~udow~ny ?a. obu pnek(ltnych".
Przyjnyj si~ tekstowi Kopcro.ika 1 porownaJ Jego styl ze stylem
Foprc I S: t ·,.,,·mkus rro>ws Pitolo•m.l·'s tho•orem, from De rcvolutionibus (I HJ)
Kartezjusza.
11.2. W jaki sposób z twierdzcnia Ptolemeusz.a wynika twierdzenie
canon of mathematical knowlcdge, for example the 'galley method' of dividing
Pitagornsa?
numbers Students ''ere asl.cd to apply this method of dividing nurnbers and to
compare il with a m~thoJ th:n they use today.
- Seto.lld:lr)· schooltextbook (3'h grade. old structure; Walat 1988): Figure 1.9: Polish translalion ofzhe passage in figure 1.8. with the question relating
The rar!ier third·grode textbook in the same style also conlains many rcferences Ptolemy's theorem to Pythagoras
to histof! <>lf mathematics. Studying propertics of numbers leads to using Gauss'
method • graphic representations of numbcrs for calculating sums of many to disco ver Euler's formula. They also read brief information on the thincenth book
componam. Students can also consider polyhedrons; they were encouraged to o f El.lclid's Elements, in which the construction o f the Platonic solids is presented.
anal~ se somr examples likc the three-dimcnsional stellated polyhcdra and thc Analysinl' logarithms givc an opportunity to prcscnt mcthods of calculati ng thcm,
Pbtt,nicl l•li.ds J~snib~u h~ Luca Pac iuli in V.: dn·üw proportione. and nlso are ablc

:s The política! context
styles of education. History o f mathematics can ais o create a context. for intr?duc.ing
due 10 Jost Bilrgi. John Napier nnd Henry Origgs. /1. short compu1er program was
mathematical concepts, in ways which encourage students to thmk. Htstoncal
used here. to ~ener;ue various ,·alues of the logarilhmic function.
solutions \et students to continue simplc ways of thinking and to de~cl~p ~em
U.3 Final rtmark.s
T\'\ll:>oc-ks used nClw n1 sccondary schoolleve\ do not include elements o f the history
,,f mllhenmics. Their structure is much more rigid. authors preferring the form of a
; fc-ml:lllecture try lo explain mathematics ns simply <lS possible. This brief review
has all.'"ed us 10 see 1ha1 there are two diO'crenl points of vicw on the place of
ma1hema1ics history in curricula :1nd school-book. according to whelhe r historical
demenls are encouraged or discouraged. What is lhe reason for such a polarisation
e-f mndroints; Cnreful analysis of lhose didaclical npproachcs which use history of
"mlthematic$ . .1nd those "hich do not, allows us to hypothesise that an attitude
'''"Jrds histN~ ,,r nmhemalics in m~lhematics educnlion ,·ery much dcpends on a
t!~n.-r:~l 'it" roillltO\\ ~rds m:tthemntics leaming nnd mathcmatics leaching.
Thcre :tre. hoadl~ $pcaking. two contradictory cognitivc sty\es in malhematics
cdu.:.ni,'n. l)ne is ~<'cn in lhe \\Ork of Euclid. the other in Descartes. The slyle of
EudiJ "3> rrcscn1ed in Ei<mmrs. pcrhaps the world's oldesl lextbook. lt is a
;.~ >l<mltic rrcsenlati''" o f mathematics: definitions. axioms. theorcms, proofs,
theNem~. rrt'<'fs. . . . Formulating: mathematical theory in such a dogmatic frame
t-o:.: .1m~ the c:~n.:-n e-f kncm ledge for many centuries. This rigid style. albeit replaced
t\'r .:Jucati(\nal :tims to~ equi,·alent texts wrinen in a form more suilab\e for students,
has ils Yotaries ~' en today. In the work of Rene Descartes. by contrast, there is no
such style. Descartes presented mathcmatics as a fascinating dcscription of his
JdHnlures in c0nnec1ion with soh·ing mathematica\ problerns (sce for example
Fau'd fQSS). lt is symptomatic that he presen1ed his fundamental work La
~.',•mbru.' as ~n e"amrlc e>f activity. supplemented to his Discours de la Methode
He sho" ed lhe re:ad~r ways 10 solve a given problem, then he posed severa\ others
connemd with it and sketched their solu1ions in such way that a reader had
c-rp<:>nuni~ lo soh e them individually. Descartes in1roduced convenient algebraic
no1a1ion. which spread out \·er:· quickly and is also used today.
Euclid al~o introduccd tern1s and conc~pts which we slill use. in whol is called
·seh''''' geom<'tt: ·. Howevcr the di iTerence betwcen the stylcs is fundamental: in
Euclid's wNks we tind a log.icnlly buih s1ruc1u re ofknowledg.e. whercns Descartes
rn.'' iJ~d us '' ith css:~ys "" nntural "nys o f mathematical reasoning which lets us
rt'nstntcl lhe world <'f mathe mJtics. !3oth 1hcse styles of prcsenting mathematics
· corrcspond with din·erent cognilive styles characteristic of people's leaming. We
can cal\ thesc s~·les the dogmaric slyle and the discursive (nearly: discours-ive)
st;o le. Schools. in order to be effective. have to adapt themselves to the cognitive
abili1ies of the students. and have to 1ake note of the panern of their cognitive
de,ek,pment. When lhis fundamental demnnd is taken into account in mathematics
educa1ion. the discursh·e style is gener:1\ly preferable.
His1or:· ofmathematics can play a \'er:· useful role in mathematics education, but
lhe wa~ in which it is uscd ver:· much depen~s which style of education we prefer.
\ lalh~mJtics hisll'r) in educ:nion can be pn:scnled as a set of curious details, which
can :lt,'IISC sludem~· intcresl in mnthcmatics. In this contex1 il can be used in both
(.J History in curricula and schoolbool<s, a case-srudy 29
individually. The different points o f view which are possible to ~resent m hts~on:al
contexts give students the opportunity to deve.lop the an of dtscuSSI.ng, ~o JUSUfy
their own opinions, to present their own reasomng to other people. H tstoncal cases
encournge students to repeat individual attempts to solve prob\ems. Ali th~se
activities are very useful for forming mathematical concepts and developmg
mathematical thinking. Thus, history of mathematics seems to be especial\y use~l
when we prefer a discursive style o f education. . ..
We can risk posing this hypothesis: the more attentton we pay to ~eg~rd pup~l s
cognitive development, the more use fui becomes history of mathemattcs tn creatmg
and rea\ising didactical proposals.
Refercnces ror I.J
0 11browski M., Piskorski P.. Zawadowski W, 1999a. Marhemarics }001: Curriculumfor
elementary school, grade <1-6 (in Polish), Warsaw: WSiP . .
Oabrowskl M .. Piskorski P.. Zawadowski W.. 1999b. Mathrrr.atics 2001: Cumcufumfor
gymnasium. grade 1-3 (in Polish), Wars.1w: WSiP .
Fauvel. John 1988. 'Cartesian and Euclidean rhetoric', For riu learning o/ mothtmatrcs 8,
25-29
Lakoma E:. Zawadowski W.• e.a.. 1996. Matltemotics 2001. te.ttbookfor t/1e 4t!J grade of
efementary school (in Polish), Warsaw: WSiP
Lakoma E.. Zawadowski W., e.a., 1997a. Mathemalícs 200/, tt:ttbookfor tl1e 5th grade of
elementary school (in Polish), Warsaw: WSiP
Lakoma E.. Zawadowski W., e.a.• 1998. Mathemolics 2001, te:trbookfor tire 6tl• grade of
e/ementary school (in Polish), Warsaw: WSiP
Lakoma E.. Zawadowski W.. e.a.• 1997b. Mathematlcs 2001. to.tbookfor the 8th grade of
e/emcntary school (old syslem) (in l'olish), Warsaw: WSiP
Nowccld B.. c.a... (col!eclive work), 1996·1999. 8/ue Mathematlcs. series of rtxtboaks for
elemtnrarv school and gymnasium (in Polish). Bielsko-Bia!a: Kleks
Pawlak z.. e.~.• (collective work), 1999. Mar/Jematics srep by sttp. series of twbooks for
eftmentary sclrool and gymnasium (in Polish), Lodz: Res Polona
Walot A.. Zawadowski W,, 1988. Marhematics, te:ttbookfor rhe 3rd grade ofsecondary
school (in Polish), Warsaw: WSiP
Walal A.. Zawadowski W., 1990. Marltematics, re:ttbookfor the .fr/1grade of secondary
sclroof (in l'olish), Warsaw: WSiP
Zawadowski W.. c.a., (collcctivc work). 1999. Mathemarics 2001. te:ttbaokfor 1st grade of .
gymnaslum (in Polish), Warsaw: WSiP
1.4 Policy and politics in the advocacy o f~. historical
component ·
Science is a political issue beçause scientific research and achi~ve~ents a~~ of
· great importance for ali people in the world. Mathematical educat1on IS a pohucal
J(l nu! po/itica/ COIJiexl
issue t>enuse it is one o f the essenti~l channcls for science 10 be approached by ali
pcople. The history of mnthem~tics shows how fundamental is the link between
mathematics. mathematical education. and the general conceptions of people at each
time and ~ach place. lt shows. too. how the content of any mathematics curriculum
represents a choice. cssentially a political choice. that has been made: and by thc
SJ m~ t<>l.~:n is apt to ch:mge when other political influences are in place. This
sectÍt'lj sutes the posilion of the group of the ICMI Study who were charged with
rcJching a strategic \'iew on the political context. outlining some strategies that can
t-e (mpl~ed to en$ure that history is incorporated into teaching.
Shorld a historical dimension be incorporated in the official mathematics
curriculum'? And if so. how can it be made to happen? As the present study clearly
shows.. there is wide variation in just what "a historical dimension•· can be taken to
mean. The many di fferent ways in which hi~tory of mathcm;~tics can enter thc
educa1i003l process are discusscd in depth in other chaplcrs of this book. the
rC>ssit>iftties rang.ing. from anecdotal support in on-going teaching (§7.3.1, § 7.4.1 ), to
usin~ ~inal sources in the classroom (chaptcr 9): from innucncing thc structurc of
a curricvlum (§8.5.2) to exploring history of mathemalics for trainee teachers
tch3pt~ J ). for example by gaining funher insights into the development of
students· undcrstanding. (chaptcr 5). But prccisely bccause thcrc are so many
rl'Ssibililies. thcre is scopc for confusion and muddle in the advice tendered to
educJt iconal rolicy fNmers. as wdl as in their reactions to well-meant solicitation.
li is imponant therefore to be alert to any possible problcms which a historical
dimcns'M!n could be thought to generate. and indeed to examine policy proposals
carefull~ from the perspccti,·e o f a dcvil's advocatc. In this way counter-arguments
and mi!ll:llde rstandings can be anticipated (as was seen in the examplc of Norway,
§ 1.2.13abo\'e).
Sud!ll\\ areness <>f arguments C<>untering a ro le for history. as well as knowledge
Clf the Nm:fits and potential of a historical dimcnsion. has to be exercised in the
contc:-H•f thc wide rang.: o f t'pinion-formers and policy advisers in many countries
no" a.U~s. :\ numbcr of diffcrcnt groups are conccmed with. and have greater or
lesser influcncc o,·er. decisions about what is taught in schools: classroom teachers,
head trxhers. school authorities. educational theorists and researchers, parents. local
r<>litici;n'- national pC>liticians. publishers, joumalists and other influcnces on public
orinion. Thcsc groups tlo not nll have a cc>mmon intcrcst in solving educational
rrol-kms in the- same \\:ty. tFnr cx:unple. a classroom trachcr who is convinced of
the 13lvt of gaining a fuller histNical awarcness throug.h in-service training may
find J di!fcrent rcaction from thc head tc:~cher who is having to make budgetary
drci~hlOS<l5 \1CIIa5 ped~gogical ones.)
~e\ec:~l difTiculties might be anticipated atthe classroom levei, let alone at other
le-els_Q( <>pinion formation. To incorpor:ue history within a mathematics
curricul~m might 1:-e thought t<> consume more time. involvc more effon. distract
rurils fi't'l:nt lhe ta~l; ('f cxpJNing and gnining COnfidcnce ÍO their handling of
m:uh;:ClÜcs itsclf: it might indeed be thought a somewhat alien intrusion.
intrl'JUCÍ.'J:!! a quite diírerent '' orld t'rom that of mathematical inquiry. Funhermore,
it mi~ht ~ s<>methi nJ; reyond the competence of the tcacher. who may indeed have
1.4 Policy and politics in the advocacy ofa hisorica/ component 31
chosen to pursuc mathematics precisely bccause it didn't involve reading about
history, or writing joined-up sentences. Teachers without some historie;~) training
may feel nervous and ill-preparcd, and worry about how to access historical sources
as well as their competencc in handling thcm. There may be concems about thc
danger of replacing a flexible strategy, in which teachers can use history as a
resource and teaching aid as appropriate, with a rigid curricular imperalive in which
the hiSiory exam becomes as tcrrifying to contemplate as the maths test. It could be
that inuoducing a new pedagogical principie in an unimaginative or bureaucratic
way may do more harm than good. (Such concerns are raised in the work o f Jean-
Pierre LeGoff, discusscd in § 3.2 below.) To seek to ím pose the wider use of history
may precisely miss the point, that it is the enthusiasm of the teacher which effects
the most successful teaching, even in the most knowledgeable teacher, not the way
of delivcring the subject mattcr. Thcrc are a v;~riety of such conccms which may
need to be resolved as we consider just what results we want to accomplish: namely,
the successful dclivery of a better mathematics education for ali students
evcrywhcrc.
That said (and these matters will be returned to periodically in the course of this
volume), it will be helpful to draw attcntion here to some possibilities for the
political dcvclopmcnt o f thc idcas put forward in this book. This section spcaks to
the range of opinion forrners menlioned above, and outlines ways in which they
might be approached and wilh what message. The expericnce of different countrics
is vcry di ffcrent both in political structurcs and in lhe lcngth o f chain o f
communication between, say, a classroom teacher and the ministry of education, so
this section is not a prescriptivc framework but a rcminder of possibilities of
influencing those who control what is in the curriculum and are in a position to
influente any role of history of mathematics within the cxperiences of pupils and
students of mathematics.
1.4.1 Political authoritics (at ali leveis)
Bureaucracies work both through personal contacts and position papers, so a useful
strategy would be to prepare a summary of the Study Book to be presented to each
authority (for example, by lhe ICMI representative in each country). This cxccutive
summary should be translatcd into a number of languagcs and published in
mathematics and education joumals. 1t is as well 10 make sure that authorities are
aware of lhe three following imponant issues: national contributions will always be
recognised; the study of history of mathcmatics will attract students to study the
exact sciences; and lo reassure thal thc study of history of mathematics is not a
substitute for the study of mathematics but a resource within i!S better delivcry.
Throughout the política! process a robust assertive tone, sensitive to counter-
arguments and determined lo anticipatc and rebut 1hem, will gain respecl and
influcnce.
1.4.2 Tcachcr associations
It is vital to call auention to the importance of imbuing professionals with
knowledge of history o f mathematics, and more especially with sensitivily IOW?'
 The political context
the :~rg.umcnts of this Study. in'"olved in the national committees. In several
countries. ~pecial sessions on historv o( mathematics and its use in the classroom are
~cheduled :u the national and rc:gi~nal meetings. A related task is to encourage
hi5toricall~ oriented anicles. and discussions of thc: classroom use of historical
m:lterial. in joumals. Meetings can profit~bly be held with offieers of teachers'
a~~c-ci:11ions to $llmnmiu nnd expl~in the contents of the Study Book. The
impC'r1ance should not t>e underestimated of including in reward systems for teachers
~J ue recognitic-n of thc-se "ho work to de\·e lop the ir skills in a historical direction;
th~ aq;ument may be mongly put that such teachers are bett er teachers, better
informc:d 3lld bener moti\"ated. as a resulto f this kind o f in·service training.
.,I.·U Profcssion:~l mnthcm:~tics :~ssoc:iations
There is grt'\' int: enthusiasm among professional mathematicians for history of
mathematics. thrtlugh a greater awareness o f its impon~nt roles (though this has long
t-een percei,·ed b~ leadintt mathematicians: see the quotations by Lagrange, Abel,
De ~ltlrgan and others. ~1.5 below). 1t is notable that some major intemational
meetings. such as the lnlemational Coneress of Mathematicians, have invited
historians lo make a major plenary address~ illld it is reasonable to work for such a
rr~~ence al olher meetings too. At a number of regional, national and intemational
meetings. special sessic:>ns on history of mathematics are incrensingly popular
r~:nures. and in joumals historic~lly oriented articlcs are increasingly encouraged
and ~een .
Studies tln the his1ory o f contemporary mathematics should be encouraged and
Jl;<'-lhis is panicu l arl~ imponant-simpler \'Crsions aimed nt studcnts; thc success
of recent accounls of. for example. chaos theory and Andrew Wiles' solution of
Fumat's Last Theorem shows that where there is a will, simplified accounts of
recent hi m>~ can be Jchie' ed :tnd resonate with s1udents. teachers and the general
rut-lic.
l..t..t Tcrtiar:r leachcrs
Encouraee the de~icn~tion of e.r~nts 10 s1udy history of mathematics and its
integrati~n in teaching: for ex;mple by the production of study units. The
pre>mCition of seminars on the historv of mathematics can reinforce the efforts of
facu lty members to widen thc numb~r of colleagues friendly towards history. The
re,\ard system for both college fac ulty and school teachers needs to be revised so
that tenure and promotion criteria are seriously considered for those whose research
acti' ity includes research on lhe use of historv o f mathematics in mathematics
cl:ssses. and the dissemin:ste ofthese findings to ~athematics teachers and faculty.
A key emphasis at tenial')· levei is teaeher education. since teachers will
implement the curriculum with ease and pleasure only ifthey are familiar with it and
fully underst:md it. Hi slo~· of mathemalics should be included in teacher education
prc-gramme~. so lhat teachers have the nexibility o f using it as nnd ifthey ehoose to
dtl so: it is then knoll'l~dge 0\'Cr which they have ownership. These issues are
di5cu~~ed funher i n~:haptt:r -1.
1.4 Policy and po!itics in the odvocacy of a hisorica/ component )J
1.4.5 Parents
Parents can be among the most worried of opinion formers, both through thcir own
bad experientes with mathematies in the past and through conccms about modcrn
education generally. By the same token, any strategy wnich leads to noticeably
better results or greater enthusiasm among pupils shou.ld gain strong parenta!
suppon. The promotion of mathematics awareness with an historical aspect. sueh as
through texts in national newspapers about aspects ofthe his1ory of mathcmDtics, ls
helpful, as are other ways of popularizing mathematics and its history thou&h n.
range of media (books, plays, newspapers, films, TV programmes). Teachers hnvc
found that mathematics awareness evenings, weeks, or other events o f a scmi·socilll
nature are an excellent way of boosting parenta! interest in thcir chlldstsíf
mathematical studies, and that a historicat dimension to tbe contcnt o f thcse evcntt
produces remarkable growth in confidence and support.
1.4.6 Textbook authors
Some authors may need encouragement and hetp both in accuracy and relev~nl r uf
historical references and in thinking through the pedagogical challclli\C, oi
incorporating historical materia l. This task, on a coontry by country bl•&l~, lt
occupying the attention o f several leading mathematics cducationists wlth hlswlcttl
intcrests.
1.5 Quotations on the use of history of math ema tics in
mathcmatics teaching and lcarning
There has been interest over severaI eentu rics in the relaJions bctwccn thc hs5tory or
mathematics and the teaching and leaming of mathematics, as will beco nu: npJlMCnt
from various diseussions in the course of this book. Many· leading mathemnuçlnnt
and tcachers down thc ages havc cxprcsscd, in diffcrcnt ways and for di ftcr~sll
rcasons, idcas nbout thc rclationships betwecn mathematics and its histosy Wo
conclude this ehapter with a num bcr of quotations illustrating this thcme, h11
referente and interest as well as to strengthen the case of those arguing tod.1y for~
stronger incorporation ofhistory in the cdueational process. Each quotatlon cnt1l1f
be analyzed in detail for its presuppositions, pedagogical .altitudes, social conteM I
and contemporary value-which might provide use fui discussion material for grnlltl,
in, say, initial teaeher training-but herc we leave such analys is as an exerclsc for
readcrs and their students.
Portugall772
~- -
From the Statutes of the Portuguese University of 1772. wrillen by Jos Montrlro nu
Rocha, in the section on the first-year curricu/um.
.I In order that the lessons of the malhematics course be clone in good arder, ;md whh )lu•Ot
from the students: thc rcader of gcometry, to whom belong lhe disciplines of lhe fim ya111,
before enlering the tessons propcr to his chair, will ren.d lhe general prolccomcn ~ ta lho
mathematical sciences.
3-1 The polirical context
~ ln 1h~m h<" •li mll..: ~ t>ricf imroduction tolhe stud~ o f thcse scicnces: showing thc object.
· ;\1~1<'11. ~ us gcncrll rrosp~t: c~plainins thc m~lhod lh~t thcy use: thc uscfulncss. :md
:~ccllcncc t'l it: anJ making a summary of lhe mo in accomplishmcnts of its histol)' through
;~ wMt rc~l.:~t-lc times. Thcy :u-c: from thc origin o( malhcmatics. un1il lhe ccntul)· of
.-h ai<$ an~ P~ th:l~NJS: fr<'m this umil lhe 11-tmdation "f th~ ,\kxundrian Schoot: lrom this
•·t•l lhe llln$11~11 F.n.: lr<'f\\ thi$ until th~ dc~tructi<m uf thc (;rcck Empnc: from this unlil
l)c$.::1rlt'f; ll1d lrom Dcsc:!l\cs untilthc p.rcscnt time.
• This su~· sl\311 bc proportionare to tbc c:~pacity of lhe sludcnts. so 11\al it predisposcs
•hem. and acourag.cs thcm to cnter thc Sludy with pleasurc. Beca use or i! lhe rcader will no\
~n1cr in lhe dctailcd dcscription of tnc disco,·erics that werc madc in lhe said scícnccs in
di iTercnt.tir.les Me! placcs: bccausc it canno1 bc undcmood. unkss 1ne samc scicnces havc
~cn Sludie~ and thrn the~ \\ill not necd tn~ 'oicc of1hc mastcr. to bc insuuctcd in history.
·~: '"" ruommcnJ ne,cnhdess ,.el} much 10 his disciplcs. lh~t attonling 10 their
,..,. g.n:ssi<':l in lhe mllh~matics roursc that lhcy should bc instructcd pilrticularly in it:
1 ·" in~ thcm. that 1he first thing. lhlt mus1 t>c donc by somcbody that wants 10 study in lhe
rro.;grcs.s of lll.lthcmltics. is to instruct himsclf in lhe disco' cries madc bcfore him: in order
nN i (I lo~c 1anc in di~co' ering fNthe sccond time lhe sam.: things: nor in working in thc tasks
.;..ld undC"T'.nin~ alrc:11i~ onied l'lll
:'lléti'Cial p3ra u lrac:ado d~ t·cinita.'
.4fitod#t!t> jo:rri:r:ciro
0 duma:S;) r.v:,..!,• J,• } Jn/IOtltr r>~ a l CCIISUUÇ!O de elipses f bel:\ cor.hecÍOo.. C lp!U<nlllllO$ lJ)COll!
• ~~~ d: •m• 'nwr> do malcln!tico holandh \'an Scbocttn. publicall& no !CU ti•.o de 1646,
.De tt~o <"t"llr.-~r~~m urtiPIItmu'l ç-/QnO dtJrnpHD•v IITJlltrtJJJ Ui1,. i). Na fipr~ S mO$\t&mol uma
li"'"~ a ~"-"" Ô< um raoclelo do mcs:110 lllltcdo fe•to no SltiCh{IIJd.''
Atonsetllomo$ o I<il oc a 1rnw fC!li'C)durir no Sv•~ os métodos w toro• pon cot>Miir uma hípt.1>ole
\d:[uap coruun:c tm -.u de ..,.._. cor.lW>~t\ e ""'' paribola <itulll4ad< de dillinciu ao foco c l
dim.>n:\
X B
G with the mind of man in past times. ll is astonishing how strangely malhematicians talk of thc
Fig11rr UO· l'orr,gnl mil ~II("Oflmges tenrhrrs ta incorporare hiJtory m matÍI~matiCS
~Junmca. H<rr cn agr-oltt mtthod for tfro\l"lllg ~1/ipses is rllflstrattd br ímnges from a
! -1 11 ,·.~ry· r,·.ll ::•:.1Jrt>m
rht ·~m.tmir :li"Pmrrry sn;iwart l"''~ilgt Skctcltpod. ;,. tire
,,.,,:..,.,~ut~t:~ li\tl>\· EJu,trolll l"rloso. Go:\lmctria: lcm3s ~ctunis. \998
{H .i m rh.: .f<.<t'rtflltl/1 of ri: r S<'<onJ .n:<Jr <~lg.·bru curriculum "'" ji11d:
.1 T,, fl.:ití::!lt rc ncr his cntr~ncc in it. 3nd a;surc lhe frutt of the kssons: thc professor wi ll
t>cgm ""b me r~~PW" c prolcgomena.: g:,.ing o detai!cd ide a of its purposc. and lhe means il
J. 4 Policy and politics in the advocacy o/ a hisorical compammt jj
applics to obtain its goal: showing its origill 3nd progresscs: and mal.ing a summary of Ih~
hiStory ofthe said algcbra lhrough its mos1 no1ablc times.
4 In panicular he will show lhe rc:LSon that lhe ancients. although lhcy lcnew lhe fundam.:ntal
roles of onalysis and wcre cnduwcd or such l!ftal skill, havc not cxlractcd from il thc amatint:
advantagcs lhat lhe modcrns havc discovcr~d; lacking lhe instrumcnt of ~nalys•s tb3l is
algebra.
Franc:e 1790s
Joseph Lc11is Lagrange (1736-1813). the leading pure mathemotician in Franctl
afier the French Revolurion, was co-opted to teach mathematics 10 trainee school-
teachers aJ the Ecole NQrmale. This passage occurs in his lectures to them on
logarithms (J. L Lagrange, Lectures on e/ementary mathematics, Open Court 1901,
22):
Since lhe calculalion .o f logarithms is now a thing of lhe pást. cxccpl in isolated instances, it
may be thought that 1he details into which we have cnlcred are devoid or villue. We may,
howcver, justly be eurious to know lhe: trying and lortuous paths which lhe great invc:ntors
have lrodden, lhe different stcps which lhey have 1aken lo auain lhcir goal. and the extcnl lo
v.hich v.e are indebted to thcse veritable bcncfactors of lhe human race. Such knowledgc.
moreover, is not a maucr of idlc curiosil)'. lt can afford us guidance in similar inquirics and
sbeds an increased light on lhe subjc:cts wilh which we are employed.
Norway 1820s
Nlels Henrilc Abel (1802-1829), Norway's greatest mathematician who died
tragically young, wrote tl:is in the margin of one of his notebooks:
lt appears to me 1ha1 if one wants to makc: progress in mathcmaties onc should sludy lhe
mastcrs.
England 1865
Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871): from his inaugural address asfirst president of
the London Mathematica/ Society, 16th January /865.
I say that no art or seicncc is a liberal art ora liberal science unless it bc studicd in conncction
Malhcmatics, bccausc lhcy do nol know lhe history of thcir subjccl By asse.ning •\hal thcy
conceive to bc facts lhey distort ils history in this mMncr. Therc is in lhe jdea of c>cry onc
some particular scqueoce or propositions, which he has in his own mind, and he imagines lhat
that sequcnce cxists in history; thal his own ordcr is thc historical ordcr in "'hiclt the
proposilions havc succ:cssivcly bccn evolved. Thc mathcmatician needs 10 k.now what lhe
course or invention has bcen in the differcnl branchcs of Malhematics; hc w<U~!S to scc
Nt\\10n bringing ou I and evolving lhe Binomial Thcorcm by suggcstion o f the highcr 1hcorem
whith Wallis had olready givcn. lfhc bc to havc his own rcscarchcs guidcd in thc wa>· "hich
will bcst lead him to SU<Ccss, he must havc secn thc curious ways in which lhe lower
proposition has conslantly bcen cvolved from lhe higher.
 36 I Tire politica/ context
ltaly t8il
E"~'""' 13dtr<JIIII t/SJ5-IS991. pr{~/t'-fSCir c~{mllllllalmc!dumics at tire Univc:rsity of
8,•1.>).:''•1 •\..itllrn<ll< di mrl/,•mattche! I I ( 1873). 153}
:'luJ,•nl~ ~h.•uiJ k:un "' ~lutly at Jn carl~ $la~~ th~ gccal \\\11\..~ o f lhe gr<-al lnastcrs instcad or
mJkins lhror monJ$ sterik lhrough lhe ,,·,·rlasting ~~crci~~s o f colkgc. which are of no use
" hlte,cr. cxccr1 lo proJucc a ne" :\rcadia "hcrc indol,ncc is vciled under the form of
usdess ac1i• il~.
Eng1and 1890
..,From rh~ prr.lldt'lllrol oJdress ofJ lf' L ülaislrer (/8-18-1928) 10 Secrion A ofthe
Briosh Assonalloll_for .-l dvcmc~ml.'nr ofScience. 1890
In :111~ lrtJti~c N high~r tt~t-bookit is nh'a~s desir3bl~ lh3t rcl'crenccs to lhe original
mcm('lf~ ~hout.J 1-t ~í\(n. ~nd. ir possrl<k. short historie noticcs :~lso. I nm sure lhat no
sut>.iw toses more than mlth~matics by any attcmpt to dissodate it rrom ils history.
l 1SA 1896
Florian Cajori t 1859-1930: A lrisrory of e/eme11tary· mathematics with irints on
m,·rh,•.fs ·~t't,·tJ.-hins. New York: 1\tacmillan. 1896, v):
Tht cJu.:Jti~n \"f lhe (hild must accord t)Olh in modc and nrr~necmcnl " ith lhe educalion or
mlnkind lS Ct.lnsidcrcd hi~tNically: or. in olhcr words. lhe genesis or knowlcdge in lhe
indi\IJU:JI musllt'll<'" the s::~mc coursc as lhe gcnesis orl:no"lcdge in the race. ToM. Comte
"e 1-clic'e ~QCÍCly "'«S lhe enundatie>n of lhis doclrinc-a doctrine which we may accq~l
" ilhout cc>mmiuin~ ou~d' es lo his thtOI")' o r thc gcnesis o r know1edgc. cilher in its causes or
its l'rJcr." [Hal<crt Spcnccr. Ed,rcuion: inrrl/r(flllll. mornl and pl•ysical, New York, l &94.
r -1~~~ If 1his principie. "hich \\as also held by Pestalou.i and Froebel. be corrccl. lhen it
"<'ul~ !tem as if thc l:no"ledge of lhe histOI")' of a science must be an eiTcctuat aid i11
RJchins, thJt scicncc. Bc this domine true or false. cen~inly the experiente or many
tn;trwiNS cstablish.:s thc importante of mathcmatical history in tcaching.
Germany 1897
H.:rmtllllr Sclwhrrr rIS-IS-1911: ,\larhematical essays a11d recreations. Chicago
l SQS, J:):
lllc m:l_iNily <'f 1113lhclll~lk~1 lrUih~ O(lll' pllSSCSSCd by U~ prCSLiflfiOSC thc inlcllcclunl toil o(
rn3n~ cenluries. A malhcm31ician. thcreforc. who "ishcs to acquirc a thorough undcrstanding
of '"'''km rc$C3n:h in thi$ Jcr3rtmcnl. mu~t 1hink liWr ngain in quickcncd lcmpo 11\e
m ~thcm:lliral l:ll><>urs l•f se' cr31 ccnturic~.
UK 1919
Fr<'tll •1.\füth<nr.m.-.11 A.<.<ll<'i<llitJn Commillt!~ rcpwt. 1919:
Thc llistc>rical :r.srect I' f !>.13thcmatics h:u ne,·cr yct found its filting place in teaching of lhe
~chl•l'l$. f .. .J E'er: l--.1.'~· \"(Throughoulthe report the word BOY isto be laken as referring to
rurils <'f <ith<r ~t~ \") <'u~ht to kM" ~om<thing of the more buman and personnl side oflhe
;ut>jc~l be s1udics. (. . . !lne history of mathcmatics will gi•c us some help in framing our
/.4 Policy and politícs in the advocacy of a hisorical component J7
sthool syllabus. {...1Recommtndalion: Thal portrails of lhe great ma1hem~1icians should b~
hung in lhe malhcmatical classroom. and tha1 refcrcnce to thcir livcs :1nd invcstigations should
be rrcquenlly made by the teacher in his lessons, some cxplanalion being given ofth~ crrctt of
mathcmatical discoveries on the progrcss o r civiiization.
Scotland 1929
Dome Kathleen 01/erenshaw (b. 1912; 'Living mathematics', /MA B•.tletin 25
( 1989), 50-56; 51):
One memorable experience at Sl Lconards was thc enlighlened gin from my housemislress of
H.W. Turnbull's lovely small book Tht great matlremarlcians. Every youngster showing an
interesl in a particular branch of learning (or olher worthy activity) shou1d bc given lhe
appropriate book 1elling or lhe gianls in their field who paved the way. 1f there was any one
momenl in my lire when 1 knew that I musl spccl31isc in mathematies, wilh no conceinble
allcmalivc, il was whcn l lirsl rcad this beautifully written hislory.
USA 19~0
Vera Sanford (A short history ofmathematics, Boston: Hooghton Mifflin, v):
Upwards o r a century ago. Augustus De Morgan presented a brief for the study of lcxtbooks
in arithmelic in these lerms: "A mosl suflicicnl rccommendalion ofthe study of old works to
the teacher. is shewing thatlhe difficulties which il is now (I speak to lhe ltachtr not the ruft·
driller) his business 10 makc smooth 10 the youngest leamcrs, are prcciscly lhose which
formerly stood in the way of the grcatest minds. and somctimcs effectually stoppcd their
progrcss.~ lt was nol nccessary to limit lhis to teachers nor to lhe sludy of texlbooks in a
particular branch of mathcmalics, for the struggle of m~nkiod to formulate malhematical
eoncepts. to cvolve a uscrut symbo1ism. and lo sol"e quantil~e qlltslions arising from his
environment are ofinterest to teachers. students, and bys1anderns wcll.
Soviet Union I 931
Mark Yakovlevich Vygodskii (Foundations of infinittsimol calculus, Moscow-
Leningrad 1931, 5):
I wrote this book becausc o f my deep conviclion lhat none or6e exisling lcxtbooks puts the
key idcas orinfmilcsim~ls beforc bcginncrs with lhe necess~rysl\~rpncss nnr.l clarity.... This
ís tbe reason behind the deprcssing facl that the apparalus or analysis remains a dead
apparatus in the hands o f the studcnts.
The vicwpoint undcrlyinr. lhe [Htscnl lcxlhtwk is lhat lhe lcarncr rnust bc f11troduced to
tht s1udy or ~nnlysis hy gctting :tcquainlcd wilh its rund~mcn!JI nOiions at tne s1:1ge a\ which
they arisc directly from practical nceds. Thcir rigorizalion and dci«Jsing musl be a !ater issue.
initially ar secondary importante.
In othcr word, 1 am auempting to rcplace the formal-lQli<;al scheme by thc hislorical
schcme, or rathcr. by the historico-logical scheme.
Of coursc. this does not mcan that I propose to lakc lhe rcader through all lhe lwists and
tums o r lhe hislorical devclopment and reconstrucl the chronological order of the evolution of
lhe ideas of analysis. The historical material in my book is not its subjeel matter butlhe basis
ror the CXJIOSÍlion.
 I Til(• polaicul conte.tt

l 'h: 195S
Frt>m u t·;..: .lltm.<try·<>fEdtlt'Otionrl'port. /958:
Th• te~chcr "ht• kn(I\\S linle of lhe history of Malhematics is apt 10 lcach lc~hniques in
•l'l•ill"'"· unrd~ltd cilhcr lo lhe pr<'hkms an..S i.JcJ.~ 1\hich gcncr~lctllhcm or 10 thc funhcr
Jc•dt•rn\cnts 1\hich "'~" <'Uit>llhcnt. (. .. 1 :\ km>"lcd~c ofthc Jrgumcnls ~nd dissensions
~th•ccn f.rtlt malhcmalician~ mi!!hl induce hcahh~ skq>licism Md discussion in lhe
d~·~r~'<·m AI'IJ k3J I•' .1 linncr ~ra~r oi rrinópks. (. . .1 Onc o f lhe most valuablc asscts
\\hitfi ll:c ICJChc r Cl.n lCQUIIC fn>m 3 kntmkdgc Of lhe hislory of his SUbjCCI is il/1
lJ'rm:ialtN\ (I( lhe inllucnc,· ot.:urwn traditiuns. (.. . 1 11 i~ imponam to convcy 10 1hc Chapter 2
rurils lhe kM" lcd~c 1ha1 much nf "h~I is taughl louay a~ a finishcd product "õlS lhe resuh o f
cc nlurics <'f S•llring N t•f ~piri1cu conlro ••crs~ . (. . . ) 1\lalhcmatics can bc propcrly taughl
<'nl~ J~ainst a ~acksr,•u nd t•f i1~ '"'" histOI) . PhilosophicaJ, mu.Jticultural and interdisciplinary
.,. issues

Lucia Grugnetti and Leo Rogers

with Jaime Carvalho e Silva, Coralie Daniel, Daniel Coray, Miguel c..lc
Guzmán, Helene Gispert, Abdulcarimo Ismael, Lesley Jones, Marta
Menghini, George Philippou, Luis Radford, Ernesto Roltoli, Daina Taim ina,
Wendy Troy, Carlos Vasco

Abstr.act: Schoo/ mathematics rejlects the wider aspcct of mathemarics as a cultural activity.
Fram the philosophica/ poinl of view, matltematics must be Sttn as a /auman acsivity both
áone within individual cultures and also sranding outside any particular one. From the
intudisciplinary point of view. students find thtir rmdcrstanding botlr af mathematics and
t!.eir orlter subjtcts enriclted tllrough tlle history of matlrematics. From lhe cultural point of
view, mathemalicai evolution comes from a sum ofmany conrributions growingfrom diffircll/
cultures.

2.1 Introduction
In the 1980s, mathematics educators and didacticians in many countries feh the need
to give a more reliable foundation to educational research through philosophical
renection on the processes involved. What philosophy is suitable for this purpose?
Philosophy must explain mathemalical thought nol only at lhe levei o f research,
but also as far as teaching is concemed. lt must also explain the devclopment of
mathematics in lhe past: philosophy needs history. But what history is suitable?
There is a llistory of documents and a hisrory of ideas. The latter n'ceds lhe forme r,
but didactics and epistemology need thc lattcr. This means that we must avoid the
identificatio n of philosophy of mathematics with mathematical logic. Our
philosophy must guid·e and explain cducational choices; it must help in a bener
planning of teaching. lt must be opcn to ncw rcncctions. In this scnse it could be
considered as being almost equivalcnt to epistemology (Spcranza and Grugneni
1996).

John Fnuvel. Jan van M.:ancn (cds.), Jlistory in mathemarics educatiofl: r/te JCMI study,
Dm · '· :~hl: Kluwer 2000, pp. 39·62

JO ~ Plrilasopllical. nmlriculturol ond inrudiscip(ill(rry issues
.-\ cultural perspectÍ\'C on mathematics makes us anend to mathematical histories
and to \\hat the1· tell us about who developed mathematical ideas in different
socieues (Bishop. 1995). Multicultural aspccts and interd isciplinary issues become
thaefore p:lrt of epistemological rdl ections about mathcmõltics education; lhe
rd.lll•'nships re111 .:en philúS<lphical. multicuhural ;md int.:rdisciplin:try issues are
'e" $tront. ~lorco~e:r. thc histon· o f mathcmatics as lhe history o f ic.lc:ts is strictly
'lin~eJ 10 (~r lietter. is pan on the .history ofhuman beings. In this view we have to
anal~ se the cultural. political. social. economic contests in which ideas arose
:;..2 Philosophical issues
!.:!.\ Historie:~\ invcstigation, ~'·idcnce anti interpretntion
Difrering, ' ie"s on thc naturc of historical enquiry
The "id~l~ hdd 'k'' Clf mathem:~tics as a pure subject uninfluenced by outside
fNce$ is sll'\\ lv chantinc. :1nd this is reflected in the ch~nges in the approach to
nwre ~ener.~l h.istNÍC';I ~;ud' . I f we :l!!ree thô\1 historv is th~ branch o f knowledge
\\ hich-caters for socict~ ·s n~eds to understand particuÍar aspects of the human past,
then "e e~prcss our needs by demanding answers to a range o f who? what? when?
how'? and '' hy'? questie>ns. Howc\'er. :1S soon as we start to invcstigate, we find that
these questions are nN at ali e:lSy to answer. Traditionally, history is viewed as a
stud~ ,,rcarefully delimited :1Spects of the past employing systematic research in ali
a' ailarle st-urc-es. The lppro~ch can be from a social. political or economic point of
'ie" . ~nd necess:uil~ employs a general philosophy (for example, structuralism.
~la~ism. etc.l in its interpretation. More recently. ·post-modem' history is scen as
J set e>f processes and IX'" er rel:ltions linking the past to the present, where the
interrret:~tions of e\'ents and facts are critically interrogated. the underlying
a~sumrtiClns are re1cakd. the status of tcxts are called into question. and where
~ft'ur~ Clf rec-rlt' :~nd their ce>nditiMs ore delincd and redetined by those in powcr.
In J ~imil:tr m~nn~r. th~rc h:we bccn ch:mg.es in the way history o f mnthemntics
i~ unJ~rtJkcn. · tnt~malist' hist('lry ('lf mathcmõltics is rcco~nised hy its tcndency to
;ce mltlu:nutics :~s :1 suN..-ct isolated l'rcmt ·externai' intlucnccs :~nd as :1 progression
,,f iJe~s "hich are impn,·, ing and bccoming more abstract and general with time. In
thl.' inumalist. sometimes called •whil!!!.ish ·. account thc events o f lhe past are seen
as inmnces of stcps tClwards the pr~~cnt more perfcct structures. This kind of
hist~ tcnds te> inttrpret the past in terms of modem concepts. More recently,
rc$<'3r.:hers ha1 e tried tCl take a more holistic view. with mathcmatics seen as a
cClmpc-nent c- f the contemporary culture: lhe historian 's task is then to discover the
intlu.:nces. CC'ndilit'ns :md moti\'ations (social. economic and political as well as
scicntitic and m:nhem:nical) under which problems arose. Admining these points of
'iew r.ec~saril~ k:~ds to much reinterpretation o f the received wisdom of earlier
"riter;. In th~ past. me>st res.:arch in the history of m3Ehematics has be-en carried out
t-~ thC'se "ith mathem:uical training. In conscquencc. the interpretation and its
2.2 Philosop!Jical issues .f/
writing up has not only utilised technical language. but has tended to employ _a
narrative which maintains the genre of lhe hypothetical-deéuctivc style cmployed m
mathematics itself. In this way it has given the imprcssion of an authoritõltive
account of the events in question, where of\en the historiQI subject can be criticiscd
for making errors, pursuing a fruitlcss avcnue o f enquiry, or not seeing a solulion
which !ater scemc:d obvious.
Historians, on the other hand, realise that there are many differcnt sons of
questions aboul the past, giving rise to many different sons of history. The evcnts,
structures and processes o f the past are known only through the relics an~ traces of
the past, which are themselves politically and conceptU311y loaded and tmperf~t.
There are difficulties of understanding archaic \anguages, contemporary techmcal
terrns, and the special 'codes' within the available sources. so that any interpr~tation
is cautious and aware that many concepts may carry •íth them a collecllon of
unsubstantiated assumptions. In perceiving relationships between different events
and conditions the historiao may have to considcr theOOe.s derived, for example,
from economics, psychology, sociology or anthropology. Furtherrnore, the account
is constrained by conventions of language, genre, mode, •gument, and a number of
other cultural and social contextual conventions. In this perception theory, sources,
and style interact in an itcrative way.
Facts nnd events
The notion of a 'fact' is ambiguous, since it includcs lhe sense of both evenc
(meaning whether or not the event took place), and a sraremenr about an eve~t
(where the concem is with the truth or falsity o f an occur.ence or statement). ln thts
scnse, facts are constructed in the documents which ref:r to the occurrence ~f lhe
events, not only by interested parties (contemporary or more recent) cor:'me~ttng on
the events or the documents, but also by historians givin& what they beheve ts a t_rue
account of what really happened in the past. Therefore il is lhe facts _tha~ are su~;ect
to revision and further interpretation, and they can even be d1smtssed &IVen
sufficient reasons.
This view allows us to account for the fact tha:t kistoriographical consensos
about any event is very difficult to achieve. lt is always open to revision ~om
anotner perspective. We not only change our ideas of wbat the facts of a g1ven
mal1er are but our notions of what a fact might be, bo.. facts are constructcd, and
what crit~ia should be used to assess the adequacy of 2 given collection of facts in
relation to the events which thcy claim to support. TI-.! relation between facts and
events is always open to negotiation and re-concepl!lalisation not because events
change wilh time, but because we change our ways o f conce(kualising them.
This argument leads to a position o f historical rciativísm in wh!ch the _truth and
authoritativeness o f a given account o f the past musc i1e assessed m relat1on to thc
cultural context and social conditions prevailing at the time, and with respect to the
perspective ofthe current interpretation. As noted abovt, the interpreter's viewpoint
is also involved. The problem is that this position ;appears to deny a secure and
timeless epistemologica! foundation for history, whicil still ca~ses _con~em t~ so~e
historians. However it must be recognised that a paaúular h1stoncal mvesuga!IOn
in its final writtcn forrn does not represent a totally authoritative statement or a
 ' P!Jilosophkal. mulriculwrnl a11d inlerdisciplinary issues
sccur~ piece oi knowl cdge. lt is a contribution to knowledgc which is immediDiely
open to scrutiny. analysis and criticism by fellow historians.
Thc philos'Ophical problema tique
\ mathematics (Heyting 1956; Weyl1949). While the pure theory was intcresting. we
Follo" ing. this line o f argument. the problcm o f interprctalion is even more difficull
in t~e. ~istory of mathcmatics since much of what we now choose to identify as
mlthet1'ÍJtks has t-een perceh·ed diffcrcntly by peoplc in the past. so that the history
e>f mathemotics is different for di iTcrent pcriods and cultores. For exumple, the
intcrprctalron of Mesopotamian tablets by Hoyrup. Damerow and others (Hoyrup
1996) is radically diffcrent from that of Van der Waerden. whose 'Babylonian
algebra' arrears as thC Slandard intcrprctation in many histories of llla!hCill:liÍCS
l \'an der Waerden 1961). For events even fun her in the past. Seidenberg has
loiiCiwed tht anthre>pologists' maxim that 'the present use of the tool does not
11t'CC~~aril~· indica te il$ tlrigin'. ~nd p1uviúcd CViÚCII\:C th<lt ti H; OI iginS O f SOIIIC
tcchniques th::u "e regard as eleme111ary mnthematics can be found in ancient ritual
r racticcs tScidcnt:.er~ : 0 6:!1. According to this account, these techniques were then
much later adapted lo Nher purposes such as counting, geometrical measurement,
clcmenta~· mechanics and astronomy. Looking for the bcginnings of mathematical
ideas may well le~d ús into new areas quite outside our familiar territory. These
cumpl<!s (>( contlkting. historical intel']lretation illustrate the need for a careful
phil,'~<'phiQI anal: sis o f the assumptions and other aspects of the process of doing
hiSI<.'Iry oí m.athematics.
2.2.2 P:bHosophy of mathematics, old anú ncw
lhe dtfll'iaof traditional philosophies
L'mil remi~ly reccntly. scholars who wcre involvcd in the philosophy of
mathem:llits could only be found in depanments where there was a significant
interest in ~it: and relatcd technical aspects of mathemalics. This could be seen as
t:.roadly ih!' te--sult Clf ch:mgcs in mathcmatics through the nincteenth century wherc
at-mactioo and structura l aspects domina1ed the interest in lhe devclopment of
mathe maüs in many ficlds. From these bcginnings, we can see Plolonism revisiled;
thc id(a g ~ idt'al p~rfcct struclurc. ·out thcre' for us lo discover seemed very
arp~31ing.
Later. -catJious forrns of Ft>rmulistll inspired by Hilben and his co-workers
pro\'id.:dEil(!<' intcrcsting technical chnllenges within the branches of mathematics.
Rigc>ur n&d. and while of coursc. rigour is important. for some. likc: Russell, it
became tk otntral concem. So much so. that Logicism attempted to reduce lhe
''hCIIe m mmthematics to a cold. clear and unassailablc: core of technical
m:llli~ul3itm "' itht'UI an~ nccessary mean ing. \V.: know (lhrough the work o f Gõdel
and othefil)thmtt his programme was not entircly successful. and its fnilure began to
cast dou~ om some of the other arcas where Formalism inOuenced the wav that
mathemaiils '"3~ ccmcei\ cd (see also Hot'st:tdtcr 1979). · History and culturc
:\11 ~CIJtc h l'rCim :m ~ntirel~ diff~ren t dircction came from one o f lhe principies
,,f Kamim- rlh il~·~c> J•h~ . .1nd rro' 1dcd thc imeresting. and challenging idea o f
J
2.2 Philosophica/ issues 4)
inlroducing the role of intuition in the creation of mathematics. Slarting from a
mini mal basis, Brouwer and Weyl put forward the principies of l11111i1ionism. and in ·'
a sense, re-inttoduced the role of lhe individual creative actor into the making of
know il was unable to provide a sufficiently coherent foundation for ali lhe
malhemalical ideas that were current at the time, and the exclusion o f so much of lhe
malhematics that had bcen built up overso many ycars was too much to bear.
Bringing the human actor back more firmly into lhe centre ofthe stage continucd
with Lhe work of Wittgenstein, who challenged a range of tacitly accepted
assumptions about lhe nature of the enterprise we call mathematics (Wingenstein
1956). 11lc scmiotic significante of acts, thc mcanings o r words in the languagc and
the social contexts in which these meanings are built up was not at first seen as a
challenge to Formalism. However, the inOuence that Wittgenstcin had on his
coutcmporarics was cnou~::h to sow thc sccús of a funúamcntally ncw look at thc
nalure of malhematics and the way in which mathematics was done.
Ddinitions of malhematics
Mathematics has rneant different things to people at differenl limes. Of course,
when we use the word malhematics in this context, we can neve r be sure that those
who talked about it in the past gave quite the samc meaning to it as we do today.
For the Pythagoreans, in whose world ali objects were fundamentally numerable, ali
was number. For Plato, where ' ideal forms' played a significam part in his world
view, mathematics was somcthing e!se again. The idea of apure and unassailable
truth which had some connection with the real world was for long one of the
comcrstoncs of the dc!initions of mathcmatics. In the sevcntecnth cenlury
mathematics became lhe model of God's universe, and was seen as the supreme
science of counting and measurement, and this view became reinforced thc more
humankind discovered how to use the technical power o f mathcmz.tics lo describc
the motions ofthe stars or the tides ofthe sca.
There was a radical changc in point of view in the nineteenth century with lhe
invention of non-Euclidean geometries and the search for the 'basic laws' o f algebra.
This led to an emphasis on abstract structures, extending and generalising idcas into
other domain.s, and the bringing togethcr of a number of hitheno apparently
unrelated arcas under some general unifying concepts. Along with thcse
developments carne the realisation that mathematical truth was a matter of
consistency of arguments; and funhcr, that mathematics did not necessarily have
anything lo do with the real world. Definitions became more and more abstract and
inclusive, but always it seemed that there was still some aspecto f the enterprisc that
got left out. As a final gesture of defeat, some dccided to retreat to the position that
mathcmatics is what mathematicians do. Now, even among research
mathematicians lhere is no conscnsus on what mathcmatics is (see Thurston, 1994;
Atiyah, 1994). . .
Followin& Wittgenslein, other ideas slowly bcganto be brought iuto th.: discu~··
o f thc nature of mathemalics, and a number of 1hese key influences appr·
 ' Philosophical. nmllicullllrol and illlerdisciplinary issues
ct'mpletely outside mathematics. Almost at the same time. and in their own
pmicular ways. Kuhn. Wilder and Lakatos were concemed about the role of sciem;e
and mathematics as a function of the cultural context in which the ideas grew.
P11ning paople back into the picture ns nctive c;eators of the theories was a major
step in forming new views about the philosophy of mathematics. Although, of
cC'u~e. the definition of 3 poradigm may be as elusive as the definition of
mathematics. the way in which Kuhn argued for the pe~uasive power of discourse
~ and the psychological basis for the adoption of a change in a theory (Kuhn 1962)
was a serious chal\engc to accepted beliefs about the nature o f the historical process
in science. Wilder. influtnced by anthropological theories. was ambiguous in lhe
way in which he talked about cuhure. 01nd regarded mathemalics somehow as an
~organic whole {\\'ilder 1950: Wilder 196&). In identifying generalised internai and
txtemal influences on the developmcnl o f mathematics he located mathematics in a
milieu of social. economic and cultural stresses which wcre seen to determine the
directions in "hich 1hc subject developcd. Lakatos. again. (Lakatos 1976) puning
forward a quasi·empirical view. showed how the fallibilism of Popper and the
htrtrisJic o f Polya contributed to the way in which lhe step by step dcvelopment of
theNics could be dcscribcd ~s a process of successive refinement of idcas by
mC'dit~ ing the original id(a to include (or exclude) any new objects or properties of
''1:-.ie(t$.
\\'hile therc hnd nh1 n~ ~ been people wri1ing histories o f nwhcmatics, up to now
th~ "riting h;~d bcen more intemalist in approach. bul from the late 1960s these
inOuences began to make themsclves felt. and more 'socially based' writing of
history slowly began to i!ppcar. Ukcwise. thc writing in the philosophy of
mathematics bcg.an 10 chang.e. For example. Kitcher's discussion o f the nature of
mathematical knowledge tKitcher 1983) largely relies for its evidence on material
frC'm the hiStC'ry e>f mathemalics. and the conlributors to Gillies' edited collection of
argumems for N again$1 the idea of revolutions in mathematics (Gillies 1992)
cleJrly view mathematics as an ongoing process of reconccptualisation influenced
b~ a range o f both internai and externai events. Some hislorians have come to feel
that therc has been a re,·olution in lhe historiography of malhematics, because ofthe
"ay in which conlcmporary hislorical interpretai íon has come to include social
conte~ts.
2.!.3 The ends o f th~ spectrum
Abst raction ~er~u~ empiricism?
There is a tension in the ways we view the nature ofmnthematics. On the one hand,
mathematics is a body e>f abstract knowledge which is avail~ble to be leamed or
r~Ji::c1'' cred ~nd thrn imrrovcd uron by :my individual. On thc other, mathematics
arisc:; ITC'm rr\'rkms. "hich are expressed in the needs o f people at a particular
time. lt has t>een :ngued that these two general ways o f re~ard ing mathematics may
t-e fundJmentally íncC'm(:'Jtible: mathematics as a set o f timeless truths and value
fr.:c: fact$ may t-e actuJil~ inconsistenl wilh malhematics as a cultural product set in
se>ci.ll cC'nle:-iiS. H"""'' er. it is ou r contention thal these are not incompatible. on the
2. 2 Phl/osophical issues 45
grounds that a study of the history of mathern~~àlf!bows that lhe conception of
mathematics as timeless derives from a particu1::;: ~ context.
Epistemology con be regarded as the in..,.J:~tsáP:Ja of how and under what
conditions our knowledge of lhe wo rld is. foillf 'mal- Síme. furthermorc. what wc
regard as 'knowledge' is a dístillation and absmt~-11flhe responscs to questions
and problems (many of which lie in the remo~~ ~-wr spccies), then that parto f
our present knowledge which we cal\ malhélril· ~'an:sists of lhe concepts and
theories which have been built up in lhe pr-4(r'!\tl?!!I'M illtSWering certa in typcs o f
problems in rather special ways. lnitially, tfre~: ·~ were essentially practical.
but as society evolved, many problems and-:fh;. ~ns became progrcssivcly
abstract and entercd an intelleclual world l'l~;.fdam= lleO·Piatonisl philosophm
regard as somehow detached from ind ividuais,;?!~ lliing an independenl existente.
Thus we arrive ata belief that mathcmatics is ·~1-.:'a~ in some way, lmplyin~ an
a priori existente for a host o f mathem3tical ccr· ~ nu:ny of which have yct to bc
discovered. In this sense the idea of an indcper-r~ of mathematical ideas is
one generated under particular historical i .it;CIÍ.i!II!Stmets and transmined to
individuais through socio·cducational in nue~;m: ~rmorc, even if wc accept
the idea that mathematical idcas are carried al&i )til!z!ismí.ted to individuais in some
unconscious way through 1hcir culturc, many.1P..JIIÃS·hae shown that mathcmatical
conccpts and processes me vcry diffcrcn! in d•iiiUibl.:t socielics. and so lhe bclief in
the universalily anda priori existence of matbôil:â.'!Tttaf i6:as cannot be sustaincd.
lnvention versus discovery'?
Considering the nature of mathematícs froiar"'!ll il:;dgraund of the history or
mathematics changes the way we conceive t-1/l.l\epismnological problems of the
development of mathematical know ledge in ;S:·l'Mi~nifiWluhl and in society. Thc
historical approach encourages and enablcs us.11.tJ<~mathematics notas a stalic
product, with an o priori existence, but as an in~~process; not as a completed
structure dissociated from lhe world, but as .i. ~· ~g activily or individuais.
Recognising this activity is important for the ~~nent of scientilic parameters
for any didactical theory since the historical arto.'<~.>1'dlJII.ual dimensions considered by
Vygotsky have, until recently, largely been o~!cild: fQm the established body of
psycho·pedagogic theory inspired by many of:rlitbli!IGwers of Piaget. Following
this line of argument, we can arrive at a dist'\5-~ based on the expcrience or
studying the history o f mathe malics, which-.n ~ :llftidp us to resolve the false
dichotomy of invention versus discovery whiclí: ;!hfats lhe neo-Piatonisls. We can
suggest here that concepts are invented, modit:;fídliei!. exlended in the process of
answering problcms, (which recognises the origi1$~aeati vity and social contexts
of the activity of the human mind), and that tht!:.'{~illld ~oofs are discovercd in
the process of finding solutions to these probte.~.>Jan~ recognises lhe particular
modes ofthought and logical pattems which w~ :m1íatiematics).
,
 ? Pf.ilvsophical. mulucrdwrol a11d interdisc:ipli11ary issrres
-16
2.3 l\1ulticultural issues
2.3.1 lntrod uction
\ students can tearn to use the toots of other peoples and other cuttures. In this way
Ollring the twentielh cemury. signilicant changes have occurred in our
undmtanding. l'f·~1C contrit>util'llS thnt Jilktcnt cullurcs hnvc mnde to our history.
lt is impon:mt in mathcm:llics. as in an)· other discipline, to be scnsitive to new
issues. Showing how mathematical thinking and applications developed in different
cuhurcs, in rcspomc to thc nccds and thinking o f different societics, not only enables
a wider understanding of the concepts embodied in mathematics but also encourages
me ater crealiYit\' and confidence in using its various branches. A history that shows
"t ~e diversitY. • ~1her than the uni\ ersalit\', • of mathernaticat development adds an
exciting di m en~ion to th~ subject. lt allows the world and its history to enter the
classroom in a \\:lY that works against a narrow ethnocentric view. without denying
lhe .:xtent to" hich deH·Iopments ha,·e often been embedded in cultural contexts. A
multicultural approach both requires and enables us 10 step into a realm of thinking
''hich chatknges our valuing l)f different styles and branches of the activity we
recognise as mathem:nics.
At the bcginning of the twenty·lirst century we have a much · greater
under51anding o f the g\o~al naturt' of mathematical endeavour than previously, and
lhis has considerable implications for the ways in which history can be interpreted
anJ incorporat.:d berh.'tidall~ in malhem:uics classrooms. One of the most widely
accep1c.-d comemporary descriptions of wh:ll history is about can be summarised in
th.: phrase tlr,· study c>f .-lrc~nge mw rime. This study, however, ;:~ lways carries a
fundamental phitosophical approach. explicit or implicit, whic:h inf1uenc:es the kind
of imerpretation put upon the historical evems. There are many advantages in
contemplating the changes that h:l\'e 1aken place in mathemllticat thinking over the
centuries. His10rical study allows identification of the cultural factors which
enabled one idea to be acted upon but ;:~nother to be forgotten about, sometimes for
centuries. and it also allows a study of the practicat applications that the ideas were
used to support. Funhermore. it encourag.es an underslanding o f the ways in which
ideas that bcncfit one :;roup h:~ve been used to benelit other groups, and an
appreciation of thc ;., ·ays in which various issues have effected changes within or
amonc. different cu!tures. Searchin!!, for these aspects can lead to a greater
appre~iation of the we:~tth of iuc:~s 11~:~1 are a pan of mathcmatics. and a greater
understanding of the contribution to changc made by one 's own culture as well as a
e.reater awareness of thc contributions madc by othcr cultures. This broadening of
perspectives can giw a ncw impctus to tcachcrs anJ students alike to search within
their O\\'n backc.round and cullurc as wcll as within the cultures of others, and
thcreby come ,; unJcrstand thal what is founJ is a part of a global hcritage rather
th:m mcrcly a natÍO!l:ll t1r regie>nnl one.
t-.lalhematics is not just texl: it tives in the minds of people and can, to an extent,
be disclosed by ir..terpreting thc artefacls they have produced. These artefacts.
inscriptions. instmments. N!oks. :md techniral devices havc becn developed in
p:lflicubr rlJce~ kr r~nilul:u r"~'<'ns an.i :~n undcrst;mdin~ of thcse rr:~~ons can
2.3 Multicultura{ issues 47
own immediate environment. Through finding primary sources, making conjectures
from the evidence of history,: researching from secondary sources, using original
instruments and methods, thinking of the ways in which need leads to creativity,
they can expand their own skills in ways that cmpower them to ex~ress thcir ow.n
intuitive feetings and thoughts, cnabling lhem lo use and devetop thetr own aesthcllc
and creative senses.
2.3.2 Multiculturalism insidc thc history of mathematics
One of the ways of using the history of mathematics to help interlock ideas,
illustrate their development and engage the anention of students is through the use of
themes that are problem-based rather than personality-based. The follow i n~ five
examples are included to encourage teachers to find different melhods from has~ory
for doing calculations which have applications that are both modem and appropnate.
The first two examptes come from early Egyptian mathematics.
(i) Egyptian multiplication examplc
Did ancient Egyptian malhematicians multipty in the same way as we do, and if not
is their method a usefut resource for today's classroom? In their method of
duplication and mediation thc Egyptian would procccd as follows. In multiplying
17 by 13, for example, the scribc had ftrst to decide which of tbe numbers he was
going to multiply by the othcr. tf 17 was chosen he would then proceed .by
successively multiplying 17 by 2 (i.e. counting to double each result), and stoppmg
before he gol to a number which exceeded the multiplier, 13. He the.n added such
results as would correspond to multiplying by 13 (here, I + 4 + 8). Th1s method can
used for the multiplication of any two integers, since every integer can be ~xpressed
as the sum of integral powers of 2. lt is highly unlikely that Lhe Egypuans were
aware of this general rule in the form that we give it today, though thc confidcnce
with which 1hey approached ali forms of multiplication by this process suggests. that
they were aware of a reliable algorithmic process. This ancient method was Wtdety
used by Greeks and continucd well into lhe Middlc Ages in Europe.
(ii) Early Egyptian division cxample
For early Egyptiuns, as for us, the proccss of di vision was closely ~re lated to the
method of multiplication. In the Ahmes Papyrus a division xly is introduced ~y ~he
words 'reckon wilh y soas to obtain x'. So an Egyptian scribc, rathcr than thlll.ktng
of 'dividing 696 by 29', would say to himsclf, 'starting with 29, how many llm~s
should t multiply it by itselfto gct 696'. The proccdurc he would set up to solve thts
problem would bc similar to a multiplication cxercise. The scribe would stop at 16,
for the ncxt doubling wou\J take him past thc divisor, 29, and taking the sum o f the
appropriate numbers from the continued doubling of29 gives the an~wer. .
?copie have developed skills in mathematics, just as they have rn other ~·
which rcOcct 1hcir cultural nceds and valucs. Mathcmatics ceases to bc •
 :: 1'/ulo.wrluc.d. mu/tt,·ultural tmd imcrdiscip/inar:r issru:s
sho" othcr asp~cts of the "a~ a muhicuhural aprroach affccts the prcsentation or
mathematical iJeas nnd mcthods ts.:~ Ocg.g 1.!1 ctl 1996).
(iiil (onc;cpts of distance :111d :trC:l
In m:lny Pol~ n<!sian l:lnguagc::~ th..- id~:a ~ssoci~h!d \\'ith dista11ce is to do with how
long...it takes to get ~011\C:\\ hc:rc: rnth.:r than 1\'ith the linear ground distance. so
trad '~:onal •.q~~st ions abCiut c~ l~ul:n~ng. tlist~ncc: ma~ not conve~· any uscful methods.
In N<~' Gumea. th7 1aluc: t'l :1 p1o:cc land has more to do with its productivity
potentlal than 11 Hh HS length and brcadth. so thc traditional concept o f arca has liHle
relelance. In bnds "hich h:11c: ~uch 1cr~ di!Tc:renttcrrains than thosc ofthe pans o f
EurClJ:-e where CCinc('rt~ :tnd unitt.:ram li1r dc:scribin!! linenr dista11cc nnd len!!th-and-
"t l•h·aJth :th'.l "c:r,• J,·,c:h•t'l!d. il i~ ll11'11' u~c:ful 1\' ;c:c: th,·sc: tra,lititlllal cak~rlutions
mc:th,~ds 3$ :1 1':\Tl ''I'Eur''I'C:an m:nhc:m:uic:s.
th) Belicfs. algebrn n~d statistics
In intrc:> ducinl,; 'ariablc.'s or cquations ~me lalks about x standinn lo r nn tmknown.
:'<lan~ traditional belicf~ among Pacific lsland pcoples link unk~owns with ma<>ic
~'_il $(:'Írit; and thing~ 11'1'~ :ll<'idc:d. At l.:a~t inthc: early stag.cs ofnlgebm. stud~ll~
<'I thO:$t' •~bnds ''~'~'ld lind - "' :.: = 7 much t:n$ÍC:r than ,\' + J = 7 . Similnrlv.
Cl'n;tJ~r this questiCin: ··t r h;llf I' f :11! childrcn 1'-orn nre bO\'S nnd the scx of the chiÍd
is an independem outcNn~ i0r each binh. "hm is the probabilitv of the founh child
in ~ f~m il~ h<'lll!_: a h'~ if thl' fim tlm:c: ''''1'1! girls:·· 1\sking ;his in some cultural
gr<'u_rs CCiuld w<-11 return the :~ns\\er that the assumptions are not valid, as the sex of
a chdd d~pends ~'" God and is not mndom.
(I\ Langungc
1t d,,.:s ~wt. m:tkc: mathemntics muhicuhur:tl simply to translate Europcan
~llath~n~at1cs •.n.t_c' the lnngt~~ge l'f ;m indigc:nous people. For example. in English
c:qu:~l s has dtltc:rcnt ~ncamngs in the contexto f sets nnd numbers. Some languages
liSt' . the snme. " .ord lt1 r a numl•a o f c:qui1·alent relationships (equals. congruent.
c:qul\ alctlt. SlllHiarl. and ''' tran~latit'n d11cs nN cotl\'C\' the snmc brcadth of
rnath.:macical l:mgu:tgc. _E'<'n with 11CltHnathcmacical words. one lan~uage ma)' not
ha1 c: de\ eh,ped subtkt~ mth<' same ~r.: as as :mother.
l'h ~$~ e:.;:tmpks hdp us to ~ ...,. how m:my a~p~cts or mathematics and its
de,el,'rment C:ln l'e discussc.'d "hc11 a prollkm-l,ased approach is cnhnnced bv
at~d i ng ~ llllllti~·ttltural dinll'nSillll lt' thc !C<lt:hing_ nf thc history \11' m:llhcmntic;,
o,~,·u'$'''11 arNmd '''l'k~ such as tht,~c: mc:nti1'nc:d in thc nbovc ~:.;mnples helr
stu~,'IH> h' s~~ 11 :t~ s in 11 hich di fli.• rcn~·,·s in hi~tt\1'~. g1'C1gr·aphic locacion. culturc nnd
l'-c hct~ h:111' .mtlu,·nl't:d ,l,·lt:k't'mcnt;; in m<~thc:matics. Thi$. in tum. may wcll hclp
~IUd<'lll$ ''' undc:rst:md h~u,•r !h,• t:l'llt:Cpls ,,f nnrltiplit::nion. ,li, i$it'll. mcasurcment.
.t l_=:.~l·r.l. ~t .lti$IÍ.:$. rC:l$11 lling. :111d >t' <'11 In ~1'11 ing similar pr0hlcms in severa I
d 11 !c::\''~.!. :' :1~ '·. !hct\' ~"•'tdJ "dl !•.: ·' kin,!,•f -~ nth,•::is ,,r m:tthc:m:~tical proccd11rcs
I .....~.: ·:• .'•\.;: •• ,""H .~ n:~ fH to,~• · ,,!· ,!=(f~~!",• ·~ : ~,·,'!: ••::- : ..:, .:·~·.1 l..'lllltJI\''\
2. J Mulricultural issves .f9
This approach does not merely give a way of i-grating the his1ory of
mathematics effectively, it is also inclusive of studentJ with different imuitivc
dispositions and insights. lt is useful in increasing lhe mnge of diffcrent
mathematical skills whicn students have available for jplllblem solving. lt allows
students and teachcrs to think of mathematics as a disciwlíntof continuous rcOcction
and action inOucnced by thoughtfulness, reasamin&, known proccc.Jur~ · ..
intuitiveness, experimentation, and application ta pactical situations. ll
demonstrates that mathematics, like ali other subjects tihat students study at school.
is not merely a subject in which one learns a scries of'iirtdlnable and unchangeablc
lnlths. 1t opens up ways in which the study of mathermatjcs also contributes to the
study of the ways in which people everywhere come no blow things, and come to
see how new knowledgc can be usec.J constructively wiitboat discarding or bclittlin~
old knowledge ofa different time or place.
Using a multicultural approach to unravel some orubt threads of the past helps
us to understand the límitations that were placed om oor perspectives by formcr
labelling methods. For example, the term Arab matlltm111ics usually refers to a
phase of mathematica\ development which occurred iin vtry different places, from
Baghdad at the lime of Harun al-Rashid or al-Ma''lttu through to the lberian
peninsula, and was in fact thc work of many people frn>m&ferent origins and cven
different religions who happened to be at the courts ofU~caliphs. The time span of
the development of this section of mathematics was IC'm!g. ;md there wcre too many
known intcrcultural influentes to talk simply of "ttte Arabs' or of 'lslamic
mathematics'. What is important to realise about the mratlrematics of this period is
that it is far from being ethnocentric. Appreciating threnuchematics that dcvelopcd
makes us realise that some caliphs, somewhere iíl' Mesopotamia, judged thc
achievements of science and mathematics as being Sill inportant that they invitcd
eminent specialists from ali over lhe world to their coumt. The work was undertaken
by many learned people from many countries and c~. who engaged in what
amounts to a collective effort, ali the way from the: Mitdle-East to the West of
Spain. lt subsequently inspired severa! scho!ars in ~ who not only used the
mathematical insights, but also completed translations &ilm Greek and Syriac into
Arabic and then into Latin. Hebrew and other !angua~. So. it involved very many
peoples, very many cultures, severa! religions, and i.1l1JIIil] languages, and directly
influenced the mathematics that developed in Africa. ~~GúlfStates, and central and
westem Europe.
The emphasis one places on this detail or that ,js iequently affectcd by the
philosophical climate of the environment in which OJIIC lind!> oneself. During the
latter part of the !wentieth century, the extcnsion ofíh: ideais of multiculturalism
into the practice of ali disciplines has changed tl~ climate in classrooms, in
mathematics just as much as in o!her subjects in schlllll6" curriculum. Retaining a
contextual balance in teaching the history of mathcm<Ub will mean that horizontal
connections are grappled with as well as vertical oncrs. For example, the ways in
which powerful men and expanding states emp\oyed 1.llllflematicians for economic.
colonising and military issucs should not be overlookrdlllistory can expose divcrsc
mntiv:llion~. hoth extcrn:tl :md inrcnml. for whv ;111d h; rJVmathcrn:~t ic~ ha~ dc\'clopcd
 50 : l'hilc>.<t>f'hical. multiculwral cmd intcrJisr:ip/inaJy issues
r'\ n apprcciation of the contribution that multiculturalism has made lo our
thinl..ing :1nd :1nitudes g.i,es teachers a good backgtound for judging lhe ways in
11 hich they can extcnd ideas o f whnt can be leamed about mathematics bcyond the
p::~mmete r~ pre\'iousl~ set by European culture and societies, and value olher wavs of
loCiking at thing.s. An acceptance of multiculturalism has meant that history can·now
t>c uscd to c ol\\:c~ .3 mcssage which corrcsponds to thc general altitude of many
phih,sophers. writêh and mathematicians over the cenluries: that enthusiasm and
crc:lli\'ity is fired by a dcsirc to know. to think. to explore and ultimalely to prove
cnough to mo\'c on to thc next mathematical challcnge, rathcr than by a desire to
ftnd 3 way to elevate one ·s own coumry or culture. or onc's own gender or race.
-.2.3.3 1\tathrnmtics :ts :1 hum:111 cntcrprisc
In the teaching of mathem~ t ics thcre :1re opportunities for introducing aspects of the
histtW~ of m:sthcmalics thwugh ~1ori~s and cxamplcs from differcnt clhnic and social
p.crspectin•s. Howewr. c:sch such episode should be carefully prepared, presented
and respec1ed wiahin its own conte:-:1. For examplc. labels such as
cthm>mmhw rclti.·s or 11't)nrcn's morlr,·mm,rs are oficn use fui for bringing ancntion 10
particular issues. b.ut <:nn ofien :~ct lo politicise these issues and have lhe danger of
pre,·enling particubr groups from sh:rring in the wider community of mathematics.
As we use and teach the global evidenc~ of mathematical ideas developing in
rcl:uion to contemporaneous need and in conjunction with the interdisciplinary
intcraclions of idas of each socicty, we can conlribule lo the freshness that
muhiculturalism e~nders.
With lhe increaw in the availability of human and lntellectunl resources which is
gen.:r:11ed by lhis philosophical shift. students and teachcrs of the twenty-first
century will be lbte to see how one culture, or one group of people, or one
geographical area ibias influenced another or added to understanding alrcady gained
in a different seni~ Mathematics is a human enterprise, a voyage into lhe realm of
human thinki ng 3td experimentation, and not a constantly upward movement
\ skill will be rendered useless as it is rcplaced by a new discovery.
towards perfectioa One looks to history with the idea of restraining thc
paraphemali:1 of mc:'s own culture and n~t io na l identity so that a broader
understanding of tk ideas of others can be gained. This is not to say that teachers
should aYoid ide~ing the mathematics of 1hcir own region. lt is one of the
contributions matk ~· laking a muhicultural approach that regional dcvelopments
no longer nccd be c:!rtatcd as separale issues. 11 is imponant that students can
identify and deferu! ltle ideas and nuances contained in the malhematics developed
in their particular r~ion. <~nd that they rccognise lhe significance of thcse ideas in
terms of bolh the time and cultur:sl context in which they appeared, and the kinds of
problems that they :r.u::re developcd to solve.
1t is imponant t<.:> celebrate the di1·ersity th~t history can show us. and to
recognise that in pnicular times and pb ccs. conditions supported thc growth of
cenain groups of :scholars and mathcmatical ideas which made significam
contril>uliNIS to tle! <establishmcnt of our current body of knowledg.e . . lt is also
n.·cc~~:H" w lllhkl"'~:mtltlut mathl'nt:Jt ic.1l ri;;0ur i ~ rcl:lth ~: lll t h~ tinw :md pb l'c in
2.J Multicultural issues 51
which the arguments were first conceived, and that denigrating individuais or groups
for a lack of rigour shows a clear misunderstanding of the meaning and purpose
involved. Differenl types of thinkers transcend mere cultural !ines; evcn among
people of similar backgrounds, there are wide variations in the ways in which people
think. Understanding these difTerences and finding the many examples in the history
ofmathematics which illustratc these points can also nllow the different thinking and
leaming styles of students to become recognised. Within one culture there can oftcn
be found those who empathise with the mathematics of another culture, or with the
ways that others have of expressing malhematical ideas. The Alcazar in Sevillc was
built by an lslamic engineer but commissioned by a Christian ruler who preferred
the mathematical beauty of the designs of his Moorish predecessors j ust as much as
he recogniscd thc grcatcr crficicncy of thc lslamic architcclural dcsigns for
controlling the climatic influences of temperaturc and humidity.
A multicultural approach does not seek lo lead people to the belief that
ultimately cvery culture or group of peoplc havc thought of cverything that really
matters in mathematics. Nor does it seek to persuade that everyone will benetit
from, and be able to use, ali mathematical approaches. Studying and understanding
th.e melhods that other groups of peoplc havc dcvclopcd in responsc to thcir ne~ds
may well help students to idcntify the particular characteristics of the method bemg
taught to them, and thus bettcr understand a particular concept, but it does not have
the tong-term effect of puning everyone in an equal position. lt does, however, open
up the possibilities of comparisons and lhe recognition of diversity. li enables us to
see that an exchange of ideas can be made from the security of a mutual coneem to
explore mathematical concepts and to cxperience the advantages or the beauty th~t
the application of thc concept provides in the cnvironment of the people ":'ho use. tt.
Throughout the history of mathematics it is not always possible to d~c1de wht:h
particular branch or emphasis will persist. There is no clear way to pred~cl what ~·til
happen, or to nominate which movement will retain ascendancy, orlo JUdge wh1ch
Multiculturalism then, in the sense that we have tried to convey here, is the
identitication and celebralion of diversity, thc rcspccting and valuing of the work of
olhers, the recognition of different contexls, needs and purposes, and the realisation
that each society makes and has made important contributions to the body of
knowledge that we call malhematics. Given this view, the inclusion of a
multicultural dimension in our teaching of mathematics makes a significant
contribution to humanist and dcmocratic traditions in education. '
,. ·.·'
·~
 ' rlulvsvphh-<~1. multiculwral and inlerdisciplinary issues
2.-t lntcrdisciplin:tt")' issucs
2A.I lntroduction
~uri'Mo: th:u ~l'll Jtt~nd ~ kctur~ in which ;t \\tll·l..nnwn m:nhcmatician prescnls lhe
r~su hs M: their recen1 mearch :lctivity. You might be surprised to see 1ha1 lhe
lecmre r(IC'm is not cro\1 ded. that the size of lhe audience does nol reOect the famous
na me o f lhe scientisc. but consists of a small number o f research mathemoticians and
a few graduate studenls. Durin!! the lecture \'OU come 10 realisc that onlv a handful
o~ colleagues '' orki~g in lhe sa~e specialiscd field are oble to underslan·d lhe proof
"? oi the theorem. de5pHe the lecturer' s eiTorts and unquestionable capabilily.
Ptl'ple connected " ith this issue are :1\\':lre that. quite often. editors of
m;~thenmics research jClumals haYe di rnculty in find ing knowledgeable reviewers to
as~ess ne\\ I~ submitted papers. The huge ndvances in thc discipline of mathematics
and the high degree of sophistication in ali of its branches have resulted in narrow
5pecialisatiC'ns. No mathematician would nowadays be nble or even dare to try to
leam ali mathematics. to be a kind ofuniwrsal mathematician.
This Í$ Clne of thl' clmncterislics Clf modem nmthemntics which has c.enemled a
"iJ~~rr~:ld id(J lh~t m:uhem:~tics is :1 highly difficult nnd demnnding ;ubject. lts
:J\'o$tr:lcl n:lturc :md spl'Ô:lli~~ll $~ mt>t,lism makcs it unattainahlc for mos c ordinnrv
r~l'rle. :\nNiter popular ' iew of m:uhematics. by contrast, is that of a utilitar in~
su\'o,icct se ~n \'OI~ in the context of its applications. This ambiguous inheritance of
mathem:lttcs. seen as hNh a m~ stic:~l. abstract. difficult subjecl and as a tool for
Clthcr disciplines. has contributed to thc de,·elopment of negative attitudes towards
mathemati.cs. These beliefs are unproductive in the teaching and \earning process,
ad' ersely tnfluencing the nnitudes ofstudems.
. The his1ory of math~m:Hics. howe,·er. infonns us that this kind of specialisation
t$ a re~ent_de,e!Clpment and that the situ:uion \I':IS quite 'different in the past. Going
back m htstory. we can easily see that not only were lhe various branches of
math~m:tt~cs unified nnd interrclalcd. but that mathematics. particularly elementary
m:tthcm;lltcs. '' as constructed by humnns in an effort to answer real life problems.
~!ore than that. thosc problems were not only mathemalical but also
.indistinguishable from Clther disciplines to such an extent that il is often not clear
whether practical or theoretical problems motivated the development of one or the
other. Part of this story is by no means unknown to the teacher. There are many
exnmples where tl'ach<.'rs reler to npplications of mathemntics in physics and other
schoc>l sttbjects. Yet tltcsc refe rcnces are ollen made incidentally and in a passive
~ather than. in a .systematic and Clrganised sense. whereas the student may be
tnterested tn havmg first hand experience of those mathematical concepts nnd
meth,,!i$ \\ hich \\e r<.' m<>ti' ated and d..-vclorcJ hnnd in hnnd witlt other disciplines.
Sreci:llis:ttiClt1 in educatiC'tt too is n mc>dan phenomenon. which results in
vie" ing. rr~sent tl3y $cllO\'l mmhematics as Cl'ntplerely separnte from other subjects
nf the .:umculum. :md $ChN'I administratil'll and time-tnblin!! of classes nlso ollen
. :.,_, ~ftt'rt< h' rtt.ll..<· !inl..s h·t11ecn ~ul>_i<'t:t~ . T~p icali~·. hisll'f\ cbssrs !leal
2.4 lnterdisciplinary issues 51
with politics and economics but only mention technology in passing. Littlc. if any.
ottention is paid to the contributions that mathematics at ali leveis has rnadc to
general economic developmenl, while the política! motivations for devclopmcnts in
mathematics go unnoticed.. Clearly every subject has its own hislory, but ali thcir
histories are linked within the contexts in which they originated and wcre uscd and
studied.
The history of mathematics can act not only as thc factor linking mathcmatical
topics, to the fuller undcrstanding o f both, but also between mathematics and othcr
disciplines and as part o f history itself. We considcr here (I) how thc history of
mathematics links with the study of history; (2) how it links topics within
mathematics; and (3) how it links mathematics with other disciplines.
2.4.2 History o f mathcmatics ano thc study o f history
With regard to the place of history in the curriculum, one might argue th:11
mathematics plays no role within history. However, there are many skills and
processes used in studying history, which are also useful in lhe study of
mathematics. These skills can give those who study history new insights into their
own \earning of mathcmatics. For example, since history uses logic, reason and
various forms of evidence to justify interpretai íons of pasl events, these ideas ean bc
seen as analogous to the processes of sccking justilication for mathcrntllicol
statements. The teacher alert to these para!leis is in a stronger position to make linko:
and encouragc student discussion and understanding.
Conversely, malhematical thinking may support students in severa! ways whcn
studying history. The investigation of primary evidence and the processof decidin(l
which are the key results, factors or connections in historical events; thc
identification of causes and effects from perceived pattems, and making conjectures
from evidence, are ali activities which can be enriched by the skills leaml lt1
mathematical problem solving. Researching secondary evidence on mathematic,ll
topics in books, encyclopaedias and articles and using original texts, instrumcnts nnd
materiais to replicate the process of doing mathematics from anothcr time or pince
can help to deepen one's understanding of historical periods and the ways in which
people ofthe time tackled everyday problems.
These connections suggest that while the contexts and intentions of the two
subjects may be quite different, there are not only cognate skills that are being u~c:tl
in the practice of both history and mathematics, but that making them explicit ffl.l)'
help leamers to recognisc and dcvelop thcsc transferable pro~csscs.
2.4.3 History of mathcmatics linking topics within mathematics
Until relativcly rcccntly, di ffcrcnt strands of rnathcmatics have bccn dcvclopcd by
mathematicians who were ncquaintcd with most, if not ali, areas of mathcmatics oi'
their time. Although this is now prob~bly impossible. mathcmaticinns m~h·
incrc:tsing. links within cite subjcctto lty to preveni l'ragmcntation. Da vis anti I kr~h
t l\lR~l ~IH\W a li~t of pr.:~~nt :md pa~t mathrrn:11ir·:11 rnp k.; t•• illr•, rrah: th,· '· '111.1
 5.J 2 Philosophic11l. multicultuml and imerdisciplinary' issues
ideal conte:-;t where students c:m be shown how interdcpendent the different areas of
mathcmatics are today. and how they have been steadily bccoming more and more
interrcl:ltcd over time.
This i~ true !Tom almost as tàr back as we have records. The popular conception
of Euclid's El.·mt'nts. for ex:unph:. is that it is a geometry text. However, anyone
"ho spends even a short time studying thc dil1i:rcnt books ofthe Elrments comes to
realise th:n this Ís ãfsynthcsis. by mathematicians of one particular culture. of a large
part of tht mathcmatics th~t h3s ~on.: befort. and that it links together a wide range
of differem mathcmatical ideas within its formal geometrical context.
Unde~tanding and recognising the links between different areas of mathematics can
be approached fron_1 a relati\ ely ele mental')· background. Wc only have to mcntion
here Euclid. Al-1\.hwarizmi and Descartes to indicate how an inventive teacher with
"this!Oric31 resources can demonstr:ll~ how nrithmetic. al~ebra and geometry are
reiJted in the work of these mathematici:ms and how the relational ideas deepened
and de,eloped ownime.
During the nineteenth centUI')'. we see more e~amples of the synthesis and
consolid::nion las Wilder calls it) of old with new mathematics. The concentration
on the processes of the different branchcs of mathematics, and the consequent
development of and rel:ltionships between thcse processes (as general propenies of
...__..,A 6
Frgurl' : I: Symm(1ry '""' SJ>Ír cll,/orm.u(()/lS Íll rlollllS. iom J. Belll'etligrtll', Dcsign in
nalurc. 190S.
:~rcas of mathcmJUi.cs). produccJ hicrarchics of abstract structurcs which bccame
succcssiq:ly nwrt• ü~clusi'e or thc m:~thrmatks that had g,onc belorc. Une:xpected
allianccs havc Cn:~trg.t·d bl!twecn diffcrent hr:mchcs of mothcma1ics. Algorithm
thcory ''h i<.: h bcg.:m in lhe first par1 t)f lhe twenticth ccnhtry has its roots in log,ic
"·hkh \las ~'nc ofli1c mosl prof<'tmd studit•s t' f the ancicnt Grceks (Chabert 1999;
Sclm•iher JQÇ~). ~ latcr den:lopml!lll. modcl thcory. is rcsponsible fo r the return of
in fin itcsimJis. in ·lhe non-mndard analysis of :\brah::un Robinson.
:\n impressi,·e n ample Clf links betwten diffcrent par1s of m::nhematics. is thc
lh' t i,•n ,,f ''111111<'!1 ' . " hi.-h h ,hl i1.: li1::t :ll' l' <'.ti .Hh'<' :1~ :t \'.<'<'llh'lrk :tl '" 'l it~nl\\',·\1
2. 4 lnterdiscipl inary issues 55
1952). In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century it began to be recognised
that algebraic pennutations had thc same slructurc as some geomctric symmctrics
and later, as the theory of algebraic group structurc developed, this was applicd to
classify different types of geometric transformations. In this way, geometry and
algebra became inextricably linkcd through the recognition of common propcrtics
which emphasised higher order procedures and operations. lt is these procedures
and operational generalisations which we focus on when we are discussing thc
decper nature of mathematics, and it is precisely these structural aspects that we try
to help our students develop when we are teaching, even at elementary leveis (sce
Ch. 5). The recent proof of Fermat's Last Theorem by Andrew Wiles shows how a
problem unsolved for many years, tantalising mathematicians thereby, has over its
history considerably enriched the body of mathematics known as number theory.
The solution ofthis old problem was achieved using one ofthe most recent notions
in mathematics, modular elliptic curves. This is just one example of how the
conjunction of the old and the new is a commonly occurring event in the
development of mathematics today.
2.4.4 History of mathernatics linking mathematics wilh olhe r
disciplines
(i) The physical and biological scicnccs
The link bctwecn mathematics and the teaching of physics has a long and well-
establishcd tradition, and hislory offcrs many cxamples of problcms and alterna1ive
solutions. Thinking about a problem from an historical context can make thc
leaming of physics and mathematics more meaningful. A good source of examples
covering many areas ofthc sciencc curriculum can be found in journals like Science
and Education where discussions range over the epistemological bases for scientific
beliefs, the nature of evidence, the processes of scientific method, and the sense in
which pupils' concepts may or rnay not be like those of earlier sciemisls. The
naming of a concept such as force identilies a general phenomenon, while the
formation of equations describing the relationships betwcen concepts is a way of
modelling them in measurable terms. However, naming and establishing
relationships between concepts are theoretical activities, and through these
thcoretical constructions we may be Jed to belicve in the realily o f lhe objects we
ourselves have created. In discussions such as these, it can be seen that not only
may mathcmatics be used and dcvclopcd as a tool to solve problcms, but also that
lhe epistemological bases of lhe concepts involved call inlo question the ways in
which these idcns are symboliscd in mathcmatics itsclf. Some cxamplcs of sue~
situations follow.
Floating, sinking, Archimedcs' principie and relativc dcnsity
The familiar story o f how Archimcdes investigated whethcr the v
cheated him. by using a proportion o f silve r in a crown suppr
1 ~o , I , J ,.. .,,. 1~ .. ••• ·••• ~ ,,;, t . ,,, . ;, . , , ,, .,,,., ...L : I I , ••
 56 :! Philosophical. multicuftural and imerdisciplinary issues
A f~milia~ sight _in some prima~· classrooms is th:H o f children experimenting to
detennme ''h1ch ob;ects sink and which float and asking why they do this. By using
a ~owl of" ater with gr:~duations on the outside il is pOS$ible to make a reasonable
esti~~:lle of ~n object"s volume. tvl:lny things can be leamt in this way about the
1:-:~m t~chmques of measurcment. :md about relntive densities. perhaps
unconsc1ously re-enacting. expcriences similar to those o f our ancestors. We know
now that the density of silver is less than that of gold and might refer to the anecdote
wh.,ere..Archimedes "ran naked _through the street shouting ertreka. eureka" (Heath
. 1? ~I 11. 19). The reason for lns enthusiasm was the discovery of the principie of
d1sp lace~en t. but the thrill of making a discove~· is a very emotional event and an
oppommny can be taken by te:~chers to help pupils share this kind of excitement.
-. Hitchcock ( 1996) has provided many use fui ideas for the dramatisation of scientific
even:s. and plays sue h as Brecht's Gt~fih•o ( 1952) or \Vhitemore's Breaking the code
( 198 ~) can be used to explore the emotions and the scicntific and política! conrexls
of diSCO\'ery (see §7.·U O and §10.2.1 for fuller discussion of plays in the
classroom ).
O~ na mies. \'C1ocit~· . occclcration an!l rnergy
Roll ~ mar~ te down cnch of tw0 inclined planes. The planes have the samc height
~ut d1ITerent siC'Ires. Which nw~k has thc grcatcr vclocily wht:n it rcachcs thc
bon0m of its slope?
F'l$:1"•' : : . l~tl1 l'<'llllo~· ntl'd.-f il/n.vtrmin.~ .lnl"w" fi<'monffi'.< 'brarln·srocltrol!l!
pr(1N,·m ·: thc mt~rNc· I> tl~<u.f;lll.c t~lcmg the <:,-rJ,,id passes G befor' tht marble.d that falls
,,J,,;,c ,, .tert~igltr li11r (fr•m' [l,·.togu!t..,._., E.-:pcrimcntalphilosophy. /73-1)..
Frequently students limitthemscl\'es by only searching for a formula to solve the
problem, which is a SIT<lightfNW<ltd task in it~e l f llut restricts the students' thinking
about the physical possibilities. By drawing the velocity and acceleration veclors,
the IC>rces acting on the marbl~s c;m be described. and by graphing the velocities of
the. mlr~l<'~- thc teacher can introduce a pmctical example ofone of the problems
wh1ch moll\·:-ued the de,elopment of the calculus. AlthouQh the idens used in the
CL'11<'<Tt <'f ~n.:r!!' C('l n ~cn :ltit'n ar,· diOkuh. th~~ wcre a~cad~ implkit in SCIIllC.
2.4 lnterdisciplinary issues 57
partially metaphysical, considerations of Galileo, developed Iater through Huygens'
experiences of co\! isions, generalised by Leibniz, and further generalised by Joh::nr
Bernoulli, finally reaching Joule's formulation half way through the nineteenth
century. Students' own leaming might follow a similar path helping them to gain
grcater insight into both physics and mathcmatics.
lnvariance, non-Euclidean geometry and relativity
A teacher alert to lhe history of mathematical and scientifíc ideas has a rich set of
resources for illuminating pupils' studies. For srudents begínning to study twentieth
century physics, the teacher can outline the contribution to these developments of
some interestíng and accessible mathemntics. The begi1111·ings of the conccpt of
invariance, so impon ant in the physics of the twentieth century, can be found in the
projective geometry of Desargues and Pascal, with the ídeas of projection and
section. The techniques of projection and section are intuhívely appealing and were
developed by Chasles, and later by Poncelet and olher nineteenth century geometers
into a method for proving thcorcms within lhe ncw gcomeuy. In a diiTcrent contcxt
we find Lagrange developing ideas of invariance from purely arithmetical and
algebraic problems. By the late ninetcenth century, Cayley, J.J. Sylvester and
Gordan had developed lhe invarianl thcory of algcbraic a~rvcs to a high dcgree of
complexity. Also other non-Euclidean gcometries had been deve\oped and lhe
concept of axiomatic systems was beginning to emerge. Hilbert's consolidation of
these different geometries by their gencralisation as groups with certain invariant
properties under specific lransformations led to startling new ways of
conceptualising problems. Hilberfs systematic study of tbeoretical physics, in close
co\laboration with Minkowski, led to Minkowski's early work on relativity theory.
Without the tools of Riemannian Geometry and the theay of invariance Einstein's
general theory of relativity and gravitation could not have lreen stated.
(ii) Geography and economics
Eratosthenes measured lhe radius of lhe earth, based on tk k.nowledge that Syene, a
town at a distance of 20 000 stadia to the soulh of Altxandria was on the same
meridian. AI noon on the summer solstice, a verticall!lomon cast no shadow in
Syene while at the samc time in Alexandria an upriflrt gnomon ('pole') cast a
shadow corresponding to an angle ofone fínieth of tbe tirei e (Heath 1921 ii, I06).
Using the telephone or the Internet, schools in two c!ifferent citics of known
coordinates could liaise. Their sludents could try Erato!!he~~s: method to find the
circumference o f lhe Earth by comparing lhe anglc of 1le sun in each place at thc
same time (Ogbom, Koulaides & Papadopetrakis 1996).
This example shows how a mathcmatics lcachcr can(ollaborate with colleagues
in the geography department. The next examples indiEate themes that would be
suitable for collaboration with the economics teacher.
In 1485 lhe Treviso arithmetic was published as a manual demonstrating thc
power ofthe new Hindu-Arabic notation for arithmetíc.,and the ways in which this
madc many cnlculations easicr (Swct7. 1987). This V45 largcly motivatcd by thc
 5S : 1'/rrlosoplricul. mulricultural <llld inrerdisciplinary issues
ch:lptcrs !'f his Srtmma .h· orirhmerh"a to trade. bookkccping. money, and problems
of .:xch:m ~e . Findin!! \\ays of h:~ndling.money elliciently and accurntely has led to a
numt•.:r o.f h:chnical dc\ d l)pments. each embodying. innovativc mathematical
.:oncepts.
lnl'ur l'\\n C\'fll\try ~kctrl'nic c!'mputl'rs h:~,·c bec!'me indispcns:~blc in business:
the d.:\ek,pnH:nl l~ lhcsc machincs .:nca!!CU SOI!ll! of lhe mOSt brilliant minds in
mathcmatics and ph~sics. Con\'crscly. ~~; c3n poinl 10 a varicly of opcrations and
notions ''hich come into mathematics directly fTom thc expericnce of money orare
reinforced through these means. Notions of expectalion and risk. which originated
in gambling. Iater ·.became essential in li fe insurance. as part of the science of
slatistics Gambling also led to the theory of probability and this ·now finds
l!pplicalions in lhe most imponant areas of the theorelical sciences. Derived from
lhese classicaltheories are the modem theories of mathematical economics.
Anotb~r asp.:ct t'Í lhe links betwecn ~eography. economics and mathemalics are
the 'o~ ages of disco\·ery. The mo1i1ations r<Jn~e from curiosily to the expansion of
~mpi re s 1:-ut the essential needs are lhe same: accur<Jte maps and ways of linding
.. •.
. 2. 4 lnterdisciplinary issues 59
one's exact position on 1\n empty ocean. Looking at popular accounts o f advcmurers
does not bring these problems immediately 10 mind, but lhe history of navigation is
full of dramatic stories and the slow but sure development of instrumentation and
calculational devices which enabled sailors to find their way across the sea. by day
or by night. Here, astronomy and mathcmatics are thc kcy to succcss.
......
(iii) Mathernatics, art and rnusic
We are often tempted to look for mathematics in artistic crcations. A common
example is lhat of the lslamic tile pattems which are so often taken out of their
original context and treated just as examples of plane symmetry groups. While wc
can engage in this on onc levei as an examplc of applicd abstract algcbra, do we take
time lo wonder at the significance of lhese pauerns in the contexts in which they
were created? lfwe mathematise artistic crcations in 1his way, ralher like regarding
Renaissance painting merely as examples of the development of perspcctive, we
may stand in danger of decontextualising and dehumanisíng them. On lhe other
hand an understanding of Renaissance painling or lslamic patterns which includes
Figure 2.4: Link.s between matltematics. biology and history are found in the investiga/íon
of spirols. which goe.s back to atleost til e time ofArc!Jimedes; here in tl1e shefl of a naurilus
and in a Japanese image of 1866
rccognition oflhe crcators' malhematical skills is allthe richer thereby. .
Finding and identifying pattem is generally recognised as a mathemaltc~l
activity, but the sources and cxamplcs of pattem in nalure and in artcfacls are. tn
some sense, works of art in themselves. So, lslamic pattems, friezes and wallpapcr
pattems world-wide; wrought iron work in ga1cs and fencing in Mozambique,
Europc and thc Amcricas; wcaving pancms in fabrics, baskcls and carpcts across thc
continents should be regarded as cultural products in thcir own conlcxt, but can ais~
·be seen as cxamplcs of ethnomathematical aclivily. As people havc developed thetr
own mathcmatics, so havc lhcy also devclopcd artistic tradi tions and art~ facts. By
hclping ~tnde nts and othcrs to see and participate in anistie projects, 1vhich ovcrtly
 6r> : rhi fVS<l{'/:i.·a/, lltll/rtcrtltlti'Of tlild Íllll!l'disdp/inury ÍSSIII!S
:\ sense o f rhy1hm is one o f man ·s univers:~ l and basic perceprions. Building on
thi~ . th~ hunt:Jn V('licc or lhe sound of :1 musicJI insrrumcnt and thc variety of
music:tl cre:nion is infinite. E:~ch culturc has its own aesthetic values and so
difTerent ~~~ les of music arise. Ho"c,·cr. undcrtying ali of thcse nre rhythm and
~tn• •·tur~. thc \';Jsic clcmcnts which cau oc fouml in music lcssons from primary
sch,,,,, to the c('lmen·at<>i r~. n,c th<'t'ry of music is fui I of applied mathematics,
"hich ca11; 1:-e tound OHr most ('I f musical histNy. from rhc description o f the
mu ~i.:~al inter. ais in lhe dil1~rc:nt sc:~ks to th~ compositions and writings o f Karl Orff
and Herbert ,-on K:~rajan.
lh) Ritual. rdigion ;uul philosuph)
..,1\ l:llhc·matic$ in histt'n i~ inc'l;tricarlv linkcd with both cmcrging :md developed
rhik'~~~rhies Jnd re Úeit'ns. Th.:r~ is considcr;~ble evidcnce for the e:~rlv
d.:,,·I•'J.'Ill<'nt ,,f c''Untit;g and ,!;<'l'I11Ctf)· in :tncicnr rituais. traces of which are found
in Et:~ pt. I3Jb~ lon. lndia. China. :lnd Grecce. TI te circle and squarc were sacred
lif:ures \\'ith 5recial signiftcance and their properties were studied by the priesrs.
Th\' •'h<'n ation that the squ:~r~· on the diagC'nal o f a right rriang.le was equal to the
sum ,,, the $qu:tr.:s on thc l'th-:r I\\ C' sidcs 1\;ts widcly Imo'' n. and thc disscction and
r.::m:~ng.~ment ~'f ;~re:~s f..,und !'INh ritual nnd practicnl :~pplications in thc building o f
:tlt:m .1nd Ih~ CC'nslructir>n C> f templcs. Alsr>. in exploring the propcrties of numbers
"e ,,t-~en e how relig.i('lus practice may bc atTected by mathematics in number
s~ rnh,lism and mysticism.
t-IJthematics is also a science of the infinite. Hennann Weyl speculated that the
presence C> f the infinite in mathematics runs parallel to religious intuition. Be that as
il 111:1~. metaphysical specularions are present in mathematics as in many other
h~man actil·ities. a~d it is just these metaphysical notions that crente the problcms
"I! h the und.:r$t:lndmg ('I f mar1y modem day mathcmatical concepts. AI a somewhat
deerer le\ el C> f cultur;~l inlluence ll'e can see how notions o f mathematical proof
h:n e rnllu~nccd theo(('lg~·. Sue h "as the se<~rch for ceminty that Spinoza. in the
seH·nteenth centuf)·. employed the Euclidean formulation of elemcntary notions,
a:xi,, m; and rheNems in his pro(lfs <>fthe existcnce ofGod.
In ;r ~itu:~tion ll'herc both m;Hhematics :~nd philosophy are part o f lhe curriculum.
thcrc :~re opp('lrttmitie~ to enrich both disciplines with historical ex:Jmples.
Foll''" int: step by step thc birth r> f ll'estcm rationality, by intcgmting the knowledge
thar stude~ts posscss from thcir philosophy coursc with that acquircd during thcir
mathcmattcs lessons. can enablc lhcm to achicve a deeper levei o f knowledge about
the cultural role of mathematics. Until the ci!!htecnth century no clcar distinction
e:xisted bet11een philosophical and m:~lhemalic;l thinking. 'N~t~ral philosophy' was
the name gi\'en to scientitic acti\'ities until relatively late, so the aspects o f westem
rationality that are reve:~led during. mathematical :~ctivities can be regarded as the
counterrart o f those e:xplored during the philosoplty ci:Jss.
2.4 Jnrerdisciplinary issues 61
2.5 Conclusion
This chapter takes into account the metacognitive leve!, the levei at which didactics
and history of mathematics meet each other. i\n exploration o f educational thcory
which goes ovcr curricular planning, and a history which goes o ver :1 story o f cvcnts
can try to understand the how and the why o f what is happening, in history and in
lhe classroom. This metacognitive request pushes the didactician firstly to
investigate the nature of mathematics, and then the surrounding philosophical,
multicultural and interdisciplinary issues. The analysis we have done leads us to see
even more clearly that school mathematics has to reflect, in a way it has not always
done hitherto, some aspects o f mathematics as a cultural activity.
- from the philosophical point of view: mathematics must be seen as a human
activity, with its cultural and creative aspects.
from the interdisciplinary point o f view: when mathematics is linked with other
subjects, the connections must be seen not only in one direction. Students will
find their understanding both of mathematics and their other subjects enriched,
through the historicalliaison, sympathies and mutual aid between the subjects.
from the cultural point of view: mathematical evolution comes from a sum of
severa! contributions. Mathematics can be seen as having a double aspect: an
activity both done within individual cultures and also standing outside any
particular culture.
Refercnces
Atiyah, Michaet. et a/. 1994. Responses to A. Jaffe and F. Quinn, "Theoretical mathematics:
toward a cultural synlhesis ofmathematics and theoreticnl physi(s', 8rdl. Amer. A·lath. Soe.
30, 178-207
Begg, A.. ~ta/, 1996. 'Mathematics and culture in Oceania' , Papapresentcd to the
Mathematics nnd Culture WG nt ICME-8, Spain, July 1996.
Bishop, Alan J. 1995 . 'Mathcmatics cducation betwceo technolog.y and ethnomathematics:
should it be common? Does it make scnse?', Proceedings ofCIEAEM 45, 53-62.
Brechl, Bertold 1952. Ga/ilco, Londoo: lndian:t Univcrsity Prcss
Cajori, Florian 1980. A history ofmathematics ()rd cdition}, NcwYork: Chclsea
Chabert, Jean-Luc ef a/. 1999. A history of algoritlrms: from the ptbble to tfrt microchip.
Oerlin: Springer
Davis, l'hilip J., llcrsh. R. 1982. Tire matlremntical experie11cc, f\oston: llirkhauscr.
Giltics, Donald 1992. Revolutions in matlremotics, Oxford: Cl<lltP.don Press
Grugoetti. L., Speranza, F. 1999. 'General rencctions on the problem"ofhistory and didactics
of mathematics', Phi/osoplry of mathemacics education newsletter I I.
Joseph. George G. 1991. The crest ofthe peacock, London: l.D. Tauris
Heath. Thomas L. 1921. A histary ofGreek marl•emalics, Oxford' Clarcndon Prcss
Heyting. A. 1956. /nttritionism: on inlroduction. Amslerdam: North·Holland
Hitchcock, Gavio 1996. •Dramatizing thc birth and adventurcs ofmathcmaticnl conecpts: two
dialogues', in R. Calinger (cd.), Vita mathemalica: lristoricahtsearclr ond integrallon
with ttaclring, Washington: Mathcmatical i\ssociation of Ammca. 27-4 1
Hofstadter. Oouglas 1979. GiJde/, Escher, Boclr: an eterna/ goldm braid. New York: lhsic
nn(lk~
--
 ,,_ • 1'111/v.,upiu.-..JI. nwlllc'lllturul u11J mtcnhs,·tplinat)' usues

1\J.r.ijan. H. '''" 1985 . .\/u.rtk anJ .1/allremauk. Salzburger Musikgesprach 1984 unter Vor.;itz
'C'" l lcrt>ert \On 1\.arajan. Springc r-Verlag
Kitc hcr. Philir 1983. Tlie natur(' ofmothemallca/ knowlt'dgt, Oxford: Universiry Press
Kuhn. Thomas 1962. Thr s1nmure ofscrcnt!lic re•·olutions. Chicago: Univcrsity Press
wkato$. I. 19i6. Prooft and re;iaations: the logic ofmorlremarical disca,·ery. Cambridge:
llni,~rsity Press
NCTM I969. lfr31aricaltopi<'S for tire mOihillulltcs classroom. Rcston. Va: National Council
ofTeach~l"5.<'f4'1alhc.mati.:s (31" l\CTM Yc:ut>t~ok. rcprinu.'d 1989)
Ogbom. J.. 1\oulatdcs. 'V .. PapaJopctrakis. E. 1996. '\V c measurcd lhe Eanh by lelephonc',
SSR St:irncc .\'oru. 87-00. Chapter 3
Schreit-cr. Pctcr 199~. ':\lgc1rithrns :~nd algorithmic thinking through lhe ages' in: I. Grallan-
Guinne~s (cd.\. Companlon encydopeáia ofthe Jrislory· and plrilosophr ofrlie Integrating history: research perspectives
morlrcmarr,·,JI Htrttco. l.on.Jon: Rvutkdc.:. 687-693
Scidcn!lcr~. :\. )Qb~. 'Thc ritu3lt>rigin of c~unting·. ..lrclul'l' for lustory ofe.taCI sciences 2,
1-l(l
St\1.-<:1. n. 100~ l. t't:):U:t.i.·. rcn~utn ll,,,,~.,~.
Spcr3nl:l.. F.. G ru~ncni. L. 19Qt>. 'H i~lory and cpi~tcmology ofmathcmatics'./to/ian
rcsror,·h in m.uhrm,;ucs rduc.l/1011 /988-/995(Ma!ara. Mcnghini. Reggiani cds.). Roma,
Evelyne Barbin
126-135.
with Giorgio T. Bagni, Lucia Grugnetti, Manfred Kronfellner, Ewa Lakoma,
S"tiZ.. Fr.~nk 1987 lllprtalr.•m am/ arrthmrt•c: thr """' math ofthc /5111 ccnturv, La Sallc:
Open (\>un · Marta Menghini
Thur~tCin. \\' P 199~. ·on rroof antl rmgrcss in mathcmatics·, Buli. .-lmer..ltath. Soe. JO.
161 · 16i. Abslract: Tire queslion of judging tire effecth·rness of integrating lustorica/ resources into
\\'acrdcn. B.L. 'anda 1961 . .S.·irnn· awnkcnilr~ I. Oxford. Univcrsity Press matilematics teaching may nol be SIISteptible to lhe research teciuriques of the quamirative
\\'cil. ,.\, 19~S. 'H i~t~·t'f mathcmatic$: \\hy and holl''. Pror:. llllernaticmal Congress of uptrimtnlal scie.ntisl. lt is beller liandled thro11gh 'lualitalive research paradigms such as
.\f.:~tll,'matirwr~<. Hclsinki I. :!:!7-D6.
tlrose developed by anthropologists.
\\'e~ I. Hermann. l949. Plulnsophy ofnrotlremati<·s and rarional science. Princeton: Universily
Prc~~

\\'ctl. llcrmatm 19~:-!.SI'Inman·. Pri nccton: llniwrsitv Prcss

\\'hrtcmorc. llugh 191'1: IJr,·tJ~;"!! thr cacle. thfonl: Âmbcr l.anc l'rcss
\\'ildcr. Ra~ n\(\110 L. 111~0 . . rhc cultur:\1t-asis t>f math t lltatics'. in Proc. lllll'l'lltllÍOIIlll
l'•"'):r.:ss •!t' .\I.Jtlrrm.Uh'hJus. Camt-riJcc. l\la USA.
\\'ildcr. Ra~mCind L. 1968. [ ,·olutron rr/n~at/r,•matkal cotrr:epts: an elenrenrarystudy, New
York. \\'iky
\\'ingcnstcin. Lud\1 ig 1956. Rt'nu1rk.s 1'r11lw fou ndcllions ~(marhemmics. Oxford: Blackwcll
3.1 Introduction
Ovcr thc pasl lwcnty ycars or so thcrc has been a growing intcrcsl in history by
tcachers and educators. What consequenccs may this intercsl have for mathematics
education? And how can we judge its effectiveness? A great many anicles have
appeared in increasing number ovcr this time, including educational repons,
reflections of leachers and accounts of teaching experiences. This material gives
different arguments in favour of including a hislorical dimcnsion in the teaching o f
mathematics, and often contains reasons for why the teacher believcd it to be
cffective. We also can identify through this material different ways in which it is
effective, depending for cxample upon whcther thc presence o f history is implicit or
explicit in lhe leaching siluation; and whcther thc use of history is lo~al, bcing uscd
for a particular topic, or global-that is, characterising lhe didaclic ·s1ratcgy or the
way the mathematics is taught.
The two most commonly presenled rcasons for the inclusion of a historical
dimension are lhat history of mathematics provides an opportunily for dcveloping
our view of what mathematics is; and that it allows us to have a better undcrstanding
of concepts and theorics. In each of thcse lhere is a sequence of developing
understandings: lhe history of ma1hematics can first changc lhe teacher's own
· perception and understanding about mathemalics, then it will influence thc w~·
mathematics is taught, and linally il affcm lhe way lhe student perceive~
 J fntl·~rotillg hisrory: rest:arch per.tpecti~es
understands m~thematics. \\"e can ~valuat~ lhe e!Tecliveness of introducing an
hi!-tNical dim~n~ion in lo lhe 1eaching o f m;uhemntics 1hrough an examin;~tion ofthis
rrc-ces~.
Th~ 1-re~dth of thc arl!ument~ is such that we c:mnot npproach thc question of
u~ing. hi~tN~ (l( mathcm;tics in a quanlitativc or piece-meal fashion . We offer
ex:nnrks l:ncr of case-stud~ c,·aluations that use :1 holistic and qualitntive npproach.
L'ur arrr,,:~ch sh1'11IJ 111'1 1'.: sc~n as prcscriptiw: we do not propose modcls or
rrogramn}eS. On thc Cl'ntrar~. a 'icw of the whole of the process suggests we
should t-e cautiCius; thcre are limit~ and risk~ attachcd to nn approach that takes too
_ simpli$tic a' icw of thc ~ignifir:mç~ Clf history in malhcm:nics cducation.
The change ''hich this may bring about in the imagc o f mathematics held by the
teacher can t-e presented as a contrast between a formal presentation o f rnathematícs
"? :md a he-uri~tic approach rrCI\ id~d hy history. This diffcrence corresponds to a
contr.~st in pedJg.Cigic stylc: that of the traditional teacher. where knowledgc is
h;mded Nlt h~ the te:~cher. :md a lcarning prc>cess based on mathematical activity by
the ~tud~nt . The hcuristic 'ie'1 is associnted with a constructivist view of
mathematics in "hich knowledge is constructed stcp b~ step and concepts are
clorified through soh ing ne1' problems. History here is not only a revelation but
.11~,, J s,,mct ~'r retlectiNl t;_,r the t~:1d1c:r. as is shown in the examples given in
sect i,,m .~} Jnd ; ..t.
Th~ hi~t Nical Jim~mi1'11 c:nc,,ura~es us to think o f mathematics as a continuOliS
prCicCs5 C' f retlcction :~nd imprCI' emcnt oYer time. r.~ther than as a defined structure
C<'mr,,scd ,, f irrefutable :liiJ tmchangcable truths. Thc latter view is one that may be
held hy the teacher tTesh !Tom colleg.e or uni\'ersity and without experience of
rc5earch. Thinking ahout mathematics as an intellectual activity. ralher than as a
fi nished prCiduct. means thinking of problems to be solved. of the impor1ance of
conJectures and the ,·alue: of intuition. In this sense. the pupil in mathematics and
th.: mathematical researcher are engaged in the sam'e activity. The historical
Jimens10n here can bring abl'UI a global change in a teacher's approach. whether or
not the historical element is e:xplicitly presem in the classroom. Historical
kn<"' ledge helps Ih~ teacher to undcrstand stages in learning. as well as lo propose
prol,lcm~ inspircd by history. 1t is irllcrcstin:; 10 note that tcachcrs in some countrics
are tempted 10 contrast th\.' irnagc I' f m:llhematics which history presents with that
given by the 'modem mathematics' reforms which were popular in the 1960s. Under
modcrn mnlhcm:~tics rcforms thc t~achin1; of mathematics began with the most
r~ccnt fNmu lation (,f conccrts ,,f math~rnatics. which is thc c:xact opposite of the
histNically-i nformed appr0ach.
llistoric~l a"arcness also len<.Js t~nchcrs to change the way they think about their
students. As shown in seclions 3.5 and 3.6. the responses students make to an
historical problem take on a new character when they are compared with the
respCinses made by mnthematicians through the ages. Historical and epistemological
analysis helps the teacher to undcrstand why a cer1ain concept is diflicult for the
student and can help also in the teaching strategy and development. This has two
par1icutar cc:>nscquences for how the teacher can use the historical dimension
efrecti,·ely. First. the teacher c:m ndopt a constructive anitude towards the errors the
$1\id<"nt;. m.1kc. 5ec0tHII~ . thc tc.•:~chcr t'an f<'Cus <'n rn,ducing a ,·mi~:ty o f rcsponscs
3.1 /mroduction 65
to a given problcm, relate them to what thc students know or to thc conncction$
wi thin their present knowledge. The historical dimension leads to the idca thnt
mathematics is no longer a sequence of discrete chapters (in geomctry, alscbrn or
analysis), but ís an activity of moving bctween different ways of thinkins about
mathematical concepts and tools.
When we leam about thc historical dcvelopment of mathematics it affccts hO\\
we think about the time our students spend in developing mathematicol
understanding. lf it took severa! centuries for mathematicians to bc ablc to mnl<c
explicit our current conccpt of a limit, for example, it is going to take a considerable
time for our students as well. There is time needed, also, to deal wilh tht
epistemological prob\ems inherent in manipulating the infinite. And then it tnke•t
time to move from the idea o f the limit as a tool for solving problems to the ideo or
the limit as part o f an integrated body of mathematical knowledge linked to Othe1
concepts, sueh as that o f real number or set. We should note, however, thm cvcri i I
students are led to construct their knowledge in a way that parallels the histor1ehl
development, it does not mean that there will be an exact match bctwecn thr
student's construction and the historical sequence. After ali, obstacles encouutcred
by mathematicians in history may not be those that face lhe studcnt of todny.
Nonetheless, learning that there were obstaclcs is in itselfbeneficial.
lfthe teachcr decides to introduce history cxplicitly in class, it can be donc cilhcr
as part of a global approach in terms of a didactic strategy or in a local w'ily, in the
context only o f teaching a particular topic. In addilion to lhe points made abovc, thc
teacher may wish to provide a cultural context for mathematical knowledge by
locating this knowledge within the history ofmankind and ideas. Where explicit use
ofhistory is concemed, there are.limitations and risks. lt is seen in section 3.7 that h
can be difficult to understand the procedure used by a mathcmatician of ancier"
times if it is not set within the historical contéxt. There is a difficulty here for the
teacher to resolve, well before it bccomes onc for the student (this raiscs the qucstion
of the training of teachers). At least two types of danger can arise when uslng
history explicitly. First, using piece-meal historical illustrations can give a falsc ~nd
tnmcatcd vicw o f whnt mõtlhcmntics, nnd imlccd history, was rcally likc historicolly
Alternatively, in trying to present a global historical view, we could be in dangcr or
ending up with an education in mathematics history quite independent of thc netd\
ofmathematics education. At worst, onc could fear that mathcmatics rnight onc l.l;~y
be replaced by a teaching o f its history. .
lt is thereforc a qucstion of intcgrating history within the teachmg or
mathematics, nnd that is why teachers talk of a historical dimension, a his~orlc:ll
style, or a historical perspective in mathematics education. Tftese term~ des~nbc, '"
a general way, the teacher's aclive mobilisation of ali his or her hlstor.lcal ond
epistemological reflections. In evaluating t.he e!Tectiveness of using h1story In
 J lutegmtmg historr reseurch perspectives
m:uhe malics classrooms. wc havc to consider ali the aspects o f a historical
dimcnsioa. h is possible to appreciate the effcctiveness o f using history through an
ethnograrbic approach to cxamples of prac1ice. Section 3.2 suggests wc should
procced by an analysis of case studies. using the observations of pan icipants and
imcf\ ie:l'~ "ith students and tcachcrs. and drawing on existing written accounts. in
r:micuiJJ (In :micl~s where tcachers explain 1\hy and how thcir historical approach
"
"' IIIJthem:ui.:s has .:han!!cd th~ wav 1hcv tcach.
~ . . history, one using problems from thc history of mathematics and the others using thc
3.2 The historical dimension: from tcacher to learner
E\elyne Barbin
.. :\ ge>od place to start an anal~sis o f the effecti\·eness of usi ng a historical dimension
in the 1eaching o f mathe matics is to ask ·does it work?'. First we nced to establish
"hat the 'it' is: that is. we need lo determine the nature of teacher's objcctives when
the~ us.: history as part C' f their m:llhematics teaching. Only afier that would we be
al:>le to Stck an ans\\ er to our question. But the question remains of how an answer
might ,bc reached. lt is tempting to ask for a 'scientific' study of the problem.
L'nforumately. therc exisl no successful studies where thc impact of an historical
dimensWn can b~ measured by using a battery of tests for determining the
comrtJtnccs of students. nor comparatÍ\'C cxperiences between classes whcrc an
histe>riC31 dimension "as or was not used. The reason for this is thnt the anainmcnt
of ol:>jecli,es claimed for using history cannot be mcasurcd by assessments (Rogers
IQQ3l. Objectivcs such as inlercst or undcrstanding of a conccpt cannot bc
measurtd in a quantitative way. h is even less appropriate to use quantitative
methods for trying to mensure the impacl on mathematics education when history is
med in 3 global "ay. Sue h :~nempts as h.we bttn made to formulate and pursuc
$uch studics ha' e f:liled on methodological grounds.
\\·~ shall attcmrt a response to our initial quest ion in anothcr way, through the
use o( a quu/rt,uiw :mal~·sis of the changes that can occur whcn history has a place
in the leaching o f m~thcmat ics. In panicular we shall look at lhe way in which a
changc in lhe teacher brings about 3 change in the leaching, which in turn leads to a
change in lhe studcnt. Thc methudolog}' uscd hcre is ctlmngrapllic, wh ich is oflen
used in educational rescarch tEisenhan 1988). We shnll considcr nine articlcs
"ritteo t>y teachcrs of mathematics and intended for other teachers. Thcse articles
are of signilicant interest. in that they present case studies by teachcrs o f work in
their O\\n classrooms. and are sprcad ovcr a sufficicntly long time span for us to be
at>le to J.Sscss agrcements and differenccs. Tltey include at the same time some
introspo«tion by the teachers on their own conceptions and intentions, and personal
o~sef\3tions of the effects of the outcomes. In their choice of aims, wc can also
reJd .Ülelut the role the teachers r layed in the reported cases and whether, in their
1 iew. th<' c>t>scr\'ed changes ce>uld be generalised to other classes. The ni ne articles
,l,•hn F;1u,d. hn 1an :-.b~ucn (cJ~. l. /li.<l<''")' i11 mctthi'/11{1/I(S cd<~coslic!ll: ris~ ICMI
DNJrc>:ht: Klu11cr ~\10\1. 1'1' o6· iO
3.2 The hisrorical dimension: from teachcr to learner 67
surveyed were ali published in France between 1991 and 1998 in thc revicw Rl'pen!S
IREM: namely, Bühlcr 1998, Farcy and Métin 1993, Friedclmeyer · 1991.
Friedclmeyer 1993, LeGoff 1994, M:ATH 1991, Métin 1997, Nouct1992, and Stoll
1993.
These articles ali concem mathematics teaching in thc lycée (15·18 ycars) and
are addressed to the same readership. Six of them deal with an explicit use of
reading of historical texts. The other three articles deal with an implicit use of
history, one of which is local (a problcm inspired by history) and the other two
global. In ovcrview, three of the authors use history primarily soas to bring about a
change in the way mathematics is viewed, for fivc ofthem the aim isto improve the
leaming of mathematics, and one of them uses history as a way of aiding the mental
construction of mathematical concepts.
In the anicles, taken as a whole, wc can ident.ify five results of using history. lt
can bríng about a change in .
the teachcr's mathematical conceptions
the student's mathematical conceptions
lhe role ofthe teacher
lhe way students view mathematics
the studcnts' leaming and understanding
These five types ofeffect are not ali discussed in each ofthe articles and we need to
consider the different ways the authors articulatc them.
In thrce of thc articlcs, the authors writc about how the study of historical tcxts
has changcd their own mathemalical conceptions and of lhe changes thcy pcrceive in
their students. The group M:ATH writes thal
The confron!Ation with malhcmatical lcxts changcs lhe view of malhcmatics for both tcachcr
and student. Mathcmatics bccomes alive, it is no longer a rigid object. lt is the object of
enquiry, controversy, contains mistakes and uses mclhods of lrial and mor.
They add: "reading old texts excites the curiosity of the students and cncourages
them to question" (M:ATH 1991). For Monique Nouet, "the prime objective
anached to thc history of mathcmatics conccms onc's view of the discipl ine: it is
possible to show that mathernatics ís a science on lhe move", and one of her final
class studcnts (17 years} wrote that "mathematics has for me passed from lhe status
of a dead scíence to that of a living science, with an historical devclopment and
practical applications" (Nouct 1992). Jean·Marie Farey and Frédéric Métin wanted
to share a surprise with their students (Farey and M.étin 1993):
The image that we give of ou r specialism through teaehing is too of\en thaÍ of a frozen world.
merciles.s and hardly human (...}. Some people tum 10 lhe history of mathematics:
astonishmcnt and wondcr! [... }. We are no longer dealing with a finished product but with
somcthing in continuous evolution; it is no longcr a case of accepting a discipline of divine
nature, bul of undcrstanding tools, methods and conccpts.
study.
 6S J lmegraríng hisrory: reseorch penpeclives
Th~ir <Jnicte descrit-es the difTerent reactions of 15 year old (2nd class} students
'' hen presenr~d '' ith a te:<t by Btn E zr<~ (12th century) which explains lhe method of
double false rosilie>n.
Som~ of the :tuthors describe the change in their attitude towards teaching that
cc-mcs fi\1m ~ new underst<md ing o f lhe nnture of mathematics. André Stoll find s
rhe fNm:tl d~ tinition of the integral gi,·cn to students of the final class ( 17 years)
quite. u~acceptablt gÍ\ en that .. two thousand years were required lo bring lhe
··. mfinrtesrmal cakulus to fruition··. and he suggests a sequence o f problems inspired
1:-y thc worl.:s of :\rchim~des. lbn·Qurra and Fermat. The resultant cfTecl on his
teaching was to sct up a link between integral calculus and differential calculus and
to inrrc-duce :1 de!in ition of integral in a 'natural' way (Stoll 1993). Jean-Pierre
Friedelmeyer explains th:\1 it is nor n question of e:<pecting our studcnts to follow thc
-. ;~me C\Oiutionaf) proc css that tool.: place historically, but that an understanding of
htHl'~ helrs the te ache r .. bctter to understand cena in difliculties that the student has
and to construct a shonened path whereby the difficulties are confronted with a full
a"arcness of the causes of those di fliculties" (Friedelmeyer 199 1). This is the
~rrmach adorted in his !ater arti cle where he explores the root cause of the
difficul!ies of the current tcaching o f analysis which. he claims. lie with the concept
~'f numericnl continuit). "since lhe student's intuition is based on a long-standing
rd~a of geomet ric continuity"'. A historical perspective provides the opportunity of
~ntering. imo .. lime~ "h~n undcrstnnding was closcr to the int uition held by our
srudents. ami this aids us in managing the Sl3ges by wh ich the concepts and
fundamental tool$ o f an nlysis are construcred. and to setthe notions o f meaning and
rigour in context.. tFriedelmeyer 1993).
Their new perception of mathematics also radically alters the view the teachers
ha"e o f their students · leaming processes. Nouet considers that the most important
a.srect of the history o f mathcmatics for hcr students is to raise the question of the
IIm~ needed lo de a! " i1h a topic: she allows time for her students to construct their
ideas slowly and lO identify moments of misunderstanding. During the course of the
~chool year odjustments take place. and the way the students ex press their ide as
rmpro' es as the teacher deh·es more deeply into the topic. In this way the students
are reassured and some regain confidence in lhemselves (Nouet 1992). History
en~ourag.es the t~achcr to see the student as a th inking and inquiring being, and to
take a fresh anuude towards the work the student produces. Frêdéric Métin's
purpQsc in yre~cnting his ::!nd class ( 15 years) students with a texl by Legendre on
the approxrmallon of :t was "to encourage them to talk about lhe way they thought
about numbers and approximations". In addition to questions about the
mathematics. he asked them to comment on " hat they found awkward in the
notat!on. why Legendre wrote 'equals', and what they thought aboul it (Métin 1997).
l\lartrne BUhler ser her students the famous problem of sharing out winnings when a
game c>f chance is intemrrr~d (le probl~mc deJ parti.~) and she analyses the seven
methl'lds imented 1:-y ha students. Her own knowlcdge ofthe solutions proposed by
Pascal. Fcmrat and Huygens helped her in encouraging the students to follow
through their difl"crent ideas tBilhler 1998).
. lllost o.r the nine anicles deal with. e:-<amples where history is cxplicitly
mtroduced rnto a mathematics lesson and comment on its effccts on leaming. None
.3.2 The historlcal dimension: from /eacher to learner 69
of the authors attempted to quantify their results. In order to assess whe1her the use
of history has an effect on the learner. they did not feel it appropriatc to carry out a
standard evaluation of the students' abilities in solving some cxercise or other.
Judgements about the effects of the historically-based teaching strategy rests on
other grounds. lt is imponanl to makc the point that when students become be1tc:r a1
understanding, it has a signi!icant effect on their learn ing (Kieran 1994). The
conviction that the use of history improvcs lhe learning o f mathemalics rests on two
assumptions about the proccss of leaming: lhe more a student is intcrestcd in
mathematics. the more work will be done; and, the more work that is done the
greater will be the resulring learning and understanding. It may be added that the
interest provokcd by the use of history goes beyond its being just a motivating
factor. The work whicb the studcnts are askcd to do involves real mathematical
activity and the leaming does not consist solely in diligently working through
exercises (Barbin 1997).
Historical knowledge enriches the mathematical cullure o f the teachers. This has
important consequences for the way it is taught, and also how the role of the leamer
is perceivcd. In proposing that their pupils read a problcm from an historical source,
Farey and Métin ( 1993) adopt a ncw altitude: ·
The te:rcher does nol ~dopt lhe rosition of lhe person who ~nima1es the clo.ssroom. bul
volunwily Slcp.~ bnck [...J. Wc are nol w;mring thc sludcnls lo finc.J a method of solulion. nor
to c:my out a simplc application of~ mcrhod: lhe studeniS thcrefore react in ways that ~re
difTcrcntto how thcy usually bchavc.
Jean-Pierre LeGoff writes that a teacher is also a researcher, and above ali an
intcllectual, who can find through the his1ory of mathcmalics the pleasure of
teaehing. The pleasure which lhe history of mathematics offers the leacher can also
benefit the student through lhe wealth of knowledge the leacher gains, something
that can be summarised by analogy with painting and the neat comment "the more
colours an artist uses, the richer will be his touch" (LeGoff 1994).
In illustrating and defending the use of an historical dimension in teaching
mathematics, many of the authors point out to the sort of historical training their
teaching rests on. Two ofthe articles make a different point loo, indicating limits lo
the use of history in teaching malhematics, and dr<~wing attention to potential risks.
Métin concludes his artiele on a pcssimistic note with respect to thc reading of
historical texts; it seems to have most advantagc for the better students, and he
indicates that he is tuming now towards a more global. use o f history through
introducing cultural and historical aspects into ali of his teaching (Métin 1997).
LeGoff distrusts any historical dimension which would be dictated by an official
curriculum, he fears that sueh a move would only propose a 'historical veneer', ora
teaching of history wh ich would create a screen in front of the mathematics, or
perhaps an historical introduction lo texts which would pre§tnt them retrospectivcly
as superceded by !ater kn owledge (LeGoff 1994).
LeGofrs reflections raise lhe questiono f whether an historical dimension should
. be incorporated into the official matbematics curriculu m, which is dealt with more
fully elsewhere in this book. Up lo the present, the French curriculum mentions
history in connection with mathematics tcaching only as a possibility: the tcacher is
 J lntagrutmg hislory: t•esaordl per'speclives
çomplettly frcc to use history or nol. If some formo f general rccommcndation were
10 be imposcd. wc face two dimc uhics. First. it would bc hard to implcmcnt, unless
:eachcrs were to ha\'e a specific and solid training. Second. a too specific curriculum
could ha1·e the perverse efTect of making the hi~torical aspect rigid, or it might
~eparate lhe history from the mathematics. These difficuhies would multip!y with
1 Manfred Kronfcllner
·k1 elopmental chang.:s to course models or to teachi ng mcthods imposed on
;<-JC hers undct thc prete).t of cfficac\' or because of a new view of lhe se ienee of
!~:lc~ng. These points should be bome in mind when considering the political
·ontcxt of educationa! reforms. To retum to the overall point of this section,
hu" e\'er. thc anicles ex:~rnincd abovc show considerab!e ;~grcement between the
JifTerent authors and 1\C have identified qualitative sirnilaritics in the changes in the
anirudes o f teachers and students. This suggests that the cxperiences described are
not c~.ccptional. but can be ge neraliscd to ~11 mathe matics education, provided we
·• tal.t accNmt o f thc ranic'ular nature of the spccific examples we have menlioned.
Rrfcrtncc~ for p.:!
1
~ Jtl- in. E. 190~ . 'Sur ks rdltions entre êri::t~mologic. histoire ti didacliquc des
mlth.im~tiquc~· . R.-r,'r.·s-IRE.\1: n•n. ~uil. 63·80
Buhl(r. ~\. IO<lS. 'l1n pr1•l>l~ mc de dês cn tcrminale'. Repi:res /RE.\1. n•J2. 111-125
Ei;cnhlrt. ~I. lO&~ 'Thc cthnosraphic rcscarch tradition and mathcmatks cducation
n:;cmh' . .l<•ur•r.:J,.•j.. n·Jnm·lt i•r mar/,.•nrarirs r<lucarion. 19l2l. 99·1 U
F.\rt~ . J -~1 .. \lctin. F 1oo.l 'C1•mmc un l'ruithicn Mfc mlu'. R,·ri·rrs /Rf.'.\1, n•t). 35-~5
F"' .ldn~~ .:1. J ·r I O<l I 'I .'indi~ro:n~;lhk hi$1\lirc 1k~ mathématiqucs·. Rr•pi·rc·s IREM. n•s.
l'n~Jr!m;:~~r. J ·I' fOQ;: ·Ecllir~g~; hisliHiqucs r•'ur l'cn~d&ncmcnt de l'anal)se·. Rtperts
11\E.II. n:l~. lll · l~<l
Kia:m. L'. t O<l~ . · l),,iu~ ;mJ ~ccing thins.• .Jit1i:mul~ : a !5-ycar rclrospecti,·c of mathcmltics
cdu.:JIÍt1n rc;cJrch t•n lc~rning'. )uumnf.tor rrs~orch i11 mo1hrmotics tducation 25. 583-
f.() :
r.
l ~l..i,•tT. J.• 1 9°~ 'Le lr<.'isi~rne •kgrc cn ~ccond cycle: k fil d'Eulcr'. R,pêru IREM. n•n
~ ...., TH 1901 ·~t~themJtiquo ; arrrochc Jl~f des ICXIC S hisiOriques'. Reperts IREM. n°3.
u.sJ
:'ktin. F. 1997. 'Lcg,·ndrc aprro~ime :-~ en classe uc sccondc'?', Rep~rn IREAI. n°29. t 5·26
~''UC t. :.t 1992. ' Hi~toir~ dcs mathématiqucs cn d:~ssc ~c tcrminale'. Reperes IREM. n<9,
15·33
R1•~··n;, L. 1 99~. 'Thc :~~~~~~mcnt or m:~thcmal ics; society. institu tions.te~chcrs and
~tu.!t'll!~· . OiJl.:tic~ C'l'm:nh.:matic~. Er11sm11~ /('f· 9:!·G-10// 'I/ . 603·613
!"11•11. :\ . 1Q<l,1. 'l'<'mmcnt l'hi ;~oirc .J~$ math~mltiqucs rocut nous dhoilcr une aroprochc
r~55ihlc de t'im<sr :~lc'. R,p,'rrs /RI:'.\(, n°1I. 47·62.
.U Tl1e indirecl genetic approach to culculus 71
3.3 The indirect genetic ap1)roach to calculus
The 'New Malh' ofthe 1960s and !970s aimed to introduce in school from lhe vcry
beginning a universil)' levei of rigour. The obvious difficullies expericnced b~
pupils in the processo f leaming and understanding o f these concepts Jed educators
in the 1970s to develop altemative approachcs, such as 'simplified analysis'. whil.:
still maintaining the demand for exactness. But in practical mathematics cducation
these revisionist proposals did not .succeed. In reaction to thc problems posed by
New Math, in lhe 1970s the genetic method was reinven1cd (or rediscovcrcd).
Roland Fischcr, for examplc, proposcd the idea of a heuristic approach with
'subsequent exactification' (Fischer 1978). In contrary to the New Math ideology hc
argued for teaching the essential conccpts ata heuristic ("naive") levei initially, thcn
to apply the concepts, theorems and a!gorithms on this low levei as far as possiblc.
and lo increase exactness and rigour only aftcrwards.
In the case of differential calculus this method leads to the following teaching
slralegy. Do not define the concept o f limit, at first, in the usual formal istic way, but
use only a heuristic idea such as 'unlimitcd approximalion' (Kronfellner &. Peschck
1991, BUrger et oi. 1991 , Kronfellner 1998, 76ff). The symbol lim is in this phasc
· ~·
of the teaching strategy not a well defined mathematical concept, bul only an
abbreviation for tne phrase "when z approaches (unlimitcd) to x". Other thcoretic~l
concepts, such as eontinuity, are also avo idcd in this phase. Oased on these intuitivc
conceptions some rules of differentiation, restricted to polynornial functions, are
derived and applied to those tasks usually lrcated in school mathematics. After th is
period, when the need occurs for ru!es to treat furthcr l)'pes of function, the necessit)'
and the advantages of a more exact definition of the concept of limit will be
elaboratc:d., and subsequently used for more cxact proofs ofthe rules a!ready uscd, as
well as for proving additionaltheorems.
This approach has epistemological potentialities. 11 can be characterised as
genetic, more precisely 'indirect genetic' in the sense o f Oito Toeplitz ( 1927).
although in his original proposal Fiseher was nol motivated by historical goals. The
'indirect genetic method' means that there is no need to mention historical de1ails
explicitly. The historical development only acts as a guideline. lt shows the tç_acher
(or the lexlbook author) the crucial way rorward: narnely, that those aspects of a
concept which historically have been rccognised and used bcfore others are probably
more appropriate for the beginning of teaching than modem deductivc
reformulations. Newton, Leibni:z., Euler and o1hers of lhe early calculus era
contributed successfully to the dcvelopmcnl of mathcmatics and its applications
John F3uvcl, Jan van Maanen (cds.), lfis1o1y rn mothematics education: lhe fOI/ stucly.
Oordrccht: K!uwcr 2000, pp. 7I· 74
 J lntC'grarbrg IristO(\': research perspecrives lJ The indirecr generic approach to calculus 73

without an exact concept o f limit, and without the conccpt of continuity. This can be
used as an cpistemological argument to avo id exaggClll!ed exactness in too early a
slage of lhe teaching proccss, to procced to coa:cxtual interpretations ilnd
applications in order to make these (prc·) concepts naningful to the pupils. and
only after that to elaborate more exact definitions.
The historical developmenl also shows that lhe community of great
mathematicians needed a long time, more than one ca:&lry, to build lhe conceptual
basis of the subjecl This underlines once more tm intrinsic difficulty of thes.:
insights and reminds us to be patient with our pupils :md not to assault them too
early with such difficult mathematical concepts and ltt'l). high leveis of abstractness
and exactne$S. Teachers sometimes feel guilty or dSatisfied when they teach a
subject on a lower levei than they are familiar with from their university study.
. ·~~\::-:-:..· . ::.-~· ·--:..L.. ~.··~ -· .....=...:-l."l;--
'!' Such teachers can hopefully be reassurcd by pointingathe historical developmcnt.
r: H - .,... _,.-~ i} D ls the mathematicallevel ofEuler and others really toolbw for our pupils?
The indirect genetic method has broader potentia'&ies. According to Tocplitz
\' - ~ · -· ··- ·-
~·- ~;..4

one advantage of the approach consists in the posslàlity of the teacher making
\ •, parallels to the historical c.levelopmcnt visible, and st.qVIemcnting thc teaching with
•,
'\ additional historical detaíls without being forced to dtmge the order of succession
of teaching un its. When, for example, the teacher repiases "approaches unlimited"
\ ...•... ...'
as something like "infinitely close to", (s)he has ;m opportunity to spcak about ·
\
infinitesimais, differentials, their dubiousness, and fieir recent interpretation in
Robinson's 'non·standard analysis'. When starting thr phase of subsequent exacti·
... !ication (s)he can report cxplicitly about thc famous crilicism o f Bishop Bcrkclcy.
the long lasting devclopment from Newton, Leibnil:., ~~;Cauchy, Weierstrass and thc
reason for the search or need of an cxacl philosopml and conccptual basis (in
geometrical style, according to the axiomatic methodl of Euclid's E/em l?nls). The
need for additional concepts can be underlined by rqating about Bolz.ano and lhe
concept of continuity which he needed for an e~tact pmo:f o f the lntermediate Value
Theorem. (The search for a proof here shows i'ils& the process of historical
exactification, given that the thcorem appears gcomtlrically evident and was used
already earlier by Euler and Gauss without scruples f{airer & Wanner 1996, 205).
Further historical details which can easily be buil in are Fermat"s maximum
method, Descartes' or Fermat's tangenl method, relmks on the 'priority dispute'
and its political background, on the use of different 1kttions and synibols and their
influence on the further devclopment, on ancient roOI!S of infinitesimais and infinity
(actual versus potential infinity), and so on. In this WliJ some brief asides about the
development of calculus or of mathematics in peral can contribute to an
appropriate image o f mathematics as a dyriamic and c!Cvelopíng science, contrary to
some public opínion, and as an important part of our alture.
In spite of these advantages the indirect ger.c1ic approach contains also
limitations and risks. 1t may be that this method netl!s ~re time to teach than a
F:.~~·,·~· 3 .' 1"':,-.~t' ~t"•U/,.'mcn. w/rn ,'{l'l.'lll 10 Pt• (,, tht• \'t'r~e t!t' ;nrrnting Jhc
r:.\:,'i'':i:,•.,· .:-··:•:t·:r:,.. ,.,.....;m,y,/ _\,'\1 I IJit ·_,. f tlkHIU.( In 1-:t~l.!_li11r rcwlt·rs bt•
straight·forward and more formalistic one, even if no ll!fditional historical details are
s::.'li:·:...: ::.' ,:.,.,:..-:tr .;.,. rt.:.r:r;,,,,,:i ,·.·:mtn· !'lii"Yllll ,( ,..,,,, x ,:\rlt'/1°,( ~kthod t~r explicitly mentioned. Furthermore the approach may look somewhat long-winded
lhl\Í\'!l> : - ,,{• . or fuzzy, though only for those who are already expai:nced in using mathcmatical
formalism; so it is an impression which teachers havt, rather than their pupils. The
latter, by contrast, feel rather confuscd by unfamiliar a\stract symbols and concepts.
 -.r J lntcgrl!líng history: researclr per.1pectíves 3.4 Stochastic teachíng and cognítive development 75

Cenainly. teache~ have to be convinced lhnt lhis additional need of time is a lecture, during which the teachcr shows students definitions of mathematical notions
fruitful investmcnt :md nol wastcd. even when lhis cannot be vcrific:d by indubitable and typical c:xamples o r applications o f these nolions. Thc main task of studcnts is
cmpirical rcsults. Thcy should bc encouragcd to make their own experientes with to become ncquainted with these dcfinitions and applications and to use them in
this m«hod. :md to compare the results and their fee ling with previous experic:nces. typical excrcises. This modc:l takes account only of logical connections betwcen
h is esrcciJIIy impon:mt that 1eache~ should lenm confidcnce. not to have guilty mathematical concepts, treated synchronically (that is, irrespettive of any
COll$CitnCCS \\ htn doing malhematics Oll !ess precise leve! than that O f their devclopment ovcr time).
univ~ity srudies. An altemative model, which has arisen more recently, is one in which stude nts
.-\nother limitation consists in the vcry real difference betwecn lhe lcaming pupil learn mathematics in a more active way and construct, step by slep, their own
and the grcat mathcmatician of the past. Pupils do nol necessarily feel a !ack of mathematical knowledge. In this aclive style lhe role of the teacher is quite
rigour. whercas the g.reat malbematicians had a more subtle perspecti~e. lt is well dífferent. Here the teacher plays the role of tutor, advisor, obscrver and helper,
known that. from Newton onwards. severa I versions of the calculus were explored helping students to work in the direction and maMer appropriate to lheir abilities.
., from lbc pmrcctivc of \'a lidity and rigour. a fact underlincd by Bishop Bcrkeley's This model has arisen through recent research in mathematics educa1ion which
fJmous criticism. shows that the epistemological structure of mathematics, in the matter of students'
On 1he olher h:~nd. lhcre is thc converse danger. when teachers set ou1 to teach cognitive development, differs from that prc.supposed in the scientiftc, synchronic
~ccording to th t indircct g.enetic method. of underestimaling the advantages of model (Freudenlhal 1983; Sierpinska 1996). Thus one o f lhe ma in aims of didaclics
mNiem not~liC'n ~nd exactncss. Althoug.h 100 high a levei of rigour and formalism of mathematics is lo gain the knowlcdge necessary to crcate a ncw style of
in an clrly pha~c Mtlic tcaching sccms to hc obstructivc, it is still an importnnt gonl malhcmalics tcaching. In th is approach il is neccssary to rccognisc lhe structure of
o f mathcm:uics cducatiCin lo show thc merit of precise and cxacl formalism and lo mathematics nol only from the logical, formal point of vicw bul also from lhe
tcach studenls to rccog.nise and use this advanlag.e. This goal has lo be taken inlo diachronic perspective, which takes into account the híslorical development of
account. k-ul mainly in a latcr phasc of leaching.. Similar argumcl\ts hold for the mathematical concepts.
J:'C'Ssit-ilities and ad\ amag.es o f modem lechnology. in compute r algebra systems. In lhe case of prl?bability and
slatistics, which for brevity we call
Rcfrrtnccs for §3.3 resavoir for ~lwl
stochastics, unde~tand ing lhe
Bürt:cr. H.. Fisrhcr. R.. l>.l3llt. G.. Kronfcllner. t-1.. 1-·lühl ~assncr. T.• Schlõglhofcr, F. 1991. mathemalics is not enough to work out
.\l,nh.·mallk O~rrst •~fi· 3. Wi~n: lli.lldcr·Pichlcr-Tempsky an approach to \eaching. The didactical
Fischcr. R. 1978. 'Die Rolle dcs Esaklifizicrcns imAnalysisunterricht'. Didai<Jtkder structure must differ essentially from the
.\latl~<~r.auk 6. Hei\ }. 21~-226 scientific one, whích is founded on
H11m. E.. \\ anner. G 1996 An<1(•·si1 by tts hiJrory. Ncw York: Springcr Kolmogorov's axiomatics (Hacking
Krcnfcll ntr. ~I.. Pcschck. W. 1991 . A11gew.md1e .ltarhemnt•k 3. Wicn: lloldcr·Pichlcr- 1975; Lakoma 1992). Thc high·level
Tcmp$k~
Kronfcllncr. :-.1. 1998. HISiomche AspeAte im .\far/;emat•k•mterric/!1. Wicn: llõlder-Pichler· •••• o • • o • • •• o ••
probabilistic ooncepts are too abstracl
•

Tcmp$ky ... .. ...... •f?·~ · ~· ~· .... .. .•. •. and too far from lhe real context to be
TNrlill. O 19~7. 'Da.• Prc>l>km d(r Univmit:lt~vorlcsungen Obcr lnlinitcsimalrechnung und understandable by students who are not
ihrc :\1-grcnzung ~q;cnilbcr der lnlinitcsimalrcchnung an hôhcren Schulcn', becoming mathematicians. In education
.I<Jivrsl-.·rtdlt,· 0.111' J6. <10-100 we nced another, non-axiomalic,
structure o f probability which shows the
3.4 Stochastics teaching and cognitive development domain as a mathematics ative and in the
processo f being developed.
The du al characlcr pf lhe probability
Ewa lakoma concept, described frÕm the historical
point ofview by lan Hacking in his work
\\'e can dislinguish two essential models of how mathematics educalion takes place. Figure 3.2: Galton's Quincunx (1873). a The emergence of probobíliry (1975),
In thc traditional model. lhe le~cher plays thc main role and gives to students ready· model for a probabilistic experiment. has beco me an inspiralion for rcsearch
madc. l lreJdy-existin;;. independent knowled~e. Thc main style of tcaching is a into how the probability concept
develops in loday's classroom (Lakoma 1990). Today's environment is certainly
!C'hn FJu,cl. !Jn \nn \ IJJncn (cds.1. Hw ory i11 mmltrmntirs trlucmion: tlie !CMI study, different !Tom what it was some ccnturics ago, but thc main rcscarch hypothcsis i~
O,•tJu:cht 1\. lt"' ' r ~t'tlll. l'r. 7~- ; : that thc óual charactcr o f probab ili1y - laws of chance versus dcgrccs o f bclõ'

llllt')!rt!lmg lristory: researcll perspeclii'U
pia~ s as imponant role toda:- in thc proccss o f lcaming probability and statistics as it
did in histo.;. One of thc maio ólims of thesc research studics in stothastics
cducation is to C.\plore and to undcrstand the process of form ing in lhe student's
mind such mental ol:-jecls (Freudcnthal 1983) as can be given m:uhematical structure
througl'r• the conccpl o f probability. Many individual cases of srudents lenming
I probability we can reco~nise whethcr they are already fluent with thc mature. duJI
prot-at-ilit~ and stltistics :11 seconda.;.·lc\'d \\Cre c:uefully analysed (lakoma 1990,
1998. 1999b. I909c) which led to the didac1ical h)·pothesis lhat the process of
leaming probabilir;. concepts has a slrong inleractive nalure. Various fonns of
inter-~ctie>ns .1mong students seem to stimulate the process of forming probabili.stic
notions. in a wa~ which respects a studcnt's notural cognitive de\ elopment.
Hacking·s dual characterisation of probability arose from his historical analysis
of its emergence in th~ se\'ente~nth century tHacking 1975, 12):
.,. 1t i.> m•ta\ok thJtth~ rn•b\oilit~ that ~m~r~cJ "'' ~udJcnly is Janus·fawl. On thc nnc sitle it is
~uti$1ÍI:ll. n•ncem;::~ lt5clf "ith m-ch3~tic la"~ t•f chance proetsses. On thc othcr sidc i1 is
cri~tCnlCik•çic~l. JcJI~31Cd ((1 ~C!I$ing rc:~~on~l'ok degrccs M hclicf in propositions quite
Jc•C11J ••f ~tlu;ttc~l l'-3cl.çre>untl.
Analysis <>f e:ul~ probabilistic reasonings shows that both these aspects became
int<!rt\1 ined. sl:ming fr~;~m about the time ot' PascaL The history suggests that in
Nder I<' acquire the rr~;~l'>ability concept it is necessary to õ.ICcept consciously its dual
n~ture. Therd'..-re in the processo f prob:~t>ility leaching it is necessary to create sueh
.:C'ndith'n~ thJt \\ il! mal.. e p~;~ssible to form in students' mind the dual probability
Ct'OCtpl.
\\'orking out the historical phenomenolo~y of prob:tbilistic concepts (Lakoma
1 9Q~\-in the sense ofFreudenlhal (Freudenlhal1983}-led to \1hat h;u been called
the Local 1\lodel's approach to probability and statistics teaching (Lakoma 1990,
19'l6. 19QS. 19QOt-. IQ99c). This approach gives siUdents an opportunity to leam
pri:'t-lroilit~ in :1 \\ :1~ \I hich respects 1heir indil·idual cognitive development. The
fundament~l id..-a e>f this npproach is to use lbrms o f teachin~ which stimulale the
student's initiJti' e. N<!tural activilies in the process of probabilily leaming are
in\ ,,h cd t-~ J i~c''' ering and fc:>rmulating problems which arise from them, and
searching f<>r SI.'IU!i<'ns. e\en panial oncs. according lo the individunl students'
arilities. The$c ;~.:th itics allow students 10 de\'clop both :~spects of probability and
keep them in b:~la nce. nu~ melhodolog>· oflhe process. which comes directly from
ls:~.1c Nc"'""· nu~ t-e de~cribed ha\'ing the following steps: discovery of a problem;
f<'rtllllblit' ll Cll ;1 rr\'t>km: Ct>nstructÍt'll l'f :1 model representing lhe ' real'
rhcm,mcll\'n: an:~l~ ~is ,,r this mt,ud: c(lnfronting thc rcsuhs obtainetl from the
nn>tkl wilh the ·real' situ:11ie>n. At the carly mges of educ:uio n students build
me>dels \\ hich just lit to the conc retc phenomcna. These are local mode!s. At the
mNe Jd,·nnced Je,·els lhese modcls become more general. nppropriate to the whole
cl:l.Ss of phe1111mena and much more sophislicatcd mathematically. What is
imron:~nt is thc e.\planate>.;o· \'alue of a local model.
The histNy or prol:>ability is used for two important purposes: not only to
tlaoor.~te a didactical approach to stochastics teaching but also to understand
student~· \\:l~S <'f rre>t-al:>ilistic thinking (lakcma 1990, 1998. 1999b. 1999c). By
,,t-;u' ing \\ h~n ; tuJ~nl$ are at<le to USl' in lhe ir arguments both aspects "f
,"\.
,-
3. 4 Stocltastíc tencl1ing and cognítive developmem • I
probability conccpt or if thcy still nccu to makc efforts to form in thcir 111ind th~
cssential duality of thc conccpt. So. it is wonh stressing that knowlcd~c ui' thc
historical development of probabilistic conccpts ser\'CS us as a tool to cv;~lu;ltc :•
degrce of maturity of studcnts' probabílistic knowledge and undcrstamlin!:, 1t tl11"
serves us as a rool for measuring 1he r:jfectil•eness of the didaclicul urprmt<''' 111
slochostics teaching.
Thus, the example of stochastics lcaching shows lhat usíng lhe history of
mathernatics in mathematics education can be effective in :
crealing a didactical approach to mathematics teaching which takes account of
lhe student's cognitive development;
recognising the student's ways of argumenls as corresponding with pa\t
problems. and cncouraging their responses 10 real situalions similar to tho~e
lmown from the history o f mathematics:
- organising Lhe process of lcaming mathemalics according to the studcnt's nt lllltl
abilities.
For assessíng the effectivcness of using history of mathematics in mathematiu
edueation, a qualitative analysis scems 10 bc more usefu l than a quantttntlvc
approach. Using history of mathematics is found lo be effective whcn we lry 10
recognise general mathematical compelencícs in Lhe performance o f stut.lcnts roth er
than particular skills. 1t is possible to evaluate this kind o f cffectivcness after some
ye:llS in which they have been learning mathematics in aclive stylc. by obscrvln~
sludents • progress and actions in real situations when they use their knowlcdge.
References for §3.4
Freudcnthal. H. 1983. Oidaclicnl pltenomtiiOiogy of motllemolicalstrltC/Ilrts. DorJrecht:
Rcitlcl
Hacking. I. 1975. Tlte emtrgenct of prnbability, Cambridge: Universit~· Prcss
Lakoma. E. 1990. Local m()(Ms in prohabiliry 1eaclting (in l'olish). doctoralthcsis. Warsaw
Univcrsity
Llkoma, F... 1992. Historical deve/opmenl ofprobabilily (in Polish). Warsaw: CODN·SI'IM
Lnkoma. E. 1998. ·on thc inlcractíve naturc of probabilit)' l'amin&'· Procreding.r of
CIF.AEM-J9. Setrtbal. 144-149.
Lakoma. F.. 1999a. 'On lhe historical phcnomcnology of probabilistic conccpls- from thc
did:u:tical (K'Ínt of vil:w', in 1\. llnyê. F. llé~ulmc ~nd X. l.efOI'\ (cds). Cnnrriblllitlll it unc
IIJlflTaclu: lt~loritjlle c/~ /'rn:sfigncmenl dcs mtlllténwlkjurs. Nantcs: fitEM dcs l'ays de la
l.oirc. 4)9·448
t.akoma. E. 1999b. ··n,e tliachmnic view in rcscarch on probahility lcarnin!f and its imp~ct
on thc prncticc ofstochastics 1cachíng'. CIE.AI~.If.Jfl l'row:dings. Ncuchatcl. 1 16·1~0
L.akoma E. 199'>c. ·1).:1clll~ulu probabilisticn ~~ razon~rnicnto estqds_tico: un ~untn ~~~"~~ta
dincronico'. in R. !'vi. Gu1t.1rt (ed). Uno-revt.lln ele dtdtJCIICII de fà:s nrnltmn/lra:s 21. 55 fll
Sicrpinska. A. 1996. 'Thc diachronic dimcnsiun in rcsc:arch on untlcrstandir.g in math.:m~tks
- usc:l'ulucss and timit:llious ofthc concepl o f cpistcmoh•!!ical ob~1atlc', in lahnk~. I 1.:-: ..
Knochc. N.. Ottc. M. (cJs.). //isl()rl' nfmatlrtmnlics OI!(/ educalion: itl<!n> "'"' t'.T/~'"'''It't'X.
Gilllingcn: Vandcnhocck & Ruprccht. 289·3 18
 -$ J /ntegrating llistory research perspeetives J.S Ancient problems for the development ofstrategic thinking 79
\. ,·

3.5 Ancient problems for the development of strategic

l An important component of thís approacn is the possibility for the students to
compare their strategies with the ancient ones. The students can, for cxample,
thinking understand the economy and the c ffectivcncss of modem algebraic processes
compared to lhe ancient methods. The activity of recognising and comparing
strategies is one of the most imponant aspects to develop in mathematics learning.
Lucia tirsgncni Only once students become abte 10 compare different strategies (for solving
problems. but atso for proving theorems). can lhe process of generalisation evolve.
O!Jf ohh~ risks in introducing history of mathematics in mathcmatics education is lt is interesting to ask 13114 year old pupils to try to translate the following
the anuhlronism. which consists in anributing to an author knowledge that he never from the Liber Abaci:
possesscd.. Thcre is 3 vast difference bctween recognising Archimedes as a
foreru~t' of integral and differential calculus, whose influence on the founders of
In quodam plano sunl duc
\unes, quarum una est alta
the cakutm can hardly be overestimated. and seeing in him, as has sometimes been
passibus 30. altera 40. et distant
done. an t':llrly practitioner ofthe calculus. I f lhe risk of cmochroniJm is a big one for in solo pa.ssibus 50: 1nfra quas
.., historil.'IS. it is not smallcr in doing history of mathcmatics in mathcmatics cst fons. ad cuius ccntrum
~ducati(ln. SCt. wh~n 3 past mathematician or othcr scientist is introduced in the volilant duc aves pari votaw.
cl3ssr('lom~. it is d~sirable to outline the political, social. economical context in which descendentes pariler ex
he li,ro_ in this \\:3y it is possiblc to discover that facts and theories, studied in altitudine ipsarum: qucri1ur
dit1'erem disciplines. 01.re concretely related (Grugnetti 1994). The interaction dislanlia ccntri ab ulraquc 1uni.
between history and didactics of mathematics must, however, be developed taking
When lhis was done in class.
into 3«00181 thc negati,·c. influcnces that each can have on the othcr (Pepe 1990). A
in ltaly, severa! translations
pt'ssibk mrgative innuence of history on didactics is the creation of a domain with
(into ltalian) were discusscd,
interesting.<~nd curious refcrences which are. in effect. not essential andare felt to be
of which the final version
irrckr.wm. But thc history of mathematics does offer severa! examplcs which gain
was reached, which in
by 3n ink'rdisciptinary approach (Pepe 1990) such as, for example. the number
English may be rendered as
s~ stems af the ancien1s: Galileo. the mathematisation of the physi~l world and the
follows:
expcrimer.lal method: Descartes nnd the anatytical method.
\\'ll::n ;mcient problcms are used. teachers and pupils can compare their Two towcrs, thc heights of
$trategíc~ with the ori~inal ones (Grugnctti 1994). l11is is an intcrcsting way for which are 30 paccs :l.lld 40
pupils to be led to undcrstand the economy and the power or present mathematical paces, havc a 50 paces dis1ancc.
Betwccn the two towcrs thcre is
s~mlx>ts :li.Tld processes. And another point: observing the historical evolution of a
a font whcre two birds, Oying
C('II\Ccpl. &"JJpils can H'mark that mathcmatics is not fhcd and dcfinitivc.
down from the two towers at lhe
An c::\::mtple of way that thc history of mathematics can foster an samc specd will arrive 31 Lhe
imerdisciplinary apprCiach. gcner:uin~ material across scveral school subject arcas, is Volurno 76; Numb•r~75 M•rth 1992 same time. What is the distance
gi' en by the L,b,•r Ah,:ri (I :!02) of Lcon:.rdo Pisano (k.nown as Fibonacci). This TH( W.AJ)4(MATICAl ASSOCIA TIO,.. (100 oCthe fonl from the two towcrs?
pro\'idcs ;a source of probtems which conccrn different {Cacllers and subjects, such
as: The 13114 year old pupits
thcn solved thc problem,
- llal~1ll:lnd Latin: what kind of langu~gc is that of thc Liber .-tbaci?
Figure 3.3: The rwo towers prob/em, here from the using the Pythagorean
histofY: the deve lopment of the Middle Ages in Europc and lslam Ca/ondri monuscript (1491 ). as it appeared on 1he theorem and solving an
geog.r.3phy: the West, the Middlc East. the lslamic world cover ofthe Motflematical Gozei/e of Mon:h 1991, on equation.
- matht!lmatics: pupils' strategies for solving some problems issut that wos especially devotcd la hislory i11 The real intercst of this
matltemalical educarion. problem was that of
FibonGc_ci's strategies: why did he solve his problems in the way he did?
analysing and discussing
Fibonacci's strategy in which arithmetic writing of operations is not given and in
which the Pythagorean thcorem is implicitly uscd. This is a literal translation of
.IC>hn flu~.cl. h11 '~" ~b:Hicn tcd s.l. llisw-;-· '" mMhemarirs edllr111io11: lhe ICM/ srudy.
O,,rJrc.:hl 1\.lu"·cr ~\1<'1\. r i'· -g.s I Fibonacci's text:
- - - - - - -- ----

so
J lntcgrating lli.rtory·: rcsl!(lrch per.•.
J. 5 Ancient problems for the developmem of strategic think.ing
lflhc hi~hcr '""a is at ~ distanc~ ,,f 10 from lhe fonL 10 times lO is 100 which add •e 8/
hoshcr '""<r lim~s il~dr is 1600. "hich giv.:s 1700. we must multiply Ih~ rcmninin~ u s . ...:e 1

1101c~ t!Sdf. 1\hich aJJ~J tu thc I'"'"' IU\\cr times ÍISelf. i.c. 900, givcs 2500. Til i; sum 11
ond a
thc rr" it'us ••nc dilli:r hy 800. \\'c must mo1·c thc fon1 away from thc highcr IOII'cr. For
c~Jm~lc !-~ ~-i e: J;l<•r:~ll~ hy 15. 11hich multiplicd by itsdfis 22.S. which ~ddcd In lhe highcr g
'''""'I !OI~$ llscll g" C$ I 1'~5. "ht~h nudcJ tll thc lu".:r 1<11\cr times itsdf I}ÍI'I!S 2125. The I!lo
su•m.J illi:r r~ ]tl!l. llcl\w thl.' dill;:rcnn: ""~ SllO. So. 11hcn we oddcd S raccs. 11c rcduecd
lhe o.ltlfcrcncc uf 500. If \I c mullirl• t-y 300 and 11c di1·idc by SOO. we havc J. 11hich oddcd lo
15 rJccs ~i1 C$ 18 11hich is lhe distancc o( thc lon1 from thc highctiO\\(f.

Pupils had lo interprel Fibonacci's sentences and 1ransla1e them into malhematical
s~ mt-<-lism. This :~cri1 ily was dane in small heterogeneous groups. In modem
,. $~ mf:.c:>lism Fit-c:>na.:ci·s pr(lcedure can be \ITitten as:
lt•:+Jtl: ' ltl(l'f" INltl =17lltl Jnli
d f z b
Figure J. 4: Fíbonaccl's diagram
(Fit-c:>n.1cci say~: ··chis surn and the previous one differ by 800")
15: - Jll~ ~ ==s t t(>tlll ~ 18~5 Jnd The Fibonacci problem did not finish here! In fact, Fibonacci considers a sccond
strategy to solve it. Afler having explained tha1 tne triangle agz (where z is lhe fonl)
' .1 t''' ' r =~~
:~-'1' +1t't' = ~1=5 is isosccles on lhe base ag (wiln ae .. eg) by construction, Fibonacci adds (scc
FigureJ. I):
tFit-<'Olcci $,1~ ~: "thc I\\(' sunlS differ by :>00"). He now uses th c diagrnm:
40 and )0 is 70; lhe half is 35, in fac11he fine t/ The lincs dfandfo have 25 in lcngth. Ih~
diffcrence belween 35 and lhe lower lowcr is 5, which, mulliplied by 3S is 175, which divid~d
500 5 by the balf of lhe distante belwcen lhe two towers, in fact 2S, gives 7 (lhe line fz). Thcrcforc

300
/ 3
dz is J2 and it remains 18 for lhe fine zb.

1t would be interesting to discuss with students some aspects of Fibonacci's

lnd hi; llst H'ntence CC'Uid be wrinen as:
(5 ~ .:(\{li ~(\li ".~:
~ t 15" IS
1
l'ltt• tJÍSCUSSÍt 1\ bn'U!!hiiO lhe class·s J.llenlion lhe UlCihOd Of 'falsc position', OOC Of
Ih~ l>l tlt'SI \\ :1~ S \t) St>l\ C pfll!-kms t which \\'3S UScd :!ISO by thc :mcient cgypti~nS),
FC'r the studc:nts il was an occasion for underslanding 1ha1 i1 is more economical
to sol\ e this problem using a simple algebraic equalion, which Fibonacci could not
us~. The class discussion centercd on the reasons why Fibonacci could not use
algebr~ in our sens.:. In this way a historical example could contribute also to give to
studenrs lhe OJ:>ponuniry lo compare arithmeticaland algebraic procedurcs.
proctdure which, as we can see, is based on the similarity of triangles eft and ghl!
where h is lhe intersection point of ef and lhe parallel to df which contains g. Thc
open raising of hypotheses by the students, and the subsequent discussion about
them, are important elements in this didactic stra1egy.
Through this kind of activity it is possible to introduce history of mathematics in
mathematics education avoiding the risks and reaching the aims mentioned at the
beginning of this seclion. Thcre is ccrtainly prima facie evidence lhal it was
effective for the s1uden1s.
References for §3.5
Grugneui, L. 1994. 'Relations belween hisrory and didactics of mathemalics', Procudings of
PMEXV/11, Lisbon,l21·124
Pepe. L 1990. 'Storia e didaltica della matcmalica', L'tducazione matemarica 3 (1·2). 23-33

..
....
 3 lmegrarrng histo(l•: research pcrspectives
3.6 D~fficulties with serics in history and in the classroom
- ) iNgi~ T. Bagni
.·. ~~~ hist~r: o f mathem:~tt~s provides a collection o f use fui examplcs for assisting in
-~e leammg of mathem:~ttcs. "h1ch can bc used by the teacher in a number of ways
::·am·el I:VO, 19Q I: Pcpc 1990: Barbin 1991: Grugnelli 1992: Furinghetti 1993;
:"J~tngh.c:ru.and Somaglia 19<17). This section examines some topics in the history of
-}n lt~ lle se.nes whtch hclp us to undcrstanu bclter thc difficulties faced by today's
~ UpiJ~.
Thc stBíly of inlinite series is an important topic o f the mathematical curriculum
v f the uppn sccondary school. For severa i centuries it has played a central role in
th~ study ef analysis {on which see Boyer 1969: Edwards 1994 ). as well as provided
a number lilf countcr·i ~tuiti,·e obsta eles for the leamer. A sum o f infinitely many
?ddend.s. for example. IS often considercd by pupils to be 'infinitely great'. In this
tnstance tfle history of mat hematics can both help the teacher to understand thc
pupil's dHf~eultv and Su!l~:est wha1 to do about it
:\ time-hon~urtd pr~~lem in this arcais Zen~ o f Elea·s pnradox of 'Achilles and
~e Tonois~·. This concems n convergent gcomctric series. Pupils may experiente
dtfficulty. m absorbin!:t the difference between convcrgent, divergcnl and
muelernnlklte ~eries. and th is can cause problems and inconsistcncies in their minds.
l~t·us Ct>nsi~cr dirwly a famous indeterminate series, the onc consisling of + 1 and.
I m altcmauon. In 1703. lhe halian ma1hcma1ician Guido Grandi statcd: "From I·
1.... 1· 1..... l can obt3in O or L So the creation ex nihilo is quite plausible" (Bagni
.19Q6. lllt" e may note here lhe thcological mo1ivation for the argumenl, wh ich may
m1erest some pupils). Grandi's argument was based on brackcting thc series in two
altcrnali,·e "a~s
1•\· l•ll.. \·l•ll•\·l+ll+ ... •1+0+0+0+... "'I
The sum or the Jltern:ning series was considered 1/2 by many mathcmaticians in the
1 series were considered to be polynomials thal can express the original function,
l 7 h cemury. According to Grandi. this can be justitied by considering the sum of
lhe geometric serics
I .,
- -= :Lt-x)' c 1-.t+.t'-x'+ ...
1+x ....
Then runing. r = I into 1he series we should havc:
3.6 Díj]iculties wifh series in history and in the classroom 83
.• . l
L:<-t)''"
,.o
l-1+1-1+... "' 2
.
We may note that there is a simpler way to reach the same (false) conclusion. Thc
same result can be achieved by the following procc:durc:
. . I
S"' 1·1+1-l+... ~s= 1-l(l·l+l-l+... )~s"" l-s~s= -.
2
lt can be interesting for some pupils to ask them what is the fallacy in this
argument. (lt is because lhe argument works only once you have established thatthc
seric:s does indeed have a sum which is a number 's' like any other; but that is what
you are trying to establish. Nowadays we accept such a geometrical series as having
a sum only i f JxJ < I .)
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, too. studied Grandi's series, and he wrote to Jacopo
Riccati summarising lhe argumc:nt mentioned above:
I do not know if Mr. Count Ricçati, and Mr. Zc:ndrini have seen about the qucslion whethcr I·
1+1-l ele. is 112, as R. P. Grandi stated, someway correc1ly. In fact 1/(l+.x) is
1-.x+ .xx - x' + .x' - .x' etc. so if .xis I, wc bave l/(1+ 1) = l-1 +1·1+1·1 etc.= l/2. lt secms
that this is clcarly absurd. In lhe Acta Erudirorum from Lcip~:ig 1 think I havc solved this
problcm.
(this lener was probably written in 1715; see Michieli 1943, 579). In fact Leibniz
studicd Grandi's series in some lettcrs to Christian Wolff, where he introduced an
interesting probabilistic argument that influcnced Johann and Daniel Bernoulli too.
Leibniz noticed that if we stop the series 1-1+1-1+ ... at some finite stage, taken at
random, it is possible to have O or I with the same "probability". So the most
"probablc:" value is the average betwec:n O and I, so 112 (Leibniz 171 S). This
argument was accepted by some !ater distinguished mathematicians, notably Joseph
Louis Lagrange and Siméon Denis Poisson.
Later in lhe I 8th century, Leonhard Euler wrote in his texlbook on dilfercntial
calculus lnstitutione:s calcu/i dijferentialis ( 1755): "We state tbat the sum of an
inlinite series is the tiniu:: exprcssion by which the serics is generated. From this
point o f víew the sum o f thc inlinite scries 1- x + x 1 - ;:1 + ... is l/(1 + x) because
the series arises from the development of the fraction, for every value x". Euler
considered inlinite series as a part of algcbra o f polynomials (Kline 1972, 537). So
without any convergence control. As wc: shall see, this situation can be imponanl in
lhe educationallield. •
Jacopo Riccati (Grugnetti 1985, 1986) criticised the convergcnce of Grandi's
series to 1!2 in his Saggio interno ai sistema del/'universo (Ricani 1754/1761, 87),
he wrote:
Grandi's argument is interesting, but it is wrong, bccause il causes conlradictions. [... J Lcl us
consider n/ (I+ 1) and, by the common procedurc, lct us obtain lhe scrics n·n+n·n+n-n ct.cct.
.. n/(1 +I). lfwc remcmbcr thut 1-1 =n-n, or 1+11 = n+l, we have thal eilher in this scries or
in Grandi's 5erics thcre are the sarnc numbcr oro.
 J lntegrating histo. earch perspectives
The contrndiction in\'olving "the samc numbcr of o·• was reached in this way.
Having wrillen 1' 2 "' 1-1 + 1-1+... "by the common procedure", Riccati introduced
the series:
, So studcnts' justificntions are remarkably similar to some wc find in thc hisícll;.·
-=:-;;; tt·n-n-•r 4 ,,,
let U$ CC'mrnre thc: ce>nsidcred sc:rics. we c:m writc:
.<e t-1· 1-1• 1-1• =tl-ll•t t-ll•tl -ll•... •O+O+O+.•.
So Riccati conc1uded that Grandi's procedure is incorrect. His argument cannot be
,:lccepted lnotice tha1 it is t>ased upon 1he "common procedure". which is not correct
f<:; an indetermin:ne series). although his conc1usion is c1ear and correct (Riccati
1,5-1 ti6 1. 86):
Th~_ mi>l~kc is .çJu~eJ ~~ [... ] lhe use of o scries from which it is impossible to get any
cc-n,lu~ 1 l'll . l_n lo~t. I . )11 dC'cs nC'I h~ppcn thal ifwe stop this series. the following terms can
1-.c ~e~kçtcJ m c!'mrarisC'n " ilh rreccding terms. this property is vcrilied only for convergcnt
$Cr1 C~.
[duc3tion:~l aspccts
l et us tum now examine some educational aspects. This issue was raised with Liceo
Sc:it'mific~ students in Treviso (ltaly) who did not know inlinitc series, although they
h~d been mtroduced to the conccpt o f infinite set. The following question was given
to them l-1.5 pupils 16-1 7 yearo1ds and 43 17-18 yearolds-88pupils in ali):
lfl l"(l}t/,t motlt,·mall~•a" G. Grnndi studird the addition 1-/+J.J+... (oddt11ds. i11flnittly
t?:.:t:y. c~r.- <1fw11ys - l and- I I. IJ'hot is your opinion obout il?
Pupils answercd as follows:
26 pupils (29%) said the answer is O
18 pupils l20%) said the answer can be either Oor 1
5 pupils (6•-ó) said lhe answer does nol exist
4 pupils (5%) said the answer is 112
3 pupils (~ 0 'o) said lhe answer is 1
~ pupils l 2° à) said lhe answer is infinite
30 pupils (34~õ) gave no answer.
:irst_ o_f ali. notice that lhe grealer part of the pupils inlerpreted lhe question as an
1mphcn re~u~st _to calculare the 'sum' ofthe series. Only 5 students (6%) explicitly
stated that '' •s •mposstble to calculate the sum of Grandi's series, Note 100 that a
lifth of the pupils suggested the possibility oftwo answers.
The .s~dents were interviewed about their answers. Some of them used, in
e-ffecl. s1m11ar arguments to those found in the eighteenth century. "[f 1 want to aliei
alwa_YS_I. and -I. I can write ( 1-1 )+( 1-1) so I can couple I and -I: so 1 am g"'ng to
add mtu11tely man~ O. and I obtain 0." (Marco. 3rd class, and 1S other pupil.: , Ánd
th<'se students "ho $lated that the sum of the series is 112 justilied it by arguments
3.6 Difliculties with .series in history and in the classroom 85
similar to the probabilistic argumcnt of Lcibniz. "I f I add the numbers I havc I . O. I.
Oand a1ways I andO. The average is 'h." (Mirko, 4th class).
of mathematics. In particul~r. we can recognise, explicitly or implicitly, that some
students felt as did severa! mathematicians in the 17th and 18th centurics. that an
infinite series can be always considered a polynomial: the notion of convcrgencc .
not considered before lhe work o f Gauss, had not entered the Jtalian pupils' hcads
yet either . This seems to bear out in lhis instance the view of Piaget and Garcia
(1983), that historical development and individual development are parallel.
Didactic reflection
Anna Sfard states that in arder to spcak of mathematical objects. it is necessary to
make reference to the process of concept formation, and supposes that an
operationa! conception can be considered before a structural one (Sfard 1991, 10).
As regards infinite series, the passage from an operational conception to a structural
one is hard, because of the necessity o f some basic notions (for example the limit
concept).
As regards the savoir savant, the historical development of mathematical
concepts can be considered as the scquence of (at least) two stages: an early,
intuitive stage, and a mature stage; severa! cen\uries can pass between thesc slages.
In the early stage thc focus is mai nly operational, the structural point of view is nota
primary one. For example, in the early stage o f working on infinite series (that is, at
least until Gauss's works) ma in questions of convergente were not fully considered.
From the educational point of view, a similar situation can be pointcd out (Sfard
1991 ): of course, in an early stage pupils approach concepts by intuition, without a
full comprchcnsion o f the matter. Thcn thc lcaming bccomcs bettcr and bctter, until
it is mature.
There is a clear analogy between these situations. And the experimental rcsuhs
given abovc show that in the educational passage from thc carly stage to thc mature
one we can point out, in our pupils' minds, some doubts and some reactions that we
can find in the passage from the early stage to the. mature one as regards the savoir
.tnvant, ton. Of course, processes of tcaching anti lcarning takc placc nowadays.
aficr the full dcvelopmcnt o f the savoir savant, as regards either early stage, eithcr
mature stage. So the didactic transposition, whose goàl is inilially a correct
development of intuitive aspccts, can be strongly based upon the rcsu11s achieved in
the mature stage, too, ofthe development ofthe savoir Sllllant.
Moreover the process o f teaching-learning and the didactic transposition must
consider that, as we previously underlined, pupils' reactio~s are sometimes similar
to corresponding reactions noticed in severa! great matherriátiéians in the history of
mathematics. This correspondence can be a very important tool for thc teachcr in
developing the effectiveness of history as a resource base, but it needs a clear
. epistemological skill.
Referentes for §3.6
Bagni. G.T. 1996-7. Storiadtlla Matematica. 1-11-111. Bologna: l'itagora
 S6 3.6 Dij)iculties witlr series in history artd in the classroom
Ba~t-.10. E. 1991. ·Thc rc~ding of originaltcxts: how and why to inlroduce a historical
pcl'l'pectilc·. For the learning o/mathematics 11(2). 12-13
Bo~·cr. C. \9f.'l . 'Thc hiSiory ofthc calculus', in: H~llcrberg et a/. (cd.), /iistoriral ropicsfor
r/,,· mclllo,·nwrics ('/ll,<Src>om. Restem: NCTM ) 1- \'earbook. 376-·102
EJ" arJ~. ç li lr. I 09~. n..· hiSit>rl<oll c/(\'t'lllpm.·n; Cl{ ti! r Ctlkulus. D(t1in: Springcr
F3u•cl: J.t1d.l l990. /lista')' ill tlr< marlrcmatics classroom: rhe fRE.\f papers. Lciccstcr: Thc
~blhomatical Á~$Oci3tion
F3u\ cl. J. (cd.l 1991. For rloc t,·arr:rng of murhenwrics 11 (2). spccial issue on history in
mathcmatics cducation
Furinghcni. F. 199J. 'ln~snarc matcmatica in un3 pro;pcuiva storic~·. L'educ~ione
mau·mattca. 3-4. I D-134.
~Furinghwi. F. St>maglia. :\. 1997. ·s1o11a ddla matematica in classe'. l..'educa:ione
mcll<mmrcc>. 18. \'
Gru!;ncni. L. 1985. '$ulla '~cchia cJ auualc equ:12ionc di Ricc~ti '. Rttldicomr de/ Se minaria
JdlcJ Facolt oJr Sneu:r defl'l ·mwmta di C'agliari 55 ( 1), 7-24
Gru~ncui. L. 1986. 'L'cqu:IZione di Riccatí: un cartcggio incdito tra Jacopo Riccati e Nicola
11 Bernoulli'. Bo//c/11110 di Srorra .ídle Sden:e .lfatematiche. 6 (2) 45-82.
Grugncni. L. 19n. 'L'histoire dcs m~thcmatiqucs: une cxpcricncc intcrdisciplinaire fondéc
I be drawn to criticise the somewhat distorted and adjusted inlerpretations given to a
~ur l'histoirc eles mathcmatiqucs". Plat60. 17-21
K1ine. ~I . 19"~- .\fmllcmclllcalrlrouglot from 011citm to modern times. New York: Oxford
l'ni,e!'l'ity Prc~s. ~rrint: 1991
Lctl-ntz. G \\'. 171!'. ·Epist. G.G.L. ad V. claris. Ch. Wollium' (Lcttcr by Lcibniz to Wolll),
A.-t,J Enlliitorum Suprlc·ntl'lllllnt 5 ( 1711-1719)
I cause difficulties for pupils. Another C<JSC would be to give, using history, some
:.tkhidi. A.A. 19~3. 'Llnl famiglia di melcmatici c di poligrali trivigiani'. in Riccati, 1., AUI
cf.-1 Rrnlt lstitutn J',.,,.,o di .<cien:r. lmrre ed nrri. Cll. 11.
Pcrc. L. 1990. 'Storia c cJidattica ddla matcmatic~ ·, L'educa:ione mate marica 3 (1-2). 23-33
PiagcL l .. Garcia. R. 1983. Psychogenese etlustoire des sciences. Paris: Flammarion
Riccati. Jaeopo 175~ - 1 i61. Saggro i11toma ai sistema dell'tmi•·erso. in: Opere. I.J_ucca 1761
Sfard. A. 1991. ·on thc du:1l naturc oi rn3thcmalit31 conccptions: rcflections on processes
md abjccts as differcn1 sidcs ofthc samc coins'. Edul'ollonal studies i11morhemotics 12. 1-
36
3. 7 On potcntialitics. limits and risks
~larta t-.tcnghini
Lei us try to lhink about powlliolitics, /imits and risks (Grugneui 1994) in
conncclion with dctcrmining lhe e!Tcctiveness o f us ing history of mathcmatics in lhe
classroom.
Consider fim the case in which one asks history of mathematics for help in
1caching an argument. T11c simplest WilY is to use hislory implicit(l~ lo take ideas.
Thi~ m ~ans thJI histNy is not nn aim for itself. but a te:~ching itinerary is constructed
"hich must utilise suggestions from ''arious sectors. always keeping in mind lhe
didxti,· 3Íms. So. in speaking of the implicit use of history. we are not rcferring
l0hn F~u' ~1. hn 1:11\ ~IJ~ncn (t•,h.l. lfi.<tnn· 111 mathematics edutniinn· tfre /('Mf study,
0Ndr~cht· Klu" cr ~(1\l\l. r!'-S6·90 . This treatmc111 i~ interesting and deep, bul it is not easier than the usu:~ l trc··
3. 7 On potentialities, limits and risks 87
here necessarily to the "indirec:t genetic mcthod" of O. Toeplitz ( 1927) tliscussed in
section· 3.3 above. The indications which derive from history can be very slight.
Thís way of using history ís growing as more rcsearch ís done on leaming
difficulties. One tries, in fact, to go back to lhe origins of a.conccpt. to conceive it in
a different situation, to retum to the instant in which lhe theory ..branchcd out".
More generally, one enters into the area of didactíc transposition, 1ha1 anernpts lo
calibrate the didactic operation in relation to the conccptual dif!ic:ulties and
complexities ofa given topic.
In a first broad classification, we can say that in those cases lhe limits are lhose
o f the classroom, like always in teaching; the potentialities, of course, consist 'in a
better understanding of the topic. The risl!s are involved with a 1ack in didaclical
transposition; more precisely, the risk. isto follow too much the real historie path. A
didactical competence is needed, more lhan a historie onc: a hislorian could easily
certa in event for pedagogic purposes.
A more detailed example is that of teaching analysis, discussed in section 3.3, in
which history is used to hclp pupils bener understand a topic which is known to
additiona1 knowledge, in order to help in understanding a more generaltopic. Lct us
explain this by an cxamp1e.
In his Conic Sections of the 3rd ccnrury B.C. (Apollonius 1923, Apollonius
1952) Apollonius describes a geometric procedure for the sectioning of a cone with
a plane in arder to detennine what we today would callthc cquation o f lhe para bola,
and then of the other two conic sections (Mancini Praia and Menghini 1984,
Menghini 1991). In this procedure one detennines a re1ationship be1ween a segment
of the axis o f the parabola and a segment perpendicular to it, sue h that lhe segments
correspond to what we today would callthe coordinates of a point. The procedure is
not common enough in schools to be considered a mathematical fact 'without
history'. Nevertheless, in teaching conic sections, one can follow different paths
which make more or Jess cxplicit use ofthe history ofthe subject.
In an implicit use, one presents the topic along classical lines but without
mentioning Apollonius and his era. Thcrc are notable advantages (potemialities) for
the teacher in this stra1egy: an application of )-dimensional gcometry, an oplimal
connection bctwcen synthctic geometry and analylical geometry, and above ali, thc
possibility to conncct, using thcir equations, the dcfinition of thc conics as scctions
of a cone to that o f a conic as a 1ocus o f points. For pcdagogic reasons one can
simplify the original proccdure (already rathcr simple) in many pa,rts: notation, use
of x-y coordinates, limitation to a right cone, limitation to tiÍc parabola. In
particular, it will be necessary to modify onc passage. Given a relation of the type
a:b = c:d (where a, b, c, d are segmcnts), in order to substitute, in a further
expression, the value a = b·cld, Apollonius mus1 introduce a new parameter (which
requires a compliéated geometric explanalion), since he cannot rely on lhe algebraic
procedure, i.e., substiluting the segments with their lengths. This "simplification" is
a deep modification, it mus1 be stressed wilh teachers. As we said earlier, lhe limil.<
o f such a use of history are connected with the malhematical difficulty o f the tr
 ss J llllegrating lristOI)': researclr perspeclives
C<'nic ~ectiC'n~. The mks (in this ca~e. the lack in didactical transposition) are
connccted \\Íth thc "simplifications" "e mentioned above: the teacher must be able
to translate and to reinterpret cenain passa·ges into a language which is
comrreh~nsible for the pupil.
.·\nC>ther teáching aim could t-e that o f ' gi ving to mnthem:Hics a cultural vision'.
B~ immming a topic in a historie period. we c;m obtain. within this ai in. a changing
Ç>f ç-<'int of ,-iew. an understanding o f a mentality, which are imponant potentiolities
in a mathema1ics curriculum. The principal risks consist in pointing out the
histNical aspect more than the mathcmaticõll one. to havc a sort o f history"course
11 ir h a low mathematical levei. A {inrit of this aim is that it demands a certa in
histC>ric competence from the teacher.
., Lc.-t us take up again the example of Apollonius. which earlier wc dealt with
lm,rh,·u(t·. The historical context of Apollonius' procedure can be explicitly
addressed. ror suitJble dlSses. and this offers other intcresting aspects in <1ddition lo
th<>~c <>f the imrlicit tre~nncnt. Onc cnn. for cxamplé. compare thc dclinitions of
ApC'llonius '' ith those o f his predeccssors. analyze some o f the propcrties known to
Apollonius. obser\'e this 'precursor' of the cartesian plane. see how to move from
one delinition to the other. <~nd watch how the concept of conic sections has changed
,,, er the ceniUries "ith a definite ·cultural' growth.
.-\s to the simplitic~tions. it is obvious that one has to rely on algebraic
rrC'cedur~s in :m ·implicit' scholastic treatment. since lhe requirements of Greek
g.eometrical handling. ~re so intense. But the algebraic procedure is preferable even
ifone chooses the second path. in which history is used in an e:cplicitwoy. Only in
this case (in fact. to a,·oid a 'misstatement') one must clearly te li the students that at
this point one must substitutc the !ines of Apollonius with algebraic statements. In
helping the students to understand the difference the teacher can again underline
difi'erent sryles in the treatment o f a topic.
In the explicit case the treatment becomes longer than in the first one. so, in
addition to the limits ofthe classroom. we have also the limits o f time: it is difficult
to rreat topics in this way more than two or three times in a year. The risk is that,
underlining the historical aspect. the teacher tells students about Apollonius, the
Greeks. the synthetic methods. and that Apollonius found a brilliant method to
determine a son of equation of the parabola by sectioning a cone, but doesn't
explain this methCid m~thcmatical\y. So lhe story becomes a too long anecdote,
which cant-e boring and reduces its eiTcctiveness. especinlly for gi Oed students.
This risk. in connection with the same aims. can be observed too in the case of
lhe reading. of original texts. To read in the classroom passages !Tom the original
worl..s l'f famous m:tthematici:ms is n simple and realistic way to introduce lhe
history o f mathematics into teaching.. From the viewpoint of the historiao. it is a
useful way to be!;in to de,·elop an interest in history. From the didactic point of
,.it'w. it is one of the first efforts 10 movt' out of lhe usual canons of the teaching o f
mathematics. pro,·ided that onc evaluates carefully the interest, the relevance and the
cuhur.1l contributi<•n o f the chos<:n text (Barbin 1991 ). A text which highlights a
fundament:~l moment in the history of mathemntics (a change in language. an
inno\':llhe idta. a ·rich' problcm) is intcresting. nlso from a didactic point of view.
Once in a while. for e:<ample. a passage is appealing because the language used is
'
. 3.7 On potentialities, /imits ond risk.s 89
I di!Terent from the usual one, because the problem d.iscwsed is interesting. because
in its solution one uses for the first time an actualtechniquc of demonstration (o r on
the contrary, because'one uses a technique different from the one commonly used).
Bul we have 10 pay attention to the use that a teacher can make of the text. Whcn
\ trainee teachers were asked if they would use the original text of Apollonius
(Bonazzini et ai. 1992) with their pupils, referring to tbe passage mentioned bcforc.
1
many' of them said yes, because one can expia in to papils that today's notation is
simpler and more elegant. Out the same conclusion can be drawn from the re:~din~
of many passages! For exnmplc in ltaly it sometim-es happens th<1t 16th c:cntury
algebraists (who write more or less in ltalian) are rtzd in th.e clas_sroom, .and the
same conclusion is drawn. A bener historie competence could help m the d1scovery
of a deeper significance in the various passagcs (see section 3.4). Anothcr risk
connected to the lack of historical competente is given by an autonomous
bibliogrophicnl research. Someone not expcrt in history can hardly know if a choscn
passage is effectively representative o f a certain hislori~l. period or ~r .a way of
thinking. The choice o f a work by an unknown and too orrgm~l author 1sn t .he.lpful.
lt is possible that it presents a unique problem to JWOpose tn class, but 1t as not
appropriate (and may be distracting) to underline its ~rica! aspect. . . .
Another problem, already hinted at, is that sonvhmes the re~dmg o f .ongmal
texts does not really interest the good students .r mathemaucs but IS more
meaningfulto the students with greater interest in '-anistie' topics. ls i~ true that
some of I hem understand lhe mathematical probtem 111\y through the readmg of the
passage (Lit and Siu 1998)? Or do they like this kín:í o f elassroom activity because
one doesn't need to do real mathematics?
In the case o f an explicit use o f history the objtttives of the educator are quite
different from those o f an implicit use. Thc intentiOII' may be, again, to intervene in
the conquest of a concept, but above ali, one wants Ml describe a historical period, to
! show lhe evolution and the stages in the progress ofmathematic.s. In this case, even
I
I with the necessary simplificalions, the emphasis is Ql bistory.
But we can do something more, we can go insi& history maintaining an attitude
i as open as possible to historical investigation. Thisi:tthe case in which we wanl to
stress even more that mathematics is somethin:, d!at is developed and can be
I constructed when we want to stress the creative m of mathematics more than lhe
cultural on~. Here we nced thc pupil to becorm an aêtor: implicitly by posing
problems taken also from h.istory, cxplicitly !e~ him follow the path of the
developmcnt of a certain piece of history. The rid in this case is to 'teach_' this
devclopment. Among the potentio/ities: the p"11iJ has the courage to dtscuss
something done 200 years ago, even by a great ma6cmat~!a~ (while he has not thc
courage to discuss what his teacher says). Alltbis:. as we saw in sections 3.5 and
3.6, is strictly connected to lhe way the teacher acu-.
. Rcferenccs for §3.7
Apollonius de Pergc 1923. Les coniqu~: oeuvres trodrrlapo~~r la prtmiere fois ~~~ grrc m
françois avec une introáuction et des notes par Paull"~r Eecú. Orugcs: Dcsckc de
Brouwer
Apoltonius ofPerga 1952. Conics, tr. R. Catcsby Talia!sno. Chicago
 l
J fmegrarmg hiswry reset;~rclr pl!~spectives

Bart>in. E. 1991 . ·Thc rcading of original tc\lS: how and why to inlroduce a historical
rcrsreC'l(\'e'. For rloe lcarlllllg ofmarhemUIICS li (2). 12·13
B<>ll:lU!ini'U.. Frcguglial'.. Toti Rigatclli L. 1992. Fonri pu la storia defla mattmatica,
F"ircnu: S:lnst>na
Grusncni. L 199~ . 'Rclatiuns bcl\\·ccn history and didJclics of mathematics', Praceedings of
I
P.IIE,\1111. Lisbon. 121 -12~
Lit C.-K.. SâJ 1\I.·K. 1998. ·A res~:uch projcct on thc dfect ofusing nistory of mathematics
in lhe sóool cl:usroom·. Ro>port ;or rloe (('.IJJ Study in Luminy
:O.I:l.nCi~Prai.l. L.. Mcnghini. :-.1. I'lU ·conic scctions in the sky and on eanh'. ülucational Chapter 4
srudies 111 rnarlaemaflrs 15. 1'11 ·110.
Mcnghini. ).t. 1991. ·runti di 'ista sul !c coniche ·. ..lrchimede 41. 84·1 06.
History of m.athcmatics for traince teachers
3.8 Suggcstions for future research

At lhe ~ning of this chapter. we menlioned the many articlcs appearing in recenl
years about lhe use of history in tcaching. mathematics. For pursuing an investigation
Cln the eiT«tin·ness of his1ory in lhe classroom, it seems desirable lo collect and lo
study twCI tind of materiais:
I. to colltct experíences of teachers who use history. The purpose isto study their
aims. ~eir sleps. thc problems thcy meet in teaching, thc: advantagc:s and the
disad~antages in thcir cycs.
, to Ct'lk-ct qucstionnairc-s nnd inlcrvicws of leachers and pupils about
matharolics. lhe purpose is lo sludy their approaches to mathematical
conccprs. such as the inlinite, and mathematical ideas, such as mathematical
rigout.
The optimll way to explore ali these materiais is, as we explained earlier,
necessaril! qualitati\·e. recognising that elhnographiç melhods are appropriate lo
explore lhf qucstion of effecti\eness. But we have to make precise what these
methods ;m.e:m for' the specific question of lhe relations between history and
mathcm:~fu;)) teaching..
If "e lllmk about lhe future. we have to take into account how the teaching o f
mathemaiiz:s .,, il1 evohe and what problems may arise in the next years. A major
point is v jmerest and enthusiasm towards mathematics found in educational
circles. li.is question has two leveis. One is lhe pertincnce of mathemalics in lhe
curriculu11.. In some countries. there is a lrend to rcduce the quantity of
mathemaii::rll teaching Clr to oriem it towards applied subjects. This is linked, in
particular. \~ilh the use of new technologies. Secondly. the difficulties of
inlerestin_g pm-pils the msel\'eS in mathematics. This point is vcry important if wc
think that i'~ :is not possible to engage in rc:~l mathematical aclivity without an
enthusiasm orr intellectual interesl for mathematics. The introduction of history of
mathematiG:tt':m play here a decisive role. History is a sourte to define perennial
knowled~e.. tl.\at is. kn owledge which permits us lo understand the world. But more
1han thaL wc: c:m tind in history the mcanings of malhematical knowledge, to
understani!wlhat it is for and whal are lhe problcms mathematics helps to solve. Ali
this reinfa:J:es the image of mathematics for teachers and pupils, so for history lo
respônd e1.éohel~ in this regard is emntial.
Gert Schubring
I with Éliane Cousquer, Chun-lp Fung, Abdellah El ldrissi, Hélene Gispert,
I Torkil Heiede, Abdulcarimcrlsmael, Niels Jahnke, David Lingard, Sergio
I
Nobre, George Philippou, João Pitombeira de Carvalho, Chris Weeks
·I
Abstract: The rnovement to integro te matlremorics lristory into rhe traíning offuturc tcaclrt•rs.
and in to rhe in·service troining ofcurrent teochers. hos betn a thtme of internarionul contWII
over much ofrhe /asl century. Examples of currenl practice from many countrles, for rraillfiiJ.:
reochers ar o// leveis, enab(e us to begin to /earn lcssoru and press ahead both wirlr odnpring
good practices and also purting conJinued rescorch efforts into assessing the t/fects.
4.1 Earlier views on history in teacher education
Almost since the bcginning of intematioMIIy coordinaled mathcmalical activitics.
the importance of a hisloricai componcnt in the training of future mathematics
teachers has been stressed by historians of mathematics and by mathemaltcs
educators and has been backcd by the mathematical community. Already in 1904.
the third Jntemational Mathematical Congress, held in Heidelberg, adopted a motion
recommending lhe introduction of a hislorical componcnt (IMC 1904, 51 ):
Considering that the hislory of malhematics nowadays conslilutes a discipline of undcniablc
importance, lhat its benefit-from lhe directly mathematical vicwpoint as wcll. as from thc
pedagogical one-becomes ever more cvident, and that it is, therefore. tnd1spcnsable to
accord it lhe propcr position within public instruction. ~
The Congress wished to see established, on an intemationallevel (ibid., 51):
. .. thal the history of the eX'acl sei coces be 1aught at thc univcrsitics. ~y introducín~ lccturc
courses for the four pans: i. Mathcmatics and Astronomy, 2. Phys1cs and Chcm•stry. 3.
. Natural Sciences, 4. Medicinc.
John Fauvel. Jun van Maanen (cds.), History in marhemarics educorion: tlle ICMI srudy,
Oordrccht: Kluwcr ~000. pp. 91-142
 9_' .J Hisrory ofmar!temarics for rrainee reach(rs
The motion was proposed by expen mathematicians, historians of mathematics and
mathenmics educators. including David Eugene Smith (USA), Paul Tannery
1France\. Anton ,·on BraunmUhl. Emil Lam p•:. Max Simon, Paul St~ckel. and Emst
\\'olffing !Germany). and Gino Loria (ltaly). They.inade reference to earlier similar
motions passed by the lntemational Congress for Comparative Historical Research
\Paris JOQQ) and by the lnternational His1ory Congress (Rome 1903).
Since mathematics students were at this time (and in the following decadcs)
ai!JlOSt exdusively studying for a teachine. licence. lhe effect o f this motion was to
reco.mmend the introduction of mathem~tics history into teacher training. The
mollon even recommendt:d. add it ionally. lhe proposal "to inlroducc the elements of
the h i~tory ~f the exact sciences into the curriculurn of the particular teaching
dtsc t plin~s oi th~ high schools.. 1iNd.. 51 sq. \
.. . The readiness te> agree to such appeals has probably not diminished since that
lime. The probl~m. howev.:r. lies not simply with putting such appeals into practice.
No'' ada~ s. "e can also see a profound shifl in the motivations nnd justifications
ad\anced for such claims and. consequently, decidedly different forms of practice
from those intcnded by the proponcnts of the use o f history at the beginning of lhis
centur: .
The changes that ha\e occurred during the last lwo or three dccades c:m besl be
lilustratcd b~ considering a characteristically traditional posilion as presented by the
Dutch teach:r and historiao of mathematics Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis. The position
he ado.pted 1s htghl~ reveali ng since it was published in an ICMI study directly
precedmg our present one. namely the Dutch contribution of 1962 to an intemational
~~~ 11 stu~~ on the state of teaching mathematics. Contrary to earlier periods,
OtJksterhuts here made a distinction belween two difTerent career orientations· lhe
profession of mathematics teacher and the career of mathematician. . structure of school mathematics courses; no longer is the historical component
As regards the laner. Dijkstcrhuis expressed his conviction that "lhe history of
math~mallcs does not form an esscntial part" o f lhe study of mathematics-at bcst
fo:_m mg. a complcmcnt scrving some historical or cultu ral curiosity. In justirication,
Dtjkstcrhu ts ( 1962. 34) claimed that
rr~~cm-da~ mathematics has 1... ] odoptcd and prescr\'cd ali (from older mathcmatics) that was
':tlual>le and discardcd the rest. There is not the slightest reason for occup)'ing oncself with
this ~st l'nce more.
For lhe other career paliem. that of mathematics ceacher, he proposed a historical
component as an essential core of the study course (ibid., 34 sq.):
An entircl?· diiTerent situat ion prescnts itself for those who are qualif}·ing for the profession of
m~thcmattcs teacher tn a secondary school. Thcir principal task will be to hand on
ma~l'm.atical knowledge to lhe new gcnerntion ond. if possible. to engender love and
admtratton of man·s achievements in this field through lhe centuries. For those studcnts a
kno" kdge _C~ f ~hc histNical e\'olutit'n <>f the scicn~e is an assei \\'hich is not only valuable. but
do"nnght tnd tspensable, and "hkh alone. naturally in combin~tinn with a good command of
rrc~ent·da~ m3thcm~1ic~. "itl m31>lc thcm to pcrrorm their dutics Sôltisr~ctorily. Thcy are
.:onstantl~ co~cemc_<l with phas~s from thc development of mathematics which have long ago
recC'mc J thrng c>l thc r:~.<t ond the~- ha'e to makc those phascs ctcar :md anmccive to
aJ,,te;ecnts "hC' in this "3Y h 3 \ C to !>c tmincd in math~matical thinking.
4.1 Ear/ier views on ltistory in teacher educarion 93
1t is str\king how relatively implicit Dijkstcrhuis's justifteation remains for such a
strong claim. He bases his claim exclusively on t~e value of history in the
mathematics classroom ofthe future teacher, saying nothing aboutthe use ofhistory
as a means of developin~ the teacher's own knowkdge. He refers to thc
motivational function of history in lhe classroom and to the function of mental
discipline and training which could be exerted withO!lt emphasising particular
mathematical subjects (but probably intending classical tmthematicaltopics).
And it is likewise striking how sure he was about tbc eontent structure for the
historical component. In eight pages he set out "what bistorical topics have to bc
eonsidered important for prospective mathematics 1lachers". (ibid., 35; our
emphasis) Greek mathematics is depicted as the "principal subjecl", "a thorough
knowledge" of it is considered as "absolutely indisptnsab!e": it providcs thc
conceptual and methodological guidc!ines. (ibid., 36 sq.). The mathematics teachcr
whom Dijksterhuis has in mind is one for secondary scbools, and presumably for
lheir upper grades, as he himself had been for much oU:is career. Clearly, amon~::
the variety of types of secondary schools, only classically orientated 'gramma·r
schools' (in Germany and the Netherlands Gymnasilm) are considcred: schools
emphasising a historical approach by their entire currirulum and spirit, and thus
supponing sue h an orientation in mathematics teaching.
Contrary to this traditional position from the .!960s, almost ali of its
assumptions--explicit as well as implicit-about lhe aims, functions and
mcthodologies o f a historical component have now chilllged, at least in generaL No
longer is the histor1cal componenl o f only indirect use * the traince teacher's !ater
classroom experiences; no longe r is Greek mathemalics regarded as lhe key field o f
historical knowledge; no longer is there a clear consm.sus about lhe contcnt or
restricted to teachers of secondary schools-teachen Íl primary schools are now
seen to be helped by historical resources as well.
On the other hand, the conscnsus about the usefub:ss of mathematics history
courses which was apparent in the 1904 JCM motion tan no longer be supposed to
be shared by lhe entire mathematical community. Th&,much is already implied in
Dijksterhuis's view lhat history is inessential for 'genCQJ' mathematical studies, anti
remains a widespread view today.
References for §4.1
Dijlcsterhuis, E. J. 1962. 'The Placc ofHistory in lhe Trainin:,ofa Mathematics Teachcr'. in:
L.N.H. Bunl (ed.), The Training ofa Mathemarics Teachtt: in the Nerherlaruis. Rcpon o r
lhe Dutch ICMl Subcommiuee, Groningcn: Wolters, 34-43.
IMC 1904: Verfland/ungen des Drirterr lnrernarionalen Marllt11".ctikV·Kongresses /90-1,
Lcipzig I90S .. -
4.2 lnternatíonal overview
Over lhe last two decades, the numbcr of persons traincd and competem in lhe
history o f mathematics has considerably increased in rrany countries. Some o f these
94 .J History uf mathemaJics for trainee teachers
graduates have entered the teaching profession. The use of history in the
mathematics classroom has become more common and we notice an increase in the
number of c~urscs in the history of mathematics in teacher training institutions.
Ne,·erthel~ss. thcse courses represent largely individual initiatives; the issue is how
such courses may be more widely established and how to ensure a more stable and
otlkial status for a historical component in teacher education.
ln .wh~ fQ.IIO"S. wc describe the currcnt st:l!e o f teaching history of mathematics
to future m:nhemc.tics teachers in a number of coumries which, taken as a whole
"i li rrovide a fairly representati\·e picture. ' The last example in ~his group is providcd by Hong Kong. Due to the l~ng.·
One of lhe characteristic trends is that practising a historical component in
teacher training is no longer restricted to those countries with an extended tradition
~n m~thematics history and a considerable mathematical community. We find a
growmg num\:oer of countries at the 'periphery' where, comparatively recently,
historians of mathcmatics. or mathcmatics educators with a strong interest in
nuthemJtics hi~tory. h~' c achicved an academic position where they are able to
introducc ntu.hcmatics history courses into te:lchcr training afier having qualificd
themsch es b~ ~pecialised research, mainly at one o f the metropolitan centres.One
o?:-;ample of this trend is 1\lorocco. Historical information is present in its
mathematics te:-:tl:-ooks and we even find some simple activitics bascd on this
information.. as Abdellah El-ldrissi remarks. In the past. teachcrs used to avoid these
r:lSsages ~au~e they felt they lacked sufficient knowledgc or were not convinced
oi the 'alur o f sue h an approach. Only comparatively recently do wc find historians
<•f nmhcmatics and imcrcstcd mathematics educators developing lll3thematics
history at the universities and at the ENS (Écoles Normales Supérieures),
re$ponsible for teacher training. Rescarch seminars are used to establish an
inrrastructcrc for communication. and courses in mathematics history are being
offercd. .~l the momcnt. such courses are offered at two of the four ENS. Up to
now. these cour~es ha,·e been entirely optional and without an official or general
status. The principal source material-both for the information given in school
textbooks md for teacher education courses-comes from the prevailing cultural
herit.age. that is !Tom the history of Arab mathematics.
Another ex:~mpk is presented by Br:~zil where in :1 few universities historians of
math~matics haw becCime cstablishcd as univcrsily professors in reccnt years.
hidcntly. there is not yet an official status for mathematics history within teacher
education. but at these universities courses are offered for future teachers. At
se,·eral universities. graduate programmes in the history of mathematics have a
fom1al stat11s. usual!~ in connection with mathcmatics education. The first initiative
in Brazil for generally introducing ma\hematics history was taken by lhe Braúlian
Society of Mathematics. remarkably, which suggestcd history courses as a
componelll of mathematical studies as long. ago as 1979. As a result of national
meetings and seminars. therc is now a considerable community of mathematics
teachers actively concemed with the relation between mathematics education and
mathematics history. This lends suppot1 to the use of a historical componen\ in
teacher training and the introouction o f history into the classroom. This remarkably
stn:mg mo,ement is panicularly inspired by a new \ision of mnthematics history
4.2 lnrernational overview 95
known as ethnomathematics. This has been promoted not only by the Brazilian
se bolar Ubiratan d' Ambrosio and others (e.g. Paulus ·Gerdcs, Marcia Ascher) who
have developed it intemationally as a historically oriented research fie lu, but it i!lso
features in lhe work of the Brazilian mathematician Eduardo Sebastiani Ferreira.
The attractiveness of lhe historical dimension of ethnomathematics resides in its
emphasis on a culture's own historical roots-in the Brazilían case on the
unravelling and apprcciation of mathematical elements of earlier, indígenous
cultures in La.tin-America.
standing and succcssful research and teaching of Man-Keung Siu, a key pcrsón in
the mathematics education community of Hong Kong, most teacher education
courses there includc some elements of history and many teachers are interested in
historical issues, as Chun-lp Fung rcports. There are no official regulations rcquiring
courses in mathematics history for mathcmatics teachers; yct at two of thc
universities in Hong Kong such courses are regularly offcred. The courses at both
universities provide us with the first example of another new trend: the extcnsion o f
the history of mathematics to primary education. ~ile one of the unive rsitics
(Chinese University ofHong Kong) is exclusively concemed with the initialtraining
of primary school teachers, the other one (University o f Hong Kong) has courscs for
primary and secondary school teachers and also includes mathematics history in in·
service training courses. lt is also interesting to note an emphasis on a balanccd
account o f the contributions of different cultures to thc devclopment o f mathcmatics
(thus avoiding a possible tendency towards Sino-centrism). In these courscs thc
time spent on history ranges from a few hours to over forty hours. Course objectives
range from simply opening up the historical dimension for teachers to highlighting
the development o f school mathcmatics, instructional use of historical mattrials or
even, if time pennits, an introduction to the world his~ory o f mathematics.
The next group of examples is from countries where there exists a longer lradition o f
research and teaching in mathematics history but where, for various reasons . .a
historical component is relatively poorly cstablished.
In Italy, a considerable tradition of research in mathematics history has existed
sincc the ninetcenth century, but thc development of mathcmatics as a school
discipline took place in a manner quite different from that in othcr European
countries (cf. Schubring 1996, 377sq.). Here no differentiation between study
courses for mathcmatics teachers and thosc for mathematicians has cmcrgcd:
mathematicians and teachcrs take the same final academic examina}ion, the laurea.
There are courses in mathematics education or in mathematics history at many
universities, although they do not constitute a necessary part of the fourea
examination. Botb kinds of coursc are taught by the holder of a post in
'complementary mathematics' (matematiche complementore), a position whic~ can
be filled by experts from the !ields of either mathematics education, mathematics
history, or mathematical epistemology.
Thcre is another peculiar elemenl in the ltalian system. In addition to the
academic /aurea, thcre is a national examination of mathcmatics teachcrs. This is
 96 .J History of rrrath emotics for trainee teac!rers
on:anised bv the state in a centralised way, and is the same for the whole of ltaly.
Aiihoul!.h tl~e e~am ination confers the abilita: io11e, the qualification needed to be
emplo~~ed as mathematics teacher. the examination takes place rather infTequently
(the last time. al1e r an intervalo f more than six years). According to the programme
fN the~e oral exams. knowledce nbout "the most imponant moments of the history
or mathematics" can tle a ~subjcct for examino.tion-which implies a rathcr
traditional u nderstandi n ~ of this discipline. Teachers qualifying from the university
at ;3 time between '"o n3tional exams can only be employed temporarily. For a
permanent position they have to pass the next nJtiona\ exam. There is now (October
1998) a plan to establish a 'Scuola di ~pccialiu.a1.ione per inscgnanti'. This would
prO\ ide a specialisation for tcachers over two years. for those who have passed the
4aureo exam. and the al:>ilito:ivlle would then be automatically conferred.
In the :"etherla nds. with a shoner resca rch tradi tion but with a specialised
ceniTe for the subject at Lltrccht. history of mathematics is taught at tive of its twelve
uni"ersities as an optional pan o f the study course. not specilically concerned with
the trainine of mathematics teachers. While the universities confer the ' first degree'
to teache;s. i.e. the ability to teach in ali grades of secondary schools, lhe
~~~1echnics confcr thc ·second degree'. qualifying for teaching in the lower
secondary gr;~des. In relation to the lancr qualiric:llion. the teaching o f mathematics
histN~ 3tthe \3rious institutions shows a broad spectrum. Some just have sca11ered
inf,,rmati\'R within the mathcmatics courses while others have formal historical
courses l' an r- \aanen 199:').
In France. research and teaching in mathematics history used to be performed
" ithin the discipline of philosophy. while the m;~thematical depanments, in general,
took no interest in histor;•. Consequently, the history of malhematics was almost
unh·ersally abse nt in the training o f mathematicians and mathematics teachers. The
situ:~tion began to ch:~nge following the establishment of lnstitutes for Research into
M:~thematics EducJtion (IREI\·\) in 1969. whose task it was to provide in·service
training for mathematics tt:tchers. \Vhen. in 1975, the Commission l11ter·IREM
d 'Hisroire er d'Episrémalt>gie des Mathématiques was created. it began to organise
in·service training in the history of mathematics, with the aims of promoting lhe
inttoduction of mathematics history into the classroom and of enriching teachers'
undcrst:mding of mathem~tics. In panicular. this second aim is characterised by
CC'ncems for the eristemological dimension of mnthematics. This perspective,
$ketched in {B:~rl-i11 1()Q~). is quite dominnnt in lhe Freneh approaches to history,
:md can be seen as a renection o f the origino. I official position of the history of
m:nhem:~tics as part of thc discipline of philosophy. The Commission illler-/REM
itself. as well as organising working groups at numerous local IREMs, has published
an enormous number of pertinent papers and books which together constiiute lhe
richest source o f historical material anywhere available (se e § 11.1 0.2).
The restrictiC'n of historical training to a voluntary component of in·service
mathematic$ teacher trnining looked ready to change in 1989 with the establishment
C'f the IUF~I. lnsriwrs l.'ni1·ersitaires de Formation des Maitres, the first time that
higher educatiC'n institutes had been established for teacher training in France.
Prim:~~ school teachers had previously been trained at teacher training écoles
4.1 lntem ational ovcrview 91
normales. Secondary mathematics students can e nter the IUF M after having
obt.ained a lictnce in mathematics (requiring three }!t2TS of university studics).
While the IUFM provide, a professional form of ,tcather training for sccondary
schools, the mathernatics part of lhe courscs is ll:o <~' large dcgree providcd by
professors connected with an IREM. ln particu!il!r. those among them who are
committed to the work of the Commission [llter-IJR&f are active in cnsuring, a
historical component in courscs for futurc mathcmaticstcachers. Somctimcs. thcrc
is opposition fTom colleagues who are against such animovation. AI one IUFM. for
example. an attempt to make the history comptmeut compulsory for secondary
school teachers failed and was retained as only an «>pimal subjcct. At thc prcsent
time, history of mathematics is not idcntified atS J111t of the IUFM's oflicial
curriculum programme. In a reccnt list o f competer.:es,.established by the Ministi!rc
de l 'Educotion, history of mathematics is mentioned z;a topic to be stud ied. but not
to be assessed. Nonetheless, in severa\ of the 29 ÜlsUbtes there are eithcr optional .
courses in history in the second (final) year or the opiarof choosing this subject for
lhe concluding so·called professional thesis, as Élimelilusquer repons.
Following the sening up of the IUFM, a rea::c deve\opment is for some
universities to offer 'pre·professional' modules in cmkirto prepare studcnts bettcr for
teacher training. These modules include some historyámathematics and history o f
science. Another new development is thc introductioaof 'culture générale' modules
into the first years of university studics for scienc::e md mathematics srudents and
these also ol1en contain eilher \ectures or tangJII. courses in the history of
mathematics.
In Germany the situations in the former Germa Democratic Republic and in
the pre· l990 Federal Republic used to be different. il'the Federal Republic (known
as West Germany), which we consider here first, a-declsive break occurred in thc
late 1960s and the 1970s. The cultural values oft!'NJ!Ir50Cial classes which had until
then dominated the aims and visions of the edtnational sector-the so-called
Bildungsbürgertum-lost ground, as a consequenceaf, first the student movement,
and !ater on the process of radical individualisation. lhe key pattem o f lhe former
eslablished set o f cultural values had been historicim. that is referring actual values
to supposed or real historical roots, preferably in tbe 'Christian Occident' o r in
classical Antiquity. From the 1970s these value:s autd no longer be regarded as
socially shared. The effect o f this radical break with fladítion
was that ali elements o f school curriculum content sr.miniscent o f historicism were
removed. In language teaching, the c\assical texts bypo.ets like Goethe and Schiller
were replaced by non·literary texts ('Gebrauchstexre") and even history instruction
itself was in danger o f being replaced by the study of social processes. In lhe samc
wav ali a\lusions to mathematics history which umho b~·present in ma1nematics
texÍbooks-mainly for the upper grades of lhe soâtDy and culturally high stalus
Gymnasium-were eliminated. The Gymnasien themsdves were dismantled in 1972
and replaced by secondary schools no longer empba.i$ing historicism and classical
'values (with the exception of Bavaria). New matheatics textbooks produccd since
thc l970s are practically void of any historical refemces. Only rcccntly has a ncw
 98 -1 lfistor-y of mmhematics for trainee teachers
tcxtbo0k series been published which includes some elemems o f history-this time
no longer rtstricted 10 lhe upper grades or selected schools.
For te:scher education at universities. i.e. for future Gynmasiwn tcachcrs, there
used to be "some rathcr isolatcd and rare historical lectures, while lcacher education
at thc rcdagogic:~l colleg.es for primar;· nnd lower secondnry schools contained no
histor;· at ~l. This situation has gradually changc:d since lhe 1970s. Firstly, as a
consequence of thc student movemcnt. rcncction on mathematics and its social
function-and this included histor;·-became enhanced so that at some universities
history became integrated into the curriculum for lecture courses, as an optional
sub.iect {although this had linle effect in praclice). However, graduates of lhe newly
cxpandcd hisiory of science centres at the universities of Hamburg and Munich
l>ould soon mal;e it possiÇie for other universities to offer courses in the history of
m~th~matics. And. following the inlegration of the pedagogical colleges with the
uni1ersities in mosl ofthe federal slates during the 1980s, it is now also possible for
future prim:uy tcachers to take such courses. Funher details are given in a
fonhcoming anicle by Schubring.
Thc dc1elopmem in Gcrmany is acl hoc and has no official suppon. This is
illu>trated by c\·ents following 1he inle~ration ofthe GDR into the Federal Republic
in 1990. As in other fields. the new federal states immediately adopted the
ret:ubtions of the old Federal Rcpublic. Thc co111pulsory tcaching of ltistory as part
of mathematics educalion was mostly abolished and the centre for lhe history of
se iene e at Leipzig was dismantled. Nowadays, in lhe majority of the new states,
mathematics histor;· does not figure at ali in the curriculum for teacher education. In
t\IO of the new states some minimal history is again prescribed, butthis in volves just
lhree universities.
In general. looking at teacher exarnination rcgulations issucd by tlte federal
states. one can detect a certain progress. In half of the currcnt 16 states,
mathematics histor;· is mentioned either as an optional subject of studies (but noto f
examsl and usually groupcd togethcr with reOection on foundations and logic or, in
four stalcs. as a compulsory subjecl of studies for future secondary school leachers
(but rarely as a subject of examination). Even in thc laner cases, lhere is not much
emphasis on hislory as such-'insight' into the development of malhematics is
expected-and in both cases a bnre minimum of study time is prescribed, seldom
more th:m l\\0 week l ~ hours in a one-scmeslcr course. The two 'westem' states who
prescribe lhese studies are lhose housing the two specialised history of science
cenrres, the small state o f Hamburg and Bavaria, which is lhe only stale to have held
on to a considerable part of the Gynrnasirmr traditions. 1t is also worth mentioning
that in a small number of states. in 13ndcn-WUT1temberg and Brandcnburg for
example. rt:gulations provide an opponunily for future primary school teachers to
study the history o f mathenmics.
\\"hate1·er the regulations. lhe prac1ice is quite different. Whcreas occasional
histor;· courses may be on·ered in ali states. including those not mentioning history
in their regulations. and local curricula for teacher education at a number of
uninrsities include mathematics history. regular courses oulside the Munich and
Hamburg centres. and n011 Bnlin. are rare. Where lecture courscs ~re offered. these
4.2 /nternational overview 99
are iniliatives by enthusiasls, and there is no coordination or common structurc.
Unsurprisingly, no specific teaching material is available for the courses. Finally. it
is wonh noting lhat thc history of mathematics education and of mathcmatics
teaching are both mentioned in the curriculum regulalions of severa! slatcs for
trainee teachcrs. This itself opens up a number of possibilitics, at leas1 potentiall)'.
The four European countries wc have just considercd have a ratncr poor rccord for
the teaching of the history of malhematics, despite lhe strcngths of thcir long-
standing mathematical tradition and a strong malhematical community. Some othcr
European countries, wilh smaller communitics of mathcmaticians or a lt>SS
impressive mathematical lradition, fare rather better in this respec1.
Austria, for instante, unlike its neighbours Germany and 1\aly, includcs thc
history o f mathematics as a recognised component of teacher training for secondary
schools. Although Austria is a federal state, there are common national rcgulations
for the examination of secondary school teachers throughout Austria, as Manfrc:d
Kronfellner reports. Future mathemalics teachers are required to take an oral
examination in eilher philosophical aspects or hislorical aspects of malhcmatics, and
this necessitates prior study. At ali universities, there are regular courses in thc
history of mathemalics to enable studcnts to prepare for the examination. In onc
university, the Vicnna Technical University, the study course in history isto bccomc
compulsory. lt is worth noting lhat there are in Austria 1wo history lextbooks
specifically for mathematics teachers (Kaiser/Nõbauer 1984; Kronfellner 1998).
These textbooks emphasise lhe Problemgeschichte, i.e. the evolution of
mathematical ideas.
In Poland, the leaching of mathematics history is widely practised, ilnd lhis
prac1ice was unaffccted by lhe política! changes in Poland around 1989. Most
universities offer a course in the history of mathematics, as Ewa Lakoma was ablc 10
establish by a questionnaire sent to about one hundre~ persons leaching at thc
various teacher training institulions who are interested in or aclive in thc history of
mathematics. Thcse courses may be eithcr compulsory or optional. Up to now, therc
are no general regulalions conceming lhe curriculum for future teachers. Each
universit}' runs its own programme. The Minislry of Educalion is, howevcr,
preparing regulations to certilicate university prograrnmes for teacher cducation. In
July 1998, only a few universities did not have history of mathematics in thc
curriculum for mathematics teachers. The courses usually comprise 30 to 60 hours
per year and are given as lectures to sludents of thc third, fourth, or fifth year of the
tive year study course, TI1e history of mathematics lccture course often has
supplementary exercises, dcmanding usually 30 hours per year.
'"fhe history of mathematics leclure courses in differcnl universitics have a
rclatively common slructure, namely:
I. The first traces ofconcepts ofnumber and shape in ancienl times
2. Empirical mathematics in ancient Egyptian and Babylonian times
·3. Greek mathematics before and afie r the time of Alexander lhe G rea1
4. Mathematics in the Eas1: China, lndia and Arab countries
S. European mathcmatics in mediaeval times and during the Rcnaissancc:
 IVO .f Hisrory of marhemmics for traiJre< ·rs
6. The development of the calculus and probability in the 17th and 18th centuries
Alg.ebra from the 17th to 19th centuries
S. Set th~o~· in the 19th century
Q, Geomer~· in the 19th centu~·: the development o f non-Euclidean geometries
1t\. Th~ Erlan~,·n rrl'grJmmc and th~ Hil hcrt pr0gr::mune
11. Hilben·s problcms
I:!. The Polish school of mathematics
u". ;-.!Nes on the l:~w of p:~rallelism in the histo~· of mathematics teaching; how to
benefit from historical kno" led!!e in mathematics education.
\\'hil~ the structure here seems to r;tlect the general pattem of certa in m;Jthemntics
histo~ rextbooks. topic I:; shows thc extent to 11hich course content can be related
?o rh e cultur31 h i st(lr~ l.'f (lne·s 0"11 country. E"a Lakoma reports:
T~~ trJJiti,•n ,,f thc 1\•li;h ;.:l,.....•lt>t' mmh.:m3ti<~ i~ 51) ~rrons that rhc hbtory of mathematics.
10 J n~rur1l mJnn~r. i; :r mltl~r ,,f intcrcsr 111 mathcmatician~ 3nd to swd~nt~. In fact.
r:,,l",:;;,•r .\nJrzcj ~ t,,;lc'" >~i. 3 grC31 OlJth~matician. abu );.3\C k<IUfCS on thc hisiOf)' uf
mlthcmltks
T•'I' ic I~ in th.:- lÍ$1 i~ :ti>•' si~nific:\1\t. shoii'ÍII!! the new approach which rnathematics
,•Ju.:.ltN:: tJI..c lt' thc· hish'~ t'f mathcmatics. History can serve as a sourcc of
:~tl,·.:tll'n •'r. ,,tkn in "''' ,:imrlistic :t "ay. as n direct ~uidcline for lhe practice of
:e1.:hin;:
:\> \\Íth p,,tand. th~ meng.th of the cultur:\1 roots of mathcmatics in Portugal
$tem ''' ha' e inspired the establishment of a historical component within
mathem:ttics te:lcher education when a specific diplomn for mathemntics teachcrs
and a related curriculum was set up i!l Portugal in 197:!. The basic components of
this ::tud~ C<.'urse :~r e didactics. methodolo~y. :md psychology of leaming. lnitially,
:t ,,ne semester c<.'urse used to be devoted to mathematics history. but this can now
t-~ t"~nded 10 t''<' ::~mest.:-rs. This course is offered at ali universilies and appears in
Jll p <.'grJmmes fN the training o f teachers for upper secondary schools. For the
t:raining o f teachers for primar;- schools and lower secondary grades (I to 6), a
histot: of m:~thematics course is not generally included: thcre would not be cnough
time. sincc thcse stud~nts also havc to study other disciplines (according to a
C(lmmunicati<.'n by Jaime C:~r..alho e Sih·a. :md Amaro 1995).
Th~ ~tructurc t'f th~ n'urs~ · Th~ histCiry ~1f m:~thcmatics ' at Coimhra U11iversity
$hl' ''s the imronance attached to the cultural history of the nation. inspired by the
a.:ltie,em~ms "f P(lrtu!c!u~se mathematicians in the period of the ·voy:~gcs of
Jisct" ay· in rh,• 15th and 16th centuries. and the conscqucnccs o f the cducational
refom1s of 1772. 1t has four components:
- Hi s tCI~· o f analysis frCim Archimedes to Weicrstr:~ss
- Hi~lory o f geomet~
- Hi$lO~ of numerical analysis
- Histo~ of mathematics in Portugal.
The last of thes~ C(lmponents discusses the following issues:
- \\'h~ !tud~ histl.'~ of mathematics and histo~· o f mathematics education?
4.2 lnrernational oveniew /OI
The university reform of 1772
The Ubro de Algebra ofPedro Nunes {1567)
The Princípios mathematicos of Anastacio da Cunha(l790)
The mathematics education reform of Sebastião e Silva ( 1962-1973 ).
Another course, taught at the Universidade do Minho, at Braga, emphasiscs thc
mathematical contribution of antiquity {Babylonians. Egyptians. Grcck
mathematics) and for modem times just two aspects: Hilbert and thc history of
mathematics in Portugal (Amaro 1993. 456).
The purpose of teaching the history of mathcmaf~s. as statcd by Ponu!:!ucsc
mathematics educators, primarily at thc pedagogical <»>leges and teachcr training
institutes for grades I to 6 ('Escolas Superiores de Educaç!o'). is to enhanc:c the
mathematical understanding of future teachers and fo develop methodolo!;;ical
reflection about teaching practice. For example, at lhe Pedagogical Collc~;c at
Castelo Branco students in their final year of a degree course in mathematics or
science take a course whose declared aims are, among odters:
to construct a basic knowledge about the development o f mathematicalthinkin!,;
with respect to numbcrs, numeral systems, early computing, fractions. antl
geometry;
to foster an understanding of how mathematics is med and why it is nccdcd in
society;
to develop an understanding ofthe nature o f matheaatics;
to develop teaching and leaming skills, based on tbe study of specific aspccts o f
malhernatics history. (ibíd., 457)
In order to participate successfully, the student te achas have to choose a topic from
lhe syllabus o f the 5th or 6th grade and :1re expectcd trt devi se a plan for a lcaming
unit which connects malhematics history and leamíng activities, based on an
exploration o f ava ilable historicalliterature. (ibid., 457 sq.)
National seminars on the history of mathematics take place, the eleventh of
which was in 1999. Thcse seminars promotc cooperalion between secondary school
teachers and university professors. Recently, a numba: o f students have obtained a
m:1stcr of cducation dcgrce in which the history of m~thcmatics was a major
component.
The terrn 'cultural idcntity' could be uscd for thc taJCS of Poland and Portugal in
order to dcscribe the spccific 'rooting' of mathematics within their respcctive
cultures and societies. These ty~s of socially shaml va~es can be described as
arising 'from bclow'. We can also itlcntify examples o f the 'introtluction of cultural
values through the educalional sector 'from above'. In these cases, ideological
judgemcnts are responsible for shaping the content ud structure o f the ~ducation:~l
system, as with certain centraliscd state policies. (hkology' here is not mtcndcd to
carrv an a priori negative character: lhe term. 'idéolcgie' evolved in France around
180Õ as the science of ideas and o f their cmergenceand development.) This is o f
relevance for the institutionalisation o f mathematics ü;tory since. to take recent well
 J History ofml.ltl!emati<:s for trainee teacl!ers
!..n<'" n e;~;ampl cs.
socialist countries used to integral e mathcmatics history into
~(Jr:\ÍSIrhi losophy. \\'.: will discuss the impact of lhis for teacher education for
~me p;micular cases.
Our tim exampl~ is Chin3. Alth<'ul!h China has one of the oldest tradilions in
mathematics. thc subject fell inlo decli;1e alier 1600 and from the middle of the
nincte.:nth. centur;. \\'cstcm mathem:nics bccame dominant. According to the
.lccepted ,'fe" within the People·s Rcpublic of Chin:~. the traditions of Chinese
m:uhematics fcll into. ot-livion and beca me onlv revalued and reassesscd when the
Republic was established in 1949. As Dianzhou. Zhang repons:
L)ncc thc C hinc~~ rcork 1\00 thcir r~ll in.Jq'CIItkncc in 19~9. lhe govcrnmcnl launchcd a
mo,cmcm o(r3triolism. an.J a$l.cd malhcm:llical cducators lo fostcr pupils' paui01ic thoughl
b; mc.ln$ cf incorrl'r.llm!! mc,rc knl'" kúgc oi' C:hincsc history uf rn~lhcmatics. This lcd 10
rc~~lrchcs i nt<'lh~ anci~nt hi~IN~ oi rnlthcmalks bcing conduCicJ. As :1 conscqucnce. whcn
(hmc;,· hi,L<'rtJn~ •'l ma1hcrn:uics "crc in• itcd lo compile ncw tc~ttx111k~. a numbcr of
mlthcmJH,.ll rc~uhs "ac th<n rcnomcti Jlicr. or more corrcctly ~ttributcd to. Chinesc
.lulhNS
As J11 exJmple.Zhan~ mcntions the replacement of Pythagoras lheorem by 'Gou Gu
lhNrem·. Pascal's Trian~le t>y 'Yang Hui Triangle', and Cavalieri's principie by
·lu G~ng. principie'. lt may be noted here thal in recent Arab textbooks Pascal's
nün~k is rdmed ll' 3$ ·Jt>n :O.Iunim's lrian~le'. As regards teacher training, Zhang
rer,'n$ thJI
m nl'rmJI ce>lkgt$ Jnt.l uni• <rmks th~rc is supptlSCd to \lc an optional coursc on the historv of
mathernalics (~~ da$~r0t'll\ hoursl. lltl\\evcr. bccausc ur thc lack or mathcm.1t icat historians
I<' 1cach lhe ~u\l.iect. m3n~ uni' crsitocs are unabk to oiTcr a coursc o f ma1hcmatics his10ry
11hcn th< studcnts dt(l '''do it.
In actuo l fJct. it Jppears thõll research into the history of mathcmalics only rarely
tr3micr5 into te3ching.
In the former So• ie t Llnion. mmhematics history was ci1ed in suppon of the case
fl'r th? 1·alidity of the ~larxist thesis that the developmenl of scientific ideas is
dettmuncd by sociJI condi11ons ~the famous 'externalist position') by Boris Hesscn
in his seminal and ground breaking pape r on thc social roots of Newton 's Principia
gilen to the 19.31 lnlcmalil'nal Congrc$S ofHistOr)' ofScicncc (llcsscn 1931). This
haJ :m imron:un intlucnc.: t'n mathcmatics tcachc r trainins:. For students of
mathematics at thc peda~t,gical institutes. futurc secondary sch~lle<~chers, a course
in the hi~tor:· of m:uhem:Jtics beca me compuhory. The coursc programme, valid for
thc entirt> C(luntry. ''as pn:parcd and supcrvised by a committce comprising lhe
e:xpens in th is tie IJ. h ''ould :~p pear thal the course was well taught at the better of
the red:~gogical institutes. In fact. lhe 1\lllllbcr of spccialised textbooks, many
t~ns latcd int<' olhcr la11guagcs. show that thiscourse \las well establishcd (examples
m the toN•ks put>li;lwd by G. P. Boev in JC)~6: by Rybnikov. 3 editions between
10~0 and IQQJ: t>y G. I. Gleizer. :; editions between 1964 nnd 1983; by I. Ya.
Depman in I()6:' and t>~ B. \". Bolgmkii in I97-l). A panicularly popular book was,
3r.d >till is. a te:-.tl'l1<'k ~~p~ciall~ prepared for the pedagogical institutes: A.
4.2 lnternational overview 103
Youschkevitch et ai. (eds.), Khrestomatiya po isrorii matematiki (Sourcc book on
the history ofmathematic:s), Moscow 1976-77.
In Russia today, lhe siluation is clearly more variable and lhere is no longer a
centrally prescribed programme for teacher training. lnstitutions can dcvisc thcir
own programmes. lt is clear, however, lhat at many pedagogical institutes (now
renamed pedagogical universitics) history courses continue to be a component ofthc
training of mathematic:s teachers and in some instances may even bc compulsory.
(This informalion is kindly provided by Sergei S. Demidov, Moscow.) At thc
Rostov lnstitute, a course on the history o f mathematics teaching at Russian schools
has bcen developed (see Poljakova I 993, 1997).
A revealing case study, descríbed in a forthcoming articlc by Hans Wu[ling. is
provided by the foimcr Gcrman Dcmocratic Rcpublic. Whilc thc history uf
malhematics was a research area and was taught at a modest levei, though without
any particular official support, in the first two decades of the GDR 's existcncc. lhe
govemment rather suddenly, and without being urged to do so by the discipline.
declared in 1969 that the study of mathematics history was to be a rcquircJ
component of teacher training for secondary schools. Analogous decisions wcrc
taken for physics, biology and chemistry. In general, il proves easier to introducc
mathematics history into textbooks than to change the practice of teacher training.
In the case of lhe GDR, however, the reversc was lrue. While hislorians or .
mathematics und publishers of textbooks wcre unhappy with the quality o f thosc
parts o f school mathcmatics inslruction materiais that related to history, the situation
for teacher training was rnuch better. A training programme was establishcd so that
after a certain time almost ali lhe universities and pedagogical collcgcs wcrc
provided with professors or lecturers compclent to give courses in the history of
mathcmatics. Suitable teaching materiais and lextbooks were dcvelopcd, in
particular Hans Wufling's successful and much translated Vorlcsunxen :ur
Geschichte der Mathematik (Lcctures on thc History of Mathematics).
We have seen that there are situations where individual initiativcs have succeedc:d in
introducing a historical component into teacher training and we have raiscd the issue
of whether such individual initiatives might beco me more widely adopted. We have
also seen that thcre are cases of centraliscd, directed programmcs dccidcd by a
minist.ry or state which migh t well include elemems o f the history o f mathcmatics.
h is interesting to note that lhere are some fortunate cases in small countries, with
just onc univcrsity or teachcr training instilution, wherc individual actions becomc.
in effecl, official measures. .
One such case is Latvia, one of the Oahic states, formerly part of thc Sovlet
Union and now an independcnl country, wilh onJy one universiiy, in thc capital
Riga. Daina Tainiina reports that when shc began to lecture at Riga University (now
lhe University o f Latvia) in the late I970s she was able to establish a course in lhe
history of mathemalics which had not previously been offered. Prcsumably,
establishing this course was facilitated by thc lhc n currenl state policy o f support for
history of mathematics in mathemalics education. The course became we ll accepted
anda part ofthe regular study programme for mathemalics teachers. Eventually, in
 f()J ./ History· of mothematics for trainee teachers
I ooo. she "as able to publish a textbook for this history course. being the first
ttxtt><>ol.. in the LaI\ ian lang.uage on the history o f mathematics. The course
CC'mrrises ::5 h<'urs in one semestcr and is taken as one of the last courses a
rr<>specth·t teacher takes beforc tinishing. Former students rated the history course
~s the tini~hing INtch to ali the other mathcmmics courscs thcy hnd studied. In the
ne'' !9oS regulatil'ns tor teacher training in Lat\'ia. the m:uhematics history course
is rrcscrit>cd :~s J st:mdard course or ''''t' hours per wcck in thc last. ninth. semcstcr
"fthin :1 stud~ tield of ·education:ll issues'.
A somewhat :lnalogous success has been achicved in Cyprus. where therc is
,,nl~ one uni1ersit~ in th.: cnpit:~l. Nkosin. Thnnks to thc rncrgctic nctivity of
it11li' iduals. mathl!matics hist<'ry has been introduced into thc training o f future
'trir11l~ schN'I teachm. TI1is training is gi"en ill the Department of Education o f
the l'ni,~rsit~ t'f(~rrus. fhi> comr('nent in C~pms is therefore also nn example of
the IICII tr~nd "' l'ring s,,me mnthematics history imo the training of the primary
schc-(\1 teach~r>. This r:~rticu lar innovation is ali thc more remarkable since these
future teJchers are trained as ·generalists'. required to teach almost ali subjects of
the prima~ schl'(\1 $~ llabus. unlike thcir secondary colleagues who are usually
tr:uneJ t'N te:~ch ing ju5t tln<' or two subjects. A further difficulty for initiatives of
thi> ~''" lie5 in the fact that prima~· studenls. both here in Cyprns nnd in other
,,,ur.trie;. nu~ '"'' r.~ "1!11 pr.:pared in malhematics from their own secondary
sch.;-,,1 studies and ma~ e,·en ha"e dropped the subject. We present in the next
5-WÍt'n {~·U.I.::!) the apprQach being adopted in Cyprus to use history to improve
the amtude of these s1udcnts towards mathcmatics and even to enhance their
m:nh.:matical compct<.'nccs.
This trend to create a historical component for future teachers is also
re~resemed. albeit rather patchily. in Britain. Teacher training institutions are no
IC> nger quite as autc>nomous as the~ were. but a number o f universitics include some
~pects o f the history o f mathematics in courses for future school teachers, either as
laught componems or as study topics. The British Society for lhe History of
~lathematics (85H~I) csrablished an education section in 1990 (HIMED) which
organises annual confercnces and promotes the use of history in mathematics
cducatit,n. Both the f\ lathematical Association and the Association of Teachers o f
~ l:lth(matics rr<'mNc the 11sc o f h isto~· of mathematics in teaching rhrough joumal
anicl(~ and contúen~c actil'ities. Among universitics offering history of
tnJth~matics courses. "hetho:r fM mathematics or mathemntics education students.
the Open Unh ersity, a distance le:lrning university with a large number o f studenls,
is prominent.
Tite presence of more historical components is related to changes in social
conditions. in panicular in the composition of school populations. Many
indu~trialised cQuntries are becoming. ever more ·multi-cultural' bec:luse o f growing
migration from the so-callo:d Third \\'orld. This is particularly the case with former
colonial po11ers. These social changes are clearly reflected by new claims being
mad~ for the teachin~ o f mathematics history in schools, which in tum innucnce the
.:(lnte\1 in "hich histo~ is presentcd to trainee teaéhers.
4.2 lnternational overvíew 105
One argument for including history in mathematics courses is that it helps to
'humanise' mathematics. While this may seem a traditional molivation for the
subject, a new reason being proposed is that it helps to overcome mathematics
anxiety or mathematics avoidance. lt is argued for instance that many girls in
Britain do not continue with mathematics leaming beyond the age o f sixteen because
mathematics is seen as being about things, not people. Probably the strongest
support for including history as a part of mathcmatics is a new claim that history
helps to emphasise the subject's multicultural inherilance and the culturally
dependent nature of the subject. Jt is argued that including lhe history of
mnthcrnatic.~ i~ particulnrly important in a rapidly growi11g multicultural and
pluralistic society, and that in Britain it helps to counter still prevalent eurocentric or
colonialist views. A revealing presentation o f this claim is given as a rationale for a
history course at the University o f Greenwich (Sheath, Troy and Seltman 1996):
Finally, we intend that students be aware of the issues inherent in interpreting the mathematics
of other times and cultures from the viewpoint of ou r own. lt may be argued that decp in lhe
consciousness of the West is the assumption of cultural superiority. thc assumption that
almost all gains in human civilisation. and certainty mathematiu, have originated in WASP
(White Anglo-Saxon Protestant) culture. Such ethnocentricity urgently needs to bc tempered
by knowledge of lhe contribution of atl humanity to prescnt-day mathematics, which is itself
global in character. The hicrarchical view whereby some conlributions are considered
superior to others. as ifthere were some quantitative measure.. has to be tested.
Such challenges to 'WASP' cultural hegemony have ~n fonnulated even more
radically in thc Unileú Statcs. Thcrc have resultcd profound chan~,;cs in the
dcclarcd rationales of the educational system and in the content and structures of
syllabuses, with the intention of replacing the cultunl values and curriculum
representative of exclusively 'dead white males· by consideration· of the
contributions ofwomen, ofminorities and of other culturc:s.
As with ali federal statcs, it is quite difficult to give a fair general dcscription o f
lhe educational scene for the whole USA and, in particu!zr, as to lhe acceptance o f a
historical component for trainee teachers. There is the a:lded complication that US
requirements for teacher certification are defined not ~ by individual Boards of
Education but also by other organisations. Probably t1re most influential of such
organisations is NCATE (National Council for Accrediblion of Teacher Education),
one of the two accrediting bodics in the USA for teader education programmes.
Each individual university or college decides for itself whether to have particular
programmes, such as teacher education, accredited and lb which standard. Having
courses accredited ensures the employability o f the gradmtes.
A survey carried out by Victor Katz. ( 1998) shows thlt \c the majority o f the US
states certification requirements for teache rs at second<ny séhools requirc the study
of a course in the history of mathematics, whether tbis is for mathematics teacher
education programmes or for individuais presenting t~mselves for accreditation.
Traditionally 'neutraI' fonnulations o f competences io,. for example 'foundations
and history ofmathcmatics' (Maine) are thc exception. Thc minimal exprcssion of
mainstream programmes is to require "studies of rfle historical and cultural
 ~ Hisrory of mmhematics for rrainee reachers
signilicance of mathem:llics·· (Pennsylvania). More explicit and typical is the
requirement in Montana that:
iN lhe rrO~CCU\ C ICJChCr. lhe ó)IOgra0\11\C $h ali . .. ÍflCIUiJC C:<pcrÍCIICCS in which thcy
e:'(rle>rc the d~ n;unic nature <>f m~thcmatil:s thrnughout history and its incrcasingly signiricanl
,. ,,k m ' ''(ial. (\lllur:ll ~nu c'"''"''mk dn d••rn...,nl.
The lre~J of mulli-cuhurali$01 is tcllingly êxplicit in the California state
requirements. Slanthrd 1-1 0f th..: Commission (lO Teacher Credcnlialing. Slatcs. of
programmes in leacher education:
Hi;.t(l~ oi \bthcmJIÍ(S t.:ach tm•gramme rcquircs students to havc a foundation of
kn<>"kds:c 'JN>ut thc hi ~tN' ,,( mlthcm~tks. ~nú J historical pcrspcclivc rcgerding rhc
"!Jc, ck•C';cnl <'f mJthemJtlC>.·
The rationJle t'c>r standJrJ 1-l is thnt '"J foundation in the history of mathematics
en:~'-l?s s1udrn1s to g;lin :t rich understanding of lhe origins of malhematical
cone 'Fts··. RCI!\ ie" ers "ho judge whether a progrnmmc meets this slandard are
~,r,.: túito cro~i.kr 1h.: ~:-.t~·,ltlll \\hkh
~1 \ lhe rr(.'!;r:Jmrne r~qu ir.:s studcnts lú undcrs1and the chronological and topical
de' eloçmem o f mathematics.
tii\ Thc pll'-;;rammc rcquircs studcnts to undc rstand the conlributions o f historical
!igure~ including indi,·iduals of various racial. cthnic, gender, and national
~r"urs.
(iii' The prog.ramme requires students to understand the contributions of
mathe!llltics to socicty. :tnd ils impact on socicty.
ti' . The pmgramme provid.:s opponunities for students to be exposed to thc
m:~thewlical disco' eries th:ll h;we affcctcd lhe course of civilisation.
,. The r~ramme hJs t'lher qu:~ lities related lO lhis standard that are brought to
the re,·~" ~rs· anentil'n 1:>~ the institulion.
Thc require~ttnts o f the NC.-\ TE emphasise rnosl explicitly the new trend for muhi-
culturalism a:d the consider:!tion of minoritics. The process of meeting NCATE
~tandards isftirl:- ri gNou~. FN e:<ample. to meet the requirements for accreditation
fN grJdes ~-a: 1ruthem:nics tcJchers. J programme must require s.tude nts to meet a
long list of "NflCQmes· srccified in threc broad areas: malhern:ltics, teaching
rr.-r:~rli Í\'11 "ll:t..i tir:ld- t">:m~d ~ :o;rerienct's. A givcn prog.rammc must state. for each
rJrticul:Jr L\UlWme. how it is mel. whelhn by a specific course or by experiences
"'a ~e' era I ((IUC~cs o r in Nhe r ways. Outcome 1.7 for Grade 7-11 mathematics
IO:JChcrS. for ~31llple. Sl~lCS !h:l i
Prt:-}r.tnnncS.J11tparc: rro5pccti' e tcJchcrs "ho ha\'t a kno" ledge of his1orical dcvelopmcnl in
m3th<mJtics;fur irrdudes thc ccr.t:ibtuions of undwcprcsented g.roups and di verse cultures.
This quNltim is. from the NC·\ TE Curriculum Guidcli nes for malhematics which
''erc rrera~ ~ lhe N:11ion:~l Council of Te:~che rs of Mathernatics nnd are (for
gr ade~- 1e> I! m:nhematics te:lchers) from the 1993 rcvision of thc:se guidelines (p.
.::a\. ldenti,'tl qtl!{ltati<.'ns CCiuld t>e made for Kindergancn to grade 4 teachers (p.
J1-, .1nJ l"c>r~~i- ~ w S 1.:a.:hers H' -C.~\.
4.2 lnternational overview 107
Although primary trainee teachers should also study history of malhematics.
according to NCATE, primary teachers in the USA are not ccnilicd in an academic
field. Mosl o f them havc a vcry mínima I background in mathcmatics so that lhcrc IS
not yet in praclice a drive lowards introducing a historical componcnt for th.cm.
One can conclude that the majority o f prospectivc tcachcrs for sccondary schools
are exposcd to history o f malhcrnalics in some form, and that it is dclivcrcd with a
dominantly multi-culluralist pcrspecti ve.
A further new trend in the justilication for including a historical componcnt in
mathematics teaching is a reflection of changes occurring in the school system. at
least in a numbcr of induslrialised counlries. For whatever reasons, 1here is an
increasing tendency for studenls in secondary schools to show a marked distaste fo r
mathematics. This is related to the deep structural change of lhose schools which
prepare studenls for entrance to the universities. These schools were oncc for a
(relativcly small) minority of students from a social élite. Thcse schools no"
receive studcnts who want to procecd to a univcrsity education from a mLith broadcr
proportion of thc populalion, pcrhaps 30, 40 or cven 50 percent of an age group
instead of a small minority, yet the cuniculum has not been correspondingl~
modilied. The mathematics curriculum, for instance, is regardcd by studcnts as
particularly boring. This social pressurc against mathematics as a main school
disciplineis felt most strongly in Scandinavian countries.
In Denmark, for instance, mathematics hislory is included for its humanising
qualities so that studcnts see better the anractiveness of mathematics. A lirst stcp
was the Ministry's new syllabus o f 1988 for lhe gymnasium (i. e. grades l 0-12).
according 10 which mathcmatics should be taught with due respect to three aspccts:
its history, its inner structure, and its applicability. Eventually, an entircly reviscd
syllabus of 1994 for the folkeskole (i.e., grades 1-1 O) demanded that mathcmatics
history should be included in the teaching of mathematics and lhe imponancc of
mathematics for the development o f the society should be illustrated, thus giving lhe
measure a clear social perspective.
As Torkil Heiede reporls, in Denmark the history of mathematics is no"
therefore in some sense obligatory, and for ali school grades. This was, in·ract, onl~
possible bccause the history of mathematics has a long and unbroken tradition in
malhematics education in Denmark. At Copenhagen University the tradition gocs
back about hundred years (especially to the 1wo experts in Greck geomclry, lhe
mathematician H.G. Zcuthcn and lhe philologist J.L. Hcibcrg). llislory of
mathcmatics was given a new impetus therc in the 1930s, during~lhe rcsidcncc of
Otto Neugebaue r, the expert in Babylonian and Egyptian ma thematics ..
Furthermore, at the four newer universities, particularly in Aarhus, the history OI
mathematics has been developed, with the result that mathemalics leachers in
Danish gymnasiums (ali of whom have a master's degree in mathematics, or perhaps
in physics or chcmistry) havc always had lhe opportunity o f attending a c curse in thc
history o f mathematics as parto f lhe ir training.
The new syllabuses have not only encouraged the production of new
mathematics texlbooks with inlegrated aspecls of malhcmatics history but lhe
 .J History ofmatlrematics for trainee tcachers
h ist~:>rical component in te-acher trnmtng for secondary schools has changed to
t-ecome- an important subject for future teachers. At the universities the number of
srudents :mending undergraduate courses in the history.of mathematics has increased
ce>nsider.~bh. for instance at the University of Copenhagen. lhe mcan audience
used to be 20 students per ycar. but in thc ycar afler the new regulations for the
g.~ mnasium had t-een rut-lished. the number swelled to 40 and in the following ycar
to SO as older students realised that it was necessarv for thcm to take this course if
they ''ereto t-ecomé g~ mnasium teachers. Now th~ numbers have stabilised again
at a lc\"e( of 50 per year. Unfortunately. the larger attendance combined with
de ç-artmental ad.iustments between the under~raduate study subjects has forced a
reducticm in t-oth the size and scope of the course. Also at the teacher training
colleges "hich educare the future f(llkt•skolt! teachers. histol"· of mathematics now
h a; 3 m~:>re ç-rominent r !Jcc than ~\:er before. . emphasises, " mathematics is a universal activily; that is, it is a pan-c!llturul and pcm-
:\s re!;ards in-s~ "" ice trainin11. for teachers at gvmnasiums:lhe number o f courses
in th~ histo0 of mathl'matics ha~ bccn increased-in recent ycars. ln-servicc training
for fo!J.rskoi<' teachers is better structured. wilh courses in the hislory of
mathem:11ics frcquentl~ occurrin!!. usually as port of more general mathematics
'''urSl'S t i ki<'de I OQ6t:-l. - profound changes. Earlicr idealistic views, focusing on a standard canon of
Th( !Jst nc" trend tt:' be rresented here is. from a slructural viewpoinl, highly
'""'" ati' <' . 1t rrimaril~ cc-ncl.'ms courmies which had been formcrly subject to
cc-l,,nialism and "herc their own cultural traJilions had been nol only overlaid by
the colonial p01\e( s own culrure and values but intentionally suppressed. Since
these traditions were oral. they would inevitably become lost through lack o f use.
Thc best example of a new e\•aluation o f these traditions is that of Moxambique,
a fomter Portuguese colony (Gerdes 1998). Here. the unravelling of hidden or
suppmsed ethnic Black Ati-ican traditions in developing and practising geometry
and arithmetic has not only de\"eloped inlo a research programme for malhematics
histo0· and mathematics education (thus eonstiluting a novel approach to
ethnomathematics) but has also become lhe rationale for mathematics teacher
education. This programme o f ethnomathematics. called 'mathematics in history',
futrils the function of permitting the trainee teachers 10 establish an intrinsic
relationship towards mathematics and enables them !ater to 1each mathemalics to
the ir students as a meaning.ful subject rooted in their own cullure. When the
i\lath~mJtics Teacher Education Progrnmme began after independente, "few
students ... actually liked mathematics: many spoke ti-equently about malhemalics as
"the beast with seven heads'. apparently having no utility in society and no roots in
~lozambiqu:m and African cultures."(Gerdes 1998). Mathematical traditions and
practices Clf daily life which have survivcd colonial rule can be incorporated into the
school curriculum. \\'e have already noted the value other countries place on a link
!;etween the mathemalics that is studied and lhe cultural history of the society, but
this \loumbique prog.ramme relies on a much more intrinsic relationship.
Thc ethnom:uhematical rrogramme 'mathematics in history· was inauguratcd at
lhe PedJ~<'g.ical l 1ni\ersity of l\lozambique. training teachers for primary and
4.2 Jnternational overview 109
secondary sdtools and has now built up considerable ex~ricncc. Thc aim of the
programme is (quoted from Gerdes 1998, 41 ):
10 contributc to a broadcr historical, social aml cultural p~rsrcctivc on ano unucJslôlncling ut"
mathematics. The tirsttheme 'Counting and Numeration Systcms'. gh·~s o goou st:trl. bc.:au$.:
the studcnts can bcgio to analyze anti compare thc V1lrious ways of counting ano numcrJtion
they leamed in their li fe. Ancr they have uiscovcrcd the rich varicty atthc nauonallc,·cl. thcy
thcn are brought into contact with systems both from othcr parts of Arrka and thc "nrld. ~nu
from other historical pcriods.
The aims o f this course permeate the entire curriculum but special emphasis is givcn
in a coursc during lhe fourth of the 1en semesters. Mathcmatics in history i~.
moreover, a subjcct of Inter spccialisation, for a thcsis and examination. As Go:rdcs
hwnan aclivity", going on to strcss that the developmenl of mathematics is not
1milinear but multilinear (ibid., 47).
In concluding this section, we can sum up by saying that the scope. fu nction and
vision of mathematics history in teacher training programmes are undeq,:oing
Weslem. panicularly Greek, mathcmatics are largcly fading away, as is the vicw that
it is only suitable for students ofthe upper grades of secondary schools for thc social
élite. Evcrywhere in the educational system, there is evidence of systemic changcs,
even crises, and the introduction of mathematics history responds in differcnt ways
to these crises and changes. In many industrialised countries, we lind a widesprcad
aversion of students to mathematics or, at least, an avoidance of it. Here,
mathematics history is seen as a way of combating this distaste for mathematics by
presenting mathematics as a living, 'human' subject. This might also apply to social
subgroups, minorities or populations hitherto excluded from higher leaming.
~hile in many o f the European States, with eminent traditions in mathematics.
new visions on the role o f mathematics history within tbe: teaching o f mathematics
I
have not yel widely emerged, we find that countries on the periphery, as it wcre,
l have been more successful in this respect. By broadenin& the cultural perspeclives,
I in particular in lhe centres of former colonial powers or in countries where racism
I has been rife, mathematics history has achieved a novel and important function in
helping to create a multicultural vision.
I
I
l
Refercnces for §4.2
Amaro, G. 1995. 'Thc use ofmathcmatics history and cpistemology in mathcmatics edueation
ofteachcrs'. Proceedfngs I. UEE Monrpellfu 1993, 453-459'
13arbin, E. 1995. 'L'histoiredes mathématiques dans la formalilll'l d~s cnscignants de
mathérnatiques cn f rance'. 491-492 · ·
Gcrdes. Paulus 1998. 'On culturc and mathcmatics tcachcr cducation'. Journa/ af
mathematics 1eocher education, I. 33-53
Heiede. Torkil 1996b. 'History of mathcmatics and thc lcachcr', in: R. Calingcr (cú.). Vito
math~matíca. Washington DC: M.A.A., 231-243
Katz, Victor 1998. 'History requircments for secondary m~the!llatics ccrtilicalion·. rcport.
Maancn, J. van 1995. 'The placc ofthc history ofrnathcmnticsil tcachcr traini ng. Thc
situation in the Ncthcrlands". Proceedings I. IJEE Monrpcl&r f99J. 495-496
 1/(l .J Jlislvt)' vf mwhematics for trainee teachers
PC'I.Jakt-'a. T. S. 19Q} ·rrogramma kursJ ro i~torii otcchcstvcnnogo skol'nogo (...),v 1992-
19'13 ~g. · . .it.;l('nt<lllkcl , . .<Lo/c•_ 3. n-J.l
l',•lpl ,"J.. T S. I'N7 IJt<lrl<l •>r.·('l,,·ln·,·mm}!oskolnogo matematic!tcskogo obrmovanja.
Rl';lO\
Schul:orin~. (;c" 1996. '(h;mging cultural aml cpi~tcmologica l vicws on malhcmatics and
dill-.:rcnt in~nuti,,n:tl c''"'"'~ m l'lth wuu~ Europc'. in: C. Gohlstdn. J. Grny, J. Rittcr
(cJ> .\. ~.'&re''t< ''~<;lta'm,rrtqll<'- my1lr.-s. lrrst(lln'J. J.lt•nwJs. nrmheml!licnleurope- mytl:s.
;.,51C':' ~Jmw:'·· l':tti~ l:t.lit10n:< Jc ta~ tai"'"' dcs Scicnccs de I'Hommc. 36 t-388
$chut-nng. Gcn 1 I'C"I'1hcC'mmg 1 • \ IJ!hcm;JHk·l ics~hiduc in !\lathcmalik-Untcrrichl und
Aust-aldun~ .J~r \ lathcmau~-l.chrc r in der allcn tlundc5rcpublik'. in: l'rocudings ofthe
co~·i·•e~a 1\on:r.:wuw Forglm•:~: :11r f:lllll l<'Lirmc ,/ts .1/mh~motiLtmrurichrs und der
.lf,lll:.-m.:ul;.[),.;::tr:~ ,, J.-r JJRO ,,;,.J ,f.-r OIJR /9-1.~ ris /990'. Bielefeld/Ohrbeck 1996
Shcath. G .- Tro~. \\' lnd ~dtman. \ I 19~6. · rh~ hisiOI"\ of math~matics in inilia1 teachcr
"> trainin~;'. P<cYú'.i:nr:s :nd l 'l:'E Hr,tl!•l /996. ii. t36- 143
\\ ullms.1lln5tf,'nh.:l'~\lll~l ' \l.nhcn;Jtik!,!CS~hidH~ ai; lk~lant.ll~it ucr Malhcnmiklehrer-
lU>'t-iiJ un~m Jc r ch~mJl tf~l\ O()R'. in: p,.,..,.,.,;,,)IS o/rhe conj'rrrnce ·J.:omporativt
f,-._,,;,;,·:~ ::.• f'•::" r:( .:,•:_c .I.-.< 1/,uil,·m,IIILwtl<'rrrdlls mui .J,.,..
llcuh,·lltrlftl;. /)idaktrk 111
~1\l' ,,.,.,; .:.-• /'1.'!1 ;vJ_i l-1s !991/',lliddclt.l Ohr!>C(k 1996
•:·.-·
-t.3 Examplcs of current practicc
\\c on ,:umm.ui~.: th~ ~r.,unds t(lr inclmling. a hislorical component in the training
,,f teJdl~r~. :as thC$C ru'l'''S~s haw bcen dcn:loped over the last dccadcs, as setting
~'UI 10 Jchi~t f~1ur main functÍOllS:
I . lening !lt!~chers know of the past of mathematics (the direct teaching of the
histC'ry~f m:u hcm:llics):
enhancia~ t~:!chers' understanding of the mathematics they are going to teach
lmetht>.lfolcgiCJI Jnd epistcmological function);
' equippn~ tcachers with the methods and techniques of incorporating historical
materi<Is in their teaching (use ofhistory in the classroom);
·L enhanc1l!g teachers' understanding of the evolution of their profession and of
the curricul3 (history of mathematics teaching).
The follo~ti:lg. e:-:amples of practice in a number of countries show how these
functicns :me cum·ntly achieHd in teacher cduc:~tion.
·U.l Cmr-rcnt prnctice in initínl tcacher training
-1.3.1.1 IIilng Kon g: On finding a plac.-e for hlstory in primary malhemalics
lr.lchcr education
Chun-lp Foog
s~nin ~ l'~"tb cs is troubl<'somc ('I) r brid ' ltistory courscs o f some 15 hours
dur:ui~'"- L'llfCirtun:ut'ly. this was wh:tt I have been confronted wi1h during the past
.•.•hn Flu,d. J.m \,In :-.lJJncn (eJ>.l. Hilton· u: llullht'lnaucs educorio11: the /CU/ study,
D,,rJrr.:l\1' Kiu"rr :\ltl!l. rr. llll-1 U . certain familiarity with Western history, one or both of which was abscnt for··
4.3. /.1 Hong Kong: history in primary teacher education 111
seven years when teaching history o f mathcmatics to both pre-scrvicc and in-scrvice
tcachers, who have not more than a high school graduate levei in mathcm:~tics and
who are supposed to teach until Grade 9. Thc main strugglc is to tcsolve two
possibly conflicting aims: whether you want students to acquire a roug.h picturc of
what has happened in mathemalics in the past, or whether you want s1udcn1s to bc
able to capture and organise historical material for instructional use. ls it bcHt!r 10
develop a historical viewpoinl during the study of historical materiais or a
pedagogical one?
During the past seven years of experimentation, I have had fi rst-hand cxpcricncc
of the struggle between these aims. In an anempt to enhance students' h istorie~!
knowledge, a brief overview of the world history of mathematics was )>ivcn.
important historical events being highlightcd. To provide summative assessmcnt. an
open-book written examination was set (this was for a group o f serving teachcrs and
also a group of pre-service teachers). Examples ofthe questions are:
I. Right-angled triangles were studied in the Elemems, lhe Zhou Bi Suan Jing, and
the Jiu Zhang Suan Shu .
a) Give evidence from each.
b) Comment on the difference oftheir achievemcnts.
2. Euclid's Elemen/s were famous for rigour and deductive reasoning. In l3ook I.
for example, propositions were built on definitions, poslulates and common
notions.
a) Give an example to illustrate the above desc;ription.
b) Can you see any exception? Please commenl.
3. Some people say that the idea of limit existed at the time ofEudid. Discuss this
issue with referente to Proposition 1, Book IOo f the Elements, which rcads:
Two unequal magnitudes being sel out, if from lhe greatcr there be subtracted a magnituuc
grcater than its half, and from that which is lcfi a magnitude greater thilll its half. and il' this
process be repcated continually, therc will be lei\ some magnitude which will bc lcss than th~
lesser magnitude set out.
This approach concentrated on building up students' historical knowledge, at the
expense of the pedagogical dimension. lt was nol particularly successful, even on
the levei of lhe acquisition of factual knowledge. There are severa! possible
explanations. Firstly, the students' mathemalical knowledge was sketchy to begin
with. This exerted great pressure on their reading o f mathemalical .texts, 'which are
generally not written for readers of their mathematical background. Secondly, not
having enough time to adjust to a more historícal approach, students often had a high
anxiety levei. Thirdly, the fact that sludents oflen lack general historical awareness
for cullures.
An altemative approach was tried, which requircs sludenlS lo locate and organise
historical materiais for teaching purposc. Owing to lhe unavailabi lily o f original
sources, students are only able to consult secondary sources. For mosl o f lhe time,
students preferred to read books containing short popular accounts. Traditional
history o f mathcmatics lcxts wcrc shunncú. This may bc duc lo thc fnct that most
history of mathemalics texts presupposc a ccrtain knowledge o f mathematics and ~ •
 j j-
.J llmnn· ·~lmatlrl'mlllics fnr lr.ainee reachers
..
Ftgllrc J I Thc CJ,,,..... ''<'lll<lÍt><h'r thmn•nr ti·om .'i(.';\' li .'i(.:..IN .IIJWi
t.\f,:sr.-r Sw: '! ,\/,1/i~o·m.,,.,.,,f .1/aruutll, c Jr/; f<'llflll)'. For 1/ong l\or1g
!/lt,:·,.,:t ;,-_:\,·::,·r.t ::::.< fl7'l' '~'-~•':tr~·,· rr·t'~t·nrs d~~1indrh•.t
studt'nls. :\ pr~•l,km '' hich this kd to ,,·as lhe accuracy o f quotcd hisloricnl facts.
Since SlUdcnts made me !\fsourccs \\'hich rocused more on arousing intcrestlhan on
:~ccurac'. thc historic:~Je,·enls and information at>out chnractcrs gi~en in these texls
might ~e based on unconlirmc.>d or even t:rroneous information.- Without a criticai
training... sludenrs ~'ften nmddle facts with rumours. since the malhematics story
bC'C'I-:: <'n 11hich thr:- :'\' h.:a1 il:o re lied do notnormally distinguish fact trom hearsay.
.·\t th~ end M'th;: -=~•ur$~·. I ""S assigncd thc difli c.: uh task of ~valuating lhe project,
~1::in:: J>>c~>m~nl ..:rit~·ri:t ~~ hich c:~llcd for eralu:uing th~ student's work nccording to
,;, th.: .1.:cur:~.:~ ~'t hi~h'ric:~l m:lll!ri:tls used. :~nd tii) lhe <.'Xtent to which the
~urrkufum muctur~· ,·nhan.:cd math,·matks l~arn ing. AppJrcntl~. critt'rion (i) is
' t
4.3. 1.1 Hong Kong: history in primary teacher education 113
essential to ensure lhat the student's work has something to do with his1ory.
However, it is practically impossiblc for me, as a non-historian. to chcck lhe
accurncy of material case by case. Thc difficulty which lhis illustratcs is that an
instructor who is a pedagogue may be reluctant lO play the role of a historian,
whether or nota lack of qualification is taken into actount.
My experiente secms to suggest that a tompromise between the two intendcd
aims is necessary. This tould be done by moving away from the idea o f a history
tourse, and developing in its place a mathematics course having some historical
tonnections. To th is end. techn ical mathematics would be the prime objcct of study.
Examples from history are selected and presented in modem languagc. Choiccs.
both of mathematics and of history, are made according to relevante for sch·~oi
mathematics and to technical comp\exity. Teaching develops via lhe instructor's
explaining a segment of mathematics. with the students rcading assigncd historical
materiais, and linally students presenting their instructional designs as to how to
incorporate the segment into school teaching. This mode was lried oul and mct with
relatively smaller resistance.
4.3. 1.2 A prc-scrvicc programme for prim:iry teachers implementcd in
Greec:e and Cyprus
George Philippou and Constantinos Christou
In this section we present a primary pre-service programme based on his1ory of
mathematics, developed in two universities during the last nine years. The
programme proved to be eiTective in terms of changing students' altitudes toward
mathematics.
Enrering characterislics In Greece and Cyprus, the programme of study lor
primary teachers caters for the ' generalist teacher', tbat is, for a person capable o f
teaching ali subjects in the primary school curriculum. A typical such programme
consists of a broad set of arcas (science, literature, psychology, sociology, leaming
theories, rescarch methodology etc.) including one or two compulsory mathematics
courses and one methodology course. These courses are intendcd to enhance the
students' mathematical understanding and their ability lo transforrn mathcmatical
knowledge into didactical situations.
Mathemaficalteachcr preparation Prc-scrvice programmcs proviúc for growlh
in content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. The forrner is the
amount ofknowtedge 'per se' and its organisation in the mind ofthe teacher, and the
latter includes useful forms of rcpresentation ideat, analogies.. illustrations.
examples, explanations, etc. That is, what makes a top1c easy ar d1fficuh for the
leamer (Grouws nnd Schultz 1996). . .
The question o f what mathematical content is most appropnate fo: th~ pnmary
teacher is intriguing. Traditionally, it was taken for granted that the pnmary teachcr
John Fauvel. Jan van Maanen (eds.), fiistory in matlr~~natics education: 1/re /CI/1 study.
Dordrecht: K1uwer 2000, pp. 113-117
 .J HistO')' vf mathemorics for trainee teachers
needs to be better \'ersed in general pedagogy rather than in mathematics as a
discipline. Recemly. ho\\ever. the emphasis is rather on the mathematical world
'ie" than on lhe content. Prospective teachers necd mathematical experiences that
challenge old 31ld fos ter new dispositions. leading to self·confidence. developing the
ablity lo apply mathematical methods :md symbolism. viewing m:nhematics as a
stud~ e>f roncms :md rel:nionships. :md opening a perspeclive on the nature of
m:nhem:lttc:,s through historie ai :!nd cultural approaches. The potential o f history o f
mathematics to enhance mathematical understanding, to motivate the learner to
make necess~· conneclions. and 10 realise lhe continuity ofhuman culture has been
repeatedly admcated by those experienced in the field.
4.3. 1.2.1 · Teacher-s' belicfs and 1eacher cducation
"t'o"' 'i\1 kno-.ledp.· and pedagog.ical contem knowledge is translated in to practice
th ~> ~h lhe fihc:r ,~r ~'nc ·~ philosorhy o f malhematic$ and its lcaming (Swafford
Ifl . rhus. lr:m tl<>m l..m"' ltdge ;md ab11i1ies. prospcctivc teachers are expected
1< " dop pMiti\e :mitudes and belief~ rdated to the task. Teacher education
~li• ,.J enal:-1~ trainec teachers to transform and enhance their beliefs in relation to
c'·· l'C'nl :u:tions. Sue h change is cxpcc1ed to improve teachcr classroom
h · '' '"ur. tbough we c~nnot assume lhat changes in belicfs will necessarily be
;r ·"led inllfchlng:es in practice.
' ids :rzd Jttitudes ilre mental statts orgõ!Oised around an object or situation
tr ,,, • i expail"nceo. predisrosing one 10 respond in a favourable or unfavourable
., Bdici. are rropositions that ilre accepted as true by the individual; they
.: • íute Ih! indi\'iduars subjective knowledge about self and the environment,
'·.li or men taL Richardson ( 1995) idcntifies beliefs as the leacher's own
1
1 • ies. whidl are sets of imenelated conceptual frameworks tidily connected witb
a • "O" they :ue a kind o f kno,dedge·in·action. Beliefs are thought to drive action,
b1• <'xr ertesxe and rctlrction on action may lead to modificd bclicfs i.c., 1hcre is an
m.- .tÍ\e rcocess ~I\\Cen the l\\0 \<Uiables. Altitudes include motivation, interest,
conli•í.• nce. (ferse\ crance. willingll(Ss to take risks, tolerance, and resistance to
pre~ aiure c11'5Ure tRcynolds 199.::!).
-1..3.1.2.2 tlle te:ncher prcparation program
:\ pre-ser\'ice primal0· te:~rha mathematical programme can rely on ano ver ali grasp
of the natu:e and signific~nce of thc subject. an 'advanced literacy' in lhe
fJndamental tonceptts and mcthods ~nd a competente in mathematical thinking. A
guided jourmy thnough thc history of malhematics would enable students to
construct rrudlemaltical meaning.s and support their new conceptions about
mathematics h! ch:nnging thcir beliefs and altitudes lowards mathematics and its
teaching. Tht speci:fic programme cor.sidered here was based on selected works and
rar.Jdigms &em tbe.: 'history of nmhtmatics. exploring lhe cultuml environment of
the genesis ofthese '"'orks and ideas. How mathematical thinking evolved, seen by
following the solutiion of some major problems that intrigued and inspired the
l~ad in g math:."!'l1atica:il minds from the classicill Greek world untíl modem times, was
c'r ected to fulctiorn as a strong moth·ation and :tid. Coming to know some of lhe
4.3.1.2 Greece ond Cyprus: a preservice programme Jl5
successes, and understanding some of lhe failures, of well-known mathematicians
would o!Ter students an insight concerning the nature and the significance of
mathematics. Handso()n experience togelher with thc incentive to follow the stcps o f
major characters was assumed to free students o f some misconceplions. fears. and
negative attitudc:s.
The joumey started wíth 'pre-Hellenic mathematics'. proceeded to Greek
\ mathematics, passed through lslamie and Hindu contributions, elements of the
mathematics of lhe mediaeval and the Enlightenment pcriod, and culminatcd with
six rather lengthy units, selected from contemporary mathemalics {for a list o f topics
see Philippou & Christou 1998b).
AI thc Univcrsity o f the Aegean, Rhodes {UA), lhe programmc compriscd onc
content course and one method course, while at the University o f Cypru~ ( UC) 1l
comprised two content courses and one method course. In both cases the courses
wcrc structurcd so as to facilitatc activc lcarninr.. 1l1c lhrcc crcdits w~rc divi~h:J
intq two hours lecturing anda one and a half-hour activities session. The studcnts
were led to construct their own meanings and draw conclusions by working on tasks
and examples from lhe history o f mathematics.
4.3. 1.2.3 The programme evaluation
After being run for four years (1988-1992) a\ thc UA, the pror.ramllJ.e was assesscd
in terrns o f its effectiveness in improving sludents• anitudes toward mathcmatics. A
questionnaire was administered concurrently to students at entry (E I) and the cnd o f
the programme (E2) (Philippou 1993). For comparison purposes, the same sct or
\ questions was administered to comparable samples in two other rural Grcck
Departmenls of Education. At the UC a longitudinal assessment process was
adopted (1992-1995); namely, the same set of queslions was administered beforc lhe
commencement of the programme (Ph 1), after the first course (Ph2) and at thc cnd
of thc three courses o f the programmc (Ph3) (Philippou & Chrislou 1998a).
The questionnaire consisted of three complementary scales. The Dutton scale
comprised 18 statements ranging from highly ncgative anitudes toward
mathematics, e.g., ' I detesl mathematics and avoid using it at ali times', to the most
favourable e.g., 'mathematics thrills me, it's my favourite subject'. The liking·
disliking scales comprised ten items each requesting the subjects to choosc the
reasons of liking or disliking the subjcct, and lhe self-rating scalc was 0!0 eleven
point linear scale on which the subjects were expected to locate their feelings with
respect to mathematics. .
SeveraI statistical tests were applicd. AI the UA we used the Hest for each 11em
on lhe Dunon scale and lhe liking-disliking scales to lest for diffcreiices between E I
and E2, whereas for UC lhe / ·tcst was used for Ph 1, Ph2 and Ph3. Thc points o f
the self-rating scale were grouped into four categories: highly negalive, negauve.
neutra!, positive and high1y positive attitudes. The Median Po1ishing Analysis was
also applied on the responses of the threc phases at UC. To this end, the Dunon
scale was partitioned into three parts reflecting feelings of satisfaction. u1nitl)'. and
appreciation of lhe usefulness of mnthematics. In addition, ten semi-mucturcd
 l/6 .f History of mathemotics for trainee teachers
interviews were carried out, to elicit the views of those interviewed and their
feelings with regard to the programme.
...3.1.2A , Results and discussion
The analysis revealed an alarmingly high proponion of students bringing along
e.xtremely negative anitudes. For instance. 26% and 24% ofthe studcnts in UA and
UC respectively endorsed the statement "I detest mathematics and avoid using it at
ali times". Similar proportions endorsed the statements "I have never liked
mathematics". ''I have alwavs been afraid of mathematics" and " I do not feel sure o f
myself in mathematics". The same pattem o f responses also appeared in the sei f-
rating scale. in which 36.9% and 33.5% o f the subjects located themselves in the
~range 1-5. Students liked .mathematics mainly because ''it develops mental abilities"
(5S~ó... 7~ã) and "it is practical and useful" (48%. 39%). while they disliked
mathematics primarily because o f "lack o f understanding" (31 %. 24%) and beca use
of''lack ofte3cher enthusi:~sm" (32%. 25%).
Changes in altitudes were observed in both universities. but it was greater in the
case ofUC. In the UA. the t-test indicated significant differences at the 0.01 levei in
six items. indicating improvement of anitudes, while ~o such difference was
obser..-ed in the control group. In the UC, the x2-test revealed signiftcant differences
in anitude on 14 out of 18 statements of the Dutton scale. For instance, the
proronion of students who 'detest m:uhematics' dropped from (26%, 24%) to (16%,
~~~ô) and ofthose who ·never liked mathematics' from (36%, 28%) to (32%, 18%)
in UA and in UC. respectively. Conversely, the proportion of those who 'enjoy
working and thinking about mathematics outsidc school' went up from 18%, 20% to
~7~ó. 40% in UA nnd in UC, respectively. The proportion of subjects who detest
mathematics also dropped. according to responses on the self-rating scale from
(IH~ó. I ·U~ó) to (5.9%. J .l%).
The 1\tedian Polishing Analysis showed a positive change throughout the three
phases in ali threc sub-seales. The overall effect was found to be low (34%, 21%,
and .ll~ó. for the three scales. respectively), indicating a rather low levei of
endorsement of the ideas portrayed by the items. Anitude change, ho"· ·-:r, was
shown by Row EITects to be remarkable in ali three sub-scales. That is,
- in the satisfaction scale. a positive change: -14.5% _. 3.5% _. 3.5%;
in the nnxiety scale. 3 steady negntive change: 3% _.O%_. -3%; and
in the uscfulness scale. a stendy improvement:- 4.5% __. 7.5% __. 9.5%.
In brief, the programmc was found to be elfective in improving prospective
teachers' anitudes. lt produced anitude change as evidenced by different
instrumenls in a variety of situalions. According to students' evaluations, their
introduction to history of mathematics played a major role in this development,
though some re13ted \'3Tiables, such as instructors· enthusiasm, h;n c not been ruled
out.
4.3.1.2 Greece and Cyprr~s: a preservice progranmre 117
Refcrences for §4.3-1.2
Grouws. D.A.. K. A. Schult7. 199ft. 'M~thcmatics !encher ctlucation ·. in: J. SiculatE<.I.).
Handbook ofresearclr on teoch~r education, London: l'rcnticc H ali. 442-4$8
Philippou. George N. 1994. 'Misconccptions. attitudes and teacher prcparation·. in:
Proceedings of tlle Tllird lnternationol &minar on Misconcrprlons and úlucarionnl
Strategies in Scitnce and Matlrematics. hhaca NY: Corncll Univcrsity.
Philippou, George N.. Christou, Constantinos 1998a. 'lhe effccts ofa preparatory
malhcmatics programmc in changing prospcctive tcachers' alliludcs towarcJ mathcmati.:s·.
Educotional studies in motfrenratics, 35. I &9-206
Philippou, George N.. Christou. Constantinos 1998b. 'Ueliefs.tcacher cducation anti histury .
ofmalhcmatics'. Proceedings of PME 11 (Confcrencc ofthc lnterMtional Group for thc
Psychology ofMathematics Education. 4. 1-9
Reynolds. /\. 1992. 'What is a compctcnt bcginning tcachcr? Areview ofthe literaturc',
Review of educotional research, 62 (1),1-35
Richardson. V. 1996. 'The role of altitudes and belicfs in learning to teach', in: J. Sicula (Ed.).
Handbook of restareh on teochtr edrrcotion, London: Prcntice Hall. 102-119
Swafford, J.O. 1995. 'Teacherprcparation·. in: L M. Cart (F.d.), Prospectsforsc/rool
matlrematics, Reston V/\: NCTM, 157- 174
4.3.1.3 UK: A new úimension in ctlucating mathemat1cs teachers
David Lingard
4.3.1.3.1 Context
Routes to Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) at both primary and secondary leveis have.
undergone considerable change in recent years. At secondary levei these could now
include a 2-year or 3-year BSc Honours undergraduate course (in Mathematics and
Education), ora 2-year or 1-year postgraduate (PGCE) course. /\t primary levei, the
routes could include a 3-year ·BA Honours undergraduate course, or a 1-year
postgraduate (PGCE) course.
As part of the inevitable accompanying curriculum review, these changes have
seen the introduction o f some forrn o f history of mathematics unit in to the majority
of these courses at a number of universities offering these QTS routes. The only
students who rniss out are usually those on the 1-year PGCE courses for whom,
sadly, the prcssures on time are alrcady cnormous. Some of these postgraduatcs may
however have followed a history unit as part of thcir undergr:~duate mathematics
degree course.
!r. -
4.3.1.3.2 Rationale
The Mathematics Education Centre at Sheffield Hallam University is perhaps typical
of the institutions which havc embraccd the history of mathematics as an integral
John Fauvel, Jan van Maanc11 (eds.), History in mathematics educotion: the IC.\fl study.
Dordrecht: Kluwcr 2000, pp. 11 7-122
 ·, ...:.
118 ./ History ofmathematics for trainee teachers 4.3.1.3 UK: A new dimension in educating mathemarics teachers 119

componenl of QTS courses for both primary and secondary student teachers. We lectures. Classes are taught in groups o f up to 25 students, and lhe taught sessions
believe that some knowledge and undcrstanding of and immersion in lhe history of will include a mixture of direct teaching (exposilion), small group work, paired
malhematics is an importam ingredient in the education of mathematics teachers work, individualtasks and plenary discussion. More specifically 1hese includc:
because it hclps them lo: (i) Problcm solving, e.g. the
I. make more sense o f ma1hema1ics. Egyptian method for finding
., hum:m~sc lhe subjcct in the school classroom. the volume of a truncated
) . emphas.ise th~: continuous and continuing. de\"elopment o f mathematics, and pyramid (cf. The Moscow
·t appreci:uc the multi-cultural inheritance and cuhurally dependent nature of Papyrus, problem 14 ).
mathematics. (i i) Reading and research.
To this. George Sanon 1\0uld h3.\'e added: "The study of the history of mathematics (iii) Debate (see for examplc ·Thc
( ... ) "ill enrich their minds. mdlow their hcans and bring out their finer qualities." Sheffield balloon deba te'.
{Sanon 193b). ''ith ''hich 1\C \\Ould concur. Hicks 1997, and figure 4.2)
(iv) Field trips (to support work on
.u.u.J Content Newton, for examplc. stutlcnts
In theory. tbtsc his10ry units form a 35-hour or 70-hour 1aught course. for primary might spend a day visiting his
and sccondary slUdents respecti,·ely. In prac1ice. about one third of that time is birthplace, Woolsthorpc
handed <'Yer to the ~tudents for indi,·idual enquiry and research, and to group and Manor, the King's School in
indl\ iduaJ ,r~orials ti) support and guide this. Grantham where hc was a
Th.- 10pics fcr rbe taught sessions are designcd to : 11\
pupil, and the Grantham
a) gh·c stu:!ents an "'·er\'iew o f the history of mathematics, t-'\iC. .2. • museum),
b) focus upt~n .a number of key events. discoveries. developments and publications 1HE GR.€1\.,- H lS'f"oR'f (v) Individual 'work in progress'
(e.g. ~ Rhind Papyrus. Greck geometry and proof, the quest for a valuc; for n, presentations, in ordcr th::~t
anal~1ical !leometry and the calculus, the his1ory of algebra, Chinese :BALt..uur.J DE:Sn,-E. . peers may benefit from thc
mJthermtics and thc Nine chapters. etc.). research and study undenakcn
c) examine in mor~: dctail thc lifc and work of onc or two significant Fig11re 4.2: Thc Shclficld Balloon Debate for asscsscd assi~nmcnts.
mJthem:llicians texamples so far have included: Pythagoras, Archimcdes. AI· (Studenl posrer reproduud in thc BSHM (vi) The use of television, vídeo and
Khwari1l'Tii. Newton. Germain. Euler, Kovalevsky and Ramanujan), Newsletter lf35. Autumn 1997) audio programmes (sce e.g..
d) considtr some rclatcd thcmcs (c.g. the contribution of womcn, thc effcct of §4.3.1.3 .5 bclow),
religious patronage and persccution, the tran~lation of tcxts, collaboration and (vii) Group exercises, including for example the production of a wall poster to
plagiaritm). illustrate the development of mathematics over a particular period o f time,
e) look a! some of the 'unsolved' problems that have fascinated many (viii) Quizzes designed to promote rescarch (and enjoyment !}.
m:nhematicians O\'er the years and which have been responsible for the
developl!Jent of new mathematics (e.g. the 1hree problems of antiquity, the
Goldbam conjwure. the Riemann hypothcsis, the four-colour map, Hilben's
1 4.3.1.3.5 A typical session
To illustrate the above in more detail, there follows a summary of a recen t 3-hour
problerns, and Fermat's lastthcorem), and throughout taught session on the BSc Secondary course (Year I, 17 students):
f) sei the hi5tory o f mathcmatics in to the wider context o f world history.
The sclect~ of topics. themcs and mathematicians etc. may vary from course to Topic: the contribution of women to the history ofmathernalics.
course and fnom year to year. Choiccs are dictated panly by student interest, Preparation : Students were given a booklet of key readings (extracts from Mozans
percei\'ed rrlati\'e impoliance (historically and/or mathematically) and, inevitably, 1913, Burton 1986, Osen 1974 and Downes 1997) one week before lhe session and
lhe pcrson:!l interest. expericnce and knowlcdge o f the tutors! asked to study thcse. ·
a) Groups of 3 or 4, each group given n large envelope containing over 50 '.cl.ues'
~.3.1.3A Teaching and learning styles (pieces of evidence) relating to four famous contemporary mathcmauc tans.
Object: to sort the evidencc and identify Lhe four. The adjacent resources cen:rc
The teac~ and leamin~ st~ les adopted by the tutors are o f particular importance. was available for Jimiled research (lhe mathcmaticians were Gauss, Germato.
These art illtwded 10 reflect and role modcl good classroom practice. There are no Lagrange and Poisson).
 ;::o .f Hislory· of ma1hemarics for lrainee reachers
b) Listen to audio cassene •\Vho is Sophie Germain ?' (Casseue M006/B, Ma1hs
~liscellany. Open Unh·ersity. 199-1). Students also follow the dialogue with a
tape transcript.
c) Pl~n:1~~ discussion. including how and when this mighl be used in lhe school
classroom. with "hich pupils :md with wh:11 addilional accompanying
I with boih.
resources :~cth ities.
d) Closer examination o f the correspondc:nce between Germain and Gauss (referred
\ Hui, Eratosthenes, Heron of Alexandria, and George 30d Mary Boole; cultural
~ to on the tape) about her proof conceming ihe primes for which 2 is a residue or
non-residue. Exploration o f this. mathematically. in pairs.
el Mo,·e lo adjacent PC lab. Use of Excel (spreadsheets) to extend this work.
Discussion about use of this in schools and lnformation and Communica!ion
'? Technol<'g~ tlCT) issucs.
f) E-.;rt'siliCin t-~ the tutt'r :tt>out prejudicinl allitudcs towards women in
mathem:nics and in histe>ry. lllustrnted with examples from the 19th century in
England. and by other ·case studies'. including Hypatia. Somerville and
Ko,·ale,·sky.
g\ Listen to extracts from BBC radio programme 'Real women: Sophie Germain'
(BBC Radil' -1. broadcast on 6 March. 199S) to compare and contrast to b)
:li:-~'' e.
h' Summl~ :md rkn:~~ discussion.
h h~; t~ken ;e1 erll ~ ears tt' de\ ek'P a range o f shnil:lrly inter-active sessions, and it
is a constant t:>ut n<'netheless enjc>y:~ble challenge to structure new ones.
-U. I.~.6 Assessmcnt
In ~ome rcspccts it has proved to be problematic to find the best mode of
assessment. \\'hat we have settled for at present is a combination of a written,
criticai accc>unt (at least ~000 words) of some aspect of the history o f mathematics.
and a ~resentation of this work to thcir peers. Students are free to propose and
negotiate a topic with the tutors. no two being able to pursue the same topic at any
one time. In their account studcnts are encouraged to raise and try to answer
qucstic>ns such as: why did this happen then? what were the catalysts for change?
11 hat were the immediatc and longer term effects o f this devclopment/discovery?
11 ho rlagiarised wi\om':l ll'hose l'crsion o f events do we believe. and why? etc.
Acct'unts must be drawn from a wide range of sources, be well illustrated and
prt'fessionally rroduccd.
The peer group prcsentations may last 10 minutes and should be informative,
interesring. lively and inrcr-active (à la classroom !). They are usually done at the
end <'f the unit. are givcn in historical order and ol\en provide on enjoyablc summary
o f the course. The current weightings are 60% for the account, 40 % for the
presentation.
The 11 rittcn accounts h:11e. perhaps surprisingly. proved popular with students.
~ lany enj(ly the freedom o f choice. the individual enquiry nnd research and the
opportunity 10 ·publish' . Some h:n•e great difficulty in constraining their accounts
to less than 5000 words. some reach 8000! The marking load for tutors is very
hca1 ~. Thc presentations are also time consuming. usuolly occupying a whole day.
4.J. 1.3 UK: A new dimension in educaling marhematícs /eaclrers 111
We have tried a timed. written, 'open book' examination, and also a \'i\'f!·\·n~·~t with a
mixture of prepared and ad hoc questions, but tutors .alld studenrs wcre dissatisficd
To give a fiavour of the work undertakcn. in addjtion to the more obvious (but
no less valuable) choices, recent assígnments have also ÍI\(Juded the livcs and wotk
of individual mathematicíans: Thomas Harriot, Simon Sttvin, Albrecht DUrcr. Liu
surveys such as mathematics in China, Vedic mathematics, and mathemalics and
Islam; and particular topics such as the museum o f Alexandria, the development of
perspective,logic in the 19th century, the history oftopology, the Lucasian chair at
Cambridge, and the solution of equations.
4.3 .1.3.7 Resou rces
The students rely heavily upon books and joumal arúdes and frequently need to
make use of inter-library loan facilities. Student> are given a detailed booklist,
currently listing over 250 popular titles available in tbt library, to get them started.
It is lnteresting to note that about SO% o f these have br:en published in the last _15 .
years. The proliferation of websites on the internet for lhe history of mathemallcs
\ (well summarised and annotated by Barrow-Green li91; and see §I 0.3.2) form an
i increasingly used source of material, especially for 1!11ose with access at home, but
John Fauvel's timely and cautionary article (Fauvel· t99:5-) is prescribed reading for
I
ali students at the outset!
The Open University history of mathematics ~ broadcasts, their Maths
Miscellany audio tapes, a variety of relativel:f rttcnt television and radio
programmes and even occasional coverage in th~ rt5t'onsible press ali provide
l
further material. So too do artic\es in thc professiorr.zl }ltlmals, such as Mathematics
in school, Mathematics teaching and the BSHM Nev.."ll'-íu.
We try to encourage studcnts to make their o~nl field trips, especially where
these may be local for the students. So far t~ - bave included Cambrídge
University and the Whipple Museum, the British M'..ussm and the Science Museum
in London, George Green's mil! in Nottingham, ancf LiEoln and Doncaster (Boole).
4.3.1.3.8 Feedback and evaluation
We were initially taken aback by the ovcrwhelmin~positive feedback from the
majority of students and this is documented in Lilrgmd 1997. Colleagues in oth_er
institutions in England would seem to confirm the <l'lpJXII'ent enjoyment o f such un1ts
in QTS courses. Some of thcsc clearly relate to a d!!Sn to numanise and civilise ~hc
school curriculum, and they impinge upon the relbtílloship berween mathemaucs,
gender and 'ways of k.nowing' which in turn requiim a re~cànceptualisation of th~
nature o f the discipline, as argucd in Povcy er ai 19~99. .
In the longer terrn, what is perhaps even more: m:ouraging and relevant ts thc
,growing evidence, locally and elsewherc, that onCJe is post, many student tcachcrs
are using what they have gained from the course irõl!l!i:ir classrooms. A~on~st thc
most recent examples are: classroom murais on th'l>eilistory o f mathemaucs '" onc
school, a Millcnnium project on the mathematic:-s .r lhe las! thousand ycars m
 4 HisiOr)l ofmathenratics for trai11eé teachers 4.3.1.4 Mozambique: history for secondary schoolteacherl 123

anolher. ar.d a one week study project for lhe whole of year 7 (li year olds) on lhe the history of multiplícation: explanations o f diffcrent methods o f multiplication;
life and wc ~k of four famous mathematicians. Sadly, there are as yet insufficient the method o f (\hmes in thc Rhind Papyrus, called the ·A frican mulliplication
good class:oom materiais lo suppon lhe work of these school teachers. This is method'; where does the method taught in schools in Mozambiquc come rrom? .
whcre. in E.~tand at least. lhe next thrust is needed. counting and numeration systems: classification according to basis and position:
Rdrrcnc.rs for §·U.t.J survcy ofthc numeration systems round in the studcnts' own mo1her 1ongucs and
o f popular counting methods (for results sce Gerdes 1993 & l994b); lhe binnry
B:liTCI\I'·GF:l. June 1998. 'I t i~wry ufmalh~mntics: r~sourc~s on thc world widc web'. system, caleulators and African duplication systems.
.\farhe,....e::.::s in srl1ool. 27: 4. 16-.22
Bunon. Leonc 1986. Girls 11110 mmhs <'"''~o: \\'Omen in mathemalits ;. J,er story. London: number systcms; the history of natural numbers, negative numbcrs and
ll oh. Rín,hm & \\'inston Ltu associated historical issues, rational and irrational numbcrs (Pylh:IJ;Orcan
Downes. Sk\::-n 1997. ·womcn m~thcm~ticians : malc mathem:uics: a llislory of philosophy), imaginary numbers.
contradiction'?' . .\fathrmarirs in sr:ilool. 26. 3 (Ma\'). 26 - 21 history o f algebraic equations: different methods (algebraic and geometrical) for
Fau,cl. John I 995. ·t listory o r math~malics on lhe w~b •. BriJisll soci~tyfor rlle history of solving algebraic equations (Egyptian, Greek, Maghreb, Babylonian).
"'' mcJtlc,·~r.c~::s 11r u si,·ua 30. 59 - 62
Hicks. Lu~ e: :~.!. 199~. 'Thc Shctlield b3lloon debate·. Bririslr society for rh~ llisrory of numerical analysis: iterative methods for solving equations (from Babylonian.
mcJtl•~m.:r:,·s ,.,.,~for .-r 35. ~I - ~3 Egyptian, Hcllcnistic, and Arab mcthods untilthe theory of Galois).
Lmp rd. [b, id 1997. ·Th~ rok of the hislory of mathcm3tics in lhe teaching and leaming of history of gcometry: gcomctry
m3thcll\3li::s': ~ppx 3: cxlracts from studen l tcacher evaluation reports on lhe history of in African cultures; history of
mathcm::uics units at Sheffield Haltam Univcrsity. 1994- 1997, repor/ written for tire geomctrical mcthods: thc
IC'.\11 :siu,::_, ·!\.{(lzans. II.J. 1913. H'omtm in sci~nce, Ncw York/London: D. Applclon & Co. contributions of Euclid.
t)scn. L~'M ~1 . 197~. Wc>me~r "' mothtmarics. Combridge Mass.: MIT Press Archimedes, Descartes and
PC'' c~. I!i~·: Elliou. Sue&. Linge.rd. Oa,,id 1999. 'How mathematics is madc and who
others.
m.JJ;cs it: ~ consideration ofthe role ofthe Sludy ofmathematics in developing an inclusive
mJthC'lt\JitcJ.l ~pistemolog~ ·. Papcr prcscntcd 10 thc: Gender and Educai íon confcrcnce. history of the calculus: thc
\\'an,ick l ' niHrsity. :O.Iarch 1999 contributions of Lcibniz and
SattCin. Gc<>rf: 1936. Thr suu(1· of rhc hurory ofmorh~matics. Cambridgc: Harvard University Newton; roots ofthe calculus in
Prcss Northem Africa, lndia and
Europe.
We imagine that most of our
·U. U 1\loz.ambique: 1\lathematics in history for secondary schoollrainee activities are similar to those used
teacherl
in other countries, but there are ,
Abdulcarimo Ismael some aspects to be stressed which
are 'innovations'. We ask studenls
Thc: programme component 'Mathcmatics in History' was introduced in 1990 as a to think about cultural aspects of
compulsory course in ali mathcmatics teachers 'licenciatura' programmes at the their own lives which can bc:
Uni\'ersidade Pedagógica in Mozambique. This initiative found its inspiration in the directly or indirectly related to
ethnomalhcm:nical research, c:spetially as it relates to didactics, which has laken mathematics and probably also to
p l :~cc since thc end of 1970s and which became organiscd in 1988 as the its history. We require students to
' Ethnornathematics in Mozambique' research project. take an aclive role in the process of
In lhe teaching o f '1\lathcmatics in History', three aspects are strcssed: leaming about t,he history of
lhe origin of some mathematicillfgcometrical idcas; the roots of mathematics in
\ mathematics, through collecting data
Figure 4.3: A /eopard wilh flve cubs: a
African and Mozambiquan cultures; and the history of mathematics in Arrica and in charac/eristic example of a LUSONA. the and by renecting on their own
the othcr pms ofthe \IOrld. The main topics ofthe course are: art of sand drawing as exercised by the counting processes (e.g. aspccts of
Tchokwe in Angola. Suclt SONA serve to counting and spokcn numeration
ll'hn rau,d. Ja.1 ' an to. blntn (cds.). 1/isrorr In matllematics education: tlle /CA/1 srudy, rtconsrruct traditiona/ geometrical systems), by looking for oral sources
DNJrcchl Klu" rr ~ 000. rP t ~2 · 1 2~ lcnowlcdgc and are used in tcacher (interviewing old people and
tducation in Mozambiqut anti in tire illiterate people), analysing the data
classroom as we/1. From Gerdes 1991.
rourtesy o{ tl1e outhor.
 -1 NistO!)' of nrathcmatics for lroinu tcachers
they ~ave g~thered . interpreting the results and formulaling their own hypotheses.
In ?~tng th1~ we nre osking them to take an aclive part in historiography and in
n:vtvmg htst~ry. Gerdes (1990. 1995) P.resents many examples of
ethnom:ll~em~ttc:ll 3Spccts which can serve as resources for doing history of
mathemattcs tn the classroom. His articles (1993. 1994a, 1994b) were used in the
teaching of lhe mathem:~tics in history course with UP-students. The articles in
Gerdes 1993 and 199-lb include works and anicle by others at the UP (Marcos
Cherinda. Jan Draisma. Abdulcarimo Ismael. Abilio Mapapa, Daniel Soares).
At the end of each ·mathematics in history' course, we have carried out an
anon~·mous evaluation. The results have shown that the . students were usually
surpnsed b~ what they had done; there was a high levei of interest in the course, the
\~dents themsehes ~ver: very_ motivated and convinced about the usefulncss of
tstor: of m3themattcs tn thetr future profession. lhe students also feet very
confident about thc potential that Africa has to oiTer and its contribution to the
de\·elopm~nt o f mathem:ltics. Sometimes the students even go so far as to make
exaggerauons such as: ·ali mathematics comes from Africa'.
Referentes for §4.3.1 A
Gcrdc~ Paulus I~· Etlmngtometri~. A.'ulturanthropologisclre Beitrage :ur Genest und
Dr<l•l~lll J,·r G,·.,m~trie. llilllcshdm: Frantbecker Vcrlag.
Gerdcs. raulus 199 1. Ll'SONA. Gcometrical Rccreations of Africa [Récriatlorrs
G.'cmbriquts J'Afriqur). Maputo
Gcrdcs. Paulus ~ cà.) _1993 ..~ Sumuaçdo en Moçambiqut {Numeration in Mo:ambiqueJ,
~l:lruto: Unl\crstdade Pedagógica
Gcrdcs. Plulus 199~a. ..f[ri<'on PyrlragorM: a Studt• in Culture and Alatlremalícs Educarion
Maputo: Uni\'crsidade Pedagógica • •
Gerdes. Paulus (cd.) t994b. &plorations in Ethnomatlrematicsond Ethnoscience in
.\fo:ambiquc. Maputo: Universidade Pedagógica
Gerdes. Pa~lus 1995. Erlrnomathemmics and Education in A/rica, Stockholm: (nstilute of
lntcm:lllonal Educntion. Univcrsity ofStockholm
Gcrd~s. Paulus 1999. Gtomttryfrom Africa: mathematicaf and educationa/ experlences,
\\ ashmgton: Mathematical Assodation of America
·t3.1.5 Morocco: History or mothematics uscd in teacher training: an
uample
Abdetlah El ldrissi
W~ o!Ter here a_n e~a.mple o f using history of malhematics with secondary leacher
tramees. The mtentlon was to use history for the purposes of epistemological
John Fauvcl. Jan •·an Maancn (tds.). History in mathematics tducotion: the fCMI study,
Oordrc:cht: KIU\\c:r 2000. pp. IH-127
4.3. J.5 Morocco: lrístory ofmarhematics in teocher trainíng 125
analysis. The aim was for students to analyse mathematical reasoning and to
become acquainted with the major stages of the evolution or cena in conccpts artcr
having traced their development (Eildrissi I 99S).
The topic used in thís example is trigonometry and, in particular. the
fundamental concepts of angle and the basic trigonometric ratios. The course, for
about ten studcnts, was planned to last for about twenty hours. The ~:.:uiding
principies for the course were as follows.
4.3.1.5.1 Guiding principies
a) l he course should bc activity based with a minimum ofteacher 'narration' .
b) lhe topics and sessions should be based around specific problems and sources.
c) Ali work should be based on original texts. Original texts, even if 1hcy are
difficult to use, provide for a better understanding and avoid imposing erroneous
interprctations.
d) In using history it is important to distinctinguish between hard facts and inter·
pretations, and also to foltow the tools, concepts and conventions o f the period.
Preferab\y one avoids early recourse to modem symbolism and interpretations.
e) In teacher training historica\ analysis should be compltmented by some teaching
activities. lhis will help encourage the interest o f lhe studcnts by providint;
material they witl be abte to use in thcir classrooms.
4.3.1.5.2 Course dcscription
lrigonometry has a history o f more than fou r thousand yars and a choice has to bc
made ofsubject matter and time period. four periods wercchosen.
a The Egyptian period: The Rhind Papyrus (c. 1500 BC)
This document is one o f the rare mathematical documenh we possess as evidcncc or
Egyptian mathematics. Rending and intcrpreting the document is rclatively reccnt.
lhe Rhínd Papyrus consists o f mathematica\ problems ~ether with their solutions,
both o f which provi de use fui study material. The problrms we chose concemed the
'seqt', a concept close to our idea o f cotangent and whidt was used to determine the
angle ofslope of sides ofpyramids. (Gillings 1972; Neugebauer 1969; Smith 1958)
b Ancient Greece: Ptolemy's A/magest (c. 150)
The Almagest is the oldest work that informs us o f Gteek ideas on trigonometry,
earlier works having been lost. Two chapters o f this work on astronomy are givcn
o ver to trigonometry and, in particular, to the construclion of a table of chords. We .
were interested in the underlying mathematical reasoni~as well as the construction ..'
ofthe table. (Neugebauer 1969; Smith 1958; Halma 18ll) ~- .
c The Hindu period: the Suryasiddhanta (c. 500)
Hindu trigonometry as prescnted in the Suryasidtllanta difTers from Greek
'lrigonometry in that a table o f sines is constructed usi11 the radius of the circle as
lhe base. The other diiTerence is the complete absence of symbols, ali results being
given in words. (Burgess I S5S; Smith 1958)
 4 Hisrory of mathematics for trainee teachers
d The Arab prriod: AI-Tusi's Traité du Quadri/atere (c. 1250)
~~.\:--A \:!..11..:.......: '~' -:i.-)) j.~t -r.':-~;· .J...,i '""''J ~ Jl AI-Tusi's work marks a
.; n - .:..J .s.f"'l 4,1,-JI !.- J J• .;.-, ~ <!il ,:..:.JJ decisive slage in lhe
\ devclopment of trigonometry
in which Oreek and Hindu
. -~ influences ore apparent. A
variety of methods for the
solution of triangles is given.
I~J 1 ;(\ 0 :-:].,JI.._\o.,~ c;=-1 11\c,~Jt ~, '11,;.r,l,.'l.~l:: .)' \:r, ,; 1 The methods depcnd on
:::;:=-; ;j ::;~~ .... ~LÃ..'i .~ ;t ,:..~ !.,,.;.....,,t,.,....;J ~ .. "&".:J1 difTerent units of angle which
Figure -1:4: Jl-Tus1's quadrilatrral (/ram lht /891 are in fact incompatible.
~ tdctton} Resolving these differences is
a challenge for the students
and provides opportunities for
fruitful resol~ o f conflicting viewpoints (AI-Tusi 1891 ).
FottowmgEl:'ae principies given abovc, pertincnt extracts were setected from each
source :1nd a \-itics b:~sed on the text were given to the students. Some activities
went beyollil ~t'he strict historical context in order to deal further with lhe
m:uhemJtic:s~ilhe te:~ching of mathcmatics. (A fuller discussion of original sources
and their u~"'illl be found in Ch. 9).
~.3.1.5..3 I.11aluation
The results wff the teaching programme were analysed qualitatively. Seven
statements Vó!:tee presented to the students. Each of the panicipants was asked to
agree or di~e::t and to giYe reasons. lt should be noted that the statemenls did not
make explicltr:a::fcrence to the history o f the subject. Two examples:
I. Tang(di.s <Jimply rhe ratio of sine to cosine. For p11pils to understand tangents
a/J thazit> mecessary is fo r tirem lo rmderstand sine and cosine. following which
weo can'bi!?.'S!Ire rher will rmdersrand tangem.
2. Far mt tr::[gonometrical ratios (sine, cosine, tangenl, .. .) seem the same as
measurirg,mngles. That is why I would plan my reaching of trigonometry as a
w~· e>fllt!lllsuring a.rrgl~s. or at l~nst as a way of clescribing angles.
fhl" C\lUr~c ws;. n·atu~lrJ usi ng scmi·structurcd intcrvicws. lhe mai n purpose was
to get thc SUikmts to c:-.;rlain and juslify their onswers. The cvaluation led to three
impClrtlnt a~rohusit,ns.
Fir.tr. hlt.orry of m:nhcmatics helped the studenis to analyse mathematical
concepts arA. to>a cenain extent, to choosc suitable teaching strategies. Second, the
students bllC!nct awarc of difficulties that may ~rise if hislory is uscd to tcach some
mathcmativsol'l· to clarify conccpts. Third, there are cases where the history of
mathematiacm convey concepts. inappropriate for teaching mathematics.
Rtferenccs!ir ·~·U.l.S
-\I·Tu~i N;ún.l!!50' 1891. Trairé riu Quadrilarirt.ll. P. A. Caratnéodory Const~ntinople
Our~(S~. E.R.~S~1:8. ·Sur: '*iúJhJma: a te:\t·book of liindu astronomy. annotatcd translation',
.lt>urruT ~" ...lmcm·an C)mmal Socirn·. S:ts1 Dicgo. ó.
4.3.1.S Morocco: history ofmathematics in teacher lraining 127.
- ••• J.
'.';.. , :
Elldrissi, AbdeUah, 1998. L 'histoire des mathématiquts dons lo formar íon des enwgnantr:
éi~Jdt: explorota/re portan/ sur I 'histoirt de la lrigonomelrie, Ph O thesis, UQA Montréal
Gilling.s, R.J. 1972. Marhemalics in the time ofthe Plwroolu, Cambrid&e. Mass.: Mil' Pre.ss
Halma, M. 1813. Composirion mothématíque: L 'Aimagtste, Paris: Henri Grand Libraire
Neugebaucr, O. 1969. The exoct :rcltnces in ontiquiry, 2nd ed. Ncw York: Oover
Smith, D.E. 1958. History o[ MathemaJics. 2, rcprinl Ncw Yorlc Dover
4.3.1.6 Francc: A historical module for secondary scbool trainees
Étiane Cousquer
In tbe mathematics depanment ofthe IUFM du Nord Pas-de-Calais, we have had a
great deal of experience in teaching the history of mathemalics (IUFM stands for
Institui Uníversitaire de Formation des Mairres). This takes place within the IUFM
for initial teacher training, and mainly within lhe IREM for in-service tcacher
training. Our practice has changed and evolved over time.
lnilially, a lwcnty-hour course in history of mathematics was compulsory, and
had to be taken in either the first or lhe second year. This proved to be
unsatisfactory in either year. In lhe firsl year, students wished to devote all their
time to prepare for an examination which does not require the history of
mathematics, and in the second year, the teaching practice stage and the wri ting up
ofthe thesis take up most ofthe energy ofthe studenls who, in any case, tend to feel
that the training at the IUFM is too diversified. Consequently, lhe malhematics
depanmenl deeided to make the history cour;e optional and to link it to the needs o f
those students who are preparing for lhe ir practice stage.
Nowadays, a course is delivered in parallel to the seminars preparing for the
professional thesis. The course deals with tbe bistory o f a number o f topics, sucb as
algebraic equations, proof, numbers, measuring and vector calculus (see Cousquer
1998). Students can draw on these topics either for the preparation o f their practicc
stage in schools or for the thesis. This lums out to be more satisfactory, since the
students find lhe history of mathematics course directly relevant to their necds.
Rather fewer than half group take the cour;e but, on the whole, these flfty-odd
porticipants find il intercsting. Sludcnts ~ain dcepcr undcrstandin~ throu~h workin~;
on their thesis, which is enhanced by the work in schools teaching and by having
followed the history course. The course ai the JUFM providcs a rich experience, and
the participatiog trainee tcachcrs wish it to continue since such courscs providc
meaning for the topics they had to teach during their practice stage: introduction to
algebra, initialion to proofs, presentation of differenl kinds of numbers, vc:ctor
methods in gcomctry. Linking thc history course to tbe immediate conccrns of thc
practice srage makes the course more valuable.
Reference for §4.3.1.6
Çousquer, Éliane 1998. Lofabuleuse histoíre des nCimbres, Paris: Éditions Didcrot
John F'auvcl, Jan van Maanen (eds.), Hisrory in mathematics education: the ICMI study,
Dordrecht: Kluwer 2000, p. 127
 , , __ .I"'' •• ,,.. ,,,<; u::.Uf..lltrS
4.3. J. 7 Germany: professionalisation and the hiStDI)' af educalian 129

constitutive part of lhe institutional history o f school in lhe respective ~ountries-:it ..

-1.3.1. 7 Gumany: A course component on lhe history o f mathematics is subjected to social pressures on .contents and methods of teach1ng, an~ tiS .
tducatlon and lhe proressionalisation or mathematics teaching epistemology is affected by the soetal nonns and values generally shared m . a,
I
Gert Sc~ubring country at a given time. .. · '
In the study component
The poin1 of departure for this component is lhe ambiguous position o f mathematics
instruclion :md of ma1hema1ics teachers in a large number of technologically
I
I
developed, the major
national focus was gi ven by
developed countries. \Vhile mathematics officially enjoys the status of a major I Prussia, the first German
I
ieaching subject and is generally assigned lhe highest importance for developing I
I
state to be profoundly
science and rechnology and hence for social welfare, it is ai the same time held to be i modemised at the beginning
accessil-le to only a- small percentage of 'gified' students. Hence, mat.hema~ics I o( lhe nineteenth century.
teachers are accustomed to be faced in prnctke with a disparagement of the1r subJect The results o f the study were
.,. by the genernl public: and by parents. The consequences of this disparagement are fascinating and cntirc:ly
either an 3cceptance thal they can achic\'e only limited success with their teaching 1 dífferent from the traditional
or. on the other hand. a confirmation over nnd again o f the impression of failure in
mathematics experienced by lhe great majority. Their training does not prepare ·I type of rather dull listings o f
administrational decisions
mathemarics teachers to cope with the fragile social status of mathematics II about school syllabuscs. Thc
tmergence of the profcssion
instructi rn. Nor are th~y prcpared for entering into a discourse legitimating Lhe role I
o f mJihematics instruction within l!eneral education when confronted with harassing of mathematics teacher in
que~tit'n$ t>y parents ahoul the va~e of mathematics instruction. This nmbiguity is Prussia was shown to bc a
e:--perienced by mathematics teachers even in their daily professionallife. tirect expression of thc
The 1hinking behind this component is therefore to prepare future mathematics modemising policy of the
teachers. during their university studies, for problems of their future profession Prussian state af\er 1809: a
arising from the sl?ecific social and cultural resonan~es ofthe subject they teach. fonnerly marginal subject
As educational structures are o result of long-term processes, the component was became a major teaching
developed as a historical one: introducing the teachcr students to lhe history of subject and an integral and
mathemJtics educa1ion and in panicular to the history of their profession as teachers cunstitutive component of
o f mathematics. The nolions of profcssion and professionalisation are different from systematic educational
those used in pedagogy and in history of pedagogy. These notions are not restricted ceforms. An example may
here to refer lo the social aspect o f teacher li fe, they rather embrace lhe content o f &e seen in figure 4.5, which
teachin!! since a dominam clement of mathematics teochers' professional identity is shows an exrract from a
their O\~n intrinsic relation to their subject. their 'love of mathematics'. Historical tnathematics curriculum for
studics on the emergence and further development of the profession of mathematics die gymnasium, proposed to
teachers :md on ils fleld o f professional activity in mathernatics instruction nrc, thus, lhe Prussian ministry in
highly apl to contribute 10 instilling mela-knowledge about lheir subject into future 181 O. The extract shows the
reachers. Such studies will make them aware lhal lhe history of mathematics novel and ambitious calculus
education and o f their own profession is not an isolated or infernal one, but rather a syllabus for the last class (six
social and cultural history which relates school mathematics to the overall history of hours per week for three
lhe respecth·e counlrics. In fact. school knowledge is even less neutra! than years), which included
scienlific knowledae: historv o f mathematics education must therefore be thought of Tayr&•s · theorem as well as
as a part of thc s~cial hist~ry of knowledge. School malhematics develops as a mechanics. Never entirely
realised but an ideal
guideline, such a document
lohn Fau,~l. Jan \'an Maanen (tds.l. History· in math~matics education: the ICMl study, nelps us analyse the
Dordrechl: Klu'' er 2(1()(), pp. 128-131 Figure 4.5: Geheimes Staatsarchiv Preussischer
historical conditions for
Kulturbesitr Berlin, Rep. 76 ali (wisseruchajil.
Deputatlon). Nr. 18.fol. 6.Jvi6Jr
 /30 -1 llisrory of mathematics for trainee teachcrs
implementing curricular change.
In a conscious endcavour. mathematics teacher education was institui·
ionaliscd. together with establishing the profession o f mathcmatics teachers for the
ncw major subjcct. lt is moving to follow the biographies o f the first generations of
mathematics teachc::rs who. oftcn isolatcd among their colleagues teaching classical
languages a11d among the local public. struggled desperately to have mathematics
acknowledg1d against ali kinds o f resistance. The history of mathematics education
C\Cn in just one country proved to be quite comptex, and at the same time provided
re\1 arding structural insights into social and cultural factors of school mathematics
and lhe ir teachcrs. Some of thcse insights are:
school mathematics in no way constitutes a direc:t reflection or projcction of
't mathematics as a scholarly body ofknowledge-neither in its respective modem
state nor in a historically mure remate form.
in the first instance. this is due to the rac:t (usually systematically neglected in
traditional histories of mathematics education) that matbematics is not an
isolat~d subject in school. but has to coexist with many other teaching subjects.
The relativr: status of mathcmatics as a subject of instruction and examination
\and. consequc:ntl~. the status of its teachers) is shown to be the result of a
cCimrlex social negoliation process attributing a relative educational weight to
e:~ch $ut>.iect of instruction. But not only that. it also emerges that the scope and
~ re of school mathematics emerge as variables which largely depend upon the
H'tiJI functions ascribed to schooling and to the given school structure.
- nwrc rmicubrly. school mathematics is muuktcd by culturally dctcrmincd
epistemologic:s char.lcterising the type of mathematics taught in a particular
school structure. In fact.. one of thc: most unexpected outcomes o f the historical
componcnt for thc stuc.lcnt tcachcrs wcrc concrctc visualisations of thc
continuum of cpistemological mouldings ascribed to school mathematics in
differmt social and cultural contc:otts. These varied !Tom a pure view on
mathcmatics which cmphasiscd formal mental training at thc onc extreme, and
on the other a vicw o f applied mathematics emphasising vocational purposes and
usefuloess.
another intriguing dimension is presentcd by the enormous variabilily in the
relation between school knowledge and scientific knowledge. There are periods
where school mathematics constitutes a hermetic body of knowledge, without
c:xplicit relations to the academic world, producing its own standards of rigour
and its own architecture of mathematics justifying the selection of contents and
the chosen hierarchy of concepts. And there are other periods of an 'open'
curriculum where school teachcrs were aiming at following methodologiczl
views converging with those o f academic mathematics.
The new component for mathematics teacher education has bcen successfully
established at Bielefeld University where courses in history of mathematics
educatil'n figure in practically ali curricula leading up the various teachers'
diplomas.
4.3.1 .7 Germany: professionalisalion and lhe ltistory ofedztcatioll /]1
} ..
Rderences for §4.3.1.7
Schubring, Gert 1984. 'Essais sur l'histoire de r enseigncment dcs mathématiqucs.
particulieremenl en France et cn Prusse', R~cherche:. en didoçtique des mazhémaziqrii.'S. 5,
343-385.
Schubring, Gert 1989a. 'Warum Karl Weicrstrall bcinahe in der Lehrcrprílfung gcschcitcn
ware', Der Mathemati~unterricht. 35: I, 13·29.
Sehubring, Gert I989b. 'Theoretic:al catcgorics for investigations in thc social histury uf
mathematics c:ducation and some charactcristic pattcrns'. in: C. Kcitcl. P. Damcruw. A.
Bishop. P. Gerdcs (eds.), Mathematics. education and society. Paris: UNESCO. Sc•cncc
and Technology Education Document Serics No. 35, 6-8.
Schubring, Gert 199 1. Die Entstehung des Mothematildehrtrberufs im 19. Jaltrlumdur.
Studien und Materia/ien zum Prozeft der Proftssionalislerung in Preuften (1810-1870)
Second, revised edition: Weinheim: Deutscher Studic:n Verlag.
4.3.2 Current practice in in-servicc training
4.3.2.1 Denmarlc A very sbort in-service course in the history of
matbematics
Torkil Heiede
An in-service course for primary and lower secondary teachers of mathe matics.
covcring thc wholc history of rnathcrnaucs in scvcn thrcc-huur scssions: that is
surely impossible! In earlier years I have given a relatively comprchr:nsivc
exposition severa I times in courses consisting o f 33 such sessions, strctching from
Scptcmbcr to May, but that was stoppcd-not bccausc of too fcw appti<.::ulls, hut
because too few of them had their applications endorsed by thc local school
authorities, who tended to consider a cour-se devoted entirely to thc history or
mathcmatics as a luxury. This took piacc at thc Roy-o~l Danish School o f Educational
Studies, an institution with the purpose of giving further education to teachers in the
folkeskole (i.e. grades \-10) in Denmark. We now decided to place a course in thc
history o f mathematics inside a larger course (one six-hour day per weck, 33 wccks)
in general mathematics. lf it was impossible to cover the whole history of
mathematics in seven such sessions, then the solution might be to pick out scven
important bit~ and try to present them in such a way that the participants realised that
here was something relevant and interesting, something to retum to and to go on
with. Also it had to be underlined that hand-outs and other materiat was meant not
to pass unadapted into the participants' own classrooms but to be drawn upon-
·' together with what they could find on their own, helped by a list o f refercnces-to
colour and maybe improve their mathematics teaching. Here follows a synopsis of
what was planned for these seven sessions, with a few commentaries:
Ioim Fauvcl, Jan van Maancn {eds), Jlistory in mothtmatia tducallon: tire ICMI sruJy.
Dordrecht: Kluwcr 2000, pp. 131·134
 132 .f History of mathematicsfor trainee teachers 4.3.2. 1 Denmark: an in-service course m the history ofmot!remutics l3J

4.3.2.1.1 Session ont: Egyptian mathemalics 4.3.1.1.6 Session six: European Rcnaissance and Early naroquc
A base lO numbc r system which is nota position system. Addition and subttaction Luca Pacioli. The cubic controversy:
algorithms.; Multiplication algorithm based on dÚplication. The similarity to so- Del Ferro, Tartaglia, Cardano. Ferrari
called Russian peasant multiplication. and to what goes on inside the calculators of and 'the algebraic solutions of cubic and
to-day. working in a binary (base 2) system. Calculation wilh unit fraclions. biquadratic equations. A glímpse of
Solving linear equations by trial and error (regula falsl). Everything illustrated with Abel and Galois. Trigonometry and
original problems and tables from e.g. the Rhind papyrus. navigatíon. Viête and his notations; bis
theorem on sums, products etc. of roots
-$.3.2.1.1 Session two: Babylonian mathematics in equations. Stevin and decimal
A base 60 system which is also a positional systcm (as ours), discovercd by lhe fracti ons. Descartes and Fermat, lhe
.participants from a picture of an Old-Babylonian clay tablet containing a birth of analytical geometry; its
multip1ication tabte for 9 (see §8.3. 1.1.2). Sexagesima1 fractions. Division by table importance for lhe beginning of
of reciprocals. Solution of quJdrJtic equations (taken di rectly from pictures of calculus. Probability theory; Cardano's
original clay tab1ets}. Dcciphering some tablets, e.g. Plimpton 322 tab!et; Liber de tudo alcae; the
conjectures on its content. correspondance between Fermat and
These ftrs t two sessions show that number syslems and algorithms different from Pascal. F'ermat'S last theorem.
our own can be as valid and efficient as ours. This throws light on our own number (Sul next to nolhing about lhe story
system and algorithms. of lhe calculus, series, differential
equations, real and complex analysis
4.3.2.1.3 Session three: Grcek mathcmatlcs etc. throughout the 18th and 19th
T\\O rather clumsy number systems (also Roman numerais) and the !ater centuries, even if il was more or less
sexagesimal number system of the Greek asttonomers. Pythagorean mathematics. synonymous with mathematics in this
lncommensurability and its consequences. Euc:lid's Elements, in Danish lranslation. long period. Somcthing has to be left
Figure 4·6·· Ma themalics educalion out, and the participants do not
Euclid i, 47-t8 tPyth~sor~s· theorem). Euclid ix, 20: thc primes outnumber any c. 1550
number. Proof by exhaustion, especial!y pyramid, Euclid xii, 7, and cone, Euclid themselves teach even the rudiments.)
xii. I O. Archimedes. especiall)' the arcas of the circle and the surface of a sphere,
and lhe volumes of the cone and the sphere. Sand-reckoner and the Method.
Diophantus, his symbolism and his solutions of equations, especially his treatment
ofP)thagorean triples. The Greek number concept versus ours. 4.3.2.1.7 Sessíon seven: Non-Euclidcan geometry
lts roots in Greek and Arabic mathematics. Saccheri, Lamben, Legendre, Gauss,
4.3.2. 1.4 Session fou r: lndian and Chinese mathematics Bo!yai, Lobachevsky, Beltrami, Klein and Poincaré. Mosl of the participants have
Number systems and calculations: who invented a symbol for zero? Solution of never heard about it, and it would come as a shock for them that mathematics has
equations. systems o f equations. lndian asttonomy and lrigonometry. Pythagoras' become something separate from physics, in lhat mathematical statements cannot
lheorem before P)1hagoras: Pascal's triangle before Pascal. The Chinese Suan-Pan any more be considered 10 be true in any straightforward physical sense. Even ifthe
and the Japanese Soroban. participants neve r mention non-Euclidean geometry explícitly, their awareness of its
existence should influence what they say in class, so that their pupils may get a
4.3.2.1.5 Session fin: Arablc and European Mediaeval malhemalil:s better impressiono f lhe nature of conlemporary mathematics.
li. .
At-Khwarizmi and his books: the origin of the words afgorithm and algebra. The
number system and how it arrived from lndia. The solution of linear and quadratic The course was carried through more or less according to the plan and was repeated,
equations. possibte innuence from Babylonia. Omar Khayyam, geometric solution with moditications, in lhe following years. lt was a success with most o~ the
of cubic equations. The translators in Spain and the origin of the word sinus. participants, even those who did not know much mathematics and not much general
F'ibonacci and his books. Ma)·be also Jordanus and Oresme. history either, who are victims of our ahistoric times and had no general historical
framework on which to hang lhe history o f mathematics. lt is obvious that much of
lhe history of mathematics was not even touched upon in this course; it only gave an
 /J.J -1 1/i.Hory of matlrematics for trainee teachcrs
I
over:·i~w. but \rith mnny cxamplcs. and with many o f I hem t:~kcnns ncur ns possiblc
to ongmal sources.
I .
Reftrrnces for §4.3.2.1
llrkJc•.T(!~~ill49:! . '\\'hy lc3ch historv ofmathcmnlics?', Tne matlltmaticalga:et/e 76 no
~7.5: !Sr-151. · • · ' .
Hcicdc. T~rkill996~. 'Thc hi~lory ofnon•cuclide~ geometry', Procttdings 2nd UEE Braga
/996. I. 183-19~
·U.2.2
_f rance: history of mathematics in in·service training for primary and
,. secondary tcachers
Hêlt':ne Gispert
~ woul~ like to gi"e cxamples of lhe possible use of the history of mathematics for
m-semce tcacher training. I have given scssions in the history of mathematics to
both primar:· teachers and secondary mathematics teachers. In the case of primary
tea_che~. most of the_m teach malhematics as just one of many subjects and have no
um,ermy mcnhemaucs education. In spite ofthe difference in the audience, the aim
f~r th~c scssions is _me. same. in both cases. The aim is not to train teac~ers in using
htstl'~ of m~themattcs 10 thetr classrooms. My purpose is, in fact, to use the history
of_mathrmatlts and lhe hislory of malhematics teaching to show the links that have
e:mred in differem times be1ween lhe contenls and aims of mathematics as a science
on lhe one hand. and lhe social. economic and cultural backgrounds in which they
were defined. on lhe other hand.
These. histor!cal sessions were organised as part of larger training courses in
mathe_matJCS ~~·h1ch c:m las\ from one to four weeks. One or two days are devoted to
h~slor~caltop•~s chosen_in reiation 10 lhe main topics ofthe training sessions. These
h1stoncal sesstons cons1s1 of bo1h leclures and working groups on original historical
\C XIS.
The firs! exnmple is a four weeks' in-service teacher training for primary
teachers whtch collc3gucs in mathcmatics and tcchnology organiscd and which is
called 'geomeu:· wilh head and hands'. There are two history sessions of three
hours each. In lhe lirst one. I try to make 1eachers conscious of 1he different status
that geometry and i1s teaching had in different societies. I presenlthe cases of Egypt
and Mesopotamta. Plnto's Academy, China, and severa! periods of mathematical and
intellectual hislo~· of Europe, from lhe Middle Ages to the 19th century. Teachers
are th_en led to question some obvious notions common to their own geometrical
expenencc as sccondar:· pupils (such as rigour. proof, figure, definition) but which
se~m to contradict their present experience of primary school teaching of geomctry.
Pnm~· leYel geomctry ts actually based on figures (or drawings) and what can be
John F3u,·el. Jan ,.an 1-faanen {cds.l. Húron· in mathcmarics educaUoll: lhe /CM/ study,
Dordrccht: 1\.lu\\cr 2000. flP· IJJ-136 .
4.3.2.2 France: lristory ufmathematics in in-scrvkc tcacher trait 1111J; /35
seen and handled in lhe real world. These features often lead tcachcrs 1o considcr
that thc:y are not c.loing 'gcomc1ry'. lltc hislorical poinl of vicw hclps thcrn lo ask
new questions about the rclations between geometry at primary levei, wherc proof is ·
not requircd, and geometry at secondary levei where pupils have 10 gradually lcarn
about proof. lt also helps the teachers to work in a new way on the general1heme
ebosen for the session, tltal is 'geometry with head and hands'. ··
The second historical session deals with lhe IÍistory of geometry tcaching and
teaching through the praclical tools ('travail manuel') in use for prímary schools
during the 19th and 20th centuries in France. During this session, teachers work on
texts-mostly public documents, official curricular documents and commentaries on
the curriculum. The declared purposes of lhe two parallel educational systems that
existed in France until the 1950s can be clearly seen: primary educalion, intended
for lhe education of the masses, whose curriculum had to be practical, limited,
concrete and useful; as opposed to secondary education, reserved for lhe élite and
having only cultural purposes. Geomctry, together with its contem, teaching, and
practical applications is clearly not lhe same for both systems. A role of lhe 'travail
manuel', widely adopted at the end of the last century, for the primary levei, was to
provide mathematics object·lessons, including geometry lessons. This gave us
topics that brought us back to the main theme of the session and to ask what in
geometry teaching relates to the head and what relates to the hands.
The second example was planned for both secondary mathematics teachers and
for those working in teacher education. The first group had a one-weck session
dealing with the link between primary and lower secondary education, now part of a
common curriculum programme but formcrly quite distinct, as explained above. For
lhe seeond group, lhe session was entire.ly devoted to the history of mathematics and
lasted three days. The focus was lhe hislory of mathematics teaching during 1he last
two ccnturies and considered the questions: who were the main actors? and what
were the main issues in the mathematics curriculum? As in lhe first example, I was
interested in showing the differences between lhe history of1he 1wo parallelleaching
systems, the primary one and the secondary one, whose aims were re·evaluated
severa! times during the last two last centuries in relation to economic and política!
changes in France. What is interesling is lhat the position of mathcmatics, and more
gencrally of science, in both school curricula appcared to be conditional upon these
political changes. The study of these periods of change in the curriculum leads
mathematics teachers to become aware of thc range and variety of the major actors,
theír intcrests and the reasons advanced to defend the mathematics curriculum or to
argue for change. As well as pedagogic reasons, economic, ideological and
scientific reasons are advanced. This should broadcn the ~ perceptions of
mathematics teachers by making them aware ofwhat they may not havc understood
before the course: the fact that factors affccting the teaching of malhem alies at each
period, and therefore also todny, depcnd also on social influences. Delving into
history in this way helps to highlight an aspect of the cducational situa1ion of today
of which secondary teachcrs seem hardly aware. The lirst years of 1he present
secondary levei for ali pupils from li to 15 in Francc (co/lege), including its
malhcmatics conlcnt, is in r~ct the fruit oftwo quite distinct schooltraditions which
 136 .J History ofmarhematics for trainec teachers
were combined in the 1960s. The primary one. as we have said, was for most ofthe
\I to 14 or 15 year old children and was concrete and practical. The secondary one,
im~nded f~r the small minority who pursued their st~dies up to university levei,
cla1med to be essentially cultural with no practical application in view. Debates
at>out what should be the nature of mnthematics teaching in today's ·co11ege unique'
\COmprehensi\'e school), c:nering for ali pupils. will be more meaningful after
lea.ming about the mathematical content. as well as the pedagogical methods, of
thesc two fom1er distinct. and opposed. systems.
For both examples c:ited. the teachers have valued the historical detour offered
by the sessions. 1t has allowed themjirsc to appreciate the link between mathematics
and the history of the societies whcre it developed and Oourished, and second to
'lla' e a bener understanding o f the main issues o f mathematical teaching. past and
present. They found histor: to bc a ,·aluable tool to obtain a better understanding o f
their profession ;md its practicc. Neverthcless. it remains a detour. Most of them
ct>nsider it quite enough 10 insert a few historical sessions nmong a largely non-
histt>rical training coursc and would not havc chosen 3 specific training course in
histor: c>f mathematics. For this reason. I think these sessions, brief though they
\\ere. were effccti\'e in that 3 larger number of teachers gained the benefit of a
histc>ric:~l perspecliq~ in mathematics and m:~thematics education than would have
t-~en th~ C3SC if a course only dealing with the history of mathematics had been
o!Tered. \\'hen it comes to thosc concemed with training teachers. my view is that
thc~ ~hould have more th:m these limited insights. History deserves to become a
tool in the tl'3ining of teachers. but there is much to do before that goal can be
achie,·ed.
Referenccs ror §·U.2.2
For the first session. in the first example, standard historical texts can be used.
The second example required French historical books on the history of mathematics
and sciencc teaching. either wrincn accounts or collections of official texts. The
following proved useful:
Bclht'ste. Bruno 1995. Lrs scit•:as dons f'tiiStigntmtm uc:ondaire français. re.ttts officiels.
t<'mc t: 1789-191-1. r~ri~: Economica·INRP.
Bdi\MI~'. 13.. üisr(rt. 11 .. Hulin. >1. 1996. L'n siitcle dt réformes nl!s matlrémaliquts tt de la
rhy.tique r•r Frema,., cl l'étrwrgrr. Paris: Vuibert-INRP.
H cll~d. J. 1998. 'La S~t>métrie ~ l'écok primairc: tcxtes et contcxtes de son cnscig.nemcnt
dan$13 SClCÍélé française ~u 19e et20e siêcles', Copilerem, 24ême colloque, IREM
l'ni,milé f'oris 7. 179-182.
4.3.2.3 Brazil: the conccpt o f function in in-service training I 37
4.3.2.3 Jlrazil: The concept or function in in-service training
João Pitombeira de Carvalho
The concept of function provides a good example of the value of a historical
perspective about the teaching of mathematics. In particular. it can explain and
modify one's work with tcachers in continuing education projects, sue h as in-service
courses for mathematics teachers of primary and secondary schools.
In Braz.il, many of these teachers react strongly when they are told that a ·,
function is a correspondente that assigns to every element o f a setA, its doma in, a ·
well defined elcment of another set 8. Most of them are familiar only with the
definition of a function as a particular kind o f relation defined on the cartesian set
AxB. Some of !hem even say that this is lhe only way of defining a functio n, and
that this is perfectly appropriate for the teaching of mathematics in primary or
secondary schools.
4.3.2.3.1 Historical Perspective
A historical pcrspcctive about the evolution of mathematics teaching in Braz.il
explains why teachers understand function this way. A secondary school curriculum
in Brazil was first established in 1837, with the creation of the Colégio Pedro 11, a
public school which was set up to correct the laxity and disorganisation prevailing at ,
ali leveis of teaching up to that time. Even though primary school teaching was
regulated only in 1946, the Colégio Pedro 11 was fundamental for the organisation ~
and regulation of seeondary school teaching in the Brazilian Empire, and !ater ·
during the republican years, from 1889 on. ·
The lirst appearance of the word 'function' in the official curriculum was in ·
1889. According to the textbooks then in use (e.g. Sonnet 1869), a function was
defined in terms of variables:
A VIUiable y is called a function of anolher variable x, if y varies with x, and if y assumes one
or severa! well defined values when a definite value is attributed to :r.
At the same time, just after the monarchy was overthrown, a major curricular reform
lntroduced lhe study of the differential and integral cal.culus in the secondary
schools. The textbook specified in the official curricular regulation was that by H:
Sonnet. This refonn lasted only for a few ycars, and the teaching of calculus in the
secondary schools was then abandoned for almost half a century.
·.The function concept appears on and off in successive curricula for the Colégio
Pedro lJ after this period. Examination of some of the tettbooks used during this
period shows that they adhere to the function dcfinition given above. The
mathematics teachers at this model school used to be trained at lhe Escola Militar,
lhe !ater Escola Politécnica, which trained cngineers. Functions werc introduced
John Fauvel, Jan van Maanen (eds.), History in mathemati.cs education: che !CMI stuáy.
Oordrecht: Kluwer2000, pp. 137-140
 /38 4 History ofmathematicsfor trainee teachers
there as a ruk of c:orrespondence (Dynnikov 1999). llte perusal o f more recent texts
used in the Colégio Pedro 11 in the 1920's shows a similar treatment of the function
concepl. In particular. the texts Curso de Malemálica I and Curso de Matemática li,
''Titten by Euclides Roxo, a staunc:h defender of Klein's idens on the leaching of
mathemati~s. stress the use of lhe function concept in the secondary school
curriculum. Ac:cording to him. thc funct ion concept should perrncate ali the
curriculum '4 \d not be a particular topic ofsiUdy.
In the early thirties and forties. lhe mathematical syllabus for secondary schools
experienced a round o f major modifications and consolidation. These modifications
included a wlification of the curriculum, a position strongly defended by Euclides
Roxo. This syllabus set the trend for ali subsequent ones. In the new textbooks
wrincn for these curricula, a function is a well defincd corrcspondencc bctwcen two
!l:ts. lllcy state this in tcrms o f indcpcndcnl and dcpendcnt variablcs, and also allow
man) -valued functions.
Things chang.ed in thc late 1950s, with the arrival, in Brazil. of lhe idcas of thc
'modem math' movcment. From then on, in almost ali textbooks. a fu nction
becomes a particular kind of relation in a cartesian product (see for example
Pitombeira 1996 and 1998b). In the late 1950s and the 1960s, many books wcre
writtcn for mathematics teachers along the lines of the modem math movemcnl.
Also. many in-service programmes were set up to bring teachers up to date.
TcxtN'<.'k 'lfiters very quickly took up thc ncw idcas, sincc thc official curricula
c3ll~d for a set theoretical approach to thc function concept. A study made in 1995
by this author showed that even then some states still specified that the concept of a
functiçm should be presented this way. This study dealt spec:ifically with elementary
school malbcmatics. Notwithstanding, the documentation presentcd by the States'
Secretarias de Educação in most cases contemplated secondary school curricula, and
so the claim made in this paper is justified (see Pitombeira l998a). On account of
ali this. the new presentation of the function concept became widespread in school
mathematics. This trend was reinforced by analogous introductions of set·theoretic
ddinitions in some textbooks for universities and teacher colleges.
Because of ali these developments, the presentation of lhe function concept
along the lines laid down by the new maths movement became widespread and self-
reproducing: the more it was adopted, the more it was included in the official
curricula. Now. because of very strong criticism of the modem math movement,
there is a new generation of textbooks which has gone back to the definition o f a
function as a functional depe ndence. In a certa in way, we have completed the circle.
.U.2.3.2 \Vhat to do
The prevailing conception o f a function among teachcrs, that is, as a special kind of
relation in a c:artesian product, impedes the use of the funclion conccpt in most
situations. Even if the tcacher proceeds from this definition to give examples of
'honest' functions. that is. numerical functions in which a 'variable' y varies with a
·,·ariable' .T. we havc obscrvcd that 1hcy do not connccl thcsc two nolions of rt
funct ion. and this kads to a vcry unsatisfactory situation: tbe student asks himself
\1hat rc:ally is a function. In the worst case. the teacher restricts his examples of
4.3.2.3 Brazil: the co~cept offunction in in-service training I J9.
functions to special subsets of a cartesian product, and the student is completely.
bewildered when he faces the graph of a numerical function and lhe teacher tells him
that the graph represents a function. Al.so, some of the textbook.s which prcsent thc
cartesian product definition do not stress that in many applications onc is realty
interested in how lhe depcndent variable varies when the independeo\ one varies.
Some ofthem hardly ever present examples ofthis dependente. ·
We set ourselves the task of convincing teachers to abandon the canesian
product definition in favour of the correspondente onc. Of course. the simplc
statement that their definition is 'bad' and that lhe onc we propose is 'good' would
not change their conception o f a function. lnstead we set up the following stcps. in
which the historical perspective on the teaching o f mathematics plays a major rok
..
I · Review ofthe evolulion ofthefunction concept.
We stressed Euler's c:ontribution. In particular, they were given old and modem
textbooks used in Brazil and asked to scc how their definitions and examplcs
comply with Euler's point of vicw, that is, if we still had Euler's dcfinition, would
the examples presented in thc textbooks be functions? We then studied thc
evolution of the function conccpt aftcr Euler's definítíon, prcsenting Cauchy' s
conception of a function, and ending with the Cauchy·Dirichlet·Bourbaki defi nit ion.
We point out thal this part is not a course on the history o f mathematics. From thc .
very bcginning of our programme the teacher is immersed in school mathcmatics..
via the textbooks.
2 - Discussion ofsome of the ideas of the modem math movement.
We dealt with its use of set theory and how it anempted to build up the concepls o f
school mathematics starting from set theory. Thc teachers received examples of
textbooks which followed the ideas ofthe modem math movemcnt and we askcd thc
teachers to compare the examplcs they presented with the examples found in thc
older textbooks. The teachers were also askcd to evaluate how the modem math
textbooks dealt with the transition from their abstract definition to the presentation
ofthe usual funclions o f school mathematics.
The teachers were also asked to look for lhe official curricular instructions
issued by the state Secretaria de Educação from the 1950s to 1990s and to discuss
their presentation of the function concept.
J -A presentalion of tlte history of the leaching of mathematícs in Brazi/
This was along the !ines of the historical perspective given above. For this, thc
teachers were given exlracts of textbooks used (from the 1850's to lhe 1950's} and
asked to compare their treatment ofthe function conccpt.
4 - A discussion of their own /earning of the function concept in their lug/1 school
and col/egc years.
Thc tcachcrs wcrc askcd to uring thcir old school ~1u.l collcgc tcxtbuu'-s and to
díscuss wíth the group how these texts prcscnt the concept of function and work
with it (examplcs, applications. excrciscs). A comp<~rison of how some widcly uscd
 ~ HISC o} marhematics for trainee teachers 4. 4 lssues of concern /.JI

cum:nt textbooks present the concept of function and lhe examples and exercises knowlcdgc aml
they gi,·e. The teachers analyse current textbooks and write up an essay comparing confidc ncc. Effons ~rc
them. their examples and exercises they give and the coherence between lhe being madc to impro\'-:
definition!i,3lld the exomples prescnted. thc situation by
extending and
.tJ.2.3.3 Conclusion gencralising thc
After trying this approach. which lays heavy stress on the historical aspects of lhe historical componcnt in
tcaching of mathematics. during severa! years in programmes of continuing teacher training. 1\n
education. we feel that the teachers' ability to present the concept of funct ion analogous problcm.
meaningfully to their students was much improved. The teachers do not have to live howevcr, is the levei of
any more with two difTerent function concepts. They know how to translate one in to qualification of thc
_;he other. and c:m emphasisc the work with numerical functions, correlating graphs, teacher traincrs
tables and anal> tical definitions. themselves, i.e. those
This consider:~tion <'f thc history of mathematics education was essential to show who have to teac h
the teachers that the way they see things is a consequence o f past ideas, movements, mathematics history to
influentes. Makima them retrace this history will allow them to take account of the future teachers and are
difTc~nt rresentat i~ns o f the function concept. withoul adopting a hostíle position expected to impart a
to" ards some o f them. criticai use of historical
sourccs and to judge the
Rercrtnce~ to §·U.!.3 val ue of secondary
D~ nnikl•' . Circc M. Sihll!l Sihn \999 . .\/attmatica posilh·ista ~ sna difulao no Brasil, literature. The quality of
\'itl'fil: EDL1FES. the training component
Pitomt-.: ir:~
. Jo~o Bo~co. fi ai. 1996. Guia de ih·ros didá({cos de i a à 4a séries· Livros is dependent on lhe
rrco.Tirnd.Jdos. Br:~~ili l: DF. MEC. CENPEC. competence of the
Pitomt>dr:~. Jo~o BNco. et ali i 1997. Guia dt livras didáticas de la à <la siries, Brasllia: DF, teacher trainers in
~IEC.
mathematics history.
Pitomt>eira. Joio Bosco. 1998a. ·As propostas curriculares de matemática', in Bmeto. Elba
Figure 4. 7: rire seventeentlr century Japanese teaclrer lratl Givcn that a
Siqueira de S:l (org.l Os currículos do ensino fundamental para as escolas Brasileiras,
Campinas. SP: Autores t\ssociados· São Paulo: Fundação Carlos Chagas. Coleção to be trained In a variety ofsubjecrs. considerable proportion
Fonnaç~o do Professor. 91·126.
of these professors are
Pitombeira. João Bosco. ct atii.1998b. Guia de livros didáticos de 5a à 8a séries Brasília: DF, beginning their own
MEC. teaching courses as autodidacts, the major bottle-neck is lhe access to rei iable
Row. Eutlides 1937. A mat~mática na educaçifo secundaria, São Pauto: Companhia editora secondary literature.
naci<>n31. 2. 1t is not feasible for ali the necessary general historical background knowledge
S<>nnct. H. 1869. Premias Elt'nrtnls dt Cl11cullnjrnltbimal. iJ f'usage des jeunes gens qui se to be transmitted within the contexto f training in the history of mllthematics; rather,
drsunnrt J la carrihr cfingbrieur. Paris: Hncheltc. this component can only be effective if the trainee teachers' have been provided with
a more general knowlcdge of history: not only o f their respcctive national history
4.4 Issues of Concern and of international history: o f political history and of et:onomic Hstory, but also o f
the history o f civilisation. The major parto f sucll getlefal kno\•le';ge (and interest in
\\'e can summarise the following issues of concem which arise from the evidence it!) should be assured by the school curriculum bur it isV.tecc~~ ..rt to establish a
presented earlier about ihe practice and expcriences of teacher trainers, both pre- cooperation with historians for the historical componCit at the ur!vtrsity levei. too.
ser\'ice and in-sen·ice. in a number o f countries. 3. Due to the close relation of the cvolutio.n of mathem ~tical ideas wi th the
I . An e\'ident obstacle for the efTective use o f mathematics history in classrooms development of philosophical and epistemol o,gi~ conceptluns, an analogous
is that mathematics teachers are sti\1 rather weakly qualified in their historical cooperation with philosophers should be establisbed liS well.

I 4. The new tendency to integrate mathematics hiuory into th. training or future
primary teachers, meets with other difficuhies. Tbese trai ne. teachers have in

I
 4 History of malhem alies for trainee teachers
... ...
general to study severa I disciplines, so that there is not much time provided for the
mathematical studies proper. In any event, these trainee teachers were usually not
high achievers in mathematics in their own schooling. lt is therefore highly
imponant to assure sufficicnt competence in mathematics for them. The results
from typrus are cncouraging and show thatthe historical component can contribute
to impro\'t a positive relationship towards mathematics itself.
· s:~Up to now, thcre is only scatterc:d evidente about the effcctivencss of the
historical training in the !ater teaching practicc. Even at the levei of university
tcaching itself. the evidence of its impact is very meagre, since lhe lectures are but Chapter 5
rare ly accompanied by excrcises o r followed by seminars allowing for a deepening
o( subjcrts and sclf-activity; and assessmcnts via examinations nrc justas rare. lt is Historical formation and student understanding of
dcsirable both to establish more systematic assessments at the university levei on the
one hand. and also to foster stronger rclations betwcen tcacher irainers and their mathematics
graduates during their late r teaching practice in schools.
Sucb relations would pennit an cxchange of information which would facilitate
reducing unrealistic or exaggerated views about lhe impact of the use o f history in Luis Radford ·
classrooms on the one hand and to transmit recent progress in historiography to with Maria G. Bartolini Bussi, Otto Bekken, Paolo Boero, Jean-Luc Dorier,
practising teachers. thus clarifying older, rather mythical presentations of the Victor Katz, Leo Rogers, Anna Sierpinska, Carlos Vasco
evolution o f mathematics.
6. To make fu nher progress in integrating a historical component, more staff
specialiscd in teaching history of mathematics are necded, as well as thc Abstract: The use of hi.rtory of mathematics in tl•e teaching and ltaming of mathematics
development of bener adapted teaching material and of exemplary modules as requires didactical rejlection. A crucial area to e:rplore and analyse is rhe re/arion between
models and guides. how studenrs achieve understandlng in mathemarics and rhe historical construction of
mathematicalthinking.

5.1 Iotroductíon
Luis Radford
The history of mathematics may be a useful resource for understan~ing ~he
processes o f formation o f mathematical thinking, and for exploring lhe way 10 wh1ch
such understanding can be used in the design of classroom activities.
1t is in this spirit that in the last decades some mathematics educators have had
recourse to the history of mathematics. However, such a task demands that
mathematics educators be equipped with a clear and rich theoretical framework
accounting for the general fonnation of mathematical knowledge. In addition to
offering a clear epistemological stance, the theoretical framework has to ensure a
fruitful articulation o f the historical and psychological domains as well as to support .
a coherent and fecund melhodology (see figure 5.1 ).
\

John fauvcl. Jan v~n Ma~ncn {cds.), History in mathcmatics tducation: rire ICMI studv.
/.f.l 5 Historira/formation nnd .ttrtd<'lll Jtlld(!rsrandinR ofmathcmatics 5.1 lntroduction J./5.

Psychological domain
Stud<·nts · leJrning
of mathematics
Epistemological domain mathematical thinking and the students' leaming o:if m11hematics (see horizontal · .'
arrow in Figure 5.1) has often been done in terms off a !UiVe psychological version
ofbiological recapitulationism. Briefly stated, biolo(giahecapitulationism. :m idea
introduced at the end of the last century, followiing Darwin's writings on. the
Thcorctical framework
evolution of species, posits that the development crif d!t individual (ontogenesis)
recapilulates thc dcvelopment of mankind (phylogJencil). The Germ:m biologist
Emst Haeckel seems to have been thc first to tranS:lfer tiis 'biological' law to thc
psychological doma in. He said that "the psychic dewelopment of the child is but a •
brief repetition of the phylogenetic evolution" (quotcrti byMengal \993, 94).
The concept of genetic development was partly cebblcatcd in the 1970s. in thc
Historical domain work of thc psychologists Jean Piaget and Rolandio €Scia, as a reaction to this
simplistic psychological version of recapituiationisnn. lll their book Psychogenesis
and the history of scicnce ( 1989}-a book that has:; ltad a significant influcncc on
Conccptual development mathematics educators interested in the use of th<e iisiDry of mathematics-thcy
(
> of mathematics presented a difTerent perspective. They argued that 'we .,uid try to understand the
problem of knowledge in terms of the intellectuail ínsttuments and mechanisms
allowing its acquisition. According to them, th~ ·tlrsl of those mechanisms is a
general process which accounts for lhe individual'$ mílnilation and integration of
what is new on the basis of his or her previous know1~. (This is a view that runs

L Methodological doma in

Design of
nctivitics
classroom
J against the positivist view that knowlcdge simply cactUilulates in a straightforward
way.) But then there is an apparcnt dilemmn. O!l the one hand, in gaining
knowledge the individual is seen as selectintg. 1ransfonning, adapting and
incofl)orating the elements provided by the exterul. world to his or her own
cognitive structures (Piaget and Garcia 1989, 246)J; wtlile, on the other hand. thcrc
can be no assimilation of 'pure' objects divorceJli hm their context, insofar as
objects always have a social signification (p. 2471).. This paradox led Piaget :1nd
Garcia to discuss the influencc of the social e•n11ÍR11lmcnt on the evolution of
F:s;w.· -~·I Th:·ort·ti~·,:/ /rtrmrlrork ol/ou·ill,'< em nrtit·rtiMiOII b~/ll'e~" lhe ac·cowu of
st:t.l,·t~t.t lt•omttr!( n.f matlrt'llf<llin o11d rh~ accoum of rir~ ltistoricol de"clopmmt of knowledge in the individual.
m.:tl:,·nurtirs. <111d .<ltf'f'OI'tmg a m(t/wdoltlf!J' for rhc drsign of lustoric·al/y based Pursuing this further led Piaget and Garcia to· mk whether two different social
,·/,us,.nmn ttt•tl\'ltit•s environments could lead to two different psychog;t'lMfic devclopmcnts. Since thc
works of Bachelard, Kuhn and Feyerabend had sfi~essal the significant role played
Thc lac~ of such a suitable framcwork otlen leads to oversimplifying views about by social settings in the fonnation of conceptual sy:s<ms and theoretical knowledge,
the "a~· in "hich mathematical concepts have developed historically (se e 'historical Piaget and Garcia's question was hardly inevitable. 1JJe question has become even
dClmain' ~n figure S. I). lndeed. even though new historiographic paradigms have more urgent nowadays in the light of recent: eCW~itive, anthropological and
emerged '" the past few years (see Gillies 1992. Hoyrup 1995. Lizcano 1993. among sociological discussions about the mind. In an immri:w given in the mid 1970s.
~thus). t~e history of mathematics is alltoo oficn read in an unhisrorical way. That when their book was still in preparation, Piage:t dtarly stated that one of the
tS. narralt\'es are prcsented which implicitly assume that past mathematicians were problems that led him to write the book was tm imtstigate if there is only one
<'.U<IIIi.,J~,. dealíng with our modem concepts. but just did not hnve our modcrn possible line of evolution in thc devclopment of kmoddge or if there are many, and
ne>t:llinm at thcir disposal. Rcading history likc this. in what might bc called a he rcplied (Bringuicr. 1980, 100): ~.
rl!h-c.•lugicaf way. the historian seerns to nssumc. in effect. that there was a course
th~t th~ historical developments just had to take. In making this assumption, a G3rcia, who is quite familiar with Chinesc scicnce, thinli:slhlt thcy have travclled n routc vcry
di!Terent from our own. So I dccided to sce whcther it il:;J05Siblc lo imagine a psychogcncsis
'""mc.uire dimension is introduced into the account. through which the historian di!Terent from our own, which would be that of the Chiinc=dlild during the greatcst period of
endcm s other culturcs and mathematicians of other epochs with rationalities and Chinesc science, and I think that it is possibte.
CClnc~rtualisntions thnt wcre completcly alien to them.
Be~ides this problern of conveniently framin~ the historical conceptual However, in their book the problem was dealt wifl ín terms of the difference
de,et~'rment of mathematics. the link between historical developments in between the individual's acquisition of knowled.gremi the 'epistemic paradigm' in
 N7

I
1~6 5 Historical formotion and studtnt understonding of mothematics 5.1 /ntroduction

which lhe indi\idual finds him or herself subsumed. By epistemic paradigm they lt is this cultural
meant "a concep;ion [o f sc:ience) that has become parto f accepted knowledge and is line of dcvelopmcnt
transmined alor.g w ith it. as naturally as oral or \\Tinen language is transmined from in Vygotsky's account
one gencration ro the next" (Piaget and Garcia 1989. 252}. This concept was that rendcrs any
explicitly pres~ as an epistemological altemative lo Kuhn's concept o f paradigm recapitulationism
and-in particular-its socially imposed norms. Thus, the 'failure' of Greek and impossíbtc. For
Mediaeval.l.hinktt5 lo conceive the principie of inertia in physics. and lhe success o f
lhe Chinese in<o:ncci~·ing such a principle-which they apparently considered "as
\ ?M~"JCS. at..el..""-1lUUJ -'' ' ' '"'
inslance. in one o f the
many passages in
t:IIUOPr. P"'rtte.J 'triCMMI'Ituf.
obvious as the fic:t that a cow is nota horse" (p. :153}-was explained in lerms ofthe S,.....t-ltrl u d $pv\,o11t Al;Jft.. whích he dcall wílh
ArisN~~:rl.i.t (Z...,. uwl p\it.n. ,..t._.).
this topic. he
different episteaic paradigms in which Greek and Chinese science were couched (p.
154). Althougb tbe individual was seen as bcing in dialectical interaction with the ,......... \
•"•tMic-1 J.lc•'"'-
discusses lhe '
objecl of knowfed ge. and it was recognised that society provides objects with t'•-.c'l~..a 'trt:~•••"'-'1 (lCiJOllftn-..) development of
..,sJI(cific me~. Piagct and Garcia traced a clcar fronlie r dividing the social and (~·;:!..:,~~ ~\4"0~':.\~ higher mental ·
f).:o.IM\Iu Arilllw• Ut (\r C~II'J
lhe individual. For them. a dislinction musl be made between mechanisms to xcfttn.lit,4). functions in history
U.4edh• \hd••tlin (A.•c.\~n),
acquire knowktgc and the way in which objects are conceived by the subject. In a Doo\oftln o ...... .., (l1o....,~ and in the child. and
concise and cl::lr phrase. 1hey said: "Socicty can modify the latter, but not the !Mo.c.) 8tnOGl.. goes on to say that ~
former ... ( p. :!6i}. )IT.CIIAVlO.. lhlU.•h .C !Uw\ttinl JJ1"""' "we do not mean to
UIUH~I'-t UUtUU. '&1?.rti-•t•I\A~ C t01~eu1
In their apjmaeh to the relations between ontogenesis and phylogenesis, Piaget llt.J-.tiu ....d 'f'_.~_.,,_ say that onlogencsis
......ift,, •*' •••hfti•-'
and Garcia mi not scek for a parallelism of contents between historical and ...w~~-~'"· ~· in any form or dc:gee
ps~chogcnetia! de,·elopments but for the mechanisms of passage from one cr.ot>t:S\'.
repeats or produccs
historical periG! to lhe following. They 1ried to show th3t those mechanisms are AIU:II.i:A~ Lt>nOO~.C1l1 phylogcncsis or is its
U!ll\"'t"llAt.'.
:m~llogous to~ o f the passage from onc psychogcnctic stagc to thc next. In UDYI.IIJ<U,Ii:. parallel." (Vygotsky
1'1U.SMtCIA":' ..
nddilion to tbt assimilation mechanism prcviously mentioned, they identified a 1997, 19). One ofthc
second meclalisrn of passage. This was described as a proccss that leads from the reasons is the
mtro-object. « :mal~ sis of objects. to the inter-object. or analysis of lhe variability introduccd
transfomlatio~ and rel:nions of objects, to lhe trO/Ij·object, or construction of by the sociohistorical
I~UllltWK W~~
structures. ~t'l\·o mechanisms were considered as invariable and omniprcsent, not conditions, whích are
11\I>IAU •IID D~lti\'A·
only in time bel in space too. That is. we do not have to spccify what thcy are in a nvr. ocwr ATIONJt. diffcrent in cach
crrt:~in gco~r.wtJiol spacc at a particular time since it is considcred that thc:y do nol ,~ ,.
period of lhe history.
change from phcc lo place artd from time to time. In this view,
The Rusínn psychologist Lev Vygotsky was also concemed with thc onlogenesis runs. so
rclationship bttween ontogenesis and phylogenesis, but-starting from a distinct Figure 5.2: Comparison of phylogenesis ond ontogenesis lo speak, underpinned
conccption oflfle- mind-took a di!Terent approach. lnstead of posing the problem hove been modt since the /ore 19th century, os sten in this by biological
in tcnns of scme invariablc mechanisms of acquisition of knowlcdge, he felt that 'Diogrom of tht devdopment of mothtmolicol uperienct phylogenesis and thc
thinking dm~fop-ed íl.S the result of two !ines or processes of development: a in tht roce and in tht individual' by Miss Borwel/ in tht sociohistorícal con-
biological {or natural) process and a historical {or cultural) one. One of his Malhematical Gazette of J913. ditions whcre onto-
fundamental differences wilh Piaget and Garcia's approach líes in the genesis takes place
epistemological role of culture. For Piaget and Garcia, culture cannot modify the (pp. 1;9-20):
essrntíal irtstmn~nts of knowledge acquísition, for they saw these instruments as \
Th~ growing of lhe normal child into cívilisation usually reprcscnts a smg e mcrgmg W l\ I c
. I . .h h
onginaling in the biological realm of lhe individual (Piaget and Garcia 1989, 184). proccss of his organic rnaluration. Both planes of devclopment - the n~tu•~l and the
In Vygolsky"s :~pproach. though. culture not only provides the specific forms of cultural-c.oincidc and merge. Both ordcrs of changes mutually penctratc cach 01hcr and form
scientific contrp.llS and methods o f scientific inquiry but overall modifies the activíty in essence a single ocder of social-biological formation of child pcrsonalily.
of nu·nt:~l futw:tiitms through lhe use of tools -of whatever type, be they anefacts
usrd lo \\Titcn day lablets in z.ncient Mesopotamia, or computers in contemporary The examples o f Piaget and Garcia, and of Vygotsky, uncover the compl_exily o f the

_____:.-------.. .·-·-· ·.. . . . "-_:.;.·

Sl'ctrlíes. or rnn:llectual anefacts such as words, language. or inner speech problem of the relationship between phylogcnesis and ontogenem and the
1v~ gotsky 199.!}. importance o f worki ng towards a clear thcorelical framework.

-~ ~_,~--=-----

This chapt~r summarises different ways in which the history of mathematics
conttibutes to a better understanding of the student processes of 1eaming
mathematics and the desil!n and analvsis of teaching activities. In reference to the
different ~omains mentio~ed in Figu.re 5.1. the sections presented in this chapter
may be described as follows. In section 5.2, Victor Katz and his colleagues sketch
some case studies dealin!! with the relations bet\\ een the historicnl and psychological
de>mains. l\lore specifi~ allv. thev ei\"e some e~amples from the history of
ruathematics where wc see ~uuhe~atkians struggling with problems that appear to
present difftculties ana1ogous to those faced by our students today, when they tack1e
the contemporary version of those problems in their school curriculum. They
emphasise the importance of teachers having some knowledg,e of the history of
mathematics. as it may help them to help their students overcome some important
"'difficulties "hich arisc in the mathematics classroom.
In section 5.3. ~lar ia Bartolini Bussi and ·Anna Sierpinska present some
sophisticated mcthodolo!;ica1 approaches recentl y developed by mathematics
educators. In these approaches. one o f the goa1s is to study the historie ai conditions
\\ hich made possible the emergence o r a cer1ain type or domain o r mathematical
knowledg.e (historica1 domain) and to adapt and integrate those conditions into the
dcsign o f classroom nctivities (methodologica1 domain) and lhe analysis of students'
fomiS o f mathemõltical thinking (psychologica1 domain).
In sectie>n 5.-1. Luis Radford. Paolo Boero and Carlos Vasco focus on the
eri~temo1ogica l assumptions (epistemological domain) which underline three
currcnt tcaching ·rescarch approaches using thc history o f malhcmatics: Brousseau's
eristemological obstacl~s. Radford's socio-cultura1 perspeclive and Boero's Voices
and Echoes Games. They make it evident that the intefl)retation o f the conceptua1
developmenl or mathemalics (hislorical domain), and the invcstigation or the
psychological processes underlying lhe leaming of mathematics (psychological
domain). as well as the linking of these phenomena with the design of c1assroom
activities (methodo1ogical domain), will ali depend upon the chosen framework.
References for §5.1
Bringuicr. J-C. 1980. Com·ersotious ll'it/a Jton Piogtl. Chicago: Chicago University Press
Gillies. O. (cd.) 1992. RHol111ions in morl•ematics. Oxford: Clarcndon Press
Hoyrur. J. 1995. In meos11rl'. tmmbtr attdweigl•t. A1bany: State University ofNew York
Pr~ss
Lizcano. E.. 199). lmoginorio colecth·o ·" creaciórr matemática, Barcelona: Editorial Gedisa
r-.tengal. P. 1993. "Psycho1ogic ct loi de récapitulation·. in: Histoire du concept de
ricapitulotion. P. Mcng~1 (cd.). Paris: Masson. 93-109
Pingct. J. and Garcia. R. 1989. Psyclrogtnesir and tire lristory ofscience, New York:
Co1umbi~ Uni\"ersity Prcss
\'ygotsky. L. S. 199~. "Too1 and symbo1 in chi1d devclopmcnt', in: René van der Veer and
J:mn \"alsiner. n.· 1\gots.l.)· readn. 0:~-ford UK and C:~mbridge USA: Blnckwcll
V~got~k~. L. S. 1997. Tht history ofthe dn·r/opme/11 ofhiglrer mental functions. (Co! L wl<s
ofl. S. \'ygotsky. \'oi. .t). R. W. Ricber ted.). New York: Plenum Press
/.JIJ
5.2 The role of historical analysis in predicting a nu
interpreting students' difficulties in mathcmatics
Victor Katz, Jcan-Luc Doricr, Olto t3ckkcn and Anna Sicrpinska
As noted in the introduction oflhis chapter, Piagetlll<IGarcia (1989. 27-28) cl3im
that
thc: advanccs madc in the coursc of lhe history of scientilíe dtought from on~ r~riuJ h• th~
next. do not. cxcept in rare instances. follow cach othu mrandom fn~hit•n. hut can 1-.:
seriatcd. as in psychogcntSis. in the form of sequcntià ·sagcs.' ... }and} th~ m~dtam~m'
mcdiating transilions from onc historical p~riotl 10 the na1lrc analoguus lo thos~ m~'\liauug
th~ lransition from one psychogenctic slagc lo lhe nexl.
Anna Sfard has noted (private communication) tmt lhis analot;y "is panicularl~
striking at those specia1 junctures wherc in ordef" III 35l>imi1ate or crcatc or lcnrn ~
new concept. lhe already constructed know1edt;, ~s to umlcrgo a compk t.:
reorganisation. and the whole epistcmologica1 fotmfálíon has to bc rcconstmct~ll as
well." Thc c1aim of Piagct, which is suppor1cd 'Y Sfard, nceds of coursc to b.:
supported by research into students' shifts Íl understanding mathcmatica1
difficulties. This research has been dane in smnl specific cases of stullcnt
difficu1ty, whcre 1hcrc was a historical rcason to bl~ that s~ch a dirricully mi!;lll
exist. We summarise the results ofsome ofthesemmch s1ud1es below.
A first example o f this phenomenon of studef>& fiíding difficulties an<Jlogous ~o
those o f past malhematicians is fami liar to most 32blus 1eachers: thc conccpt oi a
'li mil' in analysis. Teachers are aware that it ii5 gmerally difficull to expiam th~
formal notion of limit at the beginning of an ~tary calculus class. whcrc 11
'logically' belongs. Students certainly 'know' tlml.t!ie limil oflx+3 as x approachc~
7 is 17, but resist trying to prove such an obviC!llS m;ult using epsilons and deltas.
They cannot comprehend why such a proofwou!lfbenecess~. . .
To set this in context, historians are aware tbt lhe forrnal1dea o f a hm1t was not
developed until a century and a h ai f after the l!:asit: concepts of the calculus wcre
invented by Newton and Leibniz. During thaqrtci.:ld, from about 167~ to I 820.
many mathematicians used the concept of linn"ihtfth ·gr~t understandmg .-:-~nd
could calculate limits in many impor1ant cases-":àt lhey d1d not have ~ de~~muon
which would enab1e the statement "lhe limit oif :{{)as x approac~es a IS ~ lo_be
. proved with the rigor of classical Greek matl'rlmaics. Analysmg lhe h1st~ncal
conditions and reasons why the shift from an in\tliti?,e to a formal unde~srandmg_ o f
limits took mathematicians so long to accom!PISB giv!s us valuab1e_ mfor~au~n
which can help us both predict and int~ our students' . dlf~culues tn
accomplishing this shift in a few short weeks tte Comu 1991 , S1erpmska 1988,
Bum \993).
John Fauvet. Jan van Maanen (eds.). History in umárnatícs educotion: tl1e ICMI swd.v,
Oordrccht: Kluwer 2000. pp. 149·1 54
150 5 Historical formation and swdent understanding of mathematics 5.2 HistoricDI Dnalys.is and lnterpreting students' difficulties /51
. • • . 'j'"'

'; ~:..~:~$
Besides the difficulty relatcd to the passage !Tom an intuitive to a rigorous On a more elementary levei, students often have trouble making the shift !Tom :·.~;j;·.
understanding and use of lhe concept of limit. other difficulties arise from this solving concrete problems using words and numbers to the more abstract problem of ·· 1=:~k'
toncept in the comprehension of curvilinear area, tangent line and instantaneous using leners to designate unknown quantities. Again, we know that. historically, it
flow. An lntensive historical searth on the development of calculus allowed M. was a difficult conceptual switch. ln order to help studentS understand the role of
Schneider ll988) to demonstrate that these difficulties surface from the same letters as representing
epistemolo~cal obstacle: lhe absence of separation, in the mind of students, between unknowns, Radford and
mathematics and an illusory 'sensiblc' world of magnitudes. This investigation Grenicr (1996a, 1996b)
rrovidcd Schneidc:r with a reseólrch mcthodology to render such learning difficulties designed a tcaching
apparcnt: for cxample. the reattions of studcnts in leaming about Cavalieri's sequence in wliich
principies, indivisibles and related paradoxes rcveal mental shifts in meaning !Tom studcnt.s werc asked to
the world of·magnitudcs to thcir mcasure.s. solve some word
"' Jean-Luc Dorier ( 1998). in his studies of how best to teach the c:oncepts of linear problems using
dependente and linear independente in linear algebra, has noted that although manipulatives. These
studentS entcring university oficn have certain conceptions of thesc notions in manipulatives were
tCincrete situations. they h:~ve difficulty in understanding the connection of the conceived in such a way
formal definition \\ ith thesc earlicr situations. A historical analysis of the that the unknown quantity
dc,·clopmcnt of thcse conccpts provides hclp in understanding the students' was modelled by a hidden
difficultics. number of candies in a
Thc twin tCincepts of linear depcndence nnd independence emergcd historically bag ora hidden number of
in thc context of linc:~r equations and. in particular, in Euler's analysis of Cramer's hockey cards in an
r:~r:~dox d~:~ling with the number of intersection points of two elgebraic curves. Figurt 5.3: Not only 'hidden quantiries ' ore hard to envelope, and so on. The
Eul~r found that the paradox was based on the 'fact' that n linear equations understand. The Hindu·Arabic numerais themsefves were teaching sequence was
determine exactly 11 unknown values. but realised that this latter statement is not difficult for early European users. as this medieval ilalían structured to allow the
ah,ays true. He discussed severa! examples in which systems of n equations in n manuscript testifies. The scribe has rendered as ".ux .uxl students to master two
unknO\\llS do not have a single n-fold solution and realised that in certain cases lhe 302 303 ... " wlwt we woufd write as "30 31 32 33 ··. important rules of lslamic
actual constraints imposed on the unknowns by the equations are fewcr than n. That Such a text helps today's teachers to appreciate how algebra, those of al-
is. Euler stated that certain of the equations are "contained" in the others; this is his difficult it is for pupils to /earn positional notalion. muqabala and al-jabr. In
notion of what we can call inclusive dependence. After Euler's work, many the second step of the
mathematicians consi.dered this problem of dependente and tried to determine tcaching sequence,
conditions on the determinant of a dependcnt systcm which would show the nature instead of using
of the set of solutions. But it was not until 1875 that Georg Frobenius pointed out manipulatives, the students had to make drawings (e.g. of a bag containing an
the similarit)' of dependence of a set of equations to dependtnce of a set of n-tuples. unknown number of candies) and, in thc third step, the students had to use leuers
He could thcn givc n formal deftnition of the conccpt of 'linear dcpendcnce' ;~nd instead of drawings. The teaching sequence was inspired by a historical analysis of
show how the notion of 'rank' o f a system enabled one to determine the dimension medieval ltalian algebra (Radford 1995, 1997), in particular by an idea of thc
of the set of solutions. fourtecnth ccntury mathematician Antonio de Mazzinghi, who explained thc conccpt
The tcaching cxperiment rcportcd by Doricr, based on a historical analysis of thc ofunknown as a 'hidden' quantity.
development of lhe concept of rank, was designed to help the students understand Anna Sfard ( 1995) found furtherrnore that cven if high scho9l students could
the power of tine:~ r dependence as a formal and unifying concept. lndeed, from their solve linear equations or systems of linear equations with numerical cocfl_icic~ts, it
secondary school practice of solving equations, students entcring university usually was still difficult for them to make thc jump to solving systems wllh literal
have an Eulerian 'inclusive dependence' idea of equations. But at the university coefficients. She notes that at first she was "quite insensitive to the huge conceptual
levei. it is necessary for the students to move to the stage where they understand the difference betwe~n equations with numerical coefficients and cquations with
fom1al conccpt of dependente in a global conte.-.:t. That is, they need to understand . parameters." And it took severa! weeks ofhard work before the students could cope
that the equations. and not just n·tuples, must be regarded as objects in their own with such equations in a reasonable manner. Sfard found t~at colleagues ha.d
right and that tl\ere necds to be a deftnition of linear dependence which applies to encountered similar difficulties. Again, a historical analysts shows that th1s
both of these cases. as well as in even more general contexts. Thus it was necessary difficulty is not surprising. Even though by the late medieval period. leners an~
to devise a teaching strategy to mect these needs. other abbrcviations were bcing used in algebra to designate unknowns and thetr
151 5 Hisrorical formotion and srudcnt rmdersranding ofmathemarics
po" ers. the rules for soiYing equations were always stated in terms of concrete
examples.
Thus one could solve .t' + IOx = 39. but not / + bx = c. lt was François Viete in
the late si:hccnth century who fi rst introduced letters to designare known values
{ç:'anmeter5) and in this w:~y brought a great conceptual change to algebra. lt was
Vii:te's work that enabled fomlUias to be written to solve quadratlc and cubic
eq,uations. for example. and that led. in general. to structural mnnipulations in
algct-ra rather than purcly ()pcrationnl ones. The historical difficulties in this shifi
from numerical to purcly symbolic algebra again leads us to believe that leachers
must be aware of the conceptual dirticulties their students may have in making the
same shift.
~ Usa Hefendehl-Hebeker ( 1991) analysed the always difficult task of helping
students understand lhe meaning o f a negative number. and the reasons for the rules
go\'cming operations wilh these numbers. Negative numbers have, of course, been
used for two millennia in China. but mathematicians in the West have always been
suspicious o f them. even thoug.h the rules for operation on lhem were known by the
sixteenth cen1ury. E,·en as late as the nineteenth century. there were some English
mJthcmaticians \\ ho tried to reformulate algcbra without lhe use of ncgative
numt-rr:-. t-ecause thc y l:>dicved lhat they were nonsensicnl. The question, in fac!,
1:-eclme "helher negati,·e numbers were 'quantities' and then what il meant for a
·quantity' to be less than zero. There were, of course, numerous attempls
throug.hout thc cenlurics to justify ncgative numbcrs. eithcr by using thcm to model
a panicular idea (debt. for example) or by deriving the rules of opc:ration by
ar~uments based on the ."principie o f permanente of equivalent forros" (Pcacock
18;0). in particular the distributive and associalive laws. Hefendehi-Hebeker shows
in her articlc how modem students' confusions about these laws are mirrored in
confusions of sue h authors as Slendhal and d' Alembert in the 18th century. A
teacher would do well to study these 'confusions' to see why his or her own students
could be confused. But Hefendehi-Hebeker also notes that Hermann Hankel in the
mid-19th centUJ1' advocated a change in point o f view by looking at negatives as an
extension o f the number system rather than as quantities in their own right. That is,
he urged that these numbers be introduced in a purely formal manner, without
worrying about what kind of quantity they represent. Again. this history shows how
one might tJ1' to introduce and .iustify negative numbers in the classroom.
Another set of numbers which ofien causes difficullies for studcnts is the
complex numbcrs. At one time in school they are told that negative numbers do not
haYe square roots. and Iater they are told that in fact they do have square roots. Why
ha"e the rulcs changed? A historical nnalysis here shows again that there was a long
period of de\'elopment between the first discovery o f complex numbers by Cardano
and Bombelli in their studies o f solutions o f cubic equations in the fifteenth century
and the general acceptance o f these numbers into mathematics in the nineteenth. As
in lhe c:1se o f negati\'tS. it took centuries for mathematicians to give up the idea that
'number' must represent lhe measure of a quantity. The final acceptance of these
numbers carne only through thcir geometric inteqÍretation. that is. on their modelling
in a 11 ell-understood area o f mathematics. Again. many textbooks today seem to
5.Z Hisrorical analysis and interpreting studenrs' difficrtlries
violate this histori~l analysis by simply defining t!t~ squarc root of - I hy fiat. ·
without any motivation whatsocver.
Non-Euclidean geometry was developed by three mathematicians early in thc
nineteenth eentury. Carl Friedrich Gauss, who developed it first. dcclincc.l to publish
anything on this topic, because he did not want to deal wilh Lhe controversies he was
sure wou\d erupt. But two less famous mathematicians, Janos Bolyai in Hungary
and Nikoloi Lobachevsky in Russia. both publishcd lltcir studics in this licld around
1830. Nevertheless, it proved very difficult for mathematicians to give up the very
strong conviction that geomctry describes a unique reality and, as such, can not
admita plurality o f axiom systems. lt was not until severa I mathematicians showcd
how non-Euclidean geometry eould be modelled in Euclidean geometry that thc
mathematical community began to accept the validity of non-Euclidean geometry.
So again. we shou ld not be surprised whcn there is difticulty for students to
understand that Euclidean geometry may not in fact be the 'best' geomelry to \1
describe the space in which we tive. 1
A final common student difficu hy involves the tr.ansition to abstraction. As a I
typica\ examplc, many instances of whal todny are caUcd grou ps werc known in ~he
first eight decades of the nineteenth century-and some werc .k.nown ev~n earher.
Yet it was not until 1882 that the first complete farmal definttion of thts abstract I\
concept was given. Nevertheless, many current textbooks in abstrac~ algebra begin
by giving a formal definition o f a group beforc lhe Shlcknt has expcnenced many o f
these examples. lt is not surprising that students have difficulties making t~e l~ap to
abstraction; too linle anention has been paid to the nea:ssary steps that hsstorteally
preceded this leap.
As these examples dcmonstrate-and there are tWmerous others-a teacher who
is knowledgeable in the history o f mathematics wiH antitipate student difftculties in
areas where, historically, much work was needed to overcome significant
difficulties. Thus the teacher can be prepared with çpropriate teaching strategies ·
\ for these situations, ones which may well be in accord with the historical
developments and which will help the student.s ~ercome these obstacles to
understanding. And as some o f the research results is this area demonstra.te, .these
strategies may well be effcctive. Yet thc knowledge ofhistory ofmathemattcs IS not
\ sufficient to develop teaching strategies; if the analysísof historical conditions o f the
emergence of a concept is an important source o f inifotmatlon to predict and analyse
students' difficulties, teachers still mus t take in to ac-cwnt the reality o f tcaching ata
certain levei with a certain type of student. Then:: i!. no automatic transfer from :
history to teaching. First, the knowledgc o f history rmst bc as complete as pos~ible,
involving primary sourccs whencver feasible. .Seco~d. there must exrst a
preliminary didactical investigation about studems' di(ficulties. Fin~lly, the .
confrontation of the historical and didactical situatiros must be made Wtth great
~re, taking into account the conditions and conSir.aints of thc lwo diffcrcnt '
environments the historical and the classroom. '
· Such wo;k needs competence both in history a11d in mathematics education
research and shows interesting possible interactions b:nveen these two lields for the
future.
15.$ .5 llistorical form aríon and studcm understanding ofmathemalics
Rcfcren ccs ror §5.2
Bum. R. P. 1991. ·1ndi\'idu31 dc"dopmcnt ~nd historical dcvelopmenl: a study of calculus',
lntrrnatíQndjar,rroa/ o_lmathenr.llics t:dtlcntion. sclena and reclrnology, 24. 429-433
Comu. B. 199L 'Umits'. in D. T011l (cd.). .~d•·anc~d matltematicalthinking, Dordrcchl:
1\IU\\Cr. 153-166
Doricr. J.;L:19?8. 'The role of form3lism in lhe lt~ching of lhe thcory of vcctor spaccs·.
Lmrar algd""a ontf irs opplicarions. 275. 1·4. I~ t-160
Hcf(ndchl·lkbctc:r.l. 1991. ·Ncg31ÍI·e numbcrs: obstacles in lheir cvolution from intuitive to
inlcllcctual amstructs'. For tlr~ learrzing ofmarlr~matics. 11 (I). 26·32
Pcacock. George 1830. A /rearise on algrbra. C3rnbridge
Piagcl J. õllld.G:a-ci::~.. R. 1989. Psychogenesis and tlrt lrisrory ofscienu (trans. by Hclga
..,. Fcidcrl. Nt\\ York: C'olumbia L'ni\·crsitY Prcss
Rsdford. L. 1995. 'Ddore lhe Nhcr unkno,;·ns wcre im·cntcd: didactic inquiries on lhe
mcthods andrroblcms of meditYallt:lliõlll algcbra·. For tlte learnlng ofmalhemalics, 15
\) ). ~8-38
Rldi't-nl. L. :uu!Gt(nitr. ~I. l996a. 'Entre ks choscs. ks symboles ctles idecs.. . une
•-:1lucncc ifmscisncmcnt d'introduclion à l'algcbre'. Rrnre des sciences de /'éducation
n . ~sJ -2:;6
Ra.lfonl. L. :miGrcnicr. 1\t. 1996b. 'On thc dialcctical rclationships bctwccn symbols nnd
·11!!ct>raic iibs'. in: L. Puig. nnd A. Gutierrez (cds.). Proceedings o[llre 20th f11ternational
i.''J'!IÚtnarjt'r tftt Ps.\'('/rology o[.lfatlltmatics Educ:ation. Valencia: Universidad de
'lii(OCÍ:l.. ~ ~. 179-1 &6
RatHord. L. l!!'r. ·L'in,·cntion d'unc idée mathématiquc: la deuxieme hiconnue en algcbra',
Rrpc'rts. Rt=e des IRE.IIs 28 (July). 81-96
Sch!•tidcr 1\t. 688. Des e>bjets mentaru 'aire ·er \ ·olume · au calcul des primrlives, These de
(l•x:toratlor' ;rin-la-Ncuvc
Sfor(i. Anna t~. -Thc de\'dopmcnt of algcbra: confronting h i~torical and psychological
~'r.rspcciÍ\'o;". Jaurnol of mathemarica/ beha,·iar 14. 15-39
Sic \'Ínska. r\ma 1988. ·sur un prosramme de rcchcrche lié a la notion d'abslaclc
•:;J1S1Cmolojqw:'. in N. Bcdnan õllld C. Gamicr (eds.). Construcrion der savoirs:
obsraclts ncor.:Jlirs. Ottawa: Agcnce d' Are Inc.. 130-148
5..3 The rel~vance o f historica l studi es in designing and
ana~ing classroom activities
1\taria G. Ba.tni!ini Bussi and Anna Sierpinska
\\'ith contribuioms by Paolo Boero, Jean Luc Dorier, Ernesto Rottoli, Maggy
Schncidcr. .anlCnrlos Vasco
When a mat-hmnntics educator draws on the history of the domain in designing
acti,·ities foriit !Sludents hc or she may be looking for facts: Who were lhe authors
of tha1 panicu1Iqpiece o f matlu:matics? When did they live? What were their lives?
)(lhn F3u\·eL ·lm '.::l.n l\la~ncn (cds.l. Hisron, itJ marhematics education: the ICM/ study,
Dordrccht: K!o.1ver ~000. I'P· 15~· 1 61 · thc crucial ideas o f a scientific revolution in a concise manner, so as lo COJl''
J.J Historica/ studies as a background to cfassroom octivities /55
\ .
By introducing historical anecdotes in his or her classes he or shc may increasc the
sludents' motivation 10 lcilm tnilthcmatics. Bul a histo rical study may havc Olhcr
goals as well: looking for geneses of mathematical ideas or contexts o f emcr~ence of
mathematical thinking, in the aim o f detining conditions which havc to bc satislicd
in order for the students to develop these ideas and thinking in their own minds.
5.3.1 Bringing historical tcxts into thc classroom: thc 'voiccs und
echoes' gamcs
For example, Boero el al. ( 1997, 1998) concemed themselves with the conditions' o f
emergencc of 1heoretical knowledge. Mathematical thinking is theorctical par
excellence, and without developing this spccial altitude o f mind in the studcnls thcrc
is less opportunity for deepening their understanding of mathematics. A historico-
epistemological analysis was, for these authors, a basis for an analylical delinition of
theoretical knowledgc which included parameters such as organisation, cohercncc
and systematic character, the role played by definitions and proofs, the speech gcnrc
characteristic of thecretical discourse, and lhe ways of viewing the objccts o f thc
theory. This definition became subsequenlly,.a basis for a didactic thcory: indccd.
Boero ecai. have designed and implemcnted an innovative educational mc thodology
in the classroom called lhe 'voices and echoes gam~'. which draws on thc
Vygotskian distinction between cveryday and scientitic concepts and thc 13akhtinian
construct of' voice'.
The main hypothesis ofthis methodology is the introduction, into the tlassroom,
of 'voices' from thc history o f mathematics (in the form of selectcd primary sourccs,
with commentaries). This might, by mcans of well chosen tasks, develop into a
'voices and cchoes game' suitable for the mediation o f some important clcmo.:nts o f
theorctical knowledge. The chosen examples of theoretical knowlcdgc are
conceptuallcaps in Lhe cultural history of mankind: the theory of falling bodics of
Galilco and Newton, Mendel's probabilistic modcl of lhe transmission o f hcrcditary
traits, mathematical proof and algebraic language. Ali these featurc aspe~ls of 11
counterintuitive character. The authors claim that the 'new' manners o f vtewmg and
the methodological requirements are expressed by the 'voices' of thc protagonisb
themsclvcs in the speech genre that belongs to their cultural tradition. Such voiccs
act as voices belonging to real people with whom an imaginary dialogue can ~c
conducted bcyond spacc and time. Thc voices are continuously rcgcncratcd 111
response to changing situations: They are not passively listened 10 bul actively
appropriated through an effort of interpretalion. The authors describe ?nun~bcr of
teaching cxpcriments whcreby 1hcy introducc some analytica.l todls (1.c. d1ffcrcnt
types of echoes) which, on the one hand, are used to interpret classroom proccs.scs
and, on the other, are used to design classroom activity. For instance, a 'mechomca f
echo • consists in a precise paraphrasing o f a verbal voice, whilst an ·assrm ilotian
echo • refers to the transfer of the contcntlmethod conveyed by a voicc lO othcr
problem situations. A 'resonance • is a studcnt's appropriation of a ~oice _as a ';·ay ~ f
reconsidering and represcnting his or her expericnce. The most dchcatc 1ssuc m t~us
melhodology is, certainly, the selection of historical sources capable of conve··

.1 ~· ...
Fig 11 rc 5A: 11'/r,·rh,•r 11 sertion of0
,·one ts tltr same us a section of a
,·yl""hr. wrd "lrerlrer eirlr~r is egg·
sh~d. Iras long /:oun dtbared.
H~ff lft;rtr ·s discussion of tlrt
rl'ndel'\' e~ sung
der institutionalise the pieces of knowledge
u. ,,,., """ •wucm 11/ldcrstandillg ofmarhemalics
the space and time constraints of
institutionalised teaching. Boero's
published experiments concem mainly
grade 8 secondary school students, but
studies presently in progress (with voices
taken from · Plato's dialogues) have given
evidence that similar processes can be
implemented also in primary schools and
with pupils from n range of socio-cultural
backgrounds (Garuti et ai 1999). We
analyse below (§5.4) the epistemological
assumptions ofthis methodology.
This approach is consistent with the
approach of Bartolini Bussi et ai. (1996,
1999) who also introduced a guided reading
of historical sourccs in primary school, in
two long-term teaching experiments
conceming perspective drawing and gears.
Even i f no explicit voices and echoes game
was introduced in the classroom, the guided
reading and interpretation of well selected
historical sources had been used to
I questions. But it proved useful and inspiring, both tn explammg students
5.3 1/istorica/ .rtudies os a background to classroonr activiries /57
5.3.3 Thc e:mmplc of linear algebra
This is certainly the case of the research projects on the teaching and leamíng o f
linear algebra conducted, indcpendently, by Oorier and Sierpinska.
The motivation of these research projects has been students' common1y stated
difficulty with the axiomatic approach us.ed in undergraduate linear algebra courses.
This difficulty is of\cn hard for mathematicians to understand, for whom the
axiomatic approach is indeed the royal road to linear algebra, at last allo~ing the
subject to be presented in a simple, neat and coherent way. The questtons that
naturally arise in this situation are: why is it ~ifficult to understand a simp~c
axiomatic theory? What are the conditions o f commg to construct or unde~s~and thts
or that particular concept of this: theory? What can be dane to fac~htate the
understanding of this theory by the students? Some answers to t~ese ~uestton~ make
no referente to history. For example, one may say that the ax tomatl~ theones that
constitute linear algebra are simple only in appearance. A shghtly. d~eper
mathematical analysis o f the basic concepts o f linear alge?ra shows. thetr mner
complexity (see, e.g. Sierpinska. Oreyfus, Hillel, 1999). Th1s complext~ may not ~
be accessible lo an undergraduate student, and therefore, he or she ":''" hav~. to
accept the teacher's word that, for example, it make~ sens~ to accept thts defimuon
rather than a different one. This happens so often tn a hnear algebra course, that
many students end up developing what is called 'the obstacle of formalism' (Oorier
et a/ 1997). 11 may not have been necessary to refer to .history t~ .answer thes~
difficulties and in designing activities for them.

tlltpst
Mes.sung. 1525) built in the classroom by shifting them to a
thcoretical levei. In both experiments the
nppropriation of the theoretical dimension of mathematical knowledge had led the
pupils to produce theorc:ms. i. e. statements with proofs inside a reference theory
(Mariotti et ai. 1997). The above expe.riments concem early grades of school (4·8).
Other experiments have been carried out successfully in the 11th grade (Ernesto
Rottoli. personal communication). using originaltexts of Greek authors and excerpts
!Tom historical studies. in order to íntegrate the knowledge acquired during
phitosophy lessons and the knowledge acquired during mathematics lessons. The
aim was to organise a deepcr levei of knowledge. The design was based on the
t~wareness th:ll in nncicnt times mathematics ond philosophy were strictly linked to
~nch ('lthcr nnd ~('lme traces of this link ore still present in highly organised and
culturally roNcd linguistic pnttems.
5.3.2 lndirect use of his.t orical and epistemological studies in the
dcsign of acth·itics for studcnts
In the research projects described above, elements of the history of science
(fragmcnts of original texts) were uscd in an explicit manner in thc teaching
sequenccs. and historico-epistemological studies were directly linked to the contents
of teaching. The links between the historical studies and the teaching design can be
much more implicit and indirect, and the relevance of lhese studies for the didactic
activity somc.-what less obvious. · didoctic experiment, but the experiment did not aí:t at ~ recon~trucllon m the
II
For example, a look at the history of linear -algebra from a v~ry br~ad
perspcctive of currents of thoug1tt allowed the identítication of three mteractmg
modes of reasoning, labelled 'synthetic-gcometric', 'analytic-arit.hmetic' •. and
'analytic-structural' (Sierpinska et ai. 1997). These medes of reasonmg are hnked
to different theoretical perspectives and imply different meanings o f concepts. They
I
are not equally accessible to beginning linear algebra ruJdents, and the students tend
I
I to be inflexible in using them in different contexts. An awarene:s ~fthese. ~~des of
reasoning and their role in linear algebra helps in "?th destg.nmg. acti.VIttes for
I
1
students and.reacting to lhe students' rcsponses to them 10 a teachmg S1tua1ton.
A more fact-focused look at the history of linear algebra allowed the
identification of the contexts in which the basic linell' algebra concepts emerged:
analytic geomctry, vector algebrn, vcctor analysis and ap?l1cntions i~ physics; lin~ar
equations and determinants, linear differential and functtonal equattons! abstracuon
of vector structures in functional analysis (Oorier 199Sa, 1997). Spec•fic contexts
have been uscd in the dcsign of history-inspired classroom activities. For cxample.
instead of simply giving lhe delinition o f a linearly indep~dent sei o f vectors and
following it by a series of exercises, Dorier (1998a, 1'9~b) pr~p~se~ to anchor the
studcnts' undcrstanding in thcir expericncc of the Gav.sstan ehmmotson ~ethod for
solving systems of equations, whic~ is introduced in s~condary schools. tn France.
The task for the students was to discuss and analyse lfus method. In th1s research,
history was a source of inspiration and a means o f control in thc build.ing ~f thc
classroom ofthe historical development or even at commenttng on htstoncaltexts.
 -' 'mtUIKut Jurmauon and studem understanding of malhematics
Case stud)·: Fermat as an inspiration ror work with C:~bri
The reference to history is also implicit in recent research by Sierpinska, Hillel &
Dreyfus (sub_mined). which focuses on the studcnts' understanding o f the notion of
,·ector _and 11s coordinatcs in a basis. This rescarçh involvcd dcsigning and
C\'aluaung.,a reachmg sequence in the Cabri dynamic geometry environment What
emerged was the str~king differ~nce between the way in which Fermat approached
the. prob,te~ o f lindrng a canomeai cquation o f a conic in his Ad i ocos planos et
soltdos ua!oge (c. I 635) and the algorithmic procedure which is normally used in
present day hnear algcbra courscs. This triggered an undcrstanding ofthe difference
between geometric and arithmetic spaces. and a coherent explanalion in these terms
of lhe studcnls' difficuhil'S and conccplions. A bricf oulline of this explanation
follows.
a E!emenis of_an n-dimens~~nal arithmetic space are 11-tuples o f real numbers. By
efin•~g ope:auons of add1ll0n and sc:~lar mulliplication on the n-tuples in a
CCICirdl~a:e-lnse fashion one obtains a vector space slructure usually denoted by R• .
There 1s a long·standing tradition of referring to lhe elemenls of lhe arithmetic
spaces as ·points'. and of using the language of Euclidcan geometry to refer to their
subscts su.ch as Strai~llt lincs ~nd planes. This is what wc do in linear al~;cbra
classes. w1tl~out. l.lowcvcr. discussing with lhe students the status. in the theory, of
the_geometnc obJects thus evoked. There are important differences between the
·~nt~metic spaccs · undcrl~ ing. vector spaccs R" and thc 'geometric spaces' of
Euchdean gcomc1ry. The objects ofthe arithmetic spaces are sets of lf-luples ofreal
numbers dcfined by conditions (in the form of equations, incqualities, etc.) on lhe
~cnns of the n-tupt:s be.longmg to the seis. These objects can be represented by
.,eomctnc figures hke lmes or surfaces. The represenlations will depend on the
choice ofa coordinate syslem.
A sei {(.t.y): .t: + / =I} , for example, will be represenled by a geometric circle
in an orthonom1a~ coordinate system. and by a geomelric cllipse in a non-
orth.onormal ce>ordma~e syste~. (Here geometric cireie means the locus o f points
cqu•d•stant. from a gl\·en pomt.) In geometric spaces, the roles of objecls and
represcntallons are reversed. Objects, given by relations between 1heir parts, can be
repre~cnted by sets of ~-luple~ defined by conditions on their terms, e.g. by
equau_ons. Thesc equauons w111 be different depending on the choice of the
coordmate syslem.
Fermat and ~escanes worked with geometric spaces, and for them, equations
were _repres~nlauons of. g~ometric objecls: they were introducing a system of
coordmales mto a pre·e>:Jsllng geometric space. But, in a process which started by
lhe end o f the I 7th century with lhe work o f Newton and other creators o f calculus
representations staned to play the role o f objecls: "Before Descartes the solution o f
an a!gebraic equa:ion was nothing but a tool to solve other ;roblems. After
Descartes and panJcularly at the end of the 17th century, to give an equalion or a
symbohc expr~ssion was just to give a curve, and to give an integral was just to give
an ilrea. ~ven •f the curve_an~ thc arca are gcomctric objccts thal wc can perfcctly
charactense wahout mentlonmg any equation or integral." (Panza 1996, 245). This
5.3 Historical studies as a background to classroom activities 159
pra<:ess led to the replacement o f lhe geomclric spacc with, as it were, a system o f ·
coordinates withoul an underlying gcometric space. ..,:.:. ~(.
The geometric tanguage and drawings of tines and planes in today's linear
algebra tcxtbooks are used as mcrc didactic aids in thc introduction of thc IR•
spaces, itlustrations which play no role in lhe building of lhe lheory. But lhinking o f
vectors as n-tuples leads, notoriously, to sludents' difficulties wilh lhe notions of
'change of basis' and 'coordinates o f a vcctor in a basis', especially when thesc
notions are introduced in the comexl of R" spaces (Hillel & Sierpinska 199-l ).
lndeed, for a student who is thinking in terms of arithmetic spaces, lhe notion of
change of coordinates may not make sense. lnsofar as an arithme1ie space is nothing
bula system o f coordinates, changing lhe systcm means changing lhe spacc, so onc
should maybe speak oftransformations ofthe space. The very notion o f coordinatcs
of a veçtor does not seem to make sense in lhe arithmetic frame of mind, where a
veclor is nothing but coordinates. In our courses we oftcn 1ry to give some meanin!;
to lhe notion o f change o f basis by introducing the topic of canonical equalions o f
conics. Bul in doing this, without waming lhe studenl, we revert to thinki n~ in
lerms of geÕmelric spaces: conics are again gcomctric objccts which can bo.:
rcprcscntcd by diffcrcnt cquations dcpcnding onthe choicc of lhe coordinatc systcm.
This only adds to the confusion in lhe students' minds. The notions of coordinatcs
of a veclor ln a ba.sis and change o f basis make more sense for lhe studcnts whc n
they start worki ng with vcctor spaccs othcr ti1:1I1 JR" (especially with funct ion
spaces) but, at an early stage in the ·tcaching of linear algebra, it seems use fui lO
restare the geometric genesis o f the R" spaces. This was the guiding ide a o f lhe
teaching design and an important part of lhê rationale behind lhe choicc of t h~
computer environmcnt, namely the prcference of a Dynamic Geometry SoftwM~
over a Compulcr Algebra System.
A posteriori, it is clear that it was not necessary to sludy Fermal's lsa~;ow: to
come to lhis understanding of the studcnts' difficulties. But it helpcd a lol In
darifying ideas and making distinctions bctween blurred concepls. Thc simplc
reason for this can be that understanding ideas gains much from analyliOll
contrasting ways o f thinking, from having access to their articulated exposition, 1111\1
from following their evolution over long periods o f time. Ali this is made pO,~ II)It
in a historical study.
5.3.4 The example of calculus
Another example of the use of historical studies in undcrstanding studeJJ tt'
difficulties and designing activities for them is found in a research project condut tr1l
by Schneider (details in §8.2.2). This is a projecl concemcd with s;alcu lu~. whh h
takes into account the order and choice o f historical contexts, thc hislorical fornu oi
lhe central concepts, and the analysis o f lhe evolution of these conccpis iu tcllllt oi
epistemological obstacles (Schneider 1988). Activities for thc studenls are dcsli:uctl
with thc intention of allowing thc studcnts to pul to tcsl, indivldunlly PIHI
collectively, their previous belicfs and to bccomc awarc of lhe limitntions oi the~c
The problem situations generaled in these activities are cxpectcd to g1ve rl~t to
.... v f
.J H IStortcal.forml.ltimr and stlldl!lltwrdt!rstanding o mmlremarics
cogniti'e and socio-cognitivc connicts and to crcate favourable conditions for
stuclents to reach a bettcr underst:~nding.
Although the project is framed by a constructivist view. it is not assumed thatthe
students construct theoretical knowledge only as -described by the constructivist
model. tnJeed. in this project. studcnts' understanding is seen as dependent, to a
cenain cxtent. on the did:~ctic mediation of the teacher. For example. a game of
·voices and echoes' (in Bocro's scnsc:. see above) between Bcrkeley's text and the
stu.dents about instantaneous velocity. with a meta-levei type o f intcrvention of the
teacher (sec Dorier 1995bl. mJk~s the students bener aware o f their own perception
of mathematics and or the conn ections of this discipline with the perceptible
phenomcna o r th e ph~ sical \\Orld. In this project. the theory o f epistemological
obstac:les and the constructivist approach are conceived of as hypotheses whose
ffliciency should lle tested case by case. taking into account the specificity of the
mathe matic:~ l contcnts. the socio-cultural orig.in o f stndents. the problem situations
as described ll~· some preciso: didJctic nriables. ~ach situ:~tion having to be studied
did actic::tll~ (for :m ex::tnrple o f a didactic sludy o r a situation relatcd to instanlaneous
Oo" see Schneider I Q92l.
5.3.5 Rcscarch on thc meth odology of history-based design of
acth'ities for students
In n~itherof the examp\c~ of rcsearch gi\'en in this section was the methodology of
hi st e>r~ ·bJsed design and anal~ sis of student activities an objcct o f explicit
discussion. 01her research in mathcmatics education is conccmed wilh this
ranicul:lr question. especi :~lly in the context of the theory of epislcmological
ol:>stacles le.g. Schneider 1988. 15-16: Sierpinska 1994, 120-125). Here, let us
me ntion in more detail only a methodology proposed by Vasco ( 1995), which is not
reiJted lo the fr.lme" ork o f epistemological obstacles. Thc heuristics proposed in
this work. called ·forward and backward heuristics', are aimed at helping to find
hypotheses for potentially optimal sequencing of mathematics curricula. The
·forward heuristics' are meant to propose efficient ways of reviewing the
ph~ logenesis o f the panicul ar mathematical subject. in order to optimise the
ontogenetic mastery of lhJt conceptual field. The 'backward heuristics' propose
w:1~ s lo trim. comprcss. 3nd even a!ter the sequences found through the forward
heuristics. Forward heuristics lay out the rough drafl of thc roads on the
mathem:uical map: batk\\ard heuristics do the redesigning, the shon-cutting, and the
road signalling (Vasco 1995. 62).
Refertnces ror §5.3
Bartolini Bussi 1\1. 1996. ' Mathematical discussion and perspectivc drawing in primary
schoor. Educalional studies in nratlrenrarics 31. 11-41
Bartolini Bussi I\ I.. Boni M.. Fcrri F. and Garuti R. 1999. ·Early approach totheoretical
thinking: gears in pritnal)· school'. Educatíonaf studits in mathematics 39, 67-87
Bartolini Bu~i. 1\1.. :llld 1\1. A Marioni. 1999. 'Semiotic mcdiation: from history 10 the
mathematics classtoom·. For the fearning ofmatlttmatics 19 (2). 27-JS
5. J Historicaf studies as a background to classroom activiries 161
Ooero P.. Pede monte B. nnd Roboni E. 1997. •Approaching thcoretical knowlcdgc throu!;h
voices and cchoes: a Vygotski~n perspcctive', Procudi11gs o/r fie 21 sllnrcrnatfonal
Conference on tire Psyclto/ogy of Malhemalfcs Educalion, Lahti, Fínland. vol. l. 81-SK
Boero P.. Pcdemonte B.. Robotti E. and Chíappini G. 1998. "The 'voices an<.l ~cho~s g;~m~·
and the interioriz.ation of crucial aspects of thcorelieal knowledge in a Vygotski~n
pcrspcctivc: ongoing rescarch', Proceedings o{ lhe 22nd lnternatfona/ Conferrnu on tlr~
Psyclrology of Marlrematícs &Jucarion, Stcllcnboscll, South Africa. vol. 2. 120·127
Dorier, J.-L.. Robert, A., Robinct. J. A. and Rogalski, M. 1997. ' l.'algcbrc linéaírc: rob~tad~ i
du formalismc à travcrs divcrscs rccherchcs de 1987 à 199S'. in: J.·L. Ooricr (ctl.}.
L 'tnstignement de l'ofgêbt-e linéairt tn question, Grenoblc: l.a Penséc Sauvagç Editiuns •.
105-147 ..
Dorier, J.• L. 199Sa. ' A general outline ofthe genesis ofvector space theory',lfistoria
matlrematica 22, 227·261
Dorier. J.-t.. 199Sb. 'Meta levei in the teaching of gencralizing conccpts in mathcmatics',
Educatlonal studies in mathematics 19 , 175·197
Dorier, J.·l.. 1997. 'Une lecture épistémologique de la gcnêsc de la théorie dcs espaces
vectoriels'. in: L·L. Doria ed., L "tnseignement de l'algtbre linéaire M question.
Grenoble: La Penste Sauvage Éditions. 27-105
Dorier. J.·L. 1998a. 'The role offormalism in lhe teaching ofthe theory ofvector spaccs'
Linear algebra and irs appfications 275, 141-160
Dorier, J.·L. 1998b. 'État de l'an de la recherche en didaclique à propos de l'enseigncmentllt
l'algêbre linéaire', Recherches en didactique des mathématkJues 18 (2), 191·230
'I Garuti, R. P Boero & G Chiappini, 1999. 'Bringing the voiceofPiato in the classroom to
I detect and overcome conceptual mistakcs', Proceedings ofthe 2Jrd PME Conferenct.
Haifa, Israel iii, 9·16
I
I
Hillel, J. & Sierpinska, A. 1994. 'On one persislcnt mistakc in linear algcbra', Proceedings of
the 18th lnternational Conferenct on tire Psychology o{Mtll/rtmatics Education, Lisbon..... ·
Portugal, vol. 3, 65-12
Mariotti M. A., Bartolini Bussi M., Boero P., Ferri F. and G~i R. 1997. 'Approaching
geometry theorems ín conttxts: from history and epislemology to cognition'. Proctedirrgs
of tht 21st lnterrrational Conference on tire Psyclrology ofMathcmatics &Jucarion, Lahti,
Fin!and. vol 1, 180-195
Panza, M. 1996. 'Concepl of runction, between quantity and tOrm, ín the 18th century', in:
H.N. Jahnke, N. Knoche and M. Olle (eds.), Hislory ofmathcmatlcs ond education: idtas
and e.xperlences, Gottingcn: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht,241-269
Schneicler M. 1988. Des objets mentaux 'aire· et 'volume · a aco/cu/ des primilfves, 1Msc: de
doctorat. Louvain-la-Neuve
Schneider M. 1992. 'A propos de l'apprcntíssagc du tau11 de Yariation instantané',
Educationaf studies in mathematics 23, 317·350
Sierpinska, A. 1994. Understanding in mathemotlcs, Londoa: Falmer Press
Sicrpinska, A., Defence, A., Khatcherian, T., Saldanha, L. 1997. 'A propos de trois modes de
raisonnement cn algebre lintairc', in: J.-L. Dorier (ed.).L 'mseignement de /"algtbre
linéalre tn question, Grenob!e: La Pensée Sauvagc Édilions, 24:9:268
Sierpinska, A .. Dreyfus, T.• Hillel, J. 1999. 'Evaluation of:ucaching design in linear algcbra:
the case of linear ttansformations' Rec/rerches en didactique des mathématiques 19. 7-40
Vasco, C. E. 199S. ' History ofmathematies as a tool for tead!ing mathematics for
understanding', in: O. N. Pcrkins. J. L. Schwartz, M. M. West. and M. S. Wiskc, Sofnvare
goes toschoof: teaclrirrgfor understanding with new te~!.rologies, New York: 0Kford
University Press, 56-69
l6Z 5 Historicalformation and sludent understanding of m~thematics
5.4 Epistemolog.ical assumptions framio~ interpretations of
students understanding of matbematlcs . course, the clear-cut division of obstacles into ontogenetic, didactic, cultural and
Luis Radford, Paolo Boero and Carlos Vasco
. ·~
Two dtfferent phenomc:na need to be linked, in using the history of mathematics to
understand bener the student processes of lcaming mathematics and the way in
which such an understanding can be used in the design of classroom activities. On
lhe one hand, lhe lcaming processes of contemporary students: on the other hand,
lhe historjcal construction o f mathematical knowlcdge. These phenomena bclong to
.,two different theoretical rcalms: thc former to the psychology of mathematics, the
laner to an opaque ficld where epistcmology and history (to mention only two
disciplines) encoumer cach othcr.
The linking o f psychological and historico·epistemological pheno mena requires
a clear epistemological approach. Within the field of malhematics education
different approaches have been used. They differ in their epistemologicaÍ
assumptions and. as a result of this, they provide different explanations of the
history of malhematics. They also offer different interpretations of students'
understanding of mathematics and suggest different methodological !ines of
pedagogical action. The aim of this section is to provide an overview of some
approaches and their corresponding epistemological frameworks.
S.·U The 'epistemologic:al obstacles' perspec:tive
This approach is based on the idea of cpistcmological obstacles developcd by a.
Bachelard and !ater introduced into the didactics of mathematics by a. Brousseau in
lhe 1970s. Brousseau's approach is bascd on the assumption that knowlcdge cxists
and m:U:cs sense only bccause it represcnts an optimal solution in a system of
c:onstraints. For him, historical studies can be inspiring in finding systems of
constraints yielding this or lhat particular mathematical knowledge: these systcms o f
constraints are then called 'sirualions fondamemales'. In Brousseau's view,
knowledge is not a state o f mind; it is a solution to a problem, independent of the
soh·ing subject. Within this context, an epistemological obstacle appears as the
source of a recurrent non-random mistake that individuais produce when they are
t:rying. to solve a problem.
A clear assumption underlying this approach is that an epistemo1ogical obstacle
is somelhing wholly pertaining to the sphere of the knowledge-a sphere that
Brousseau conceives as separated from other spheres. Thus he distinguishes the
epistemo/ogical obstacles from other obstacles, e.g. those related to the studcnts'
own cognitive capacities according to their mental development (ontogenetic
obstades), those which result from the teaching choices (didacric obstacles)
John Fa;ncJ. Jan 1an lltaanen leds.). Hisfory in mathematics cducarion: Ih~ ICMI Jtudy,
Dord~cbt: KIUI\Cr !000. rp. 162· 167
5.4 Epistemo/ogical assumptions about student understanding 163
(Brousseau 1983, 171; Brousseau 1997, 85-7) and those whose origin is related to .
éu1tural factors (cultural obstacles) (Brousseau 1989; Brousseau 1997, 98-114). O( :..
epistemological categories is in itself an epistemo1ogical assumption.
The link between the psychological and the historical phenomena to which we
referred previously · is ensured by another cpistemological assumption: in
Brousseau's account, an cpistemological obstacle is precisely characterised by its
reappearance in both the history of mathematics and in contemporary individuais
leaming mathematics. He says (translation from Brousseau 1983, 178; 13rousscau
1997, 87-8): "The obstacles that are intrinsically epistemological are those. that
cannot and should not be avoided, precisely because o f lhe ir constitutive role in thc
knowlcdgc aimed · at. One can recognisc them in the history o f the c:onccpts
lhemselves."
A third epistemological assumption is to be found in the aniculation
'studcnt/milicu'. Accordin~ to Brousscau, thc tcachcr seis thc situatiun, but thc
knowledgc: which will result is due to the student's appropriation of the problem.
Thus, the motivation is an cltclusive relationship between the problem-situation and
the student. In doing this, Brousseau supposes that a kind of isolation betwcen thc
teacber and the student takes place during the processo f so1ving the given problcm.
The interpretation ofthe student's understanding ofmathematics is framcd here
by the idea that the development of knowledge is a sequenée of conceptions and
obstac1es to overcome (Brousseau 1983, 178). Consequently, the pedagogical action
is focused on the elaboration and organization of teaching situations built on
carefully chosen problems that will chaUenge the previous students' conceptions and
make it possible to overcome the epistcmological obstacles, opening new avenucs
for richer conceptualisations (for an examplc, see thc way Schneider organised hcr
calculus teaching, §5.3.4).
Sierpinska has stresscd that, although lhe new conceptualisations may be scen ns
more complcx than thc prcvious oncs, thcse do not havc to be ncccssarily rclatcd to
steps in the development or progress of knowledge: "Epistemological obstacles are
not obstacles to lhe 'right' or 'correct' understanding: they are obstacles to some:
change in lhe frame ofmind." (Sierpinska 1994, 121).
5.4.2 A socio-cultural perspec:tive
Some Vygotskian pcrspectives in mathematics education choose, from the outset, a
different set of epistcmological assumptions. Thus, in Radford's socio-cultural
perspective, know1edge is not restricted to the technical character which results
when know1edge is seen as essentially related to lhe actions required to solve
prob1ems. Following a socio-historical.approach (see eg Mikhailov 1980, llyenkov
1977) anda cultural tradition (sce eg Wartofsky 1979), knowledge is conceived as 11
culturally mediated cognitive praxis resulti ng from the activities in which pcople
engage. Furthermgre, the specific content with which knowledge is providcd is seen
~ framed by the rationality ofthe culture under consideration. lt is the mode o f thot
rationa1ity which will delitnit lhe borders of what can be considered as a scientific
problem and what shapes thc norms of scienti!ic inquiry-for instante, what is an
/64
- 5 fi istorica/ formalion and sludent understanding of mathematics
.,
accepted scientific discourse and what is not. what is accepted as evidencc and what
is no!. The mode o f the rationality relates directly to lhe social, historical, material
and s~mbolic characteristics underpinning the activities of the individuais (Radford.
subminedt Hence. from a socioculturol epistcmologicol viewpoinl. knowledge can
only ~ ~~derstood in rcfcrencc to the ralionality from which it nrises and the way
th~ :!Ctl\'tttes of the individu:~ls are imbricaled in their social, historical, material and
s~mholic dimensions.
: In this ~ine of thoug.hl. a problem is nevcr an object on its own, but is always
posed. studted and sol"ed within the canons o f rationality o f the culture to which it
bel~ng.s (Radford 1997a). For examplc, the supposed numerical panemed cosmo-
log•cal nature of the universe was an important belief in the culture of lhe
Neoplatonists (as it was in the early pythagorcan schools). Another belief from that
"tarly Greek period ''·as that "the paradiematic relation between the world and
numbers is sueh that what is true of numb;rs and their properties is also true of the
structure and. processes of the world" (O'Mcara 1989. 18). The problems that they
posed. result1ng from the nforementioned assumcd numerical structure of the world
and lhe in' estigation o f this structure through non-deductive methods (Radford
1995). were seen as being completely genuine and valid within their rationality and
beliefs.
In ~adford· s ~ocio-cultural approach, the student/milieu relation is sustained by
the ep•slemolog•cal assumption according to which knowledge is socially
constructcd. lnstcad o f seeing sue h a construction as a diachronic move hclween lhe
t.:achcr and lhe student. os is ofien the case in socio-constructivist accounts the
student is seen as fully submerged in his cultural milieu, acting and thinking thr~ugh
lhe . n~enal of concepts. meanings and tools o f the culture. The way in which an
tnd1v1dual appropriates the cultural knowledge o f his or her culture is often refcrred
to in Vygotskian perspectives as interiorisatlon. Different accounts o f interiorisation
can be pro,·ided. In the socio-cultural approach under consideration a semiotic
sig~-mediate.d, discursive account sees interiorisation notas a passive p;ocess but a~
actl\'C: one, 1n which the individual (through the use of signs and discourse) re-
create.s concept~ an.d meanings and co-creates new ones (Radford 1998). An
expenmental h1stoncally-based classroom study conceming the re-creation of
concepts ca~ be found in Radford and Guérene ( 1996). A historical case study about
the co-creat10n of new malhematical objects is provided by the invention of the
second unknown in algcbra by Antonio de Mazzinghi in the 14th century (see
Radford 1997b).
In this socio-culturol perspectivc, the classroom is considered as a micro-space
o f lhe ge~era! space of culturc, and lhe understanding that a sludent may have of
mathemat1cs 1s seen as ~ process o f cultural intellectual appropriation of meanings
and concepts along the lmes of student and teacher activities. Understanding is not
seen merely as a unidirec tional stage rcached by a fortunate student resulting from
the sudden awareness o f something becoming clear. As Voloshi nov ( 1973, 102) put
the matter. "Any true understanding is dialogical in nature", meaning that at the very
core of understanding resides a h)·brid scmiotic matching o f different views. Since
sueh ~ sem~otic ~atching is conlextually situated and culturally sustained, there is no
questton. tn th1s approach. of reading the history of mathemalics through
5.4 Epistemological O$Jumptions abaur :.:.,denl understanding 16.S
recapitulationistic lenses (whether of conlcnts or mechanisms). The history of j
mathematics is a rather marvellous locus in which to rcconstruct and interprct thc 111
past, in order 10 op.en new possibilities for designing activities for our students.
Although cultures are different they are not incommensurablc; as explored in
Voloshinov•s· concept of undcrstanding, cultures can lcam from each other. Their
sources ofknowledge (e.g. activities and tools) and their meanings and conecpts are
historically and panculturally constituted. This is made ele ar by the fact that mosto f
our currcnt concepts are mutations, adaptations or transformations of past conccpts
elaborated by previous generations ofmathematicians in their own specific contexts.
5.4.3 The 'voices and cchoes~ perspective
Let us now tum to the epistemological assumptions underlying Boero's 'voiccs and
echoes' perspective (sce §5.3.1 ). His point of departure is lhe fact that some verbal
and non-verbal expressions (especially those produced by scientists of lhe past) I~
represent in a dense way important leaps in the evolution of mathematics and
science. Each of these expressions conveys a content, an organisation of thc
!
discourse and the cultural horiz.on ofthe historicalleap. Referring to Bachtin (1968)
and.Wensch (1991), Boero & ai (1997) called thesc expressions voices. Pcrforming
suitable tasks proposed by lhe teacher, the student may try to make connections
between lhe voice and hislher own interpretations, conceptions, experientes and -
persnna/ .1enu.r (Leont'cv 1978), nnd producc an echo. a link with the voice madc
explicit through a discourse. What the authors have called the Voices and eclwl!s
ga(lle (VEG) is a particular educational situation aimed at activating students to
produce echoes through specific tasks: "How mighl X luNe lnterpreted the facttlwt
Y?"; or "Through what experiences might Z have supporred his hypothe.ris?"; or:
"What analogies and differences can you flnd betwttn what your classmate .raiJ
and whot you read about W? ".
The epistemological assumptíons underlying the VEG, partly presentcd in Boero -
& ai ( 1998):contem both lhe nature of 'theorelical knowledge' (the content to bc.
mediated through the VEG), and the cognitive and educational justifications of the
VEG. As regards the nature of theoretical knowledge, in mathematics and
elsewhere, some characteristics were highlightcd drawing on the seminal work of
Vygotsky about scientific concepts (see Vygotsky 1990, chapter 6). In particular,
theoretical knowledge is systematic and cohcrent; validation of many statements
depend.s on logico-linguistic dcvelopmcnts related to basic assumptions (axioms in
mathematics, principies in physics, etc.).
In relationship to thc problem of transmining mathematical thcoretical
knowledge in school, the preceding description was refi~ed by taking into account
Wittgenstein's philosophy of language as well as recenl deklopments in lhe field of
mathematics education by Sfard. The following aspects o f théoretical knowledge in
mathematics were considered as crucial, conceming both the processes of theory
production (especially as regards the role of language) and the peculiarilies of the ·
produced theories:
 5 Historical formation ond student understanding ofmathematic:s
thcoretic;~lknowkdge is org~nised ~ccording to explicit melhodologíca(
requiremenu (like eohcrence. systematitity, etc.), which offer importam
(ahhough not exhaustive) guidelines for constructing and evaluating theories;
definitions and proofs are key steps in the progressive extensions of a theory.
They àre produced through chinking stracegies (genernl, like proving by
contradiction: or p~nicul~r. like 'epsilon-delta reasoning' in mathematical
analyst.) which e:-:ploit the potentialitics of language and belong to cultural
tradition:
the speech genre o f the l~ngu3ge used to build up and communicate theoretical
knowledge has spc:cific language keys for a theory or a set of coordinated
theories-for instance. the theory o f limits and the thcory of integration, in
mathcmillic:al analysis. The spc:ech gcnre belongs to a cultural tradition;
as a eoheran :md systematic: organisation of experience, theoretical knowledge
' 'ehiculates specific ·mann crs of ,.il.'ll'íng • the objccts o f a theory (in the ficld of
m:~thcmatical nt('dclling. wc may consider deterministic or probabilistic
modelling: in the field of geomctry, the synthetic or anal}1ic points of view;
etc.).
In B('cro ('t 111. ( IQ98). the authors claim that th e approach to theortticallmowledge
in a gi,cn m:~ihematics domain must take thcsc elcments into nccount, with thc nim
of medi3ting thcm in suitable ways. Conccming the problem of 'mcdiation', the
assumption is m:~de that. depending on . its very nature. each of the listed
pecufíarilies is heyond the reocll of o pure(r corucructivistíc approach.
The authors' working hypothesis is that the VEG can function as a learning
environment where the elements listed above can be mediated through suitable
tasks. needing ':~clive imitation' in the studcnt's 'zone of proximal devclopmenl'.
The first teaching experiments. reported in Boero et af 1997, Boero et oi. 1998,
Garuti 1997. Llado & Boero 1997, Tiz:zani & Boero 1997, were intended to provide
experimental t\'idence for this hypothesis.
The three perspectives mentioned in this section have shown a variety o f ways of
conceiving 1he production of know1edge. Each of them reli~ on diffcrent
epistemologica1 assumptions. 1t is evident from this that different epistemological
assumptions kad to di!Terent intefl>retations ofthe history of mathematics, as well as
diffcrent ways of linking historical conceptual developments to the conceptual
de\ etorments of CCintempor:lfy students.
Rtftrtnces foi' §5.~
B~chtin. M. 1%8. DNtc•n·.dij. poctica e Jllliscico, 'furino: Einnudi
Bocro P.. Pcdanontc B. :111d Roboni E. I 997. 'Approaching theorctical lmowlcdge through
\OÍCes andcd1ocs: a \'~ ~otsl..ian perspecti\'c·. Proceetlings ofrl:~ llstlnternationol
Co'!ÍÍ'rt'tl« on rlrr P.<~ clrolog.· of Motlltmotics Education. Lnhti, Finland. vol. 2. 81-88
8(1Cro P.. Pcàtmontc B.. Rot.otti E. :md Clliappini G. 1998. 'The ·,·oiccs and cchoes game'
:111d lhe int:rioriution of crucial :JSpetts of thcorctic:~J knowlcdge in a Vygotsl<.ian
rcr.>rccthr. ont:o1ng re~ç:uc h ' . Pronrdmy,s of tiJt Und brtrrnational Conftrmce on tht
PsyciJc-ic>~- ~-.\f.;thawucs E.iucauon. Std lcnbosch (South Africa). l . 120-121
S.4 Epistemological assumptions abour student undersranding 167
:: r.::..
llrousscau, G. 1983. 'Lcs obslaclcs 6pistémologiqucs ctlcs problemes cn mathêrna114ucs·.
Recherchts en Didoctiqut dts Macl:émotiqllts, 4 (2). 165-198
..;
~ "
.
.....
~:
...
·~ : ·~ ~
Brousseau. G. 1989. 'Les obstadcs c!pistémolo&í4ucs clla did:lctique dcs mathcma1i4u'-s'. ira .:
N. Bednan el C. Gamier (eds), Construelion des savairs, obstoclcs ti conjlits. Moolrcar:
Agente d'Arc. 41-64
Brousscau. G I997. 1J1eory ofdidaclical si:ualioi1S in maihtmalics, cd & tr N ilalachdl' trai.
Dordrecht: Kluwer
Garuti, R. 1997. 'A classroom discussioo anda hisloric3l dialogue: a case study ·. Proacdmgs
ofche 2/st/lllernationa( Conferencc on the PsycilofogyofMatlremallCS EJucouon.l.:~hli.
Finland, 2. 297-304.
llyenkov, E. V. 1977. Dialteticallogic, Mosc:ow: Progrcsl Publishm
Lladõ, C. & Doera. P. 1997. 'Lcs interattions sodales dans la c\ me et Ie role mctli~t~ur de
l'cnseignant', Am.s dt lo CIEAE..\f-..f9, Sctubal, 171-119
l.conl'ev, A. N. 1978. Aclivity. COI1SCÍOUSness arrd rxrsonaliry. Englewod Cliffs: l'rcntio:c-llõlll
Mikhailov, F. T. 1980. Tht riádfe of lilt se/f. Mostow: Progress Publishcrs
O'Mc:11'3, D. J. 1989. PythagorOJ revived, Oxford: Ctarendon Press.
Radfo«<, L. 199~. ' La transformadón de una ltoria matemática: el caso de los oumcros
poligonales', Mache.sis li (3), 217-250.
I.
Radford, L. and Guérc:uc. G. 1996 'Quadratic cqu~tions: rc-invcnting thc formula: a tc:aclting
scqucnce bascd on the historical dcvclopmcnt of algebra', in Proc. HEM Braga ii. JOI-
308.
Radford, L. 1997a. 'On psyehology, historical epistcmology and thc teaching of mathcm;nics:
towards a socio-cuhural history of mathcmatics', For lhe fearning of malhemach·s I 7 li).
\ 26-33.
Radford, L. 1997b. 'L'invention d'une idée math~matique: la deuxiêrne intonnuc c:n
algtbrc', Rept.rcs (Revue des instituiS de Rccherche sur l'enseignemenl des
.•
.
\ Mathématiques),juillet, 28,81-96.
Radford, L. 1998. 'On signs and representations: a cultural account', ScitnJia poedagol(ictt
esperimentalis, 35, 277-302
Ri.dford, L. (submiued). 'On mind and culture: A posl-Yygotsldon semiotic pcrspcctivc, with .
an example from Greek mathematicalthought'
Sf;ud, A. 1997. 'Frnming in mathcmatical discourse', Procudings ofthe Zlst/nrernarional
I Conftrence on the Psychology of Ma1hema1ics E:ducation, Lahti, Finland, 4, 144-151
Sierpinska, A. 1994. Undtrslanding in mathemalics, London: FalmeT Press
I Tizzani, P. & Boc:ro. P. 1997. 'La chute des corps de Aristote! Galilée: voix de l'histoirc et
I echos dans la classe', Aeles de la CIEAEM-49. Setubal, 369-3i6
Voloshinov, V. N. 1973. M~múm a nd rhe phi/osophy oflanguoge, Cambridge, Mass:
Huvard University Press
Vygotsky. L. S. 1990. Penslero t Jinguoggio. edizione critica a cura di L. Mecacci, Bari
Wanofsky, M .1979. Models. represenca1ions and tlle scientific undersramiing, O<Udrccht:-
Reidel
Wertsch, J. V. 1991. Voicts ofthe mind. Whcatshc~f. Harvcster
Wittgenstein, L. 1969. On certoinry. Oxford: Basil Blackwcll
 5 Hisroricalformcllloll ond strrdenr rmc:. .ling ofmatlrematics 5.5 Concluslons: guide{ine.s and suggestions for frütratnsearch 169

recapitulationisl paradigm. As Chevallard says (tmnsbtd' from Chevallard 1991,

5.5 Conclusions: guidelines and suggestions for future 48):
rcsearch Another direction for research consistS in being aware that: tht;U!ned didactical construction
of knowledge is a spccific projcct within the. leachitng pmess, bcaring an a priorí
heterogeneity with the scientilic practices of knowledge, amd 1111 immediately rcduciblc to thc
Jean-Luc Dorier and Lco Rog.ers cotTesponding socio-historical geneses ofl<nowledge.
Nevertheless, teaching is slill organised in sue h a W"&lytnc there is a social demand
T11e 'arious issues addresscd in tliis chapter. and lhe related teaching experiments that the knowledge to be taught musl appear as cllaa .z ; possible to the official
and didactical Jnalyses brieny described. show clearly that while 'naive knowledge of mathematicians. In this scnse, an erpi3ltllological reflection on the
recapitulationism · has persisted in many forms. the rclation between ontogenesis and development o f ideas in the history o f malhematics man caich didactical analysis by
rh~ l0genesis is now recogniscd to be much more complex than was originally providing essential clues which may specify the mme o f the knowledge to be
1:-elie' ed. The relatiC'ns between history of mathematics and leaming and teaching o f taught, and explore different ways of access to that }kllnfedge. Nevertheless whal
mathematics can b.e e:..tremely varied. Some teaching experiments may use appears to have happened in history does not cover a!U éeoossibilities.
hiswrical te:-;ts as essential material for the class. while on the other hand some
didlctical anal~ ses ma~ irueg.r:ue historical data in lhe teaching strategy, and
epistemok,gical relkctions about it. in such a way that history is not visible in lhe
actual teaching or learn ing e:-.perience.
\\'hik ~C'me knowleJge of history o f mathematics may help in undcrstanding or
rerhJps e' en anticipating some o f ou r studenrs· misunderstandings. a careful
Ji-:h:t ic:~l analysis using history of mathcmalics is neccssary in order to try to
,,, ac.,me stud.:nts · difficulties. History may be a guide for designing teaching
e\reriments t-ut it is only one of many approaches, more or less essential, more or
less ,·isible. o f thc "hole didactical setting. Thercfore, one of the necessary
conclusions o f Ihis ch~pr cr would bc that any use of history in the teaching o f
m~thematics necds ~ n accompanying didactical reflection.
This way of putting th ing.s creates an asymmelry between history and didactics
"hich m:~y not rcn cct thcir actual relationship. lndeed any attempt to put in relation
lhe hisror;· of mathematics and the teaching or leaming of mathematics necessarily
induces an epistemological questioning both of individual cognltive devclopment
and of the interprctations of the historical development of mathematics. What
happened in the past :md what may be likely to happen in the classroom are
ot>"iously different phenomenn because they are based in very different cultural,
sociological. psychologicnl and didactical environments and because contemporary
didactical conte:'(ts nnd historical pcriods conform to very different constraints. Figure 5.5: Nicofaus Copernicus. in fronl of rhe Pofisk larkmy ofSdences in IYarsaw,
Be~ ond these JiO"crcm:.:s. the act of te:~ching is legitimated by lhe belief that sten through rhe interpreta tive lens first of Polish hima:y, thtn of tlte Danish scufptor
"hat is taught in lhe classroom bears some similarily with professional malhematics. Btrtd Thorwafdsen. then of a 8ritish phorographer in llfe.l990s. Now an inspiraJion to
However. lhe knowledge to be taught (sm·oir enseigne) is a transformation of the Pofislr students. in rire 19th and 20th centurics many wimJard only vague undtrstanding
kn<"' l~dgc of 'professi(lnal' rnalhemalicians (savuir savant) even ifil uses lhe same of his achlcvements were rrevertlreless agituted aboul ""Ewdru Copernicw wa.r l'olislr or
vocabulary. notions. and so on. and il is rare that historical processes are taken into German. The splrere and rhe compasses have foniS iíiu symbols to represtnl a
account explicitly while \\TÍling curricula. Historians of mathemalics may objecl malhemalician lo the gaze ofpassers by. Jo..
that this is a nonscnse. On lhe other hand. it would also be a nonsense to try to
imrose a reconstruction of history in the teaching process, in a very strict We cannol reconstruct lhe past wilh any certai!tJ. Not only are we missing
essential data (for example, lost texts, ephemera~., ·111published material or oral
exchanges) but also a historical fact or event is ne:fll:r·pristine. A fact or event is
lt•hnf~u\(1. bn \:In :>.laancn teds.). Hisrorr i11 marh~marics educarion: rh~ fCMf study, always seen through interpretative lenses. and m:s=: will only be partia! and
D<'rdr,·cht: Klu\\cr !000. pp. 168·170 subjective. We face essentially similar difficulties wlDanalysing didactical events.
 liO .S Hi.storical formation and student understanding ofinathematics
To this extcnt history and malhematical pedagogy sharc common lheoretical issues
with rtgard to the necessity for epislemological reflec1ion. We need not only to took
through history in order lo ITy to improve the teaching of mathematics but also to
elaborate common ('echoing') ways o f exploring hislorical and didaclical situations.
This ~oulcl be a very challenging issue for future research which could be
approachcd from difTercnl viewpoints. lt could be a new way o f raising the issue of
cultural influences in lhe development of malhematics.
We.la\"e said above thal what happened in hislory does not cover ali the possible
ways. of ittess to one spccific clemcnt o f knowledge. Yct, when sclting up a
teachmg programme, one should try to analyse as many ways of access to lhe
..
knowledge as possible. This is an important par1 of any didactical analysis where
the use ofhistory can be informative. However, this work is usually confined within
the limitl of an official curriculum. lndeed, traditions in curricula are sometimes so
strong tllat our vicws. even as researchers in mathemalics educalion, on the
o~anisation o f knowledge are limited bccausc of thc strong cultural influenccs that
unconscic>usly guidc our thoug,hts about thc di!Tcrcnt possiblc organisations of a
curriculum. Because history is temporally and culturally distant from the
mathematics taught in our usual curricula, it may provide us v.ilh some unusual
wa) s obccess to knowledge that could be of considerable didactical value. Of
coursc. lhis can bc possible only ifone does not look at hislory through lhe lens o f
'm(ldem mnthematics'. In this sense, another line of development for future
rcse:1r1:h would be a rc tlection on certain parts of the curriculum in relation lo an
cpistcmological refleclion on ils historical developments.
1t may be added lhat, among lhe arcas for further research, it seems important
that malhematics educators and·teachers should become more closely involved in
co·operzti\·e efTorts lo develop and implement lessons and modules using the
hislory of mathcmatics as we h ave shown here. In a similar manner, collaborative
worlt bctween historians of mathematics and mathematics educators can conlribute
to bentr elucidation of the problem of the link between the cpistemological and
psychological aspects o f thc conceptual devclopmcnt o f mathcmatical thinking.
Rcftttllce for §5.5
Chc\"albJII. Y. 1991 La rraruposirion didoctiqur, Grcnoblc: La Pcnstc Sauvage.
Chapter 6
History in support of diverse educational
..
requirements--opportunities for change
Karen Dee Michalowicz
with Coralie Daniel, Gail FitzSimons, Maria Victoria Ponza, Wendy Troy
Abslract: Tht need.r of students of divuse educatiotwl boclcgrounds for mathtmaticol
ltornirrg are lncreasingly being appreciated. Uslng historicol resources. teachers ore better
ob/1 10 support the learning of stu<hnts in such IÜverse sltuot/ons aJ those rcturning lo
educotion., In lmder-resourced schools and communilits, those with educolíona/ cha/lenger,
and mathematicolly gifted stucknts.
6.1 Introduction
Thc scholarly sludy o f mathematics history has, for the most part, taken place within
the realm of the universilics. Within lhe universities, one can find lhe rcsearch
con1munity of ma~tematicians intcrcstcd in malhcmatics history; wilhin thc
universilies one can find the aulhors of mathematics history books and texls. AI a
growing number ofuniversities and collegcs, the study oflhe history ofmathematics ....
has become part of lhe curriculum for mathematics undergraduate and graduatc
students. lndced, in recent times many universities and colleges have started to
provide courses in history of mathematics for prospeclive secondary school
malhematics teachers.
Neverthelcss, there has becn minimal interest from the mathematics community
in introducing lhe history·of mathematics to pre-collegc students, or to studcnts who
choose altemative direclions for lheir post-secondary education. One can speculate
on the reasons for this. Those who teach mathematics history in tlíe university are
oot lhe teachers of lhe primary students, secondary students, or students seeking
altemative education at whalevcr levei. Nor are they thc tcachers o f the gifted pre-
college students. When one finds a primary or secondary teacher using mathematics
history. in a pedagogical way, it is usually (although in some countries this is
. changing) because lhe teachc r is an amateur mathematics historiao, not because Lhe
leacher had bcen traincd in lhe area.
John Fauvel, Jan van Mõlallen (eds.), History in mot/;ematics educatlon: rht fCMf si•·
Oordrecht: Kluwcr 2000,pp. 171 ·200
 6 flistory in srtpporl of diverse educational rcqrtirements
The uuthors of this chapter. university faculty in mathematics and mathematics
~ducation. teachers of secondarv and elementary students, teachers of the giOed,
Jnd teachers of students seekin~ or needing nltemative education practiccs, have
found that mathcmatics history h;s greatly influenced their success in the classroom.
Their anecdotal evidence is voluminous.
This chapter hiiS becn written to highlight some of thc idcas and practiccs of
these teachers. Their e;( pericnces circle the globe. They have worl<ed with children
and '"oung adulls from manv cconomic. cultural. social and educational
backg.rounds. The,· ha,·e locat~d resources or created and produccd their own.
Fro~ differcnt ba~kgrounds and different countries, they have brought their
common lo\C of math-ematks histor\' to the students that they teach. They ali have
~een how inspiring mathematics hisiory can be to their students regardless of their
dh erse backgrounds.
Although SCime Clf thc following essays are specific lo individual countries, the
h..-an of the issue applies globally. In most countries. similar circumstances can be
found. For example. the educational inequity witnessed in some areas of Argentina
can t>e likened to that of impo\'erished regions in sue h countries as the United States.
Teacher training is anNher global issue. Curriculum is a volatile issue, especially in
ce>untr ics \\Íthout a natie>nal curriculum.
6.2 Educationa l. cultural, social and cconomic diversity in
primar)·, secondary and tcrtiary settings
6.2.1 Primar:· education and the use of mathematics bistory in the
classroom
E\cept within the me>st impoverished areas of the world. most children receive at
least 3 primary education. including arithmetic. While most students will have some
sece>nd;uy education. students in some arcas of the globe may go no furthcr than
rrima.ry school. ln whate\'er country. it behooves society to provide lhe best and
most sCIIid primar)· education possible. Unfortunalely, mathemntics is that part of
the prim~· currículum m:my teachers are less than eager to teach. Undoubtcdly
smdents realise when their teachers' altitude towards mathematics is one of anxiety.
Students will tcnd to folle>w thc len<l of theír teache-r. thcir role mo<lcl. in th is.lt
secms impcrati' c to pro\'itlc tcachcrs with tools and rcsourccs that wilf rcducc lhe ir
anxi~f\· and that of theír students. Part of this strategy lies in the ways teachers and
~tude~ts see the value of mathcmatics. as something useful and interesting beyond
the nccds of basic cotnputation. No one will deny that students should know how to
compute. Whole number operations, fractions and decimais are a necessary part of
prim:~r)· educntion. They :1re skitls th~t most need throughout their 1ives. However,
studcnts and te~chers need to know that mathematics is much more than
computation.
The hi~tN\' of m:tthcmatics is an instrument to enhance the value of mathematics
in the classr~m and to enlil!hten students to the breadth of mathematics. When
r rim:lr) te:~chers are gi'<·flth~ opponunity to sce how mmhcm:~tics can be connected
6. 2.1 f'rimary educarion and nrathematics history in the c/assroom 173
to their social studies curriculum (gco~raphy, history, etc.) and cven to thcir
literature curriculum, arithmctic can begin to take on ::t more mcaningful ro le in thc
classroom. While thcre is little if any rescarch to vcrify this position. thcrc is a
myriad o f anecdotal reports given by primary leachers who have found succcss .in
the practice of conncctíng the history, geography, and cultural times o f mathemaucs
to thc study of primary arithmctic.
-~·
11J161'.Z:~~ -z->~A~. i~õ.JA .. !:,q ... - l'll·
q...~r~~ Ull IJA.._.-;" lc:.~ r:o ·
/\J1"11~1~J:....$........... J· / • q?!1\J"\tt~ o4 •
ft.n.c,M·~~ 11. ,jii.H"lz..A .. _:...o-;:> ... ã>~l·'·..:-~;. ..ta:u~.
tt.A,ur• ~..o!....o.
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.. .. -·· ~ ···
... , ,....
q.";-~~~=
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.."A.·~-tr-!.-
~,, .. ....
~.. ~··'
.o q,~.·l.d
. , t . •. , .
•·eo-
t , ••
Fi!(lll't6. /: T/w Egyptian Rt.itrcl papyrus (writttn by Ahmc rM scribe in 1650 /1(' in
hitt'atic. top imngc. witlr its lrieroglyphic transcription 6elo1•). now in tire /lritislt
Museum. is accessible to primary sclronll'"f>ils in declpherúsg and calculating. as ~~·~// 11s
in problem salv/ng. Primary schoolteachus moy use it to link mathemarics witlr lristory
in tl1eir classes. Frnm Tire Rhind Mathcmatical Popyrus (A.B. Clroct d ai. cds.). ii,
Oberlin O/rio 1929. p/. 73
Givcn that the use of lhe history o f mathematics in thc primary clnssroom is :m
idea with merit, the question is how can it be accomplooed. 1t appears lhat lhe need
ties in two areas. One, teachers need to receive the newsary education to be ablc to
undcrstand aboutthc history of mathcmatics and how il connccts to thc arithmctic in
the classroom. Second. teachers must have access 10· materiais, or at least necd
guídance on whc.re to look for materiais or how to creare thcir own m~tcrials for thc
clns~room.
In many countries, mathematics educalion for primary feachers is minimal. Many .or
these teachers would not be comfortable with the secondary school mathcmaucs
conlent: Thus, even if it is availablc, a univcrsity e»urse in mathematics history
would riot be something the pre-service primary tcacher. would ~ttcmpt. The
mathematics is too sophisticated. The type of courst in mathematics history that
primary teachers need, which would connect with fueir prospec~íve curri~ulum.
content and pedagogical concems is just not available. Even inservtce educatton for
primary teachers in the use of mathematics history is stldom found. . .
Mathematics hislory resources for the primary dassroom do ex1st m a small
number. However, these resources are not available gScbally and are costly. ls there
a solution for providing the primary teachcr with the it!Struction and lhe materiais
 6 Hisrory in supporl of diverse educational requiremenrs
needcd to use mathematics history in the classroom? Probalily not atthis time in a
com·entional way. However, there are tiny altcmative steps that can be taken to
work toward providing for the teachers needs. First and forcmost teacher educators
internati011;11ly nccd to make a commitmcnt to providing opport~nities for teachers
to leam ahout usi ng. the history of mathcmatics and how to develop materiais. They
nc~d I<' :fo<,k to traditional ways of instruction nnd to non-traditional, altemativc
"3~S.1'fi~tnJct ion. \\'ith the la"cr idea in mind, it is suggestcd that the Internet
could rtay a vcry imponant role in both education and resources. There are a
nu~1ber o( outstanding Web sites that coniain mathematics history rcsources some of
"h1ch ate excellent for the primary teacher (see the section on Internet use,§ 10.3.2).
At some such sites thcre could bc posted a 'Primary Teacher Education Centre'
"hi~h. ''Ould include sourccs for historical readings for the teacher, ways the
~ cumculum could bc conncctcd, timclines. maps, and othcr primary materiais.
-:-bm~s <'flcachcrs usiug mathematics history who could mentor other teachers could
t-~ listed. <l'e>.
Th~ lntcrnct. although still not accessi ble univcrsally, is bccoming more and
more a'ailnblc cvcn to 1cmote arcas. Globally educators are beginning to rcalise
that lnttmct acc~ss. at a reasonable cost. provides the unlimited information that a
sche>QI N CHn to" n library in an impoverished area could ncver provide. In many
\C>untrks. the Internet is al ready providing for adult educntion in many fields of
inmu.:-tit•n. 0('1, Ít'USl~. rro,·iding. inser1·icc in mathematics history on-line is a
~ Jp}.ilit~ that aIr~3d\ ~xists :~nd needs only to be put in place.
.-\nirudes to11 :1rd mathematics are dc,·cloped early in children. We know how
"c li :1 ('<ISitil e attitude inOuences leaming. Therefore, knowing how the use of
math~riUtics history can provide for affective student needs, it appears lhat its
introduction in to the primary grades is very important. 1t would be desirable if ali
schc>e>ls o: cducatio_n would provide teacher training in the use of the history of
mathc.ma11cs for pruuary school. This ideal appears to be a long term process.
He>"e'cr. with a linle cre:1ti1·e th inking, the Internet could provide information and
rcsc-urc~ that the primar~ te:~chcr could use immcdiately. Thc challcngc is thcre.
6.2.2 Uodcr-scn·cd (lirnited rcsourccs) students
Maria Victoria Ponxa
Among the resources assigned to education in the world. economic funds are
csscntí:ll to our purposcs, sincc pedagogic rcsources depcnd on them. Thcre are few
qualifi~d teachcrs. no improvement. renovation or 'up.dating' for such teachers as
t.h~re 3!e. or for thc necessary materiais such as buildings. chairs, books, and papcr.
11 1s a fact that ali ovcr thc world the cconomic rcsourccs alloucd to education ~re
insufficie nt. But in some countrics they are excessively scarce, and such funds as
ólfe a,·ailable are improperly distributed. This section is a case study in how
ce>ururies in this situation can use thc history of mathematics in thc light of thcse
h•hn flu,(l. J.111 ' .\n ~ 1a:m,·n (eds.l. lilmm· '" mntlor·,mtirs t'<Íurmrclll'
n,,rJr~<ht Klu" ~r ::tl\111. pp. Ji~-17'.1 .
6.2.2 Under-se111ed (limited resources) students 175
t ~ --:
constraints, from lhe perspective of one such region, lhe province o f Cordoba in
Argentina.·
In Argentina and many other countries, there are two very different types of
schools: govemment schools and private schools, differing mainly in the economic
resources at the schools' disposal. In govemment schools most ofthe funds go into
paying salaries (at rather a low levei), while privare schools are ablc to invcst more
and more money every year in providing ali lhe necessary resources for teaching
already mentioned (teachers, materiais, training, buildings, etc.). As a rcsult, the
social gap between rich and poor in t.hat country becomes widened.
Frequently, pcople are heard to refer to the existence of two Argentinas as a
consequence of an economic policy that has a direct influente upon educational
policy. Families naturally belong to one or the other Argentina. mos! o f them to the
one where the lower resourccs are found. In conscqucnce, govemmcnt schools are
always overcrowded. (This situation is not unique to Argentina, of course; but
Argentina is the subject ofthis case study.)
A differcnce betwccn some countrics and Argentina lies in the fact that many of
the AJ'gentine pupils are awarc of hardship and realise how fortunatc they are to bc
able to attend high school. These pupils at least begin wilh a wish to study and to
take lhe best advantage of their opportunities. Similarly, lhere are for historical
reasons a cadre of capable teachers in govemment schools who take their work
scriously. Nonetheless, therc are broader social factors working in the opposite
direction. One of lhe main problems of a country such as Argentina today is that,
partly in respons~ to a spreading global ethos. people are drawing nearcr to short·
term individual action and further away from investing in training and excellence.
The trend towards immediate gratification is unlikely to bring about important
achievcments in education, by diverting attention and resources from the long-term
competency and skills which are needed for sustained success in thc world today.
Mariano Moreno School in Rio Ceballos, Cordoba Provinee, Argentina, belongs
to the group of govemmcnt schools of Argentina where economic resources are
minimal. Any project away from lhe conventional depends exclusively on the will,
drive and crcntivity of thc pupils and tcaching pcrsonnel without expcctations of
funding. In 1994, I coordinated and took part in an interdisciplinary project lasting
an academic year wiú1 13-year-old pupils and encompassing seven subjects. The
project was approached from the context of history in generaL Thus in order to
obtain a coherent participation of thc area of malhematics, it was the history of
mathematics lhat was cxplorcd. As a result of lhe project, many changes were
obscrved in thc altitude of pupils towards malhematies: their rejcction o f lhe subject
decreased and they experienced a surge of interest. Historical investigations of
important figures in the mathcmatical past, their lives and disc?veries, enabled
pupils to scc human aspccts of mathcmatics t.hat thcy had ncvcr prcviously
imagined. From that moment on, I started using the history of mathematics as a
resource for teaching pupils of different ages.
In reccnt years, thc province of Cordoba has cxpericnced untimely rcforms in lhe
educational system, practically without notice and without providing trai ning nbc>•'
the reforms for lhe teachers. This has put lhe teaching staff in n difficult ''
tlrr /CAl/ study. with regard to curricular contcnts, nnd also lcd to problcms in thc condw
 I (> 6 /Jiswry· in suppor! of di1•ersc edrrcatronol requiremems
Thus it "as that in 1996. we found ourselves teaching. for lhe first time. pupils a
~c ar ~ oungcr "h o hau bccn movcd from thcir prcvious school wherc they originally
..-xrected to c(lrnplete their Se\'enth l!tade. These students were relocated to a school
"ith 'e~ l-ad classroom conditions~ As a con_scquence. the pupils had difficulty in
adapting te>their ncw en\'ironment and discipline problems wcre rife. TI1is particular
situatiC>n fNced us :tsk Clursch cs wh~t could bc: done in the lig.ht of the reality that
"<' "ere CCinfrontcd 1\ith. Th~ ~ns"er "~s prompt: make use 1'\( other resourccs; in
this case. resort to thc histor" ofmathematics.
ln the fim ye;,r cCiurs..-:undcr my charge. the histor:· of mathemotics exercised
"hat can only be dcscribed as a magical effect. In momcnts when disorder impeded
hearing any possible exrlanatiCin of usual mathem:uical curric ulum. I found thal
telling. t-~ "ay o f st(l~ . the ·history of the symbols + (plus). of - (minus). of
m:uhematici:tns such as Euclid or Galois. etc.. succeedcd in calming everyone and
aiJed in the r rCigre$s Clf thc lesson. In 1997 those same pupils. now in the second
>e:~r. :~grefd tCI "Nk "ith me on curricular contents ·!Tom the history of mathematics.
fl'r $~\Cra( ><'lfS 111~ rnpils haH bcen performing mathcmotical dram;llisations,
thus estat>lishing a reiJtionship bet\\een mathematics and other subjects. The 1997
rr,'r<'$ll rut fC~rw:~rd t-~ me CIITered a good opponunity to perform dramn connected
h' the him'~ ,,f nmhe111~tics. The project aimed ai providing pupils with a lively
e.\r~rience (lt histNic:~l f:tcls reg:~rding mathematics by experiencing the life of
$\'me flnt(lus figures so as to humanise our subject. Also. a comparative study of
the sCiciJI Jnd pCIIitical contexts at different ages down to thc prescnt was
undenJken. Thesc ideas cr:stallised in1o a practical plan when my pupils suggested
"riting and performing a play on the life of Evariste Galois (for more details see
C'h. I 0). The drama production and related interdisciplinary activities provided
r:~nicnlar retlectie>ns npon lhe following seneral questions:
- \\'hat r(lle can the histCII'}' of mathematics pl:~y in response to special educational
needs-:'
- \\'hat rebtie>nship is there bem·ecn the role or roles we anribute to history and
the "3~ s of inrroJ uci ng N using it for educational purposes?
- Wnat conscquenc:cs will it produce for orgnnisation and practice in lhe
classroom':'
\\'orkin~ out thC! curric ul;, of the wholc academic year using the history of
mathematics 3nd dramJ ga'e us 3 chance to become aware of severa! beneficiai
a~rects .
1. In a school with ;,n excessive number of pupils on every course, and where
economic scarcity intluences the possibility of having texts as teaching aids, the
histor: of mathem3tics acted ns a mobilising element for bringing 1ogethcr
resourcc:s which on thcír own would havc been wanling.
"" lt provided an incentive for reading and encouraging the use ofthe library.
. . 1t stimulated the dewlopment of expression in language and malhcmalics. since
a hr!;!~ 3111\'UIIt ,,r ncw mathcmatical terminology was tliscovcred, used and
unJerstCI(Id 1:-y studcnts thrNt~h reading thc history and interprcting lhe text.
-1. The introductiCin of historical anecdotes served to humanise lhe mathematics
:~nd to ks~en studems· rejection ofit.
6.2.2 Under·serveú (limited resources) students 177
5. The dramatisation and the work on gencrating thc tcxt revealcd hiddcn aspects
of the personality of the pupils, as well as sensitising them to the realities of the
past and lhe actuality of the present. Pupils identified aspccts of Galois' life
with lhe unfair conditions they suffer in their own lives. The public recognition
eventually granted to Galois' work, although belatcd, awakened some h'ope in
them and encouraged them to continue sludying and participating. As a 1eacher.
this gave me a chance to become acquainted with other aspects of my pupits'
lives and understand I hem bener.
6. The introduction of mathematics history into the course curriculum attracted the
anention o f pupils, since it was thc first time thatlhey had seen such a thing.
7. With regard to the mathematical concepts arising from Galois, the pupils could
not, of course, tackle them in depth owing to theirrudimentary knowledge; they
are 14-year-old pupils and in their 2nd. course ofthe basic cycle.
The política I realities of finding a role for history in the dassroom.
At present the history of mathematics is not included in the course of study for
pupils. Nor is it present in the curriculum of insti!lttions in charge of preparing,
nationally qualified mathematics teachers in Argentina (and most olher countrics for
that matter). Those who already teach mathematics are minimally intcrcsled, partly
through being overworked already, and have had littk opportunity to see the history
of mathematics' as other than a gratuitous accessory. Such leachers do not pursuc
further information and do not refer to mathem.21ics history during classroom
teaching. lf. however, consideration of the history of mathematics even in an
isolated maMer (by only an individual teacher hCR or there) brings about such
important consequences for the teaching and leamÍllg of mathematics, as has been
seen in this case study, it becomes imperative to wotl towards the systematisation of
these advantages. What is needed is thc wider availbility of historical texts in the
country, which up to now are in the hands of only a very few teaching personncl,
and owing in any case only to personal efforts. The public libraries lack lhis
material, and lt is esscntially completely absent fiom schools and institutions of
teacher ttaining. (The bibliographies elsewhere in chapters 9 and li of this book
give an indication ofwhat is available.)
At this moment, year 1998, lhe pupils l worked with on the Galois project are
attending the 3"' school year. Since I am still their kacher, I have the opportunity to
see the effects of their dramatic work in the previ011S yca~. lt appcars thatlhey have
a stronger basis in their mathematical curricula. Allé they have leamed much nbout
being patient when searching for informatio11, and feeling pleasure whcn
discovering. The project continues largely tnanks la-lhe pupils' own iniliative.
A good example of this is thc mcthod we DPilllecJ to arrive at lhe concept of
irratlonal number and the enlargement of lhe numuical g)eld. To begin, I planned
.for more thorough pupil research about Py1hagorastltan wãs.done the previous ye01r.
My aim w:~s to lead thc pupils to discovcr thc st'j'Jarc root of 2, starting from lhe
Pythagorean theorcm they already kncw. One ofilie self-appoinled teams was made
· up of three students, two of them attracted to matlmnatics after studying ils history.
This team conlributed a great nmount using infonmtion found in the town library.
They discussed it antl pointctl out the main <.letaiS. They then synthesísed their
 /(8 6 Hislory i11 support of di~·erse educationol req~irements
findings. \\\cn ali the pupils had read lhis synthcsis, in a subst1Jucnt lcsson 1 had
th~m examn~ the sodopolitical conditions found during the 6th century BC, staning
wtth lhe Py&goreans. The pupils concluded that from the social point of view the
~lhagorc;ms. fonncd a closcd community with vcry spccific ground rules for social
behavior~ Their behaviour seemed to be politically inconsistent: in externai affairs
they 11tre fighte~s against the tyranny of Polycnlles, whereas in home affairs they
'I crc ~nnts :~gamst one anothcr. living under a very strict regime characterised by
the secrtc~·-ef its acts. the disc losure ofwhich meant a threat to their lives.
We di5cussed whether there was any parallelism betwecn conditions in those
ages and. ti~ prcscnt time. Thcy concluded that thcrc is great similarily, since at
prcsent. m ~e pupils' opinion, there are closed groups or lobbies both within
govemn:'enu and outside them, such as in the news media. They investigate each
"" o~her.and fllld o.ut facts which may have serious consequenccs upon the population.
'r Cl. •m~0!1lilt mformation is kept a secret. These groups lool< critically towards
e' Cl)lhmg 1bat lies outside them. None the less. they keep secret what does not
funher their own interests.
\\'~ ~xa:"i~ed the malhematical discovcries o f the Pythagoreans in relationship
to thetr tntnnstc and social value. The pupils concluded that these discoveries were
numerous :t~Td I'CI)' influential. sue h as philosophy o f li fe based on numbers musical
notes. the aotion of one o f lhe first non-geocentric planetary systems' and the
cclel>rated 11fteorem l which seems to have already been used by Babylonians and
"ell-knowc in other cultures). We examined the mathematical consequences o f the
theorem alld its ciC>se relationship to thc socio·political behavioural ground rules of
the ~tha~eans. The pupils discovcred thatthc right triangle with legs 1 and 1 Icd
the~ to the s~uare root of 2 which the Pythagoreans kept secret. I e.xplained to the
puptls lhal nhts was an incomm~nsurable, as wcll as what this term meant, and gave
r~asons for our mtercst: that 11 was one of thc most famous of non·rationals in
~1st~!)·. aoo explored with them its conncction to gcometry. Thus I introduced tne
t:nhon:~l ~>Jmbers which enlarged the numerical lield and completed the straight
I me.
Pupilsflave little notion thatthey are themselves the subjects o f history, thatthey
are Ih~ -nal:ers of present history. As sue h. it is imperative lhat they should leam to
be br,,~J 1ninded. working out and holding their own point of view, respccting
others. tdets. He:e interdis_ci?linary activities play an key role, allowing pupils to
cstab~1~h e>nnccuons. parttctpate, strengthen and convey ideas, avoiding a mere
rerehtwn of other peoplc · s concepts .
. 11 a~ars that lhe educ:~tional reform begun in Cordoba in 1996 may never
aclunc tiS J;oals. One of the causes for this debacle is not having the traincd
lcnchers ncedcd to cnrry out intcrdisciplinary lnsks, and not having restructured the
s~ st~m to íntplcmcnt this. Perhaps my pupils will in due course take their place in
hclpmg. encouragc thc use of interdisciplin~ry tasks and build a bener Argentina.
1111· ma~o objccthe ns rcgards the 1998 project can be synthcsised in one question:
h<'l1 ~ught rupils 11 lw have leamcd lhe importante o f knowledge and h:~rd work
C<'ntnbute to changc our socicty being, as thcy are, su~jects of history?
6.1.2 Under-served (limited resources) students 179
Note
My spccialtllanks to lhe pupils ofMariano Moreno School, 3rd. year coursc. lsl. scction. year
1998, and to Dr Maria Luiza Ccstari.
References for §6.2.2
Bocro P., Pcdemonlc B., Robolli E. 1997. 'Approaching theorctical knowlcdgc thruugh voiccs
and echoes: a Vygotskian perspcelive', Proccedings ofrhe llsr/nterna/lollul Conjt'f<'tt<·c
on the Psycholagy of Mathematics &fucalio11. Lahti, ii, 81·88
Durân, Anto~io Jose 1996. /listaria. con persor~ajes, de los conceptos dei cálculo. M:uJriJ:
Ed. Alianza Universal, 17·22
Hilchcock, Gavin 1997. 'Teaching the ncgalivcs, 1870·1970: a mcdley of mQucls·. furtloe
ltarningofmathemalic.s 17 ( I), 17·2S
MunozSantoja, Jos~ Cannen Castro, Maria Victoria Ponza 1996. 'Pucdcn las matcm:itkas
rimar?', Suma 22, (fcderación Espai\ola de Sociedades de Profcsores de Matcmátic3s.
Zaragoza), j unio, 97·1 02
Panza Dolilllli. O, Ponzano, P. 1994. E/ saber. si ocupa lugar. Córdoba. Argentina: Cicncia
Nucva, 13-24
Poincaré, He:~ ri 1995. 'La crcaci6n matemática'. in Jnvtstigacíón y Ciene ia: Graruíes
Matemáticas, Barcelona: Ed. Prensa Científica SA, 2-4
Ponza, Maria Victoria 1996. 'La cxpc.ricncia intcrdisciplinaria cn la rcalidad educativa uc
hoy', Suma 21 (Federaci6n Espal\ola de Sociedades de Profcsores de Matemáticas,
Zara&oza), febrero, 97-101
Ruiz Ruam>. Paula; Perez, Pilar 1996. 'Hipatia cn cl pais de las cmpatias', Jaén: Conscjcria
de Educación y Ciencia (Centro de profesorts de Linaru), 9-18.
Savater, Fernando 1997. E/ valor de educar, l3arcetona: Ed. Aricl SA. 47-54, 92·1 00. 110·
111. 116·142
.,
6.2.3 Alterna tive educational pathways: adult learncrs rcturnin~ to
mathematics education, voca!ional education and training
Gail FitzSimons
In an era of economic rationalism lhe education of adult leamcrs is assuming
increasing imponance, both in general retum·to-study classes and in spccifically
oriented vocational classes. For the purposes o f this discussion, adult learners are
taken to be people who have been out of formal education systcms for some length
of time, or participating for lhe ftrsl time; vocational students include lhos e who are
retuming to, or continuing with, post·compulsory education. (In some countrics
specialised vocational cducation begins during the secondarj years of schooling.)
These educational settings include both formal institutions as well as informal,
community, and workplace sites. It is not possible lo make universal statcments on
lhe provision of adult and vocational cducation-they cach vary in thc dcgrce of
emphasis placed on general versus spccilic vocational content and in the impor1ancc
placed on credentials and palhways 10 funher study. In diffcrent countrir•
John Fauvcl, Jan van Maancn (cds.), 1/isrot)' in malhemarics edw·
Oordrccht: 1\luwcr 2000, pp. 17IJ·I K4
 f
/81
\
ISO 6 History in support of diverse educationa/ requirements 6.2.3 Alrernarç~e edJfc~tiona/ pothwa; s for adu/t /earners I

responsibility for lhe cosu of such educatlon is distributed variously among
go,emmtniS. industries, and individual sludents, but the overall intention would
appear to be the improvement o f the tconomic an<llor the social well-being of the
individual and the community at large.
Malhematics is seen as having a crucial role in respect of social end economic
development. However, mathematics education for adults has generally followed
the form of selections !Tom the entire range o f school and sometimes undergraduate
' curricul:t. with aduh life skills or vocational examples insened as deemed
appropriate. In other words. many (but not ali) courses o!Tered are likely to be fairly
traditional and based on a utilitarian framework. By and \arge they are also been
premised on a deficit model ofthe leamer, seeking to remedy perceived gaps in their
-. mJthematical knowledge when compared to official checklists o f so-called essential
skills. For a more extensh·e comparison of the intemational siiUalion regarding
aduh leamers o f mathematics see FitzSimons ( 19cJ7).
This stction concems the teaching of mathematics to adult leamers !Tom the
pmpective o f the use o f the history o f mathem01tics and mathematics education. I
argue th3t its adc-ption will uh imately be more e!Tective and empowering for the
indiYidual. lhe wider community, and national and even global interests. Thus the
orrc-nunities for and constraints on lhe use of history of mathcmatics in ndult nnd
'''CJti\•nal education 1\:ill ~e discussed.
In vocational educ:llion there appears to be little or no place for the history of
mathcmatics: should it make an appearance in texts, it is generally trivial, sometimes
inaccurate. and not integrated with the main thrust of lhe lcsson (Maass &.
Schlc-eglmann 1996). Adult education may or may not have such an instrumental
focus: inclusion of the history of mathematics is a maner of chance in terms of
quantity and quality o f effon. Contributing factors are the rigidity ofthe curriculum,
and the backg.round of lhe teacher in terrns of philosophical beliefs about
mathematics and pedag.ogical content knowledge and reasoning (Brown & Borko
1992). as well as knowledge o f the history o f mathematics itself. Clearly there is a
need for quality resource material and appropriate professional development.
The diversity of social. cultural, and economic backgrounds in society at large
may be somewhat reduced in any particular study group, although the life
experiences of each person will be unique. In addition therc will be vnriations in
educ~tional background and o f expectations in the cognitive and nfTective domains.
Each person may. in difTerent ways. be likely to seek to increase their economic,
social, cultural, and!or symbolic capital (Bourdicu 1991). Use of the history of
mathematics in teaching provides an oppor1unity for the lenmer to npprecinte the
struggles of people throughout history to overcome di fficulties similar to those they
are facing. Viewing the study of mathematics through the lens of a study of
humanity. ralhe r than as cold, hard science, can play an important role in the
olercorning of mathematics anxiety · (FitzSimons 1995). The study of
elhnomathematics in panicular is a powerful means of valuing experientes and
cultures of members of minority groups while expanding the horitons of ali
panicipants. Howcver. Knijnik ( 1993) wams against placing too high a value on the
r<-rubr knowlcdt:e o f subordinate groups. and recommends lhat students have · the
\'PrC'nunity to btcome aware of the possiblc limitations. which may be transcended
through a proccss of cultural synthesis. The te~ 'ethnomathema~ics' may also .be
applied to the mathematiês practised by people m the workplace, 11s form evo_lv1ng
from the adaptation of strâtegies for solving problems that arise within this par11cular
culture which has of course, its own discourse and literacies (O'Connor 1994).
There are ~onstrainis within formal educationa1 institutions providing
mathematics education for adu\t and vocational students. For example. thc use of
the history of mathematics may be constrained by the iner1ia generated by st~ctural
rigidities o f curriculum, panicularly in the case o f co~petency-based educauo~ and
training (FitzSimons 1996). Educational systems wh•ch do not value profcSSIOnal
development specific to mathematics teaching and leaming exacerbate th.e problem.
as does the trend (in Australia at least) towards lhe remova! of any requ1rement f~r
educational qualifications in teachers m
a profession that is becomíng
increasingly deregulated and casualised.
On the othcr hand, systcms which allow
Ocxibility in curriculurn and assessmcnt
enable creativity on the part of informcd
teachers and thcir sludents in the pursuit
o f knowlcdgc for its own sakc, and it is
here that the use of history of
mathemalics has lhe possibility of
Figure 6.2: Flt:tibility i11 rhe turriculum
for adult /earntrs (from Jht algebra lt:tl
Oourishing.
by A. de Graa[. Amslerdam /672)
A further constraint on the use of
history of mathematics is the power of
industry to determine narrowly focused
curricula for vocational students. Even the more general adult education is
frequently subj~cted to being framed within notions o~ 'use~ulness'. Given the
underlying expectation of economic efficíency, espec1ally m govem~ent· or
industry-subsidised education and training. excursions into lhe h1st~ry. of·
mathematics are like\y to be seen as a waste of time and money. Th1s •s a
particularly short-sighted approach in view of the atten~ion paid to. lhe devel~pment
of so-called key competencies (Mayer 1992) descnbed as bemg essenllal for
efTective par1icipation work and in othcr social settings, for example:
a) collecting. analysing and organising inforrnation,
b) communicatíng ideas and inforrnation,
c) planning and organising activities,
d). working with others and in teams,
e) ·using mathematical ideas and techniques,
f) solvíng problems, and -..
g) using tethnology. ·
The development of each of thcse would be enhanced thr~ug~ the us_e _of the
history of malhematics, since the skills developed through h1stoncal ac11v1'?' are
precisely those leading to these competencies. lt wo~ld a~o seem be~e~c1al to
increase the understanding of vocational students by mcludmg. somethm" of _the
hístory of ideas that have led to the present situation of an increasmgly technologJcal
 182 .o Hislory• in supporl ofdiverse cducoliollal rcquircmenls
environm~~t. 1t is through such understanding, as well as their developing
competencaes, that lhe possibilities for progress by workers and students might bc:
realistd.
rn,considering how the educational benefits might be brought about it is, of
~ourse: p~u:ularly essential to convince policy makcrs of the appropriateness of
ancludang hastol)· of mathematics, as well as to provide encouragement and support
for'lfachers .
Jus~ifica:io~ ~or the use of history o f mathematics can be made on grounds of
~nhancang andavadual development, especially in the possibilities it offers for
overcoming mathematics anxiery, in broadening the socio-cultural perspectives of
lcamers, an~ also in stimulating furthcr mathcmatical and scientific enquiry. This
.,. leads to socaal benefits for the individual in increased self-confidence and respect
fro~ .others ..:!Od for the communiry in terms of th3t person's participation in
decasJOn·makang processes rcquired in a social democracy as well as in lhe
"'?rkplace. In addition, adult learners are able to share their legitimate knowledgc
wnh oth~rs such as fami ly and friends for whom lhey can act as role model, mentor,
or .r'1:n toll3borator. There may be economic bcnefits at the pcrsonal levei, and
ulhmatrly national. even intemational economic benefits flowing from enhanced
panicipntion in m~thematies education. lt is recognised that there is considerable
d~bate about lhe ~arndox of an inc~asingly technological society, formnttcd by
hadden mathem:111cs (Skovsmose 1994), apparently needing to know less
mathcmatics. Howe' er. Noss ( 1997) has argued that there is now a greater nced for
~ople to be able to use mathematics in a constructive, interpretive way in situations
of conOicting information and to be able to find practical solutions in thc inevitable
situation of technologic:~l breakdown. Lcame~ at ali leveis nced to have the self-
confidence to persevere with mathematical studies.
Arguments for the teaching of history of malhematics to adults need to be
supponcd b)· a range of theor~tical foundations. There is support from the history of
malhcmatics itself for a philosophy of mathematics that sces it as fallibl~ and
socially constructcd (C:mest 199 1). Studies in lhe sociology of mathcmatics and
mathematics cducJtion suggcst thc nccd for a broadcr vicw of mathcmatics thnn thc
lr.lditional white. male. eurocenttic v~rsion that commonly prevails. Walkerdlne
( 199~) m~kes just this point. Emest ( 1996) has pointed out lhat there is a strong
~lnlll'nshap betwc~n thc clnssroom expericnce of students nnd the general public
amngc a f .mnthemntics. If someone's school experiencc has Iefi them perceiving
~nthemJtacs a~ fixcd nnd nbsolute, exnct nnd certnin, and specified by rules, they ore
hk~ly to ~e thmk of mathematics e ver oficr as cold, inhuman, and rcjec1ing. Rccent
phalosophacal analyscs. howcvcr, havc dcvclopcd and cnriched how mathematics is
thought of. In a postmodemist analysis. mathematics is seen to be an outcome of
socia~ p~ctices w~erein pcople and history, among olher things, play a vital
co~lltu·tl"e rol:. ~~~hop (1988) addressed the values attribuled to mathematics (viz.
rataonah~m. objecta\'lsm, mystery, openness, control, and progress) each of which
can be. and have becn, valued highly by the mathematics community, but which
havc the potential to alienate membe~ of the general public. In contrast to these
pt'tcntiJIIy·aficnJting nmhcmatical valucs, Bishop noted six universal activitics
t''i7.. counting. loc~ting., measuring, dcsigning, cxplaining, and pfaying) which
6.2.3 Alternoliv~r educacional patlzw_aysfor adulllcarners /83
underline the commonality of mathematics in most people's cultural activities,
tbcreby providing justification for an etbnomathematical approach to teaching.
Olher work has built upon these ideas. Skovsmose's criticai approach to
mathematics education for democratic competente (Skovsmose 1994) takes account
of these values, and here the use of history of matbematics can illuminate how
mathematical values and activities have been utilised in the past. The approaches of
these recent educational thinken is peninent to both adult and vocational
mathematícs education.
Teachers in adult and vocational education make certain epistcmological
choices. They may choose, or bc compclled, to operate variously within paradigms
such as the traditional method of transmission, constructivism (radical, social),
socio-cultural situated leaming in a cbmmunity of practice. 11 is possible to
incorporate the use of history of mathematics under each, but the mcthodologics
utilised are dependent on various factors in the teaching situation such as, for
example: the size, location, and heterogeneity ofthe class; access to various forms of
multimcdia, including print·based; the rype of interaction between teacher and
leamer, whether personal or distante education modes of teacbing, including seif·
paced leaming; and the time allocatcd for lcssons. Within lhese parameters, some
possibilities for using the history of mathematics are:
o) teaching thro11gh history and cthnomathematics;
b) teaching about history and ethnomatbematics;
c) encouraging students' reflection on their own experiences of mathematics
education-their personal history-to encourage metacognition; and
d) an integrated curriculum with a problem solving or project-based ~pproach
where lhe history of mathematics and ethnomathematical studies devclop within
lhe contextual sening for teacher and learner (e.g., FitzSimons, 1995; this
volume).
Naturally the choice(s) will depend on the teacher's judgement of thcir
appropriateness for the objcctives of thc session, and the teacher's ability to adjust
the teaching stylc and content.
Much inuovativc work has bcen carricú out by practitioncrs in thc 01bsc:ncc of
funded research. Although the field of adult education in mathematics is burgeoning
(FitzSimons 1997), there havc been few dissertations notcd to date, and the
likelihood of formal rcsearch on the impacto f using history of mathcmatics in adult
education is cven more
H remote. lt is recognised that
few busy teachers have time
to document and analyse
their teaching experienccs,
given thc intensiry of work
pressures. Howevcr, it is in
the interests o f both
govemment and industry to
cnsurc that the best possible
outcomcs, according to thcir
Flgurt 6.3: Problems with table1 are of o/1 ageI (jrom
tile oi~tbra teJ.l by A. de Graa{. Ammrd1J171 1672)
 • • ....._. J' "' •uppvl' v1 utverse eaucanonal requiremenl!: 6.2.'1 Minority school populations 185
0\\11critcria, are achicved. This section has asserted lhe benefits of using history of
ethnic or política\ group. Within a
mathematics. bascd on lhe writer's personal experience and her reading of
mathematics education and rel:~ted literatures. Further, more fonnal, research is scnool setting. a school district, or
needed to justify this assenion and to provide documentary analysis of effective lhe schools in a particular couniT)'.
strategies ~ccording to lhe di verse needs of particular adult student groups. minority studcnts may numbcr
more lltan one half of the school .
Rdtrences for §6.2.3 populatíon. Odd as this seems.
what the word minority refcrs to, in
Dishop. A. J. 1988. .\fatltemoticol fnculturot ion, Dordrccht: K1uwer.
. Bourdicu, P. 1991. Languagt ond .l)'mbolic powtr, Cambridge, UK: Polity. . terms of educational anthropotogy,
• Bro"n. C. A., & Borko, H. 1992. 'Secoming a mathematics teacher' in O. A. Grouws (ed.), is lhe population of students who
Hondbook of •tstarch on mothtmotics ltoching and learning, New York: Macmillan, 9-23 have a culture (ideas, customs.
Emest. Paul 1991 . The philosoph,v of mothtmocics educatlon.. Hampshire, UK: Falmer. sldlls, arts, etc.) which is different
EmesL Pau11996. 'Populasization: m~1hs. mass media and modemism', in: A. J. Bishop, K. from tbe dominant school culture.
~ Clcmcnts.. C. Keitcl, J. Kilpatrick. & C. Laborde (Eds.), lncemotionallumdboolc of For example, a sc:hool may use
marhtmatics tducociolf. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 785-817 English as ils language of
Fitz.Simons. G. E. 1995. 'The intcr·relationship of the history 11nd pcdagogy of mathcmatics instruttion although many or even
for adull$ retuming to study'. Paper presentcd to the lntemational Study Group for the mosl students may not speak
Rclations ofHistol')· and Pedagogy ofMathematics, Caims. Australia. Englisll as their first language.
FitzSimons. G. E. 1996. '1s thcre a placc for the history and pedagogy ofmathematics in Anotbcr example would bc in the
adult cducation under cconomic l'lltionalism?' in Proc. HEM RroRo ii, 128-135
FittSimons. G. r:. (e<l.) 1997. 'Adults retuming tostudy mathematics', in Papersfrom cases of independcnt nations
II'N!ing Group /S. /ntcmntio110/ Congrtss on Mothtmoticol &lucation, Adclaide. which, in lhe past, existed as
Knijnil:.. G. 199J. 'An cthnomathematicalapproach in mathemntical edueation: a matter of colonies of other nations. In
rolitk31 ro"<r'. For rire lcarmng ofmotl~emotic:, 13 (2), 23·25. fonner times, and perhaps even
M:ws. J.• &. Schlocglm31ln. W. 1997. 'The structure ofthe discipline ofmathcmatics and its Figure 6.4: This lmoge from f 6th century Peru, naw, lhe dominant school culturc .'
practical applications: two opposite orientations in mathematics education for adults'. In sho-..i11.g the Stcrtlorlo de finco with his quipu. could be very different from the '
Procrtáings o[ Ih~ Third Annuol Coff/trtnce ofAdult: Leorning Morhtmotíc:: A rtnríncb Souch Americon sruden!s lhot rht nati~ culture. One nced only look
Rescoreh Forum. London: Ooldsmiths Collcge, Univcrsity ofLondon, 158-165 ancienl people oflhtlr pre-Spanish heritagt ta the continent of Africa for such
Mayer. E. (chair) 1992. ·Report ofthe comminec to advise the Australian Education Council hod sophislícattd mtons for recording ond ex:amples.
and ministers of \'OCational education. cmp1oyment and training on employma~t-relatcd l.ransmii/ÍJH' numbers. During the last half or the
kcy competencies for post-<:ompulsory education and training, Melbourne: Australian
Education Council and Ministers of Vocational Education, Employment and Training. twentieth century, war, famine, and other turmoil baseaused the emigration of m~ny
Noss. Richsrd 1997. 'New cultures. new numcraeies·, Inaugural professoriallecture, London: people to countries in Europc, in North America, and to lhe southem Pactfic
1nstirute of Education. countries of Australia and New Zealand. Most <>fíhese immigrants have raci~l,
o·connor. P. 199-1. 'Workplaccs as sites oflcarning', in P. O'Connor(ed.), Thinlcing worlc. religious or ethnic backgrounds different from the dominant cul~re of the countnes
•·oi. 1: rh,ortticol J:Yrsputh·u on worktrs 'llttroclts, Sydney, NSW: Adult Literacy 11nd to which lhey have emigrated. The immigrant ch:ildren bring lhetr culture to schoot
Basic Skills Action Coalition. 257-295 with them. In some countries, such as Brazil, Australía and New Zealan~. and parts
Sko,·smose. OI e 199·t To..-arth a philasoph,v ofcritica/ mathtmQ/ics táucollon, Dordrecht: of lhe United States and Canada, some of the minorities are not immtgrants, but
KIUIICT.
members of the aboriginal or indigenous peopks witli tfieir own cutture and
\\'alkmline. Valerie 199-1. 'Reasoning in a poM·modcrn age', in P. Ernest (ed.~ language. ·
.lfathtmatics, tducation cmd philosophy: on intemalional ptrsptclive, London: Falmer
Press. 6t-75 While there is no universalty dominant school Clllture, each c_ou.ntry loo~ to
educate ils sludenls in a way lhal it perceives as ltppropriate. Wtthm the Untted
6.2.4 Minority school populations States because there is no national curriculum, policies ~f different states greatly
diffcr 'about the best way to educate students frotn rdiverse 'éulh.tral backgrounds. In
\Vebster's New ll'orld College Dictionary (1996) gives as its third definition of one US state, highly populated by Spanish speak:iug immigrants fro~ Central and
minority "a racial. religious. ethnic or political group smaller than and differing from Soulh America an ESL ('English as a second lUl,Uage') program m the schoots
lhe larger, controlling group in a community, nation, etc". Using a global aoes not exist. 'Yet in another state, populated by ~~any Mexican immi~rants, there
perspective. 'minority' does not refcr to any particular racial, elhnic, religious, are such ESL programs. In a number of countries in Europe, spectal language

·I
 /Só 6 History in support of diverse educational re~irement.s
programs for non-native speakers in the schools is not ao issue. These countries
expect non-native speakers to cntcr lhe classroom, lcam the national language and
adapt to lhe school culture.
1
~
J
. TI:c p~rpose of lhis section is not to question how a particular countty cducates
lts mtnonfY st~dents or criticisc national educational policies. Rathcr it is to
examine ways í~ which, globally, tcachers of all students can provide learning
cn.' troon.•cnts whtch cnh:mce thc leaming of mathematics. Thc reader should bear in
mmd tha(lihef( is nothing delicient about a minority population; being different does
not mean bcing of less value. Rather, educators need to realise that ali students1 in
pani:ular minority students, have a culture which may or may not conform to the
d~m~nant classroom expectations. lhe question remains how teachers can crcate
\\lthm the. c~sroom an cquitable leaming environment in which ali students may
~earn :md rcahsc the Yaluc oftheir education.
At first tbnce mathematics would appcar to be the curriculum area in which
studen~ froa:' ali di\ em backgrounds have common ground. Af\er ali, except for a
fe" m1~or dt!f(ren~es in the algorithms for basic skills (such as the way in which
calculauons _are \\ntten down on paper), computational skills throughout thc world
are much ahke. None the less, students globally leam mathematics based on their
f:~miliar l~ngui~tic :md cultural .pattems (Trentacosta 1997). Many study school
mathcmaucs wtthout underst:mdmg the use for it; many dislike school mathematics·
many more exhibit great mathematics anxiety. Minority students nppear to suffe;
lhe worst.
One way in which curriculum specialists encourage teachers to make their
content a:u meaning:ul is by humanising the subject. What bener way can
mathemallcs be human1sed then by the use of mathematics history in the classroom?
~esides ~eing entenaining, lhe history of mathematics provides the student with
mformatton ~bout thc global roots of mathematics. Mathernatics history helps
students rcahse that mathematics is not just the invention of lhe dominant school
cuhure. Jb:ther. it helps students rcalise that mathematics evolved from many
sources and m many places. For example, minority students from Central Amcrican
can. le3.rn that recent Olmec research sugge.sts that the ancient people of thcir
hentage developed lhe concept of zero perhaps earlier lhan any other ancient
peoples. Smden15 wilh an Ashanti African heritage can appreciate that the Ashanti
mathematics bone is one of the oldest mathematics artifacts. Students with 110
lndian herilllge can celebrate lhe contributions that their ancestors made to our
present da}· numeration system and to concepts of negative numbers. Our female
students can be inspired by the stories of courageous womcn mathematicians. The
noted ethnomathematics scholar, Marcia Ascher, points out that when teachers
emphasise the roles different culturcs have played in the evolution of mathematics
students' pride in lhe accomplishment of their people is enhanced and lhey begin t~
va~ue math~atics as a human activity (Ascher 1991). The history of mathematics,
usmg bolh tts European and non-Europcan roots, makcs rnathematics relcvant to the
cultural hcrit:~gc of ali stutlcnts.
. To help the reader find information about and plan activities for students of
dt\'erse cu'ltl!lõll backgrounds a resourcc bibliography is providctl.
6.2.4 Minority schoo/ populations
Resource bibliograpby
(• Indicates a work appropriate for primary and upper elcmentary or middle school
187
teachers; •• mainly sccondary; • •• reference for ali teachcrs)
•• • Ascher, Marcia 1991. Elhnomathemotics, A Multicultural View of Mathtmoticalldtas,
Pacific Grovc, CA: Broolcs/Cole Publishing
••• Ascher, Marcia&. Robert Ascher 1991. Mathematícs oft~ lncw: codt ofthe quipu, Ncw
York: Dovcr
• AI coze. T., et al. 1993. MulticulturalisJ!l in mathcmatics., science, and ttchnology: rcadings
and activities, Menlo Pa.rlc, CA: Addison·Wesley, 1993.
•Kalcidoscope Series, 1994. Count on it, NorJl Billerica, MA: Curciculum Associatcs
•Lumpkin, B. & Slrong, O., 1995. Multlcultural sclence 011d math conntctlons, Portland,
MA: Wa1ch,l995. r
•• Johnson, A. 1994. Classic moth l1istory topics of the classroom, Paio Alto, CA: Dal c
SeymourPub.
•.. PoweU, A. B. and M. Frankenstein, Eds, 1997. Ethnomathemalics: challenging
eurocentrism in math!motks eàucalion, NY: Stlltc Univcrsity ofNew York Press
.. Smilh, S. 1995. Agncsi to Zcno: ovcr 100 vignettes from lhe history of mathemalits.
Berkcll:y, CA: Key Curciculum Press
uswetz. F., 1994. Learning activitics from thc history ofmathcmatics, Portland, MA: Walch
•••Trentaeosta, J. 1997. Multicultura/ and gender equity in lhe mathematics classroom: tht
gif/ ofdiversity, Reston, VA: National Council ofTeathers of Mathematics
...Zaslavsky, C 1996. Ftar ofmarlt, New Brunswick, New lersey: Rutgers University
1
Prcss
•Zaslavslcy, C., 1994. Multicultural math: hands-on malh activities from around lhe world.
New Yorll: Scholastic Professional Books
•Zaslavsky, C., 1987, 1993. Multicultural mathematics: interdisclplinary cooperative•
learning aetivitics. Portland. MA: Walch .
...Zaslavsky, C. 1996. The multiculrural math classroom: bringing in thc world,
Portsmouth, NH: Hcinemann
6.2.5 Students baving educational challenges
Worldwide students with educational challentes are either not schooled, or pu! in to
special cl~ses, or are integrated into the regular classroom with th.eir agemat.es.
These students may be found in primary, secondary and altemauve .educat1on
programs. In some cases, those with leaming disabilities reach. the tert1ary levei.
While the use of mathematics history c:m be an el<.cellent pedagogtcal tool, resources
for teachers are mostly unavailable. Therefore, teachers are left to develop their own
resources. This is not an easy task because it requires a background in mathematics
history, as well as the understanding of the cognitive levei of the ~tuden~ ~d the
student's special needs. lf countries actually have spccial educat1on trammg f~r
teachers, one cannot expect that the training will include a strong background tn
mathematics much less lhe history o f mathematics.
None th; less, studcnts with cducational challcngcs can cnjoy and bc inspircd by .
mathematics history. For example, the abacus is an exccllent manipulative re~ource
'for helping students dcvelop number sense. Limiting ad~ition and subtracuon to
cxamplcs wliich do not rcquirc rcgrouping can prov1dc an opportuiuly for
exceptional leamers to experiente ao ancicnt, multicultural tool. lt has also bcen
 rcally gijled and talented students 189
6 History in support of diverse educarional req11 . 6.2.6 M,
ISS IS

found th:n some of the ancient computational algorithms are better to Uf,< .vith • H r t~l\1 parongo tpl .,..ld to wN.blY'..ohia o lftohl ln<nga wh.tlt.tko •
students with learning. disabilities. Students enjoy leaming about the history of these whal wJhl m.al•na tt•hl Jhua Orlte. Hei wh.altatauln, ko tt nP"•&• •
algorithms along with their success in lhe use o f lhe algorithm. lt can be hclpful for wh.twhu•ti• ana i raro nt!:
student5 to realise that o1her scientists and malhematicians also had leaming
disabilities. Albert Einstein often mentioned his poor computational skills.
Certainly. using lhe history o f mathcmatics with exceptional children is an area
"h i.: h is ripe fN c:xploration. At this time there do not appear to be any historians or I ,,
,
.-
cducational researchers who are working in this area. There are individuais who
,,
h~'e sho.red their few experiences of using mathematics history. But these practices
are linle known to fellow praclitioners.

6.2.6
't
1\lathematically gifted and talentcd studcnts
I ,,
,'
,,

Cl'rnlie Daniel

The idea that almost e\'erything can be done in a variety of ways is as true for
\
mo.thematics as it is for anything else. Many mathematics teachers would respond to
3 remark com e~ ing this idea. with examples nnd anecdotes from their classroom L VII. ZekerPerzoon, {ta.andein V, zietin deSpiegdP
experiences that illustr.lle the point. Yet. while this is likely to be the case in a (. Horizontaal met A
.:onH~ation. few would say th:lt thcy actually begin their lessons with the idea of zijnde) de: top dcs To-
linding. the widest nriety of solutions. or that they prepare their lesson plans with .I rens B,en4 Voet te rug
the specific intenlion of de,·eloping a particular concept through the presentation of gaande, totin D, en de
a ,-ariety of widely difTerent stratcgics or processes. Many classroom lessons are Spiegel ·io V kggende >
bascd on an assumption that a teachcr's task lies in introducing an idea and then \ I bevint het zelvige: Vra-
gi\'ing an example. showing a formula. teaching a method that proves the idea. I
Most srudcnts seem contcnt thal lhe singlc proof approach is a rcasonable way for a ge na de hoogte des To,
h~Jcher to stimulate the leaming process and transmit knowledge, and because they rens? Zoo P V is 3 ; , en
h:l\e limited mathcmalical cxperience. they are unlikely to ask whether or not there V O, of DO,. ~Voe~
are :!ltemali\'e methods that could be leamed or thought through. But this is not true ten.
of gifted and highly talcnted mathematics students. Dewijl de hoek O P V ·
From a \'ery e:~rly ag.e gifted and talented children make an impression through gelijkimn de hock B,P A,.
the comrtexity e> f the 1rhy? and lroll'? questions they ask. Most people are familiar cn O VD gelijk aan B_V ~-,.
with children's w/11·? questions which follow on in a sequence derived !Tom the adult doorde natuur v~n de Wccr-
responses. without thought on the child's part. Compare, though. the following pre- kaatzing, :r.oo volgtdat
sche>olers' wl~·~ :md lrow? questions (Daniel 1995): P V tot V O, ds P A tot AB AP::ox
A- b - - x/ P'V ::O A
"\\'h~ nrc thc clt>ud~ ~~~~ if\\hat ~ou ~nid ycsterdoy nboul why the sky is blue, is truc?" VO, ofDO::ob
"I can $CC how thcse blocks go togethcr on the Ooor. so how can I write that on paper?" VD totD O, ah AVtot A" B cn VD::oç.
"How c:tn I m~ke thcsc $paces [bctwccn telcgmph polesJ scem lhe s.1me when they ore en'-"-11+x
l. I G~+h
-,-
nor:
figure 6.5: Problems found in many cultures o!Jer gifled students opportunities to
The childrcn and students who ask sueh questions retain information and th ink about discover matltematics for rhem.ulves. 8oth Maori and Durch studenls have the
ob\'ious links between things. but they also experiment, think laterally, notice detail, opportunity to work out, from the hintthat a mirrar on lhe ground providts a clu~, ~ow ~:
.measure tire height of an object. The first cast is from lhe New Zealand cum~• um
Maori (1994). the second, a bit more complicated since the foot of the tower ts out of
ll'hn Fau,cl. J:m. '3.11 li ta~ncn (eds.). History· in matlremarirs ed11cllli011: the /C'M/ study, reach.from a tatbook in algcbra by Abrallam de Graaf(/672).
['l,,rJr~d11 : l.:lu"cr :ll\l\1. rr. 1~8·195
 . ·: o li mory m 5trpporr oj diverse educaríonal requ/remenrs
~c-nccprualise. and allow prior leaming to influente o1her ideas. They develop onc
t~ea fr~m ;mother~ but .in doing so thcy make \'alue judgements, adapt ideas, enjoy
dtsc~ss mg how thmgs mteract, are curious to see bow knowledge and ideas can be
lFphcd ~o lhe 1\'0rld as they know it. :md are stimulated by considering (but not
nec~ssan~ ~dorling) other pcople's ideas. Thc:y are keen to proceed from one point
of vtew to anothcr by discussion and conversation. rather than by an example taught
cc-ried d~\\ll, rractised and thus (presumably) leamcd. Tenching :md Jeaming, ~
the m.os.\tmp~n:lnt :tspccts ofthe educational process. heve already bccn superseded
t-~ thmktng. m lhe mind.s of gified and lalcnted studcnts, usually before they have
~' en begun formal schooling. This is ofien threatening to teachers; but it need not
be.
h is ""' diflicuh to scc a tink bct\\'CCII thcsc Jplitudcs and thc history of the
de,dop,~ent o f ma1he m31ical ide as. As with ali knowledgc and phitosophies, it was
'lhe appltcatton of jus11hese attitudcs-by different people over ccnturics of time-
th:u cnal-kd m~thcn1~tic~ l idc;~s, conccpts. and proufs to hc dc\'clopcd at ;~ti. This
unJ.:rsta~in~ in itsc~f gi,_es a re3son for thc inclusion of idcas from thc history o f
nmhcmattcs m ICJchmg gtncd and talemcd mathematicians at any levei.
The inclusion of btslorical m:nerial is not simply the addino of whimsical stories
or l:>iogrnphical extras to basic ma1hematics lessons, to make"stutlcnts fccl rclaxcd
and ;~dd a. Je,cl of fun to the m3thcmatics classroom. lnclusion of lhe history of
n1ath_~~:Utcs shcould also t>e un~ertaken for the way in which sue h an inclusion opens
ur dtl1:r~t areJS <'~ m.alhcmaucs and bro:1dens tbc possibililies of helping to sa1isfy
the cunQstty and Lhmkmg needs o f giflcd students. for example, it is almost certain
that man~· teachm have told their students something about Pythagorns (even if it is
merely hu na me) when lhcy have been teaching anything about lhe characteristics of
lhe 'aric>us squares on thc sides of right·anglcd triangles. But how m:1ny teachers
"ill ha'c said tor even been aware) lhat there are atleast370 (Loomis 1968) known
"3~ s Ico show th:11 thc squarc on lhe hypotenuse o f a righHmgled triangle is equal io
lhc sum of thc squarcs on thc o1hcr lwo sides? How many teachers have sbown 3
~umt>er. of those solutions in thc same lc:sson series? This is a good way o f
tltustraung to students lhat Pythagoras was one among many who was on to
somethi_~ very ~cru! that could be thought about in many different ways; the
altemam·e. teachtng lhat Pythagoras discovered a 1heorem for which 1he proof is
~uch·and-such. is very confining, not to say boring. by comparison. A 1eacher is
likel~· le> choose a presenl3tion that scems to be thc most logical, or choose the
'rrston rcmc mbered from some le,·el in the ir O\\Tl educa1ion and presume that is the
most logical. lhe most universally known. and the easiest to follow.
There are ample indications, both in researcb and in anecdolal evidence, that
there are rnl d ifferences in the ways people approach thinking, in lhe ways that lhcy
rclat~ to the vario~s branchcs of a subject area, both aesthetically and functionally,
~d tn ~.sort of mfom1ation they are most likely to be able to follow and use again
(Krutetsku 1976: Gelman 1993: Gross 1993: Hohon & Daniel 1996). TI1cse genetic
dt~er.em:es_ and intu_itivc preferences can be broadly describcd as placing any one
tnd~l tdualm a posilton where they will use besl an approach which principally uses
th~tr own style. 1~hether analytical and reasoning skills. or reasoning and gcometric
sktlls. or geometnc :md pictorial skills (Kruletskii 1976; Holton & Daniel 1996).
6.2.6 Mathemat/cally gifted and talented students /91
G ifted students especially need to know this, so that their vicw of tbeir own
ability is not impaired by belicving that one type of thinking is bencr than an~1her.
When one )ooks at various malhematical proofs that havc been offered for partJcular
ideas down through the ages, one can begin to identiry the sorts of diffcrcnces in
approach lhat have influenced eacb of the mathcmaticians working on the i~ea.
Looking at proofs from this point of view, and placing them in 1heir hislortcal
context, also makes one aware ofanother interesting aspect ofthe contribution that a
regard ror thc history of mathematics can make to classroom prcscntalion and to thc
confidente of both teachers and gifted students in exploring various solutions to
problems. 1t becomes clear that more recent proofs of a proposition are not
necessarily lhe better proofs simpty bccausc thcy are more recent. In Ourcll ( 1952).
a text that wa.s uscd extcnsively in New Zealand scbools, the proof given as that o f
the Pythagorean theorem is an analytical proor attributed lo Euclid. Ahhou~h
Durcll's tcxt (p. 268) statcs thal Pythagoras' method ofproofis not known, thc more
gco 1111.:trical proof commonly anributctl to l'ylhagoras (Eves 19CJ2) is gtv(n as 01n
introductory comment earlier in lhe chap1cr. The geometrical proof would bc
considered 10 bc the more self-evidcnt and lhe more easily accessible of thc two. :md
many proofs which are over fiftcen hundrcd years more recent cannot be considcred
to throw greatcr ligbt on the truth o f thc idca. Thc ~uclidean proof wo~ld ccn.ainty
interest most gifted mathematics sludents but tt would be less tmmetlt:llcly
accessible to students with a geometric and a pictorial intuitive approach.
Realisation o f lhe fact lhat proofs may well reflect differences in thinking stylcs.
as well as differences in lhe fashions of lhought pattems of any given period in time.
should encourage teachers and studcnts alike to havc confidence in exploring and
investigaling one proof or aoother, and to opcnly allow differcnt pcrsonal
assessments o f which proof appeals and which does not.
Recognising that differcnt students in one's classroom will inluitively .acccss
mathematical concepts more casily through one or anotl1cr of thesc rcasonmg, or
geometric, or pictorial approaches~but n~~ through all-c:eates. a new challengc. for
teachers. The link between different iotutttve ways of seemg thtngs and percepttons
of what to put together to answer the qucstion is strong not only in sludents but also
in teaehers themselves.
few educators hold any longcr to the idea of pcople being empty .vessels .~ho
can be filled up with leaming or expertise. Usually lhe phrase is used tn descnbmg
students' roles in the educalional process, but it is as true in relation to dcfimng
teachcrs' capabilities as it is in relation 10 describing ~tudent_s: pot~ntial as _le.li"Tlers.
Osbom (1983) has categorised aspects of mathemattcal abthty ~hghtly_ ~tffcrently
from some other writers but he recognised 1hat teachers (albett unwuungly a.nd
unintentionalty) will teach, and evaluale and assess, principally from _the p~rspecl~ve
of their own thinking type. Whilc it is reasonabty easy to develo~ s~ tll s. whtch
enable one 10 recognise solutions 1hat come from a lhinking style whtch 1s dtffcrent
from one's own, it is difficult (and in lhe long·le rm perhaps impossiblc) to bc ablc to
mem'orise, or easily recai!, solu1ions which do not come from one's own approac~.
This is not because people are unwilling to do il, but because the neural system tr1
 192 6 Hisrory ;, support of di verse educotional requiremenrs
their brnin is programmed not to do it (Edclman 1994; Csikmntmihalyi, Rathunde
& \\"halen 19Q7; Dehaene 1997).
Not only do diiTerent things trigger oiT different responses, but different brains
encode different thing.s. Repetition does not go far towards changing this. Many
mathcmatid programmes used in the past have assumed that repetition will change
this. but most mathematici:ms would see thot we do not have the same expectations
in reg.ard to other lields of capability. For tl(Jmple. we :tccept that just because one
is an outstandin~ sins:er does not mean that one will necessarily be able to become a
c'oncert pianist.-Pra;tic~ will imorove what one can do: but it wilt not automatically
tum a high-achieving singer int~ a superb pianist. In the field of music wc would
not e~pect effort alone to ch:mge the te:tcher or tne student, and so we should not
e:o:pect it in mathematics. either. even among gifted students and highly talented
mchers.
In mathematics \\C need to help teachers find non-threatening ways to recognise
and declare their o" n intuitive prcferences in approach and to access and share
examples o f other methods o rachieving solutions. Using the history o f mathematics
as an intrinsic part of one"s teaching c:tn help immensely in providing such an
arrr(lach. FN teachers. their 0\\11 me mory and initial response can become less
influential in determining. what is presented in the classroom. without fear o f losing
thcir credil-ilitv. Studcnts sce th:tt the brondness o f solutions prcsented in history
rr\'H~ in im·lf th~t <'ne person is unlikcly to be nble to do everything from every
Nint Clf,icw. lt :tlk\1\S 5tudents and teachers to see that diiTerences are acceptnble;
it t'tTa~ th~m <'PrC'rtunitks to make judgements about the types of solutions which
increa5e their understanding: and it potentially oiTers the social and educational
ad' :~nta~c of alie>\\ ing. othcr students to identify some oftheir skills as being similar
t.:- ~come of thc ~kills of g.i ned students in their midst.
\\"hether or nN a te:~chcr merely gives a precis of the historical context of the
mathe matics being studied in class. does not matter. Finding out what will be
Jcce ptal-le to the teacher is a \ "CT)" important nspect of survival for gified and
t31ented students in a mathematics classroom. References to the history o r particular
mathematical ideas "ill have opened up avenues for mental e:-cploration and actual
research '' hich the student can follow up with lhe knowledge thnt what is found out
will be acceptable to the teacher. Adding to tenchers' repertoires the resource of
different examples. approaches. and proofs from history can give them more
c:cmlidenc:e in using. disc:ussion and opinion as a part of their methods in teaching
mathem:Jtics. and more cconlidence in accepting that gified and talented students may
\\ ell know more mathemntics and be able to solve more complex problems, than
many tcachcrs.
Pwl>lems for g.ifled and talentcd students in mathematics classrooms include
horedom. a lack o f a scnse of stimulation. and isolation from others because they
wish to explort mathematical concepts rnther than merely leam spedfic methods of
proof. Commenls from teachers indicate that it is not only diflicult to find enough
extension w~:~rk f~:~r eifled students. but nlso difficult to find time to concentrnte on
l~:~cating. mnterial wl~en the whole class does not need to be catered for in this way.
JndusiC'n of the history of mathematics not only increases access to possible
mathematical extension for gifted students. but also enables teachers to show that
6.2.6 Mathematically gifled and talented studenrs /9J
they are not afraid o f cxploring diiTerent solutions. TliiEbenelits the wholc class as
well as providing a discussion environment which QIIC increase the contribution
gifted mathematics students can makc and decrease the:viense of working alonc. .
There are collcgc tcxts available, such as Eves' Anillrorluction '" tl1r: l!i.JtrJry nj
mathematics ( 1992), which will provide tcachcrs wi'tlu quick rcfcrcncc book (or
both practical examples and referenccs to other textSaailable. Such books oflcn
also give the story of the dcvelopmcnt of mathematim idcas a general his10rac.::
context by linking the pattems o f mathematical dev~ments with thosc of othcr
academic disciplines and with particular historical periuk and events.
Research shows that giftcd and talented mathemlllicians are most likcly to bc
advanced and voracious readers from an early age, auf a!so frequcntly show a real
interest in taking courses and papers in history and ir philosophy (Daniel 1995).
The books read by mathematically gifted students· ola include books by writcrs
such as Tolkein, C.S.Lewis, Penrose, Sagan, Adam.s,ad Asimov, and this in iuc:lf
gives an indication of the way in which gifted and Uimted mathematics studcnts
seek themselves to link the worlds o f mathematics, s~. and philosophy (Daniel
and Holton 1995). The inclusion o f material in the d .ematics classroom which
increases the interdisciplinary connections which stllll'a!ls can make incrcascs thc
reward received from their interest in mathcmatics. 1k ernbedding o f mathcmatics
in its historical context he lps to encourage able mathonrics students to use, and scc
value in using, other skills and interests as aparto f thàrprogress towards being able
mathematicians. And again, it increases the sense ofildusiveness with thc class. as
less ab\e students will also be motivated and stimulaud ~Y being able to makc links
with other subject nreas.
History has many examples of mathematirâns who were variously
-
misunderstood, under-appreciated, acclaimed and lttt~ never heard of again. or
penalised for thcir skills
and ideas. At thc vcry
least, a study of the
~~~~·~YN~ history of mathemaúcians
§f.§%i#!íi§§@f@!!(@§ij(~11~)@•!§ and their ideas will bc
supportive for gifted and
~~~~x~x~x® talented mathematics
students (who are sclf·
~~~~~~~~~~ conseious about that), for
it. oiTers models of
~ differcnces and of
intcllcc.tual fortitudc in
lhe face or criticism,
evmples of thought·
fútneSs and experiment·
Figure 6.6: In museum visils and elsewhtre tht ation, and evidence that
etlmomatllematics of cultures from acrou tlte world is thosc who did not follow
vtry evldent lo the alerted eye. Here parterns from rht
the contemporaneously
Bakubo peop/e of the Canga demorutralt whar
mathematicians tltink of as tlte seven one·colour ont>- acceptcd approach to
dimenslonal palltrns.
 19~ 6 History• in support ofdi\·erse educatíona/ requiremems
soh ing. a problem \\ere not mad. Without the encouragement to think independently
and the freedom 10 contribute unashamedly, many famous mathematicians would
nC't ha\"e made the contribution thev have to our understanding of mathernatics.
Similarh·. for our own socictv to ~ain the areatest benefit from those who are
nlathcm~ticnll~ ablo!. it is im po.nant ~hat as largc: a number of mathematically gifted
:~nd tal(nted pe(lple as possible are hc lpcd to dcvelop in wnys which fostcr their
aHiit ics ~n.J cncour~g( th~m to use thdr taknt opcnly.
La.>t ~~inter I carried out an experimcnt on perccplion and language. I askc:d
people who ih3ppened to come into my office (about n dozen in ali) to te li me what
they could set 11hen they looked oút ofthe window. Basically, threc different kinds
of answcrs llC~ !!i\"cn. Some named first 1he objects that lay on the horizon then
" orked back11ard~. with det:~ils o f things betwecn lhe horiz.on and themselves. and
g,i1·ing opÍnions in their descriptions througn 1he use of words such as 'preuy'.
·small'. ·puflllt". A second group named something in the middle distance,
dc~crit-ed in dct:1il thc thin!!S 10 its lcf\ and richt. and uscd functional and emotional
IINds such 3S ·usdcss·. "bcnign'. 'dangcro~s· lo describe what thcy saw. Three
people named first thc building immediately across the street. and stopped there.
\\ "hen as ked ~what elseT. they described its colour and texturc. and then the small
1ree :~nd the ars r~rked on 1he road bem·een the wall and the wíndow.
.-\! lcast du-ee things became evident from listening to the descriptions and
d i~cussing tbn-iewers· interpretntions o f what they snw. First. the questiono f what
\\3S ·gl"l(\d \\\U;~tising.·. ·togical'. or ·a fair description' suddenly took on new
mc:ming---« ruo me:ming at ali! Sue h words were themselves subjective and were
d(\Íned di!Tce.mtly by different viewers. Second, it was significant that it was
winter. becme largc deciduous trees obstruct the range of views in summer, and
hencc woulcUawe had an inOuence on what was described. Third, the total picture of
"hat could lc: viewed from my window was actually most richly described by
Ct'mbining d':ftfur~e t:pcs of description. I fone thinks about thcse three things from
the point ohic;~~,· of tc ac hing. mathcmatics, then one can scc an immcdiate advantage
to tcachingwil1ain a framcwork which
I . identifi!SdfifTercnt views oLwhat it is important to know,
' pro\"id\$ varrious contexts in rc lation to areas o f knowledge and world views,
and
3. showsttlat nhere are many ways of filling differences together and still making
sense dTthe.:m.
Th~ use CITilis:..t>ry (lfT~rs such a fr~mework in the teaching. anll undcrst anding of
mathemali~jU!St as much as it does in other subjects.
lttfcrcncrsror !§6.2.6
Csikszcntm~~i. ':-.1.. Rachunde. K .. Wh~kn. S. 1997. Tale11ttd reenagers: roots ofsuccess
olld.Íaillt« Cõlllm!>ri dgc: Univcrsi1y l'rcss
Dlnid. C. ft;J.~. "'Thc iJcntiticali<•n <>f m~thcmatical ability nnd offactors significant in its
nul"\urr·
Daniel. c_ fbltQ;a\. D. 199~ . ·Mpects of ~tudits oft3lenlcd mathcmntics students and
imr licalw !llllr thc ~cC<lnJJJ")· ~chtllll cducalion of thc mathematically able", p;lpcr
rrc$cnt• Fiint N~titmal Conferente for Tcaching Gi ftcd Studcnts at Secondary Levei.
P:~lnu:rsUE'l->\TITth . N.z.
6. 2. 6 Marhemotica/11 gified and ta/ented students 195
Dchaene. S. 1997. The numbe, sense: how mathtmatical knowltdge is embtdclrd 111 o11r
brains. Odord: Univc:rsity Prc.ss
Durcll. C.V. 19S2. A new geometry for schools. London: G. Ocll and Sons
Eves. H., 1992. An introduction to the history of motltematlc~. 6th cd. Orlando. U.~ .:
Sauoders College Publishing
t::del man, G., 1994. Orig/11 air, brilliantfire: on tiJe matter ofthe mind. London: Pcngum
Gclman. R. 1993. •A rational-consuuctivist accoun1 of c:arly learni ng ~bout numb~rs ~ml
objects', 17oe psycloology of /eorning and motivation 30. 61 -%
Glotov, N.V. 1989. •Analysis of thc gcnotypc·cnvironmem interaction in n~lural
populations', prcs. at Symposium on Population Phenogenetics, Moseow, Ru)sia
Gross, M.U.M. 1993. Exceptionally gified cllilúren, London: Routledgc .
Hollon. O.A.. Danici. C. 1996. 'Mathematics', in Don Mc:Aipinc :tnd Roger Mollzcn tcds.l.
Gified and tolented: New Zeolafld perspectives. Pnlmerston Nonh: ERDC l'ress. 20 1·21 K
K.Jutetskii, V.A. 1976. The psychology of mat!Jemalical abililies In schoolchildr~n. Chk~gu:
Univcrsity Prcss
Loomis, t::.S. 1968. 17.<! Pythagorco11 proposition. Washington, DC: NCTM
Osbom. H.H., 1983. 'The assessment of mathematical abilitics', Educational Researcl1 25.
28-40
Stembcrg. R..l995. lnterview, S~ptic 3 (3), 12-80
6.3 Opportunities for change
6.3.1 Teacbcr cducation
The educational, cultural, economic and social diversity which is found in the
history of mathematics can be used to help students and teachers lcarn more
effectively. 11 follows that tcachers, at ali leveis, would benefit from some
experiente and background in the history of mathematics. A major qucstion
remains, of how teachers are to gain sueh experience. This was discusscd more
fully, in a general contcxt, in chapter 4. Hcre wc suggcst a fcw idcas in rclation to
teacher training, in the contcxt of the concems of this chapter. Training may bc
available either while teachers are in their initial pre-service training oras in·service
provision for practising tcachers, and we make some brief remarks on cach. ·
There are severa! possibilities for making the history o f mathematics parto f pre-
service teacher education.
a) Jntegralion for non-specialist teachers of mathematics.
Ea.>y-to-find references and resources for teaching mathematics under topic hcadin~s
would cnablc tcachcr·traincrs to ~;ivc a contcxt for whatcvcr slylc thcy adopt wtth
non·specialist tcachers, main ly those preparing to teach in prim~r)' or clementary
schools. So, under lhe heading of number could be listed such !optes as place value,
examples of counting in Babylonian numerais or counting with sticks and stones.
Some schools with non-spccialist teachcrs have theme or topic-ba.>ed lessons. If the
topic were Ancient Egypt, for example, mathematics can b~ cross referenced
through finding angles, triangles and measurcs under pyramtd construction, or
 /YCI 6 llistory i11 supporr ofdi,·erse, . .cotional requircmems 6.3 Opportunitiesfor change 197

indrrd pursuing the w;~y loaves o f bread were divided for distribution in the R.hind classroom. The same principie holds as in the previous asc, that potential tcachers
Pap~rus. need to acquire confidence in making use o f resources fora wide range of students.
For teaching material under the heading of Pythagor.as•lheorem, for c:<ample, the
~=-~ ~-====-=-=='=+~;;f possibilities might include: different approaches to n proof through history
~~ IJ,·,j;~mi:r B.r:o:.-r~:r's b) Separare modules 011
(appropriate for some gifted students); uses and appliic6as of the theorem through
! Pl:~ ~)\'LV,\!\1.~. Dt:L .\W,\11.[, 1\I.IR.Y·
the hiJtory of mathemarics the ages (particularly for adults and workplace le:r.mrn}; using ready prepared
' for specialisl mathemalics jigsaw pieccs which lit to show the Pythagorc;~n relatütmllip (good for students with
t.\:0.1>, .1:0.1> \'!1\Ct:"il.\
I reachers.
a mental or physical handicap); different representationufthe theorem to rc:Occt the
.A L l\-1 A NA C, ! TI1ose tr~ining to te3ch at cultures represented amongst the students and beyonc (to help relate minority t;roup
students to the world-wide nature ofthc history ofmat~tics).
YE:\R. ofour LORD Ii9:íi l I
primary,
secondary and
elernentary,
further In the case of current teachers of mathematics Ylb:l-are receiving up·dating or
tki•;: rh• n ,;,,t 'rtcr Lc> r- Yur. ' leveis in various scnings other in-service training, the issues ·are slightly diff'CI!!It bccause o f thcir grcater
are often college or classroom experiente. Such teach~rs can be hclped 10 cater ror the nceo.ls or .,
-----------~---------- university studenu. diversity of students, by suggesting ways for using lllllterial from lhe history or
Sometimes a 'standard' mathematics in their teaching. Summarising broadl!... 11ost such uses will be bv
history of mathcmatics integrating, adding or substituting historical material Uere are severa! possibilitic.s
course is offered to give the by whích the HPM community can contribute to Hrvicc provision (wc draw
trainee teachcrs an attention here to some possibilities especially appzvpm\te for the themes of th is
overvicw of the subject.
Even, or especially, in such i chaptcr).
Case studíes o f teachers using the history o f matkmatics in various ways. Each
a course it is important that such study needs to include lhe context---<:01.ll!t:sy. place, language, studcnts.
the balance be wide 1 teacher, resources, activity and student respOOS!:. Such. a col\ection of case
ranging and specílically
address the requirements of
the gifted, different
II studies would provide a vision of alternúl\1!$, both inspirational and
occasionally as a waming. Each would ha~ tlt be brief and concise to. bc
accessible to busy teachers across the world.
cultures and social Classroom-ready resources like photocopiable .!>'ltets. press-out models, outli nc
groupings. the lesson plans. ·
educationally disadvan-
- Multi-lingual resources. Particularly in societin.ãwhich severallanguagcs co-
~~ ortaged, and other individuais
groups along thc Iincs exist in the community, it will be useful for tr.nn.iitions to be made available o f
!I discussed in this chapter. key identified materiais.
F- --------·.--..· --------·-·- 'j
~ - :·:\J~T: r1 !" 0~- This will enrich teachers' Day courses funded intemationally, with a locü~ll!!d, intemational flavour. These
~ A'•f !,l.fi.JOII:-ll'hJ; ::~•• S/.,,,.,, •. could be run by local advisors or advisory ttacb:ts who would show how thc
l1,..,
1.~\J"--....,..
l' 't. -r t ' !v ll ·-:.
· ~com .. ~~.;
:n ability to meet challenges
that they may face in the history of mathematics is part of each O!llml)''s mathematics and history
course o f their professional curriculum. Resources and Activities
life. The following are specific resources and activitit:l•hich' are known to have been
Frprrr 6.7: Borjomin 8c1mrrku ti7JI-1806J. tire first used by at least one practising teacher in at lcast nu:-.country, who claims it to have
.~l;i.-.m Amrrinm to f.,· ro..-c•_cnis,·clt;.,. his mrrt/r(nllrtiwl c) lmrgrnte rhe hlstory of 'worked' for them. Thesc :fali into four main Qgories of activity or resourcc •
cJrrliri,·s. ran />r em iiiSf'rrcruon for.lcoc/r(•rs of minority matlrematiCJ in/o /eacher which may be described as researching, prcscntin,g -aísiting, and experiencing.
srudents in norrlr America today. Ttaclrers of gifled troining . L
srudcnrs t\'trprlrere can mcourage projuiS lnro !tis life, Researching These activities for thc students !\se a 'vàríety o f names such as
ro share his ll'<>rk in surwying ond almanac·making wirfr lt is particularly
appropriate for those 'researching a topic', 'doing a piece o f coursC'III(Il'\./, 'doing a project' . They can
rh~ rcsr ofrlrt class.
training as specialist range from small, short, relatively closed exor-éies in finding out using a given
secondary mathemalics resource, to an open-ended whole class inveS1'!3tfc>n lasting several weeks, and
te~chers loften post-graduates) that they be provided with references and resources involving many different aspects. Examples ~ include linding out about a
undcr mathematicaltopic headi ng.s. and guidance in a range of uses o f history in the
/9$ 6 History in supporl of diverse educationa{ requtrements
Biography Proj~- Poster
ln ~ ~ect ?-ou willlcarn about a 11!81he!IÍB1Ícian aod ma~e a poster display.
Thi.s P~ will bc: due on tbe linl day your cla.ss meeu, during tbe last week of
cluses, düs ~- Tbc postm will bc: dbplaycd for other Slllden!S to critique
md to ask yoo quenwns about your mashcmatician.
. '1
You lll\llt iDclude lhe folloWÚl3 clcmeii!S in your dbpl.ay:
• piaun: o! your ~matici.an • çmlit lhe §OIJ!'CÇ (10 points)
ooe ~ curri<:uJum vita or =~-o f your IIl!ltbematician. You may be
c:ratl':e, but you must be factuaJ conccming: schooling, papmtboou writt.en,
-=nollhip • note this is not a biograpby (I Opoillb)
• tD:Iine pomsyü::g signmcam cvems ofhWbcr tife inlawoven with signüicao1
~d C'\'mn aod COIIte'!!lpOI"ar lives (20 poillb)
• ~ ~ summa.ry o{ ao importnnt anul1 attributcd to th.i3 mathcmaticiao,
iodudir.:; rcleY1.111 graphs rmd matbcmari~ as noceswy {20 poims)
• cqrla.o.!l OO!l of bow ot.ber tlllllbematiciamltnatbematic anel scÍC!:IIi5U/scieoce
din:ctly influe ta<! your ma!lxmaticiAo aod hWbc:r wock (lO poinú)
• bicfaoccdotc aboi.U yourmatbematician ( 10 poillb)
blMiograpby (at Jea.st 3 refaenc:es. aod at lee.st ~ oftbesc rcfmocts must be
allook) (S poiii!S)
• )'1:14' posia s.hould bc casily r:ead, ncatly orgaoizcd. aod ~ disp!aycd.
(HJ poiii!S)
• cri::iquc of your dbplay by lhe otber studems in tbc class. FM poiii!S wou!d bc
an •A • gnd.e, four poiii!S a "B", etc. (S poiii!S)
'-P~q>ia ~ tdD>
{~ hll c -pm>all b)' L)'OI! fool>ot Rad, lllo O.,c(s Sdlocl for C.C......1111 or>d ~
~ llic!:mmd. \1A)
F;surc 6.S: rlot· ( 'S r.· acha ''h o d~\·ürd rlu's projecr j'or her mar/r class combintd
'rrutJrchtng · and "rrt semmg · acrl\·irr~s for rhe pupils. ..-ho respo11ded wirh entl111siasm to
ri;,· â:r;JJmgi'S l!r'oJ corrJÍrlly guickd ser ofinstructioras.
mathcm:nici:m: th~ e\ t>lution <'f thc subtrnction ~lgorithm; e~rly symbolism around
the "Nld: ~t'lll~ • (llhcr' numbcr system: ''h o ' invented' calculus?; writing your
rer~on;ll historv t>f leaming and doing mathernatics.
. Pr,~.•cn~ing. T~er~ ar; man~: dirfercnl ways of prcsenting. communicating and
dt~semmatmg the h ndmgs and dtscovcrics made by students of ali ages. Examples
would include: play-writing and acting: role play in costume; simulation of a
mathematical disco' ery by rc-enacting thc process; spokcn presentation: video;
slidcs: projected transparen·cics: photos: postcrs {cf. figure 6.8): structured
di~cuHiC'n o~ det>:~te: dra\\'ing: a writtcn emy or p:lper; building a model; playing a
gamc: creaung a sterc,,gnm. \\'e may note two things in particular about the
rrN·cs~ C'f rrc~entin~. One is that such expcrienccs dcvelop·and deepen student
C(lmpetencies acrt>ss the ran~e o f thc skills they are leaming ai school. The other
{99
6. J Opportunities for change
point to notice is that some students will llourish particularly stronp,ly in such
activities and show talents that were hiddcn in the usual class contexts.
Visiting Visits outside the classroom can bring history to lifc. Thc evcnts,
people and objects which illusuate the history o f' mathematics can bc found in a
wide variety or places. Many teachers have leamed to make the most of whal is
available in the school locality. 1t is oftcn surprising how much thcrc is. Many
scbools are not too far from one or ali of: museum; exhibition; church; sitc of
historie intercst; sundial; palace; cemetery; building; art gallcry; play; conccrt: park;
countrysitlc; city; l>oal trip; rivcr l>ank; coast linc; t<~lks; lccturcs; tlcmonstrations:
historical mathcmatics tours; historical mathematics trails. Onc pre-collc!;c tcachcr
from the Unitc:d States has for the lasl lO years taken students on a 'M3th Tour of
Engl3nd'. Among lhe places and artifacts which can be visitcd are the Rhind
mathcmatical papyrus al the British Muscum, Babylonian mathcmaticaltablcts also
at the BM, ancient scientific insuuments in lhe Science Museum (London), lencrs o f
Newton at the British Library, astrolabcs at thc Science Muscum in Oxford,
Newton's binhplacc in Lincolnshire, and so on.
Experiencing The objects and artifacts which mal<e historx and are its primary
evidcncc nccd to bc sccn, heard, touchetl, p!aycd with and expericnccd at Jirst hand.
Some things will have to bc copies, models, films or photocopies o f lhe real thing.
Objects fali into severa! categories. Measuring instruments like a sextant, watcr
clock, sundial, dividers, compasses, weights and balances. Caiculating devic.:s likc
abaci, quipus, counting boards, carly computers, Napicr's boncs. Wriuen mutC!fiul
in the form of manuscripts, early books and printing, stone inscriptions, papyri, clay
tablets, diaries, tcxt books. Natural objects which have inspired the crea1ion of
mathematics in the past like spirals on shells and fir cones, lhe movement of thc
stars and planets, the rhythm and bcat in music. Artifacrs, objects madc by pcoplc.
often embody mathematics and its history: woven baskets, fumiture. building
design, tiling. friezes, wrought-iron work, machincs o f ali sorts, gamcs and puu.lcs.
References for §6.3
Sheath, GeoiT, Murici Seltman and Wcndy Troy 1996. 'The. history of mathcmatics in initinl
teacher lr.IÍning' in Proc. Hf.M Braga ii, 136-143
. Singmaster, David 1996. A matlrematical gazeueer, London: South Bank Univcrsity
Singmasler, David 1999. Mathematical gazcucr ofBritain,
http://www.dcs.warwick.ac.uk/bshm/
Tnnford, Cbarlcs & Jacqucline Rcynolds 1992. The scienrijic trave/lu: o guide to the
peoplt, places and ínstitrtlions ofEuropt. Ncw York: Wiley
Tanford. Charlc:s & Jacquclinc Rcynolds 1995. A rrave/ guide to scitntific sites of rht Britísh
lslts, Chichestcr: Wilcy
6.4 Conclusion
The aim ofthis chapter has been to help the readcr become aware ofthe pedagogical
opportunities o f usi ng the history o f mathematics in institutional scnings other than
the typical univcrsily environment. Beca use o f their own experientes, the authors
know andare keen to share the knowledge that students can enjoy. learn from, and
 .:oo 6 History· in Sllpport of Jil•erse educational req11
be. enriched \\'ith e~pcriences in mathematics history tong before they are ~
um' ersuy. Resenrch indic;lles that enrly adotcscence is the time that students 1 n
defining .r~c ir anitudcs toward mathematics. 11 therefore seems imperative that
ClrrC1rtumt1es for incorporating mathematics bistóry into the classroom begin earty
and côntmue throughout the educational careers of students. Universities and
tcachcr cduc~til'n prCI~rJmmcs should finda ptace for history in the curriculum from
I\\ O persç-~cti\'es: the curriculum ofthe te:1cher in training and tbe curricutum ofthe
classroom siUdent.
\\1tcn ~11 1dcnts rcccivc: n lirnitcd cducalion. as many do. it is for n varicty of
re3Sons. Some for lack of economic resources, some because of cognitive
~f~/ . ····.
·...
Fi~,,~ 6. 9: Tire 'dtl'trU edu<:aliana/ uquirenrel!/s' lttJm I<'Orkíng an this chopltr OI tht
1~.\fl Stw~•· .\fuw1g: ('oralre Daniel. ll'm~,. Troy, Gumrar Gjan~. Gail Fít.Simons.
J\.artn Drt .\fi<:holou ic:. l'icJ..T Pon:a
limit:llil'ns. some bec:~use higher educ3tion is not readily available or apprecinted;
and se>me. unfonunJtely, because of the quality o f the ir teachers. Even students
from affiuent backgrounds can find themselves studying in mathematics ctassrooms
w~ere the quality of the instruction causes anxiety, frustration, and negative
altitudes. But. more gencr:~lly, lhe nccds of students of diverse educational
bacl;~roun~s are increJsingly being appreci:~ted, and the availability of resources to
h~lp t~ thetr mathem:~tical leaming is more apparent. lt has been argued Itere that a
ha~tcmcat component. or the possibility of historical resources, can hetp teachers
surrort students in such situations.
Chaptcr 7
Integrating history o f mathematics in the classroom:
an analytic survey
Constantinos Tzanakis and Abraham Arcavi
with Carlos Correia de Sá, Masami !soda, Chi-Kai Lit, Mogens Niss. João
Pitombeira de Carvalho, Michel Rodriguez. Man-Keung Siu
Abslract: An onalytical sun>ey oflaow laistory ofmathtmarlcshas bttn aná carr be imegrm~d
imo tlte mathtmotics classroom providu o range of moJels for ltacherJ and mat111m<rltcs
educators '" 11se ar rrdapt.
7.1 Introduction
Mathematics is often regarded as a collection of al!ioms, theonems, and proofs.
Organised and presented as a formal deductive slnlcture, lhis assumes, at lcast
implicitly, that the togical clarity of such a presemation may be sufficient for
understanding mathematics. Under this view, strongly inOuenced by forrnatism as a
philosophicat trend, mathematics seems to progress by a more or tess linear
accumulation of new results (Oavis and Hersh 1910, Ch.7; Brown 1977, Ch.4).
Publicly, it consists of polished products of mathematical activity, which can be
communicated, criticised (in order to be finatty accepted or rejected) and which may
serve as the basis for new work. lncreasingly, though, lt i.s recognised thal this view
o f mathematics is just one aspect of what conslitutes mathematical knowtedge. The
process of doing mathematics is equatty important, especiatty !Tom a didactical point
o f view. This process includcs using heuristics, making mistakes, having doubts and
misconceptions, and even retrogressing in lhe development and underslanding of a
subject (Lakatos 1976, lntroduction; Courant and R~bins 1941. lntroductory
commenls; Stewart 1989, 6-7; Schoenfeld 1992; Barbin 1997). In lbis
understanding, the meaning of mathcmaticat knowledge is deterrnined not onty by
the circumslanccs in which it becomes a dcductively-structurcd mathcmati.cal
theory, .but also by lhe proccdure lhat originally led to it and which is índispensable
for its understanding (cf. Brousseau 1983, 170; Hadanard 1954, 104).
John Fauvcl. Jan van Maan~n (eds.), Hlstory in mathmalics tducallon: tlte /C.I/1 study,
Oordrecht: Kluwc:r 2000, pp. 20 l-240
l
 7 Hisrory ofmarhemarics in ri:~ c:lassroonr: an analyrié .survey
To leam mathe matics. then. is not only to become acquainled with and
comrctcnt in handling thc symbols and the logical syntax of lheories, and 10
accumul~te kno" ledge of new results prcsented as linished products. 11 also
includes tht understanding o f lhe motivations for certa in problems and questions,
the sense·making actions and the renective processes which are aimed at the
construction of me :~ning b)· linking old and new knowledge, and by cxtending 30d
enh:~ 11ciJ1g existing conceptual frameworks (Hicbert and Carpenter 1992, 67;
Schoenf1id er oi.. 1993). Teachin2 mathematics lhen becomes a much more
complex enterpris:: than just the mc;e exposition of wcll organised mathematical
de,·elopments. lt should include giving opportunilies to do mathemalics, in the
sense described abo,·c. In this respect history of malhematics seems a natural mcans
for e:<po~in~ mathematics in the making. and thus it may play a very important role
ip mathematics education.
This ch:~pter is intended to re,·iew how the history of mathematics can be and
has ~en bamessed and integ.raled in malhematics education. More specilically, in
section 7."! the alxwe general argument for the relevance of history is analysed in
more detai.l. The analysis provides severa! reasons why the bistory of matbematics
ma~ l-e rek\"Jnt to the tcaching and leaming process. both for the teacher and the
leamer. ln this proccss. some argumcnts questioning the use of history in
mathem:~tics cduc:nion are raised and dealt with. In section 7J. we elaborate on the
imrort:tnt qucsti(ln (I f how integration o f history can be dfected, and in section 7 .4,
thc l(lng~ section Clf the chapter. we sur•ey and cxemplify a wide spcctrum of
dil1ercnt rossible implcmcntations of histor;. in the mathematics classroom.
7.2 Why should history of mathematics bc intcgrated in
mathem:1 tirs cu ucation?
lntegr.ning the history of mathematics in m:nhematics education has been advocated
for 3 1.-n~ time (De Morg30 1865; Glaisher 1890; Poincaré 1908; Barwell 1913;
Miller 1916: l\IAA 1 93~: Klein 1914/1945.268: British Ministry of Education 1958;
Labtos 19i6. ln:re>duction and Appendix 2; Leak.e 1983; see also Kline 1973,
Ch...l). In 1969. the US NCTI\tlNaticnal Council for the Tcaching of Maihematics)
devNcd its ~ I st Yc:ubCiok to thc history of mathcmatics as a ICilching tool (NCTM
I 06o). On the other hand. severa! difficulties have been r.tised, chollcnging the
dC$ir~t>ility or fea$ibili ty of sceking to integrate history of mathematics in
m3tlwmatics cducJti\'11. In this scction, wc first summarise thcsc objcctions (in a list
extended from th:ll given in Siu 1998) and thcn we classify and discuss the different
arg.uments that have been or may be proposed in favour of inlegrating history in
mathematics cducation. dealing implicitly, in the process, with lhe objections.
7.2 History ofmathematiés in matÍtemotics education: why? 203
Some objections
Arguments against the incorporation ofhistory are based on at leasttwo sourccs of
difficulty: philosophical and practical. Among the former we he:~r that:
(0/) History is not mathematics. lf you must teach history. thcn you nccd to
teach mathematics itself lirst: teach the subject first, lhen its history.
(02) History may be tonuous and confusing rather than enlightcning (e.g.
Fowlerin Ransom 1991, 15;Fauvel1991,4).
(03) Students may have an errati~ sense of the past which makes historical
contextualisation of mathematics impossible without their having had a broadcr
erlucatioo in general history (e.g. Fauvel \991, 4).
(04) Many students dislike history and by implication will dislikc history of
mathematics, or find it no less boring than mathematics.
(05) Progress in mathematics is to make the tackling of difficuh problcms a
routine, so why bother by looking back? (e.g. Le Goff 1996, 13)
(06) Hi.story may be liable to breed cultural chauvinism and parochial
nationalism.
Some of the practical objections to incorporating hislory within mathcmatics
teaching and leaming are:
(07) Laclc o[ time: there is not enough classroom time for mathematics learning
as it is, still less when it is proposed to teach history of mathematics as well (e.g.
Buhler 1990, 43).
(08) Lock of resources: there are not enough appropriate resource materiais to
help even those teachers who may wanl lo integrate historical information (c.g.
Fauvel1991, 4; Le Goff 1996, 13).
(09) Lack o[ expertise: the teacher's lack of historical expertise (e.g. Fowler in
Ransom 1991 p.\6) is a consequence of the lack of appropriate teachcr education
programmes; indeed, not only historical but also interdiscipfmary knowledge is
required, whicb is far beyond what mathematics leachers are equippcd for. The lack
of expcrtise leads to an cven more dcbilitating lack of conlidence.
(0/0) Lack of asse.s.sment: lhere is no clear or consistent way of intcgrating any
historical componenl in students' assessment, and if it is not assessed then students
will not value ít or pay attention to it
Some arguments in support or integratíng bistory
Tbere are live main areas in which mathematics teaching may bc supportcd,
cnrichcd and improved lhrough intcgrat in~ the hislory of mathematícs into lhe
educational process:
a) the leaming of mathematics;
a) the development of views on thc natu re of mathematics and mathcmali~:al
activity;
b) the didaclícal backgrounc.l uf tcachcrs anc.lthcir pcda~o~;ical rcpenoin:;
c) the affective predisposition towards mathcmatics; and
d) the appreciation of mathematics as a cultural-human endeavour.
 ~ mstOf')' o[ matlrematics in the cfassroom: an analytic survey
(cr. references at the beginning of this section and also, Arcavi 1985 Ch.l; Fauvel
1991: Ransom et nl. 199 1: Lefort 1990.87-88: Grugnetti 1998, 1-2).
In lhe following we elabornte on these arguments, and by implication we deal
with some of the aforementioned objections (citing them by number at lhe end of
each argum~nt to which they are related).
(a) T he learning o f mnl hcm:~tics
: 1. Hisroricaf dewlopme/11 \'S. polisiled matlrematics: mathematics is usually
taul!ht in a deductivelv oriented ore.anisation. However, the historical development
of ;;,athcmatics show; that the dcd~ctivc (or evcn strict1y 3)(iomntic) organisation of
.l m:tthematical discirline comes only aficr this discipline has reached matur\ty, so
~hat it becomes neccssary to give an a posteriori presenlation of ils logical structure
~nd et'mp1ctcncss. Frcudcnthal ( 1983, i:\) dcscribes this as follows:
":-\o mlthcmltica1 illca has ~ver
bcen publishcd in the wa~· it wns lliscovered. Tcchniques
h :11 c t-ccn cJc,dop~d ~d Jr~
uscd. if :1 ptoblem has been solved. to tum thc solution
rrt>CC~UIC upsidc dO\\ O... !lnd lum Jihe hol invenlion ÍnlO icy beaUI)I."
Thus. m~thematics is usu~lly globally and retrospectively re-organised. On the one
h:1nd. it \\ould seem th:1t this re-organisation is needed to avoid possible tortuous
:md ,,,ng-winded accounts. On the other hnnd, questions nnd problems which
c<:-nstitut.ed t-asic motivations for the development o f an idea, as well as any doubts
ak>ng thc way. rem:1in hidden under a linearly organised, deductive body of
know1edge. in which new results seem to be simply added in a cumulative way.
In this connection. lhe proper integration of history in to mathematícs education
can play an important role by helping to uncover how "our mathematical conccpts,
srructures. ideas have been invented as lools to organise lhe phenomena of the
ph~ ~ical. social and mental wor\d" (Freudenthal 1983, ix). In this way lhe leaming
of a mathem:1tical concept. srructure or idea may gain from acquaintance wi th the
motivation and the phenomena for which it was created (Barbin 1996, 196; Nouet
1996. 125: Tzanakis 1996. 97). This fact has been rccognised and advocated by
many {Klein 1926-7!1979, 316: Polya 1954, 1968; Lakatos 1976 lntroduction and
Appendix 2). Howe\·er. it implies neither that there is a unique\y specified
prcscntation of a subject that follows exactly lhe usually complicated historical
de' el<:-pment. nor that the lcaming of malhematics should be guided by "ontogenesis
recJpitulates phylogtnesis'' (Fauvel 1991. 3-4; Sierpinska 1994, 122; Rogers 199&
§~ . ;). History could ar bcst suggest possible ways to prcsent lhe subjecl in a natural
way. by keeping to a minimum logical gaps and nd lroc introduction of concepts,
meth~1ds or proofs. In this way lhe historical record could inspire teachers and help
them in their te~ching (cf. §3.2 and Menghini 1998 §2, Tzanakis and Tilomaidis
199S §3.3). (01. 02. 05)
~- Hi.<tcor·y n.< 11 rC".<c>rtrt'l!: the history o f mathematics pro vides a vast reservoir of
rclc' :-mt questions. problcms :md cxpositions which mny bc very valunblc both in
terms t'f their content and their potential to motivate, interest and engage the leamer
1\'::111 :-.t:~anen 19Qt, .17: .-\rca,·i in Ransom et al. 1991 , \I; Friedehne)·er 1990, I;
1Q0 ('.. 1~ 1: Ransom '' ,r/ IQ() l, 8: Emest 199.1. :;37-238). In this connection,
hi~tNicJll~ in~rireJ exerciscs may stimul:ne thc student's interest nnd conrribute to
7.2 History ofmafhematics in mathemalics education: why? 105
curricular enhancement alongside those exercises and problem which may seem
more artificially designed. Through such exercises, aspects of thc historical
development of a subject become a working knowledge for the student: in this way
history no longer appe~ as something alien to mathcmatics propcr (d. §3.2 :~nd
Tzanakis 1996, 97). (OI, 07, 04, OI O)
3. History as a bridge between mathematics and other subjecrs: history cxposes
interrclations among diffcrent mathcmatical domains, or, of rnathcrnatics with otiH:r
disciplines, (for example, physics: Tzanakis 1999, 2000). lt also suggcsts that
mathematical activities and results may be interdependent (Jozeau 1990 p.~S) .
Thus, integration or history in teaching may help to bring out conncctions bctwccn
domains which at first glance appear unrelated. lt also provides thc opponunity to
appreciate that fruitful research in a scientific domain does not stand in isolntion
from simililr activities in othcr domains. On the contrary, it is oficn motivatcd by
queslions and problems coming from apparently unrelated disciplines and havin~ an
empírica! basis. (09)
4. The more general educnliona( volue o[ ltistory: studcnts invo1vcd in
historically oriented study projects may develop personal growth and skills. not
necessarily associaled only with their mathematical development, such as rcadi ng.
writing, looking for rcsources, documenting, discussing, analysing, and ' talking
about' (as distinct from 'doing') mathcmatics (Ransom et o/1991, 9). (O/ O)
(b) The nature of mathematics and mathematical activity
1. Contem: a more accurate view o f mathematics and mathematical activity mny
be provided by historically importanl questions, problems, and answers {whcthcr
provided directly by primary sources or reconstructed in a modem languagc).
Students may leam that mistakes, heuristic arguments, uncertainties, doubts,
intuitive arguments, blind allcys, controversies and alternative approachcs to
problems are not only legitimate but also an integral part of mathematics in thc
making (sec for examplc, Arcavi et. al, 1982, 1987; and in this chapter, §7.4 .6).
They may bccome more able to understand why conjectures and proofs, which h:wc
been put forward in the past, do or do not supply satisfactory answers to alrcady
existing problems. Indirectly, students may be encouraged to formulate their own
questions, make conjectures and pursue them (Friedelmeyer 1996, 121; Rodrigucz
1998, 4; Tzanakis 1996, 97). History also makes more visible (to both teachcrs and
'
I
I
students), thc evolutionnry nntu re of mathcmalical knOwledge and lhe timc-
dependent characler o f fundamental meta-conccpts, such as proof, rigour, evidcncc.
I error etc. (Ransom et a/1991, 12; Barbin 1996, 198-202; 1997; Nouet \996, 126).
(0.5, 04) .
2. Form: mathematics is evolving not only in its contÍnl, but also in .its form,
notation, terminology, computational methods, modéS" ·of exprcsscon and
represenlations. History hclps stuucnts to unucrstand this OIS wc\1 01s the
\ mathematical (verbal, or symbolic) language of a given pcriod, and to re-evaluatc
'lhe role of visual, intuitive and non-formal approaches that have bcen put forward in
the past (van Maanen 1991, 47). Then, with the aid of original material, or even
simple extracts from it (sce §7 .3, below) both the teacher and lhe leamer may
become aware of the advantages andlor disadvantages o f modern forms of
 7 HisiOl)' o/maiiJematics inthe c/assroom: an analyiic survey
mathemalics. (0.7). (Think for ins1ance of veclor analysis wilhoul veclor nolation as
il appeared in lhe second half of lhe 19th cenlU!y in Maxwell's eleclrodynamics;
classical mechanics in Ncwton's cuclidean geometric form; Diophantus's algcbraic
notation: thc advam:~g.es and disadvantages of lhe older formulation of differential
geommy. by using. indiccs to dcscribe tensor quan1i1ies, compared to ils modem,
coordinate·independenl formulation .)
(c) Thedid::actital bockground ofteochcrs
By stud~ing his\ory and trying 10 reconslrucl nspecls of lhe historical development
o f spcciín: malhcmalic:lltopics in :1 didactically appropriate mnnner, 1cachers may:
I. ldentify the motivations behind the introduction of (new) malhematical
kno'' tetige. through the study o f examples that served as prototypes in its historical
.. dcHie>pment and "hich may hclp Sludents to understand it (c f. (a 1) above). (0.5)
~. Bcq>me aw:u~ l'f:
li) lhedifficulties. or. e\·en obstaclcs.that appeared in history and may reappear in
lhe d::t!'STCICII11:
tii\ ho• '::tdHnced· a subject may be-namely, even whcn a subject may appear
SilJi'le. it may ha\·e been the result of a gradual evolution. In general, this
n.alution was b3sed on concre1e questions and problems which are not evident
if~ suC.ject is prescnled in its modem form right from the beginning. But
Üt<Se. que$\Í('ns Jnd problems may prcsupposc a mathematical maturity on the
rm of the student that may not exist yet. In this sense, the history of
mácrnatics may hclp thc: teachcr la become aware o f lhe pros and cons of
ptCS~tlllling a ~ubjccl at a particular levei of education (Arca vi in Ransom 1991,
li:Tz:lnakis 1996.97: Homg 1998. 1; Rodrigucz. 1998, 4-5). (0.5)
3. Gd m\ oh·ed into. hence become more aware of, lhe creative process of
'doing nmh.cmatics" (13arbin 1997). Thus, lcachcrs (and in this connection, studcnts
as ''e li\. n.n not only enrich their malhematical literacy, but also appreciate bener
the natuntof mathematical aclivity.
-1. lmiih thcir ditlactical repertoirc of cxplanalions, examplcs, and allemative
approaehstto present a subject or to soh·e problems (c f. (a2) above). (0/).
5. P~ipate in a situalion in which 1hey have to decipher and understand a
known !p'ta of corrcct mathematics but whose lreatment is not modem (see also
Ch. 9. altlwt working with primai)' sources). and thus they can exercise sensitivity,
tolerante amd respecl towards non·conventional or idiosyncratic ways to express
idea.s or.Slli!í·e problems. This argument is valid for students as well. (02)
(d) T he~ctive prcdisposilion towards mathematics
HisloT)~1 UJTovide role models o f human activity, from which several things can be
leamed.:m~mng them the following:
I. Ttal tmathemalics is art evoh·ing and human subjcct rather 1han a system of
rigid ITUtis.. lt is a human endeavour which requires intellectual effon and it is
d~termired !by sever3l flctors. both inherenl to malhematics itself and externai to il
tcf. t(\ l:rJb\w). In p3nicular. it is nota God-gil'en finished product designed for rote
le3TTiing.
7.2 History of mathematics in math.ematics education: why? 207
2. The value ofpersisting with ideas, ofanempting to undenake tines ofinquiry,
of posing questions, and. of anempting to develop creative or idiosyncralic ways of
thought (cf. (bl) above).
3. Not to gct discouraged by failure, mistakes, uncertamues or
misunderstandings, appreciating that lhese have been the building blocks of lhe
work ofthe most prominent mathcmaticians. (02, 0.5)
(e) The appreeiation o r matbcmatics as a cultural endeavour
As statcd above, malhcmatics is no1 a rigidly slructured syslem of rcsults, bul a
continuously evolving human intellectual process, lightly linked to olher sciences,
culture and society (cf. Rickey 1996, ~52; Emest 1994, 238; Van Maanen 1991, 47).
For example:
1. Through the detailed study of historical examples, students can be given the
opportunity to appreciate that mathematics is driven not only by ulilitarian rcasons
(a currently prevailing view), but also developed for its own sake (Hallez 1990,
p.97), motivated by acsthetie critcria, intcHcctual curiosity, challenge and pleasur:,
recreational purposes etc. (Chandrasekhar 1987, Ch.4; Kragh 1990, Ch.\4; Tzanakrs
\997). (0.5)
2. History can provide examples of how the internai developmenl of
mathematics, whether driven by utilitarian or 'pu re' reasons, has been influenced, or
even detcrmined to a large extent, by social and cultural factors. (09) .
3. Mathematics in its modem form is mostly viewed as a product of a particular
(wcstcm) culture. Through thc study of his1ory of mathemalics, 1eachers and
students have the opportunity to become aware of othcr, less known, approaches to
mathematics lhat appeared within other cultures, and thc role il played in them. I~
some cases, thcse cultural aspects may help tcachcrs in their daily work wilh mulu-
ethnic classroom populations, in ordet to re·value local cultural heritage as a means
of developing tolerancc and respect among fellow students (Nouet 1996, 126; Ch. 6,
above). (06)
The discussion in this section il\ustrates the many roles which history may play in
mathematics education, varying according to bolh lhe intended purposes and the
beneficiaries. Both students and teachers benefit; the latter may profit, not only as
practitioners, but also as students themselves, both in their pre-s~rvice .educa~ion and
in in-service development programs. Above ali, lhe prcsent drscuss1an bnngs oul
the need for.
(i) ea.sily accessible, comprehensible resources, available to teacbers and studcnts
. (e.g. Fauvel and Gray 1987). (08) . . . t. . .
(i i) a systematic preparalion of future teachers both durmg thetr tn11laltrammg and
lhrough in-service studies (c f Ch. 4). (09)
The present volume in general, and the resto f lhis chapter in partic~lar, is intended
as a contribution to the fullilment o f thcse needs. In lhe next sechons, we survey
w.ays in wbicb his(ory may in practicc be integrated with educational cxperienccs.
 :os - Hisrory ofmarhemarics in lhe c:t . •vm: an ana/ytic survey
7.3 How may history of mathernatics be integrated in
rnathematics educa tion?
1'- klki.ng. explicit somo: rensClns for inte~rating. history in mathcmatics education, as
we dtd m the rrc\'ious scction. still leaves open the question of how this integration
ma~ be a;:complish~d. In this section. we disti ngu ish and anal~·se three different yet
C(lmplementary ways in which this may b~ done. In broad tcrms they may be
characterised as:
I. Leaming lristory. by the provision of direct historical information.
~ ~eami ng mmhemaricaltopics. by following a teachi ng and leaming approach
mspired by histary.
• De,elaping. ""T'' m•·artnL'Ss. both of mathe matics itself and of the social and
cultural contexts in \\'hich mathematics has been donc.
-.3.1 Dirrct historical information
B~ direct histNical intC.rmntion. " 'e me:m both
a) i~e>bred fact u~l infNmation. such as Mrnes, dates, famous works and events
time. c~ans. t-ie>).!raphics. famous problems and quesrions, auribution of priority:
facstmtles etc.. and
t'o) full caurses or l-ooks on the history of mathematics. These may be a simple
~cc ount of historical data. ora history o f conceptual developments, or something
1n between.
In lloth ~ase~ the emphasis is more on resourcing history than on leaming
mathentatlcs. (m contras! to what is described in the following subsections}. Given
t~at emphasts. this i~ an auxiliaf)· way of integrating history: by itself it does not
d trectl~ change the imrinsic teaching o f panicular rnathematical content (although it
,,.,11 surely affect the leaming experience).
In s.ection 7.4 we describe in some detail different implementations of this
empham. sue h as histarical 'snippets' (§7..1.1), parts o f packages 'ready to use' in
the classroom (§7.4.5). becoming acquai nred with famous problems (§7.4.7), certain
k~~d o~ plays (§7..1.10). certain visual displays (§7.4.11}. visits to museums
~~~A.L~ ànd datatoam in the \VWW (§7.4.13). Although direct historical
tnfa~at ta~ ma)~ n~t b: the main emphasis of the remaining implementations
descntoed m sectton 1.-l. 11 can be' an integral part ofthem.
. M o~t ofthe arguments analyscd in section 7.2 can be partially supponed by such
mtegrauon. depending on the form. the scope ;md the chosen depth.
7.3.2 A teaching approach inspired by history
T~i$ i~.menri~lly ''hat m~y be called a genetic approach to tcaching and teaming.
h ts nenher ~lnctly d~duc111 e nor strictly historical. but its fundamentallhesis is that
a sut-jw is ~tudicd on l~ aOer one has been motivarcd enoug.h to doso. ;md l~mncd
e>nl~ ~tth~ nght tim~ in tm~ ·~ m~nr:~l de\'elopment. Titis means that those questions
· 7.3 History of mathemotics in morhematics education: how? 209
and problems which the subject at that stage may be <tddrming havc bccn
sufficiently elucidated and appreciated (cf. Toeplitz 1963, Edwards 1977). Thus.rhc
subject (e.g. a new concept or theory) must be seen to be needcd for thc solution of
problems, so that the properties or methods connected with it appear ncccssary to thc
leamer who then becomes able to solve them. This eharacter of nea .uirr of tllc:
subject constitutes the central core of the meaning to be attributcd to il by thc
leamer. In this sense, in a genetic approach the emphasis is lcss on how to use
theories, methods and concepts, and more on why they providc an answcr to spccilic
mathematical problems and questions, without however disregarding thc 'tcchnical'
role of mathematical knowledge (Sierpinska 199 I §11). From such a point o f vicw.
the historical perspective offers interesting possibilities for a dccp. global
understanding o f the subject, according to the following general schcme (Tzanakis
1996; Tzanakis 2000, §I; c f. Kronfellner 1996, 319; Lalande e/ o/1993 ):
(I) Even the teacher who is not a historian sbould have acquircd a basic
knowledge o f the historical evolution of the subject.
(2) On this basis, the crucial steps of this historical evolution are idcntificd. as
those key ideas, questions and problems which opened new research perspcctivcs.
(3) These crucial steps are reconstructed, so tbat they becomc didactically
appropriate for classroom use.
(4) These reconstructed crucial steps are given as sequences of historically
motivated problems o f an increasing levei of difliculty. such that each onc builds on
some of its predecessors. The form of these problems may vary from simplc
cxercises, of a more or less 'technical' character, to open questions which probubly
should be tackled as parts of a particular study project to be pcrformed by );roups o f
students.
Conceming this scheme, we make some further re.atarks.
(í) Both the teacher and the students may well malceuse o f original and sccondary
sources (§ 7.4.2, 7.4.3, Ch. 9).
(ii) Mainly in stage (2) above (and partly in (3)).1he teacher makes an effort to
grasp the difficulties inherent in the subject aml to gauge possible obstaclcs in
its understanding. Then lhe se\ection of questions and problems cnn be madc.
motivated by history, so as to actívate the curiosity of thc lcamer and smooth
the leamer's palh, by creating and/or cxplaining the necessary motivations for
studying new theories, methods and concepts. In this way, one could havc an
answer to the important question put forwanl by Brousseau (1983, 167; our
translation):
A pupil doesn 't do mathcmatics i f he is not given prol:ftems and does no! solve problcms.
Evcrybody acccpts this facl The difficu ltics ~rise 011te it is rcquircd to know. which
prQblcms musl bc civcn to him, who puts thcm and in wllllway.~.
At this levei, ínductive reasoning and anall!gies dominate as creative and
discovcring pattcms, emphasising the mathe.atical activity itsclf rather than
the well-organised arrangement of its resalts (Polya 1954, Polya 196&,
Tzanakis 1997 §7, Tzanakis 1998).
(iii) In the reconstructions of stnge {3), history may enter eirhcr explicitly or
implicitly. There is a cluality hcrc, as has been strcssed by severa! aurhors,
 1 mtor:,· vj llltlllll!nllltrcs 111 the c/assroom: 011 analytic survey
from Tocplitz·s work to reccnt researches (see e.g. the distinction between
direct and indirect genetic approach (Toeplitz 1927, 1963; Schubring 1978,
1988). •forward and backward heuristics' (Vasco 1995, 61-62), explidt and
implirit use of history (§ 3.1: Meng.hini 1998. §:!)). In a reconstruction in
~' ~icn history is e:-;plicitl~ integrated, mathematital discoveries are presented
m all their aspects. Different tenching sequences can be nrranged according to
thl' m:!in hist(lrical evcnts. in nn etTort to show the evolution and the stnges in
~e rrosrcss of mathemalics by dcscribing a cenain historical period
tMe~hini 1908. J: Schubring 1978: Schubring 1988; cf. Hairer &. Wanner
1996: friedebneyer 1990: Martin 1996). In a reconstruction in which history
enters implicitly. a teaching sequence is suggested in which use may be made
of concq:ns. methods and nolations that appeared !ater than the subject under
consideration. keeping always in mind that the overall didactic aim is to
... undCISt3nd mathcmatics in its modem form. In such an approach, the teaching
scquenc~ de>es not necessarily respect the arder by which the historical events
:~prncd: r:nhn. llne looks nt the historical development from the current stage
of COilCept forma1ion and logical strucluring of lhe subject (Kronfellner \996·
Siu 1997: Stillwell 1989: for examples see e.g. Radford and Guérene 1996
~. 3: Tzanakis JQ()~: Tzanakis 1999). Atthis point, it is imponant to stress that
lhe 300'-~ two pOS$ible typcs of rccons1ruc1ions of the llistorical developmenl
are not mulultly c~c\usivc. Thcy h:!Vc a dual charactcr wilh respect to each
other md l-oth may t>e used in teaching a subject in complemenlary ways (cf.
?ftr 1~ I. ~3: Fbshman 19%): in an cxplicit inrcgrntion of hislory, cmph.,sis
1S un a rllu!;.h 1>u1 more or lcss accuralc mapping of lhe palh network that
aprtarcd histNically and led to the modem form of the subject: in an implicit
in~e~titon. thc cm~hasis is on lhe r<.'dc~ig.ning, shortcullins :nul signalling of
tlus p;ullnel"urk t \·asco 1995, 62). In bo1h cases, historical aspects of farnous
prol>tems. inruitive arguments, errors. and :~ltemativc conceptions may be
ince>epor:ated in teaching (~7A.6. ~H.7).
\ÍV) A re.asonable concem abou1 such an approach might bc the fear that it takes
1oo much time. or leads lo over-voluminous textbooks. Sue h a fear is not well-
f~unded. The sequence of problems (devised in lhe sense of (4) above) can
gtve cornpact oppc:>nuni1 ies to the leamer to arrive at constructive results
staning from easy corollaries of the main subject and often following the mai~
~teps oflhe historical path. In this way, lhe solution of exercises becomes an
esse~iall ingrcdicnt of leaming, leading to lhe constnJction of the neccssary
lechruca1 knO\\ lcdgc on thc basis o f intercsting problems and not on thc basis
of execcises aniticially cons1ructed and oftcn devoid of interest (§§7.4.4,
7.4.2~ _One must be careful. of course. not to se em to abuse this strategy by
presa~t~ng fundamental aspccts of thc subjcct (c.g. basic conccpts, or dillicult
theortras) in the formo f exercises, or problems.
The approachs;Qutlined as (I) to (4) above hns distinct advantages, some of which are
thc fe>llo11iug::
- Reconstrwrlie>ns e>t eXlmples \point l-)) :~nd remark {iii) nbove) make it po~sible
for studtrros to und~rs1and lhe motivation for the introduction of a new concept,
7.3 History of mothemalics in mochematics educalion: how? 211
theory, method, or proof, and to grasp thcir content more profoundly (§7.2. a2,
c\).
The lcamer and the teacher are lhus encouraged to think of thcmselvcs as
pursuing their own researches (§7.2, bl, c3, d2).
Point (2) above {identification o f the crucial steps) often reveals intcrrclations
betwecn diffcrent mothematical and non-malhematical domains, which havc a
great didactic interest (§7 .2, aJ).
It is possible to make lhe solution of problems and exercises an esscntial
ingredient of the presentation, very helpful for a complete understandins ofthe
subject (see point (4) and remark (iv) above). Of\en the intcrest is natur~lly
induced by historically imponant and mathematically fruitful questions. without
however neglccting their role as a mcans to improve one's know.~edge of ...
'mathematical techniques' (§7.2, a2).
The approach suggests severa! possibilities for teaching a subject, according to
the specific needs of lhe classroom and the curriculum; e.g. emphasise the
historical aspec1s, or speciftc mathematical ideas, or interrelations between
§§ different mathcmatical or nonmathematical domains etc (§7 .2.al ).
By points (I) and (2) above, lhe teacher has thc opportunity to compare modem
mathcmatics wilh its form in the past (notalion, terminology, mcthotls of proof
:md of computation, etc). Presentation of aspects of this comparison may be
beneficiai for thc studcnts (§7.2, b2).
- Also by points (I) and (2) abovc, it is possiblc for lhe teacher to look for and
\ recognise difficulties and obstaclcs to the leamer's understanding (§1.2, c2).
7.3.3 Mathematical awareness
\ We propose that mathematical awareness should include aspects rclated to (a) the
intrinsic and (b) the cxtrinsic nature of mathematical activity. In this connection,
history offers inte;esting possíbilities, which are .outlined in the rest of this
subsection.
(a) Awareness o f the intrinsic naturc of mathematical activity
The history of mathematics provides opponunities to unfold, analyse and emphasisc
important aspects o f doing mathematics, such as:
(i) The role of general conceptual frameworks and of associatcd motivations,
questions and problems, which havc led to developments of panicular
mathematical domains (c.g. Tzanakis 1995; cf. §7.2, dl, el, e2).
(ii) The evolving naturc of mathematics, both in content and in form; notation,
terminology, favourite computational methods, modes of expression and
representations, as well as melamathcmatical notions such as proof, rigour and
evidence, in comparison with mathematics of today (see e.g. Barbin 1996;
Kleiner 1996; cf. §7.2, b).
(iii) The role of doubts, paradoxes, contradictions, intuitions, heuristics and
difficulties while le.:ming and producing new mathemiltics in the contcxt of
 History of matllematics in the c/assroom: on analytic Jurvey

specific queslions and problems. and lhe motivations for generalising,

7.3 History ofmathemalics In mathemotics education: how? 2/J TI
abslrncting :md fonnalising in such a contexl (e.g. Lakatos 1976, appendices I
and :!: Friedelmeyer 1996: cf. §7.2. d3. c2, aI).

tb) Awarenus o r lhe ulrin!ic nat ure of mal hematlcal acliYity r-

(a)
PRIMARY
(c)
I li
l\IJthemalics is often regarded as 3 discipline which is largely disconnected from
social and <:ultural concc:rns and influences. lts history may illuslrale lhe
superficialily o f such a view. For example:
SOURCE
MATERIAL
L
DlDACTIC lI
ti) Aspects of m:nhematics may be seen as closely related to philosophical
SOURCE
PRESENTATION
questions and problems. thc arts (music, architecture etc), other sciences and
also humanities (e.e.. Montesinos Sirera 1996: Pérez\996; cf. §7.2, a3, e3). (b)
INSPIRED BY
HISTORY
MATERIAL t
tii) The social and cuitural milieu may be seen to influence the development, or SECONDARY
.. delay the development. o f certa in mathematical domains (e.g., references in (i) SOURCE
above: Brin et ai. l!l!l3: c f. §7.2. e2). MATERIAL
tiii) Mathematics is recognisably an integral pan of the cultural heritage and
prnctices of difTerent civilisations, nations. or. ethnic groups (e.g. Cousquer
1998. Horng 1996: cf. §7.2. e3).
(iv) Currents in mathematics education throughout its history reflcct trends and
I
conccms in culture and societ)• (e.g. Gispert 1997; FitzSimons 1996; cf. 7.2 e).
Thc emphases listed above can serve as a general outline of how to start to translate
$Qmc of the arguments supponing the integration of history into mathematics
~ducJtiQn. detailed in §7.~. More specific guidelines for practical implementation
are detailed in the next section. For example: research projects on history texts
(§7.4.2). primar:· sources (§7.4.3), taking advantage of errors, altemative
~
"'
conceptions. change of pcrspectivc. revision of assumptions, intuitive arguments
l§7.4.6). faml'us hist(lrical problems (§7.4.7), mechanical instruments (§7.4.8),
cxreriential mathematicnl activities (§7.4.9) and outdoors experience (§7.4.12). HM INTEGRATED IN MT Ir
\V a, s of intee.ratine. historv into mathematics education clearly involve the use
Q( sour~es of ref~renc; material. These materiais can be roughly categorised into
three types:
a) Primar:· source material (excerpts from original mathematical documents).
b) Secondar:· source material (textbooks with history narratives. interpretations,
reconstructions etc).
I CLASSROOM TEACHING I LEARNING
I
c) Oidactical source materi<~l (see below). Figure 7. 1: Refe mru materiais tira/ p/ay a role when lriJI;o,y of mathematics {IlM) entus the
Historians Qf mathematics are. by their profession. mostly interested in lhe evidence classraam f ar matlrtmatics ltachitrg (M7J. ·
supplied by primar;• sources. and contribute to lhe progress ofknowledge by writing
secondary materiais. Teachers ofmnthemotics (at ali leveis) may benefit from both The diagram above (figure 7.1) illustrates the kims of ~eference material. The
prima~· and (perhaps more from) secondary materiais and they particularly welcome arrows indicate possible inte rconnections between tbtmatenals.
thc third catcgo~· of didactic materiais. By didactic source materiais, we mean the
body o f litmture which is distilled from primary and sccondary writings with the 7.4 Ideas and examples for classroomin1plementation
eye to an approach (including exposition. tutorial. exercise etc) inspired by history.
Of the three categNics. the didactic resource materi<~l seems to be lhe most lacking In this section we survey a w1.de range of poss•ible wys or imptementing history
f, . in
in lhe public domain. Teachers of mathematics and mathematics educators are the mathematics classroom, through giving examphs under each of the 0 11owmg
encouraged to de,clop. individually, or, i!) collaboration. their own material in this · headings:
cate go~· and to make ít availabte to a wider community.
 :u - lfi.11ory· oj'mmltematlcs in rhe dassroom: au analyticsurvey 7.4 Jdeo.s and examples for classroom implementation 215

I. Historiral snippets
Research projects b:~sed on history texts
{f) Conceptual issues: the narrative may touch upon motivation, orig,ins and
evolution of an idea, ways of noting and reprcsenting ideas as opposed to modem
...
3. Primai'}· sourcc:s .
~.
ones. arguments (errors, altemativc conceptions etc), problcms o f historical origin,
\\'orkshws
ancient methods of calculation, etc.
5. ll istclriratp~cl-.agcs
Ta~i~g :ld\:~ntJ~~.of crrors. nltemative conceptions. change o f perspective, 7.4.2 Student reSearch projects ba5ed on history tuts
re),rton oi unphctt assumpttons, intuitive :~rguments
1. Historical problems
8. Mcchanical instruments We outline here an expericnce from Denmark. While this examplc is at univo:rsity
9. Experiential mathematical activities levei, the principieis applicable at any levei when appropriate changes are made. In
10. Plays the master's degree studies in mathematics at Roskilde Univcrsity, projcct work
li. FiiJ!lS and other visual means occupies a central position. Studcnts spend half of their time working in small
.,1:?. Outdoors exptrience groups on projects dealing wilh various aspects o f mathematics. Each projcct aims
13. The \\'orld \\'ide \\'eb at posing and answering a few research-type questions. A project typically takes 1-2
semesters to be carried out to completion, in parallel wilh more traditional coursc
1..1.1 Historit-:~1 Snippets work. The main product o f a project is a 70-150 page report written by thc studcnts
in the group and defended at an oral examination with internai and e.~ternal
examiners. Students have to make three projects in mathematics, in one of which
l'>~:my_ ma'_hematic~l textb~oks. at ali leveis. have incorpornted in their exposition they consider aspects of the nature and structure o f mathematics as a sciencc with
ht~tonC'al tnform:llton. whtch \\C call historical snippets. 1t is beyond the scope of particular regard to its methods, theories and organisation so as to elucidatc
thts chapter to survey a representative sample of snippets !Tom textbooks around the philosophical issues, historical developmenls, or the social role o f mathemat ics. Thc
"Nid.. lnstead. \\C: pr"p?se a wny ofchar:lcterising and categorising them according underlying philosophy behind such projects is lhat every mathematics groduatc.
t(l :hetr forma~ and thetr coment. based on surveying a range of tcxtbooks from irrespcctive of his or her futurc career as a researcher, teacher, or user of
Y:lrt<'us counrnc:s.
mathematics, should have at least an impression of mathematics as a discipline
\Jndcrformat. we considcr situated in human culturc and socicty (§7.2, e2), having a history and bcing rclat~d
la~ . \\'bereabouts it is inscrted in the text in relation to thc mathematical to othcr disciplines (§7.2, a3). In general, lhe rescarch questions, investigations. and
exposllton to which it refers: is the snippcl before, during (interspersed within the processes bear a strong rcsemblance to what is encountcred in original and
text oras footnotes). alongside (in parallel to the maio tcxt but scparated !Tom it) or publishable research projects {§7.2, c3, bl, a4).
af\er lhe mathematical exposition? ' Ex'amples of projects with a substantial hislorical component are •Angle
.(b)_ lhe didactical approach: is the snippet merely expository, or does it invite trisection: a classical problem', 'Euler and Bolzano: mathematical analysis from a
acm·e J~\·ofvcment (a problcm to solve, a notation to decipher, or proposed activities philosophical perspective', 'The history of the theory of complex nurnbers', 'The
and proJtC1S)? genesis of non-euclidcan geometry and its impact on the development of
[c) :tow subst:lntial it is: how much attention is devoted to the historical side, in mathematics', 'The inOuence of Galois on the development of abstract algcbra',
compartson tO the rnathemattcal exposition? is a mathcmatician given just his dates 'The standard methods of mathcmatical statistics: internai and externai factors in
or :ll't funbtt and more helpful details ofhis lifc provided? ' their genesis and development' and 'The early developmcnt of game theory'.
(~) s~'k a~d design _o~ the. snippet: is the narrative informal, friendly, easy to As an illustratíon, we outline the genesis and development of one project. on
read. ls t! sahent and dtstmgUtshable from the main text (using differcnt colours 'Cayley's problem and the early development of what !ater bccame fractais', carried
backgrounds. fonts)? ls it visually appealing? ' out by six students, whose interest in chaos and fractais led to the project. Advised
by aclive rescarchers in the field of dynamical systems with a serious imcrc:st in its
~ndcr co':'em, wc consid~r whal the snippct consists o f and what aspects of hist~ history, lhe studenls dccided to look at the history of 'Cayley's problem' (the
11 emphas!S!:s: ry
problem of dctermining the domains of convergence for Newton's iteration method
~e) Factuõll d:~ta: the snippct may consist; for examplc, of photographs, facsirnilcs applied to a complex polynomial function). lnitial investigations showcd that
C>f_ 111_1~ PJ!t~ or Nhcr pag.cs of books. biographics, attribution of authorship and Cayley and SchrOdcr had studicd variants of this problcm indcpcndcntly of onc
pnortltcs. :mccd(l~cs. dates and chronologics. mechanical instruments, and . anolher in the late 19th century.
:~rchttcctural. amstu:. or cultural c.lesigns.
Agaiost this background, the following research qucstions were formulatcd for
the project: How did Cayley and Schrõder aclu~lly solve Cayley's Problem for a
quadratic polynomi;d? anc.l: Why is il so much more difficullto treal the cubic case
 :16 ' History ofmathematics in tllt claslrOom: an atralytic survey
th;~n the quadratic cnsc. and '~hat was lhe historicat evolution 1ha1 led to results
regarding the former case? To answer these questions, the group set out to identify
31ld reJd relevJnt pans of secondary sources (with a historical and/or slrictly
mathema,tical content) and or origi.ul articles in the period 1870- t 920 by Schroder,
Cayley. 1\.oenigs. F~tou and Julia. so ns to acquire the mathematical knowledge of
compkx iter:~tion necess3!)' to undcrstand what was going on. Based on this
material. lhe ~roup ~ave an interpretation of the historicat evolution in the area
under consideration ~nd found that the rcasons why it took three decades lo go from
degrte ::! to hi~her degrees were essentiatty two-fold. Firstly, Schrõder's and
especialty Cayley·s methods were so tightly tailored to deal with quadratic
p<>lynomials that they were not generalisable to higher degrees, and, secondly, the
!!ener:~l mathematicat developments in set theory and topotogy or the earty 20th
.,. cent~!)· were a ke~ prerequisitc: for the new resuhs obtained by Fatou and Julia.
The project \\'35 rcported in a 78 pagc report and was dcfended by the group at
an (lr:ll ex~minati(ln by the supervisor and an externai exarniner from another
uni\'trsity. \\"hilc this represents one example of project work, appropriate for its
imtitutiCin and lhe studl.'nts conce-med. somcthing similar may be devised for pupils
and lc"cls flf expcricncc.
(I f C'ther ages_
~..!.3 Prim3ry Soorces
The cenfr:llit~ and impCinance o f lhe use o r primary sources was addressed by lhe
Ois.cussion Document tQuestion 8) which convened this ICMI study (Fnuvcl :md
\ ' an t-.IJ~ncn. 1?07 ). \\' ~ do not gi,·e an example hcre. but refc:r lhe reader to chapter
o f(lr dc1:1i1ed discussion. · The authors report on lhe ways they have used11brworksheets, as well as on thc
~·-'·" Workshects
The use of w(lrksheets is widespread in many mathematical classrooms around the
world. They ore meant for students to work either individually or in groups, andare
of two ma in kinds:
(a) \\'orksheets whkh contain a collection of exerdses in order to master a
pr(l(:edure. or consolidare 3 topic which was leamed in the clnssroom and which can
!:>e IIWktd. eith.cr in clnss. (lf ai home.
tb) Workshects which nre designed as a structured and guided set of questions to
introouce a new t(lpic. a set of probtems, or issues for discussion. The design
usually takes into account lhe student's previous knowledge and by gradual
quesli(lning leads to lhe tlcvelopment of lhe basics o f a previously unknown topic
lcf. 7.3.2. point (4) and remark (iv)). These worksheets are usually meanlto be used
in the cla.ssroom. ofien in pairs or groups of students, the teacher acting as a
consultanl and guide. Worksheets of this kind are also used in teacher education
c(lurses.
I.
I
I
lt is this second type of worksheet that we are especially concemed with here, as
they can be especially suitable for the development of mathematicat understanding
through the inttgration (I f history. They nre appropriate at any levei of schooling,
7. 4 Ideas ond u:omples for clas1raom implementation 217
including tertiary levei. Arcavi 1987, Arcavi and Bru~imer 1991. Bruckheimer
and Arca vi 2000 describe single worksheets, as well as coltections o f worksheets.
especialty dcsigned to integrate historical topics, bolh iR dassrooms :tnd in teacher
education courses.
These worksheets are usually structured arotmll sbort historical cxtracls.
accompanied by historical information to descríbe tteir conlext. followcd by
questions aimed at supporting lhe understanding of Ar: contenls (§7.:!. ai). thc
discussion of the mathematical issues involved, compmison bctween mathematical
treatments o r then and now (§7 .2, b), and solving problr:as in thc extracts. or similar
ones inspired by it (§7.2, a2). Ir lhe extract contai:ns&ácnt notation, or notation
which is foreign to lhe students, the questions suppoadlc translation into modem
notation, by supplying panial 'dictionaries' to be OBDjJieted by re.lyin~ on thc
context. When the extract coota.ins more than ORF piece or information. thc
questions support the parsing of the text to cope 1lÍdl its apparent complcJ~ity
(§7.2, cS). Criticai reading of extracts is encouraged iy asldng students to check 3
calculation, discuss an argumenl, or simply by collllpblÍII( a mathcmatical scntcncc
from which small pieces were deliberately omit!te6 b this purpose (§7.2. a4).
Sometimes, the worksheets bring oul arguments abo.utrml!!iematics and its nature. or
about the nature of a cenain mathematical topic; tlbe<pEStions ask thc studcnts to
elaborate arguments to support or oppose what is presarud (§7 .2, b I). In the case of
worksheets designed for teacher education coursesr ~ls qJestions also ask students to
address didactical issues raised by the text, their potteniah·alue for lhe teachcr's own
practice, and their simil;uitics and diffcrcnccs winh lllOifcm didactical approad1es
(§7.2, c).
design of the accompanying answer shec:ls, in ..Wlii:b aot only :mswers. but ais~
further historical and mathematical consolidation anrp;avided. Worksheets o f thts
kind can be designed to study the history of a matr.i11Mticaltopic; or simply to \)(:
used as needed in lhe mathematica\ classroom fCDl'siil§e class periods, where the
topic is relevant to the curriculum.
7 .4.5 Hislorical pacluges
Bruckheimer and Arcavi (2000) define 'histtcical packages' (or hi~tori~al
'happenings') as a collection of materiais narrowJyftmsed on a small top tc. wllh
strong ties to the curricutum, suitable for two or tllum.dus peri~s. r~ady for use by
teachers in their classrooms. These packages aJ:re:lllle than h1stoncal as1dcs, but
tess than a comprehcnsive historical approach to a Ç topic. Where .possible, '.hey
are built around short fragments of primary souttc.JF~~Iy a 3-4 hne quotallon)
and even though they are meanl to be ~riven by ltbrkacher, they are mostly based
on the aclive panicipation of the studenls (§7 .2·,. d!lil). Th~ role of lhe. teacher
consists o f presenting the historical background me.e !l\ proposmg the questtons and
· the problems and guiding the discussion. .
lõe package is meantto be setf-contained: ilt p~es the.teac~er wnh a folder
including the detailed text of the activity, histtonaf and dtdacllc.al background,
guidclines ror classroom implementation, expt'!clrt student rcacttons {based on

118 7 Hisrory of mothemarics in rhe classroom: an analytic survey
previous classroom trials) and ali the illustrative material needcd in the fonn of pre-
prcparetl _o'·crhead projector transparencies. The lransparencies contain (i)
reprod.uOIIOns from original telCts. pictures of mathematicians. etc. and (ii) the
quotallonL thc problems and issucs for discussion.
T~e .llfurementioned nuthors repon on the developmenl of five such packagcs:
'~ncJ~ntaumcrnls and number syslems'. •Arithmelic in ancienl Egypt', 'n and lhe
c1rcuri1fe~mce o f the circle', 'Word problems and equalions' (described in Ofir and
Arca\'i, l~:n. and 'Cnsting oulnincs' (dcscribed bricfly below and in more dctail in
Orucldu:.ia1:r .:1 ui 1995).
'Cutmg out nines' tells thc story of a topic which in some countries has dropped
out of ~ curcicul um. but which nevertheless contains mathematically rich and
relevam !b•ucs for discussion with junior high and high school students. AI lhe
., same tink. it gh·es an opportunity for teachers lo enhance lhe ir malhemalical
l iter.~cy. Tbr activities are organised around quotations !Tom old textbooks, on ways
to chcck llll\lltiplication calculation~ based on propenies of numbers modulo 9. Thc
q~otations mclude statements which the students are asked to tcst, diseuss, justify, or
reJect \§1.2. a-1). Once the method is understood and justified, students are askcd to
discuss lhe issuc of simplici1y versus relíability (casting out nines providcs a
necessar:r but not sufficienl condition for the correctness of the calculation;
~1.~. bl'). Thcn the discussion is moved lowards checks by mcans of othcr numbers
as thcy ~ar in an I Sth century textbook.
As 313011her ex~mpk we mention a package on lhe Pythagorean theorem,
r:-repared IIIQinly in En!',lish for Grade 8 students (age 14) in Hong Kong (Lit 1999).
The tex·tbmok in use at school wu analysed and improved by laking inlo account
historical aspects of the subject. The pack.age includes activities, manipulations,
proofs of fhe P}'lhagorean theorem in various cultures, related problems taken from
ancient1Criptures. and historical narrativcs. as detailed below:
.4. (t}Presentation ofthe Chinese. Egyptian, Greek and Babylonian origins ofthe
~;hagorQn thcorem. \ii) Presenlation of the Chinese 'water weed problem' (Bai
1990. 419-420). and the lndian 'lotus problem' (Du et a/199 1, 572-573; for both
rroblemssee Swetz and Kao 1977. 30·33). (iii) The original writings for refcrcnce,
to be u~oi l:>y the studcnts.
8. Sn'cn diffcrent proofs of thc thcorem by methods that appeared in various
cuhures in t:~rder to see thc same problem in differcnt perspectives (§7.2. e3)
C. A diagr.~mmatic proof from ancient Chinese mathematics wbich illustrates
that the .problem can be treatcd not only algebraically.
D. A simpli!ied account of an early crisis in thc foundations of mathematics
concemlllg. the discovery of irrationals and its rclationship to the Pythagoreaz:
theorem(§-7.:!. aJ).
E. Hi51orically motivated activities such as (i) making a right-angled triangle
from a !tring with li knots; or {ii) deciphering the relations between numbcr
colunms efthe Babylonian tablet 'Piimpton 322'. given on a worksheet in Hindu-
Arabic BlllUerals \Boyer 1968: Eves 1990: c f. §7.2, a2, c4).
F. Olt the basis of E( i) above, studcnts are asked to explain the proof of the
~1hagcni!:rl lheorem by geomerrical dissection, which illustrates the use of
manipubl~s.
219
7. 4 Ide as and examples for classroom implementation
The package contains all the necessary written documents and materiais ~or i~ems A
to F four artic\es (in Chinese) for the students to read, and brief gu1deltnes to
teachers. Before thc actual implementation, the original dcsign of lh~ packagc was
pre-tested in two Grade 8 cluses in Octobcr \996, leading to its rev!Sion and final
design.
7.4.6 Taking advântage of crrors, altcrnative conccptions, chan~e o f
perspcctivc, rcvisiou of implicil assumptiuns, intuitivc aq~umcnts etc.
An advantage of implemcnting history in the . prcsentation and. l,eaming o:
mathematics is lhe opponunity it prcscnts to apprcctatc and mak.c c~~llcJt use of lhe
consuuctive role of (i) errors, (ii) a/ternative conceptions, (111) changes of
perspecrive conceming a subject, (iv) paradoxes, controversies and re:visi~ll of
implicit assumptions and notions, (v) intuitive argumenls,_thal appeared hl.ston:ally
and may be put to beneficiai use in the ~eaching and leammg of mathemallcs. e1ther
directly or didactically reconstructed (in the sense of §7 .3.2). .
Some of thcse havc to do with a broad thcmc and usually spa.n a long pe~1od,
perhaps in diffcrent guises. These can help to give a persp~cllve on Ih~ 1ssue
conccmed (cf. §7.2, bl). An example of (ii), for the sake of •.llus~at1on, 1s ca~ly
belief in the commensurability of ali magnitudes; of (iii), rejectton of ncgattvc
numbers even as late as the beginning of the 19th ccntury; of (iii) and (iv), 'proofs'
of lhe 'Parallel Postulate'; of (i) and (v}, controvcrsy over the inlinitesim~~s and the
many strange resulls about infinile scries; of (iv), paradoxes in probab1l~ty theory
ever since the 17th cenlury. Here one may think of D' Alembert's calculallon of2/3
for the probability o f a coin falling at least once head if to~sed t_Wice, in the French
Encyclopédie ( 1754), or Bertrand's diffcrent answers, by usmg d1ffcrent mcthods ~or
estimating the probability that a chord cho~en at ran~om ~ill be larger than the s~d~
of an equilateral triang\e inscribcd in thc Clrcle, pubhshed m Calcu/ des probobi/11es
(1889); see Székely 1986)). References for and fuller discussion of thcsc examplcs
abound in the literature. d I f
Other examples afford an opponunity to \ook into lhe metho o ogy o
mathematical invention, e.g. exploration of the Euler-Descart~s formula V-E+F• 2
in solid geometry (see Biggs et ai. 1976, Ch.S; Lakatos 1976; S1~ 1990, Ch.4). •
Finally, some others may contribute to en~ance understandmg by (ali cxamplcs
here are of case (1), ie the historically construcllve role of ercors): . ,
a) leading to specilic significant notions. An example hcre w~uld bc Cau~hy s
'proor of the convcrgcnce o f a sequence o f continuous funct10ns; scc Rtckcy
· 1995 \30-132; Siu 1997, 147-148; '
b) leading to a correct proof of a specific theorem. An example hcrc would be
Kempe's 'proor ofthe Four Colour Map Conjecture and Heawood's proof o f thc
Five Colour Map Theorem in lhe late 19th century; see Biggs et ai. 1976, Chap 6;
Siu 1990, Chap. 6.
c) Jeading to both significant notions and corcect theorcms. An examplc hcr.e
would be Lamé's 'proor of Fennat's Last Theorcm and Ku~tmer s
c.ounterexample and subscquent work on cyclotomic integers, from wh1ch thc
 .::v 7 HistO')' of mothemarlcs in the classroom: an ana()•tlc su/'lley
notio n of ideal in commutati\'e ring theory ar~se; see Edwards 1977, Ch.4; Siu
1990.Ch.6: Siu 1997,148-149.
Now "e s ivc some dctails o f speci fie exam,Ples.
(i) Errors
Here :m: fi,·e shon examples. uscful for undergmduate andlor scnior high school
students tP.::!. a. c~):
( I) A survi\'ing deC"d from Edfu in Egypt, dating back to the 2nd century BC,
g:t' e the :Irea o f :t qu:tdrilateral as thc product of the pairs of arithmetic means of
opposite sides. From this the aren o f a triangle was deduced, as the product of the
mcan of two sides and one half of the third side. Students can be asked to
in,·estig:tte how good thc formula is. when it will give a correct answer and what
't s<>me spec.ial cases ~icld (see E,·es 1990, 63. cxercise 2.13(f)). Tiley can also be
3Sk<.-d to dtscu$S the h~ pothctical historico-mathematical issue o f whether the ancient
E~;~ pti:tns \\Cre :tw:trc o f thc mist:Jkc. An argument here could be that their
31\:trencss or othcm ise o f this fac t is irrelcvant. if the arcas they calculated were
arrro:~.inlJiely rectangular (in which case the mistake is small and the method is
cem' enient).
(~) r\rchimedes ()rd cen tury BC) obtained the formula A= 1mb for the area of an
ellipse "ith semi-~xes cr.f. in Onconoids and spheroids. Hence, the ratio of the area
o: J.ll ell.ips~ to that <'f its circumscribed rectangle is :r/.J. Based on analogy,
Faronac~a (I :th ce~tury) argued that since thc ratio o f the are a of a circle (which is
th~ ~remi C3Se ''uh a=b) to that o f its circumscribed square (which is of course
:t .J) is equal to the ratio o f the perimeter o f a circle to that o f its circumscribed
s~u:~re. the same held true for an ellipse and its circumscribed rectangle. This would
yt~ld the formu la P =;r ta+b) for the ~rimeter of an ellipse. Students can be asked
to comment o~ its validity. and more generally (and probably on the basis of more
examples~ to dascuss the method o f analogy in mathematics (se e Siu 1990, Ch. 2; cf.
Po ly:~ 19).1, 77-79: and here §7.3.:!. rc mark (i i)).
.\3) In Chapter Four o f Jiu Zlrang Suan Sim ('Nine Cha pters on the Mathematical
An • c. IOO BC- AO 100). the volume of a sphere was said to bc 9116 that of its
circum.sc~ib:d cylinder (Sai 1990). In his commentary, Liu Hui (c. 250) pointed out
that th1s as mcorrect and ga,·e further elaboration, which lcd to a correct formula
d~ ri'~~J thrt'ugh "" ingc:niou~ means by Zu Chong-Zhi nnd his son Zu Geng in th~
btc :-th ccntury. Stu dcnt~ can bc askrd to compare lhe incorrcct formu la with the
c~rrcct .ont' and to guc:ss how the 9116 might have come nbout. This can lead to a
dtscusston of the intcrcsting principie known in the West as Cavalicri's principie
stated in 1635 (seco Siu 1993. 353-354; Wagner 1978). . '
(.l) Galileo conjectured that a heavy rope suspended from both cnds hangs in the
shape o f a parabola ~ which. is indeed lhe case i f the rope suspends a plank, in the
manner of a suspenston brtdge). This problem o f the curve formed by a hanging
rope was !ater posed by Jakob Bernoulli and solved by mathematicians of the 17th
an? 18th centuries. including Huygens. Leibniz and Johann Oemoulli. Huygens
comed the word 'caten ary' (cateno) for this curve. Students can be asked to find the
equaticm o f a catenary and compare it with a parabola. This example can also be
deaJ and e;comples for classroom impfemenfGÜ.DII 121
user! to motivate and predispose students to lhe S1dy of differential equatioo~
(Rickey 1995, 127-129; cf. 7.2.a2, cl).
(5) In a 3-page paper o f 1878 which appeared in1k first issue o f thc Americw•
journat ofmathematics, Arthur Cayley claimed that tb=t· were three groups of ordcr
6, characterised by generators and relations:
(i) a; a = I
6
(ii) a, b; a1 = b1 = I, ab =ba
(i! i) a, b; a1 =b1 .. I, ab • b a, ba =ab
1 1
Students can be asked to find whether this claiimif; valid, and if not. to exp iJin
why some among the three are isomorphic (see La.n U'J8, 363).
(ii) Alterna tive co nceptions
The history of the notion of functíon. as a rule: b] -.hich an element of a sct is
associated to exactly one element o f another se~ li ;elatively late. !t camc aficr
more restricted, but intuitive conceptions were ffoad to be insuffícient (c.g. thc
function as a formula, cf. Euler's definition, Bo:,~rer l!J59, 243; for a comprehensivc
account o f the history o f the function concept, see Y.asltkevitch 1976). At thc high
school levei, this fact may help the teacher tOl J§trttiate the difficulties of his
students to understand the abstract dclinition in «Jqpt\:(§7.2, c2). Even whcrc they
have been taught the rule-bascd definition ovcr $ew::al years o f education, studcnts
may continue to identify a function by its mode aíf~entation, in effcct a formula
(Bakar and Tall199\; Grugnetti 1994; Vi nner ancli Dty.fous 1989).
Gottlib (1998) developed an activity for use:iin1clcher workshops or courscs. in
which participants follow some of the stages; ,of'tbe historical evolution of thc
function concept, which were accompaniedl 1iih details of mathcmaticians'
struggles and rejection of new ideas. Cogniitilb s.tudies that explore studcnt
conceptions and difflculties when learning fundtio.tr, are also examined. Thcn, the
teachers compare the past developments with tfue tq~rriences of students who h:am
the concept, in order to develop appreciation oftthecomplicated proccss of lcaming
a complex concept, such as the function · conc:cp:l finally, the teachers considcr
didactical implications (for another sue h activ.flty. Stt Lycée Group 1996). Al a
higher level,the history ofthc abstract definitiom «fáflsnction may be given in more
detail, bascd on historically motivated question1s,lllr:e Fourier's assertion tnat any
periodic ' function' may be represen ted by a ~metric serics and Dirichlet's
function as a famous countercxample to this as!Geàirr(Boyer 1959, 599-600; Struik
\
1948, 148; Kronfellncr 1996; Siu 1995; §7.2, ál1).
lncidentally, this cxample may also heliP :tachers to see how alternat~ve
conceplions (o f a function) and errors can giveli.blem background from wh1ch
Lhe concepts of uniforrn convergence of fwn.ciõss, Riemann integrability, and
functions of bounded variation emerge as prcOOfgenera~ -concepts (see Lakatos
1976, \46-148; Siu 1997).
. (iii) Change of pcrspective
The disti nction between synthesis and ana!S~in geometry is an interesting
illustration of how mathematical methods andf. pil1ls o f view conceming the same
subject are not unique. Euclid's Elements is; a.be.lãstorical paradigm of synthetic
 llistory o/ mathematics Ílltlte c/assroom: an analylic survey
cxposition in geometry. According to Pappus' Mathemalica/ col/ection
('Synagoge'), book vii. thc ancient mathematicians uscd not on1y synthesis, but a1so
analysis in their geometrical rcsearch (se e. Thomas 194 I , 596-600; Ver Eecke 1982,
477·512; Heath 1981. -l00-401; Fauvel and Gray 1987, 208-209). In the late 16th
ccntul). ~ietc impellcd an 'analytic program', quite distinct fTom the Greek method
of analysis. that eventually led to the creation of analytic gcometry by Fennat and
Desc:mc~ (BCiyer 1956. Ch. 5; Mahoney 1994, Chs.2, 3; Mancosu 1992, 83-116).
Elabo'P.Itmg on the samc gcomctrical problcm both by synthcsis (in the Euclidean
modcl) and by analysis (with the aid of algebra) may be very enligbtening for
understanding the roles of discovery procedures and of proof in geometry (Bos and
Reich 1990: ~7.2 . b).
Sh?nly afier the Cartesian method had been published, Desargucs (and, to a
cenam e.'tent. Pascal) gave a serious impetus to the synthctic approach with the
.,. creationo(prCijecti\c geometry lKline 1963, Chs. IO, li; Gray 1987a, 16-21). The
tw~ poinlS of view are equally acceptable, logically sound and mathematically
frunful but they are methodologically dirferent. Comparing them leads to issues
sueh as a u.nified perspective on ali conic sections (circles, ellipses, parabolas and
hyperbo.las). whcther by the analysis of Descanes (in which a conic is an equation o f
lhe secorut f:!eg.ree in two unknowns). or by the synthesis of Desargues (in which a
wnic isolbeprojeclion ofa circle); cf. §7.2, b2.
1-to'vi:s~ 1>n to a !ater period. it may also be intercsting to observe how the fruitful
cc--orer.llioA o f the two approaches, visible in thc works of Monge and Carnot, was
follo\\cd b:-• a confrontation of extreme points o f view in lhe geometers of the next
generati0115... Brianchon. Poncelet, Chasles and Steiner supporting thc exclusive use
of S)11thdicr:al mcthods. whilc Gcrsonnc, Scrvois, MObius and l'!Uckcr defended the
supremat.J cf lhe anal)1ical point of vicw (Soyer 1985, 572-585). For an account of
lhe histcry cf geomell) in this period. see Gray 1987b.
(i\') Re'iriO!n o f ímplicit assumptions
Our e~plle hcre is at university levei: the effons of the lrish mathematician
\\'illi:u'R R!l\\Yan Hamilton that led him to the quaternion concept (for details and
funher tde~nces see Tzanakis 1995). In the early 19th century il was realised that
thr: prokll :,:: of two complex numbers is geometrically given by the plane
rotation màl multiplic;llion of lhe one by lhe argument and nonn of the other.
Hamilt001·s: trnoti\'ntion was to find nn extension of complex numbers, so that a
similar rcbtiion exists betwecn the sought numbers and rotations and simi1arities in
space. "'ff:ln his effons wcre for a long time unsuccessful was partly due to his
geCimttricpe.:rception of : r:l as a rule for multiplying vectors in the plane, rather than
ns a ~lint!r) ·orcr~tl'r .ddin~d by (say) : 1 on complcx numbcrs. a use fui concept that
dommalldml:llhcmallcs much latcr tcf. §7.2, b). These are mathematically, but not
conccptál'}l:, equivalent geometric representations. So for severa! years he confined
himsclfbtfitt study o f this qucstio11 for vcctors in R1. A chnngc o f perspective for
: ;:: in tlt2l'>\C1\C sense readily leads to the appreciation that one has to move to R4: a
thrce-dimm~ional rotation followed by a similariry requires 4 paramcters, a fact
alr~adylzo,~:n at thattime fTom Euler's work on mcchanics. This is a good starting
roun for:mrmng naturally al the quatemion conccpt, by considering the problem of
7.4 Jdeas and examples for classroom implementation 223
delcnnining analytically (c.g. in tenns o f Euler's paramcters) thc composition of two
space rotations (cf. §7.2, ai, a2). This makes it necessa~ to . rcje.ct. the
commutativiry of the product of two numbcrs, an assump11on 1mphc1t to
malhematics before Hamilton 's quatcmions (c f. 7.2.a I). In this example. history of
mathematics inspires lhe presentation, which appears implicitly (§7.3.2(iii)). This
could also serve as an example to highlight for students some aspects o f ~encralisin&
from one sct of number-like objccls to anothcr; for examplc, that some propcnics are
losl in generalisation.
(v) lntuitive arguments
Apan from well-known examples,1ike the intuitive perccpt~on oflhe derivative ofa
function as a rate of change oras a slope to a curve and lhe mtegral as an area, many
other examples can be gíven (Friedelmeyer 1996, 118-119). For instante.
Bemoullí's intuitive argument of using Fennat's derivation of the law of reftaction
in geometrical optics in order to solve the brachistochrone problem (Dugas. I ~88,
254·256) can be used as a natural first step to introduce the calculu$ of van~uons
\ (university levei; cf. §7.2, ai, a2); or at lhe high school levei, as a phy~Jcally
interesting probtem lhat needs some computational skill and an understand1~g. of
II
elementary di!Tere.ntial calculus (Simmons 1974 §1.6; cf. §1.2, a3). Stmllar
comments hold for the inttoduction of basic conccpts and theorcms of vector
analysis lhrough fiuid dynamics and clcctrodynamics (university leve\), by
reproducing the nOil·rigorous, but intuitive proofs of Stokes' and Gauss' theorems
given by Maxwell (187311954, §§ 21-24; cf. §7.2. ai, a3, a2).
Fin~lly in this sub·scction wc illustralc how two of thcsc fcaturcs may come
. together in an example.
(li) Alternative conccplions and (iv) revision of implicit assumptíons and
paradoxes
The long history of lhe mathematisation of infinitc sets is very ric~ in ideas.
paradoxcs, altemative conccptions and rcvision of irnplicit assumptt~ns, fro~
Zeno's paradoxes (5th century BC), up to Zennelo's, GOdel's and Cohcn s :vork m
lhe 20th century (for the latter see Van Dalen and Monna 1972, 26-62). lt ~~ oflcn
intcnningled wilh thc history o f related topics, like the concepts of the contmuum,
measure, and dimension (e.g. Stillwell 1989, Ch.20; ef. §7.2, a3). Here we commcnt
only on the different approaches in hislory to lhe conceptually diffic~lt su.bje~t of thc
cardinality of infinite seis, which may have interesting didactical 1mp1tcauons for
undergraduãte students (§7.2, c2). .
There are two historical ways of approaching thc question of compa.nng thc
cardinal numbers of two infinitc sets: inclusion and bijection. Already m .' 638,
Galileo fully understood and pointed out their mutual incompatibility, by refernng to
lhe bijection bctwcen lhe sei of positivc intcgers and. its p:oper s~bsct. o f. p~rfcct
squares and by d'!lwing lhe conclusion lhat, whcn deal:ng w•.th .lhe mfimte, 1t ts not
possible to use words like 'bigger', 'smaller' or 'equal (Gahlc• 163811954, 31 ·33).
These crileria reappearcd in thc 19th ccmury in thc work of Bolzano, CJnlor and
Dedekind. ..
 ; History of mathemati~ in tht c/a.rsroom: an analyric survey
In 1851. Bolt3nO proposed the inclusion criter!on: a setA has less elements than
3 set 8. if A is 3 proper subset of 8. that is if A is contained in B but not equal to B
tOolz.ano 1851119~0. §§ 19-21). Thus. in his own e~nmple, the set of ali real
numt-crs bttween O and 5 (0,5) hM less elements than (0, I 2) despite the existente of
a biiwion t>etwcen them (e.c. S\•=/lrJ: (Lombardo Radice 1981,111.2: Moreno and
\\'aÍdcg,g 1991. 213·216). Lnt~r. Cantor proposed the modem criterion based on
bijections: two sets A and 8 have the same cardinal number, if and only if there
; exists a bijcction between A and 8 (Cantor 1878, 1895; cf. Fauvel nnd Gray 1987,
~77 .~ 80). This conception opposed thnt of Boltano, given Dedekind's dcfinition
tI SSS) of an infinite set as one possessing a proper subset with the same cardinal
number QS the whole set (Dedekind 188811963, 63; Lombardo Radice 1981, IV.I;
.,\INeno and Waldegg 199 I. 216-2 19). For a comprchensive account of Cantor's
"Nk in this connection. see D3uben 1979.
i..t.7 Historical problcms
The history of m3thematics provides a vast reservoir of problems that can be
stimulating. and productive for both students and teachers. From a didactic
~rsp«live. the pr<>bkms are o f various kinds.
\i) prl.'bl~ms ";Ih no solution.
lii) bmous problcms still unsolved. or solved wilh great difficulty.
tiii) problems havin~ clc\'cr. alterna tive, or exemplary solutions.
lÍ\') problems 1hat motivated and'or anticipated the development of a whole
(mathenmical) doma in. or simply
tv) problems presented for recreational purposes (distinct from the previous cases
\ the cone and the plane (e.g. Apostol1967, §13.18).
tiHiv) which are more closely related to the main mathematical curriculum).
Below we gi\'e a small sample that can be used in a variety o f ways at various leveis
'\
of instruction. and some relevant re ferences.
ti) Problems with no solution
(a) The three famous problems of anliquity: doubling the cube, tTisecting an
\ As well as the examples alluded to above in (i), (iia.). and (i ic), we may mention
angk. squaring the circle tand the construction of lhe regular heplngon); Bunt et a/.
\9i6. Ch..t. The5e can also be considered as recreational problems (e.g. DOrrie
IOt-5. H ~5-37). ora.< problems which motivnted developmenls in nlgcbra through
I asymptotically n!ln(n) (Couranl and Robbins 1941. 25 -~0; Da vis and Hersh .1980,
lhe algebraicisation of Euclidean conslruclions (c.g. Courant and Robbins 1941 ,
Ch.lll: Bunt et a/. 1976. §4-8: Stillwell\989. §§ 2.3, 5.4, I 1.7).
(b) The problem of solving by radicais the general n·th degree algebraic equation
for" '" 2. J. •I. 5 and highcr (e.g. Slillwelll9&?, Chs.5, I&). This al~o f.1lls in (iv), if
an introd uction to Galois' idcas and group thcory is givcn (c f. Bourbaki 1984, 72·73,
Klein 1926-7/1979.81-84. 99·106).
te) The impossibility of expressing the are length of an ellipse anda hypcrbola in
tem\S of elementar\· functions. This destroyed Leibniz's programme of integration
in closed form. The problem may scf\'e 3S an introduction to elliptic integrais and
functions tand also falls in catcgory (iv)). The same holds for the physical problem
of finding in dosed form the period of oscill:~tion of a simple pendulum (e.g.
Still"ei119S<l. Ch. m .
7.4 /deas and examp!esfor classroom implementation 225
(d) The impossibility of proving Euclid's parallel postulate from the other
axioms, a problem that motivated the developmenl of both Euclidean and non·
Euclidean geometry (e.g. Bonola 1955).
(li) Famous problems still unsolvcll, or solved with gn::r.t llifficutty
(a) Fermat's Last Theorem-that x" + y" = i' has no solutions for n greater than
2-bolh as an elementary problem (with proofs fur specific exponcnts, e.g.
Rademacher and Toeplitz 1990, §14; Laubenb~cher :urd Pengelley t999, 156·203)
and questions related to its general form (e.g. Edwards 1977). For a semi-popular
account, see Singh 1998. : .
(b) The innoccnt-\ooking Goldbach's conjecture (every even natural number is
the sum of two primes), as wcll as, the existence of infinitely many ~airs o f twin
primes (primes with a difference equal to 2); see e.g. Courant and Robbms 1941, 30·
31.
(c) Riemann's conjecture (the zeros of the zet~ ~íon hav.e a.ll rc:at part e.qual
to 112) in severa! contexts; for instance, in connecuonwrth the d1stnbut1on of pnmes
(e.g. Davis and Hersh 1980, Ch.8, and in detail in Edwa'ds 1914).
(iii) Problcms having clever, alterna tive, or, exempbry solutions
(a) Many simple proofs ofthe Pythagorean theora~~, which appearcd in different
cultures (Loomis 1972; Eves 1983, Ch.4; Nelscn 1993).
(b) Dandelin's proof of the characterisation o f CDilÍC sections, considered as the
intersection of a cone and a plane, as toei of points, by using two spheres tangent to
(c) Various proofs of the fundamental theorem of algebra (e.g. Stilwell 1989,
§§ 13.6-13.1, DOrrie 1965, §23), and more compact proofs based on the elementary
I
theory ofanalytic functions (e.g. Knopp 1945, §28).
I
(iv) Problcm.s that motivated andlor antícip2ted the developmcnt of a wholc
dom. a in
\
(a) The 'prime number theorem': lhe number of primes less than n, approaches
Ch.S; Aposto! 1976, Ch.IJ; Hanly ;~nd Wrigbt\915, Ch.XX\1.) This moltvated
developments in numbcr theory (Aposto! 1976, 8-9}. .
(b) The Weierstrass polynomial approximatim theorem for real contmuo~s
functions (Hairer and Wanncr 1996, §111.9), wbí:h stimul:ned devclopmcnts m
approximation thcory and functional nnalysis (sc.e e.~o Bo~rbaki 1984, 157-258).
(c) The problem of stakes mentioned below i. §7.4:9'(d), which stimulatcd the
development ofprobability thcory.
(d} The problem of small vibrations of a string,111d the debate in thc second half
.of the 18th century among d' Alembert, Euler and Daniel Bemoulli conceming the
detcrmination of the general solution of the 'Ya-.r equa1ion. The investigations
conceming this problem were recapitulaled in Lagunge's report to the Academy of
Turin in 1759, Recherches sur la nature et la propagotion du .son, but the problem
remained poorly understood for some time and sipficant prog.res~ was made al\i'r

: Hisrory: of ma1hemorrcs in rhe cfassroom: 011 analytic SW"Vey
Fourier·s work ( 1822) on the solution o( panial differential equations (especially lhe
heat equation) with the aid of trigonometric series (Davies and Hersh 1980, Ch.S;
Dicudonné 1981. §1.2: Fourier 1822/1955). This problcm, apan from stimulating
thc development o f the classical theory of Fourier analysis, also led lo a discussion
and grad11al ctarification of the concept of a function, a key development with fa.r
re:~ching consequenccs to the whole of mathcmatics (e.g. Slruik 1948, 147-148; c f.
§7A.6 (iil).
(e) Jthann 13emoulli"s brachistocluone problcm: to find the trajectory of a poinl
mass moving on a vcnical plane between two tixed points, under its weight only, in
lea.st time (Courant and Robbins 1941, 383-384; Simmons 1974, §1.6). This
problem and its solution-the cycloid-anticipated nnd motivatcd dcvelopments in
both lhe calculus of vari:~tions and anal~1ical mechanics (Dugas 1988, Ch.III.V).
I http://museo.umino.it/labmatJ and further reference to related teaching experimcnts
., (() C.losely rc:IJted to (c:). is the study of the cycloid in the 17th century. lt
C(!nstituted a S(lurce (I[ problcms thJl motivated developmcnls in calculus. Roberval,
Fermat and Descams proposed ingenious methods to lind the tangent through a
point of the curve and they sho"ed {togcther with Pa.scal, Torricclli) a grcat
\
I gives an actual geometrical construction to do lhis, which can be used to build a
'irruosity in the m:mipulation o f indivisibles in order to compute lhe area undcr lhe
~une {Clero & L~ Rest 1980. Chs. 2. 3). lts length was calculated by Wren and by
Pasc3l. and the lant•r also detc:rmincd lhe centres of gravity of severa! plane regions
and solids JSS(Iciat~d with the cycloid (Clero & Le Resl 1980, Ch.4, 5; Dugas 1988,
186: Haircr :md \\":mncr. 103). Huygens proved that it is the solution ofthe problem
(lfthc isochrone pendulum (Clero & le Rest 1980, Ch.6; Dugas 1988, §II.V.6; cf.
Sommerfeld 196-1. §17) and the Bemoullis showcd that it is the solution of the
brachistochrone problcm {Hairer and Wanner 1996, 136·137). lt was a curve also
~tudied by Ne\\1on. Wallis and Leibniz (Clero & Le Rcst 1980, Ch. 8). The variety
<:'f ideas. concepts. roints of view. methods and resuhs connectcd with the history of
this c une m;,kc it :\ pri\ilesçd vchiclc fOfa histOfical approach to lhe calculus.
{Y) R~~rtational problems
Y..l:lny historical ~xamrlcs can bc found in thc rcfcrcnccs bclow, in thc Joumal of
R<WC.JIIonal ,\lathemarics. or from Singmaster 1993. Some ofthem are:
(:1) Eulcr's problcm of finding the number of ways in which a plane convex
poly~on with n sidcs can bc dividcd into triangles by its diagonais (DOrrie 1965, §7).
tb) l:lg.r:mgc·s problem of proving thal :~ny natural number is the sum of 4
squ:1res (Rademacher and Toeplitz 1990, §9).
te) Steincr's problcm of !inding lhe maximum oh'tt for real positive x (DOrrie
1965. §89).
(d) The 'li\'e-colour problem·. a much simpler version of lhe four colour
problem (Rademachcr and Tocplitz 1990, § 12),
(e) 'Napolcon's problem' (and solution presented to Laplace) of specifying the
centre of a given circle with lhe aid only of a compass (Carrega 1981, Ch.7, page
115).
7.4 Jdeas and uamples for classroom implemenlalion 227
•,
7.4.8 Mechanical iostruments
The introduction of mechanical instruments in the mathematics classroom is related
to two intercoMected problems in mathematics education: the socio-<:ultural
development of malhematical awareocss (§7.1, c, §7.3.3{b)), and building up an
empirical basis for malhem.atical proofs (Bartolini Bussi 1998, 5; cf. §7.2. a3). lt is
possible to illustrate many malhematical concepts and proofs using instruments that •
have been devised fOf tbis purpose, for instance, drawing conic sections, or solving
the ancient Greek geometrical problerns. A list of such didactically appropriate
mechanical devices can bc found at the WWW-address
can be found in (Banolini Bussi and Pcrgola 1996) and in §10.2.2 of this volume.
Here we mention brielly a few examples.
(a) Descartes in bis Géométrie of 1637 (Descartes 1954, 153·156), shows how to
find n mean proportionals (geometric means) between two given lengths a and b. He
mechanical dcvice in order to perfonn the construction. lt can easily bc simulated
using a dynamic geometry software (Dennis and Omfrey, 1997, 147-156). The
construction o f this machine is not thc only example we can find in Descartes. His
melhod to solve geometrically second dcgree equations (Descartes 1954, 12-17) can
also be done on paper, or simulated on a computer screen.
(b) D'Aiembert, in the Encydopéd~ mélhodique (175111987, 659-660)
describes an apparatus for finding the roots of equations, which can also be
simulated.
(c) Projects which involve more sophisticated mathematics, namely,
transformations in lhe plane, ~how lo the students apparently surprising rcsults and
gel them involvcd in the cxploration ofthe underlying mathematics (cf. §7.2, bl, d2,
c3). For inslance, Peaucellier's conversion of circular motion into linear mo1ion is a
striking cxamplc of invcrsion. Hart's converter solves lhe sa.mc probh:m. Thesc
dynamic constructions can be done both with ' real' materiais and on the computcr
screen (see, for example, Couranl and Robbins, 1SS·I 58).
(d) Finally, deviccs for testing cxperimentally lhe 'brachistochrone' propcrty of
the cycloid may be constructed, similar to that construcled in 18th century Paris-
which still exists today, together with a bigger, modem one in La Cité des Sciences
ct de l' lndustrie de 1.3 Villctte in Paris. Two billiard balls are lei\ to move
downwards along a straight tine and a cycloidal trajcctory, respectively, with thc
. same end points. 1t may be seen that the billiard ball along the cycloid arrives lirst
to the lowest point, contrary to what may be naively gucssed on i~tuitivc ground~ .
I
A similar dcvice for comparing the time along a straight tine and a parabohc
tTajectory, constructed by Galileo, is now in the Science Museum of Florc:nce, ltaly
(cf. §7.4.6(v), 7.4.7(iv}, and Chabert 1993).
 ::s - lfisrory of mathematics in riu! classroom: an Oll(r/ytic sun·ey
7..!.9 [\ptriential mathcmatical activities
An experiential mathcmatical activity would consist of re-living arguments,
nNations. (Tiethod~. t:amcs :md other w01ys of doing mathcmatics in the past. Severa!
kinds <>f acti,·ity are possible. o f which we mention four classes hcre.
ts) argumcnu
: The- tc:~cher sets a specific queslion. or problem. taken from the history of
mathemalics and explains ils imponance to the scientific community in lhe past.
Then. he encouragcs the students to think about it. discuss it in lhe classroom under
his supervision. work at home alonc. ar in groups and re-<liscuss their rindings and
.."rinions (7 .~ .d~. a-n.
Fc-r n:tmrk. studcnt~ mi:;hl l•c askcd to cunsitkr justitications. or indccd proofs,
0f Euclid's ~th l'p:~rallel') posrulate. In an e:ocperimcnl (Patronis 1997), the interest
~'f 16 ~ear old hig.h school students was stimulntcd by thc teachcr'~ cbhoratin~
l n~ ll'ri,~l cununc:-111~ ''" rhc 1\lum.larioll> o f gcomctry. Shc asked thcmto think about
the follo" ing question (c f. §7 .::?. :12). The exislence o f a tine, passing through a
gh en point ~nd p:~rallel to 3 given line. is easily proved: what about its uniquencss,
"hk h '<~rm lo t•c inwiri1cly cvidcnl? This sc:rvc:d as un intc:llc:ctnal challc:nge for
sC'm( students \tf. p.~. e1). "ho proceeded to re-invcnt arguments put forward in
\1(11 kno11n ·~r(\(>fs' ofthe !'th postulare (cf.. §7.2, bl}. Morcover, there was a lively
o.l í~.:u~~ ion l'n m<>r~ ~('ncra1 mc:ta-matlt('matica1 thcmcs; on what is mcanl hy proving
a rrCI['t'~ itiCin. or "hat is it to make a corrcct mathematical assertion. The answer
ghen by one student that "a correct proposition is one accepted by the majority of
pec-ple and which does not violate certain rules", may give the teacher an
<>rr<-rtuniry to discuss further examples at this meta-mathematical levei and may
gh·e hints to the students <Jbout the evolutionary nature o f mathematical knowledge
(cf. §7~. bl).
(b) notatíons
Students can be introduced to ancient numeration systems through their notations
and be given the opportunity to practice writing different kinds of numbers in these
systems. By implication. they are exposed in an experiential way to the re·
arr rc:cbtion of the (decimal) positional numeration system. whose characteristics
are taken so much for granted. By comparing and contrasting. they can nnalyse the
hidden assumptions o f their known system and its efficiency (§7 .2, a2). A detailed
discussion o f an example. in wlt ich student tenchers work on a reproduction o f an
old Babylonian clay tablet. is discussed in §8.3.1 (see also van der Waerden 196 1,
37-15: Smith 1958. 36-39 for a desc ription of the subjcct in :1 way adaptable to a
didJctic approach: EYes 1990. 19-21 ).
te) mcthod~
Studell!s can be asked to make use of old tinger reckoning methods to make simple
calculations as people did in the past. For, example. studenls can experience and
rr~ctice a sirnplc multiplication method for numbcrs bclween 6 and 10, which could
7. 4 Ide as ond examples for clossroom implementar íon 229
make it unncccssary to lcam thc multiplication table for numbcrs greatcr than 5
(Smith 1958, 201):
To multiply 7 by 8, say, raise two fingers on one hand and three on thc othcr.
since 5+2=7 and 5+3=8. Thcn, add thc numbcrs denotcd by thc raiscd tingcrs.
2+3=5, and mulliply thosc denoted by the others. 3 x 2 = 6, and thc forme r rcsult is
lhe tens, 50, and the latter is lhe units, the product being 56.
High school students with basic knowledge o f elementary algcbra can bc askcd
why lhe method works in general. Thcy can also be aslced to invcnt and justify a
similar method for numbers betwcen 10-15 (see Smith 1958, 201-202; §7.2. b1, c3).
Saumgart (1989, 120-12J) provides material that can be used to introduce childrcn
to ranger rcclconing and operations pcrformed using rangcrs. The classicJI Grcck
problems can also providc mathcmatical activities lhat could be upcricntial:
Caurngan (1989, 199-200) dcscribcs severa! constructions to lrisect ~n ang.k
(Archimedes' neusis, or using the conchoid, etc) which can be reproduccd by thc
students, using simp1c cla.~sroom materiais for the tom~hawlc or h~tchcl con~tnrction
with curubo;ml (scc also Evcs 1990, 114-11 5; A~boc 1964, 108-109). Anuther
example would consist of solving quadratic equations graphically followint; the
methods of AI·Khwarizmi, or Descartes, either with paper and flcncil or with
dynnmic gcometry sofiwarc (Joncs 1969, 260-263; Descartes 1954, 12-11).
(d) games
lt is of\en claimcd (scc c.g. noycr 1968, 397) that lhe starting point for lhe modem
theory of probability can be found in correspondence between Fermat and Pascal
about the following problem: two gamblers are playing for a stake, which is to ~:o to
lhe one, who first wins n points, but thc play is interruptcd, when the first has madc
p points and lhe second q points. lt is required to know how to divide the slakcs.
Students can be askcd to replay a dice game, interrupt it and discuss the ways in
which the stakes should be divided between the players. Students can also be :~Skcd
to play ancient games (for example, games taken from Bell and Comelius 1988) and
analyse their strategies, possible implicit mathematical ldeas and the sacio-cultural
context in which the games appeared (7.2.a4, 7.2.e).
7.4.10 Plays
Plays are usually integrated in education in general as a way to enact human
situations, perhaps to illuminatc moral or ethical or social quandaries; thus they are
usually not associated wilh mathematical classrooms. Hístory of malhematics
nevertheless provides an opportunity to incorporate the use of plays in at least two
different ways. Fuller discussion ofthis arca will bc found in§ I0.2.1.
(a) Plays can be designed to re-experience the li fc of Jathematicians in the past,
as a way to appreciate the human side of mathcmatical activity (§7.2, d1). Ponza
(1998) carricd out such an cxpcrimcnt with her high school s1udcnts 10 cncourage
1hem in their mathemat.ical studies by rescarching and reviving episodes of the
turbulent and short life of Galois (cf. Ponza 1996). T. Limnaiou, (as reponed in the
Hellenic Socicty's Report, 1998) dcscribcd theatre plays, which were performed in
the evenings ai school with lhe panicipation o f studenls, teachers and parents. The
 7 Hisrory ofmathemorio in the classroom: an onalylic survey 7.4 Jdeos ond exomples for dassroom implementation 211

pl3~ s "cre bascd on ~nciem Greek texts and the historical comments included in the and intercst to students of ali abilities and age.s, hiding images which studcnls can
mathematics tc:-ttbooks. She repons mi.,ed results: on the one hand, it was interpret and interconnect.
stimulating for the students. yet many teachers argued that «this is oot mathematics".
lb) Plays can be designed to re-enact famous arguments in history, to let students 7.4.11 Outdoor experiences
rt\'i\'e not only the human aspects of the history of mathematics, but also
m;uhematic3l issues. as if they were their own (§7.2. bl. d2). Such plays may be The mathematics of ouldoors experientes refers, among other things. to the
cc>nstnJçted by the class. or the work of other teachers utiliscd in this context (cf identification of forms and shapes, pattems in nature, in architecture (past and
Hitchco~ 1992). Be>ero and Tizzani 1997, Garuti 1997, Boero et a/. (1998), present) and in art (§7.2, a3). Exploring historical outdoor instruments wilh
describe 3 te:~ching experiment and make a theoretical anal)'-sis in which it is students, such as navigational and surveying equipment in order to leam
suggested th:u by echoing historical voices, studcnts may identify their own and trigonomctry, is another such set of experíenccs (Kiely 1947). The term could also
cthcr's conceptie>ns. refer to visits to museums of science which display mathematícal c:xhibits of
different kinds, some ofwhich may include historical background. In lhe following
.,7.4.1 1 Films and other \'isual mcans we describe a unique example of an outdoors experiente taken from Japanese
culture.
Films related til the history of mathematics can highlight the human, cultural and The Chinese mathematical tradition inspired the development of mathematics in
S(l(iJI context of m:uhematics and mathematicians. andlor mathematical tdeas. Japan. This gradually led lo its regerferation in the early 17th century. Wa-San, thc
de,clopmcnts and aq~uments (§7.2. e). There are only a fcw movies which are original Japancse mathematics, is to bc distinguishcd from European or Westem
pl:!~ ctl C(lllllllCICÍJlly in thcatrcs. One or thcm (lhe Swcdish film 77JC hi/1 on rhe mathematics (Smith and Mikami 1914; Mikami 1913/1974; Ogura 1993; Rothman
J,:!k .•id,· ·~,· rl~t· mrc•n). \\as 011 1he li fe o f Sofia Kov:~levsknya. lltere are some TV and Fukagawa 1998): thc name Wa-San is composed oftwo Chinese characters: wa
prC'~rams al:>c.ut m::~thcmalics ~nd mathemalicians. which wcre aircd in public meaning 'lapan' and
ch:mnds. Fl•r cxaml'k. lhe Public Tclcvision Droadcnsting net in lhe USA (through 'r san mcaning
the Public ~t:\ticn \\'QED of Pittsburgh) produced in 1998 a collection of seven one· '"
i!!. Xi
Jt R
'arithmetic'
'calculation•.
or
During
hour \Íd~ct3J'(S. undcr thc mme 'Life b>· the Numbcrs'. Devlin ll99&. p. vii), in the
accompan~ing. book to thc Yideo collec1ion, dcscribes tne serics as being about
·e\'cryday life and lhe role played in evcryday life by mathematics'. The series
prestnts a di,·erse !;roup of individuais (sci ~ntists. artists, athletes, medicai
G:
R
tf ª*
9 jjt
the 250 years of the
Edo Age,
professional
many
~ n.
rcscJrchers and othm), describing their crc:ativc and surprising ways of using Ê1 ).:), mathematicians
mathematics to explore lhe world and improve life. z {f ~
~ established their own
Films haYe also been dc\'cloped with clearly didactical intentions for classroom schools and tlcvcloped
use. \\Íth a strong focus on history. A notable cxample is The Tunne/ o/Somos. lt is
notable bccause i1 merges Lhe hislorical and the mathematical aspecls o f the tUMcl
constnJction. shares wi1h lhe viewers lhe consideration of historical hypotheses
i
•
i!t
~
R 9 'r 8
~
7Ç
m
- ~
original numerical
mathematics, while the
school system for
~ ~ !f
b3.Sed on mathematícal arguments. and makcs use o f the graphical and visual power
of lhe media to illustrate the mathematical principies involved (for some details on
~ A
"
jQj 'jj ~ {f ~
~ M 'r ';j; R 't =f
~ {f 01 .,... {f iL )\
laymen,
'Terakoya', spread
called

th~ mathcmati\':al aspws of the subjcct. see §9.5.1 in th ís volume; for the historical
prcblem. Stt \'a.n der Waerdtn 1961, 102-104. llte film has a duration of 30',
li JJn ~
e3 tl R lll1
>f A
•a !f- ;r
}\
it m ii
;r over Japan and it '
through tbis typc oi
school that laymen
-
prl:'duced \\ithin "Project Mathemalics" in 1995, in the Califomia lnstitute of
Technolcgy. Caltcch 1-iO. Pasadena, CA 91 125). In the UK the Open Univer.sity
has also made a number of filrns about the history of mathematics, which appear
regularly on lhe BBC.
~~
.~
~
* '11
~ Gil 11 i
9 lt! r..'l f;; -t
;:. t. ~
13
:§

~
leamed Wa-San. Since
Jaymen'could not afford
to publish their
Visual me:ms. other than movies. include posters displaying portraiis of problems and solutions,
mathematici.m:s. facsimiles of famous works. time chans wíth chronological, or as was common
Figure 7.2: /f the radíus of eaclr c ire/e is I. wlrat il the practicc · among
thematic historical dcYcl[lpmenls. Among the postcrs. 'Masic Ma1hs' is a series of lengrh of 1~ rtctong{e 's sldts? (MitiwaiU EI a/1987. Ohtake
mathematical stereog.rams developed by J. Shanks and C. Daniel (Availab!e fiom tbe mathematicians of the
1974)
authors at: Ora_go !llaths Educalion Centre. Dep. o f Maths and Stals, University of period. they posted
Ülag[l. P.O. Box 56. Ouncdin. Ncw Zealand). Thcsc stcrcogr.1ms offcr visual õ!ppcal
 1J1 i Hissory• of mathematics in the classroom: an analytic survey
them in 'San-Gaku'. a kind of bulletin board in the temples or shrines of severa!
regions, until about 80 years ago.
Many of these problems can be solved by modem college, or even secondary
school. mathematics. but at that time they wêre solved numerically. Figure 7.2
shows such a rroblem on a 'San·Gaku'.
Some of these materiais are still preserved, and published also in English
(Fukagawa and Pedoe. 1989, Fukagawa and Sokolowsky in press). In the Gunma
; prefecture in hpan there are 74 such bulletin boards. High school mathematics
clubs tour these sites during summer vacations, or holidays and report on their
investigations at their school culrural festival (Okada 1957, 1975, Ohtake 1974).
The problems and their answers are usually provided by the board. but the solution
'tprocess usual!)' is missing. or it is very sketchy. Thus. student activities consist of
understandin~ the problem. re-creating a solution procedure and checking lheir
answers with those providcd by the bulletin board (§7.2, ai). The sltldent melhods
are very different from those used by the problem authors, since thcy apply modem
westem mathematics to solve them. Nevertheless students still have to decipher the
statement and the solution oflhe problem given in the board (§7.2, c5). By having in
mind that these problems and their solutions were the creation o f ordinary people,
students not only extrcisc problem solving, but they also may have an opportunity to
demys~ify the subject. and to connect it to populílr cultural practices (§7.2, e3).
i.-1.13 The WWW
The World \Vide Wcb (Internet) can help the integration of history in mathematics
education in at least two ways: as a resource, and as a means of communication.
The n:source aspect is dealt with quite fully in §10.3 below; here we focus on the
communication dimension. with an example from Israel of how the Internet can be
used to de li ver and support entire courses.
Zehavi ( 1999) has implemented a course for in-service teachers on thc history of
negath·e numbers. based on lhe materiais developed in the Welzmann lnstitute (for a
description of the materiais see Arcavi er ai. 19&2), taking· advantage of the
hypertcxt facilities to explore links according to the user's decision. The course is
restricted (by means of a personal password) to those teachers enrolled. Access to
111\ <'Utli ne ofthe 10 chnptcrs ofthe course is possible nt
httr://www.weizmann.ac.il/sci-tea/math/open.htm.
Afkr 3 ftrst face to face meeting, participants work from their homes, they answer
lhe questions from the materiais, receive comments and after a certain date, fult
answers 1.1re provided hy the course administrators and made available to lhe
participants through the web. As well as being part of an electronic forum for
discussion of issues, raised by the leaming materiais and reflecting on lhe answers
by th~ir peérs, teachers are providêd with an· email address for technical support.
Such courses demand n heavy administration, but at lhe same time, allow lhe regular
updating of materiais online and attention to many individual needs.
Bib/iography and references for CIJapter 7 13J
Bibliography and rcfercnces for chaptcr 7
The foflowing abbreviations are used in this bibliography:
1
Proc. HEM Braga for: História e Educação Matemática, Proceediny,s ufthe 1"'
European summer uniwrsiiy on hístory and epistemology in mathematics cducution
and the JCME-8 satellite meeting of the lnternarional study group on the relations
berween hisrory and pedagogy of mathematics, Braga, Portugal; 24-30 July 1996. 2
volumes. '
LR for: prcpririt, available from lhe author, submitted lo the '!CMI Study
Conference', 19-26 April 1998, CIRM , Luminy. Marseilles, France and included in
The Luminy Reader: Oiscussion texrs for the ICMI Study Conferencc on 'The role of
the History of Mathematics in tire teaching and Learníng of Mathemotics' (two sets
of papers, Spring 1998).
Aaboe. A. 1964. Epi$oáesfrom she early lrissory o[mathematics, New York: Random Housc
Aposto!, T. 1967. Calculus I, Wa1tham MA: Xero~
Aposto!. T. 1976. /ntrodllction to analyric number th~ory, Ncw York: Springcr
Arca vi, A. 1985. Hlstory afmath~motics os a component of marhematiCJ teachers
background, Ph.D. Thesi.s, Rehovot: Weizmann Jnstitute of Scicnce
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DidaldikfiJr der Malhematik 10, 138-148.
Sicrpinska., A. 1991. 'Quclques idées sur la mélhodologic de la recherchc en didactiquc des
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Sierpinska, A. 1994. Underslanding in mathtmatics, London: Thc Falmer Press
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Delhi: McGraw Hill
Singmaslcr, David, 1993, So!U'Cfls in recrcational mothematics, (sixth preliminary edition),
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Slruik, D.J. 1948. A concise ilistory of mothematics, Ncw York: Dovcr
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 7 History oj matlremalic.r in tire c/assroom: an ana(1

St~kdy.
R.eidd
G.J. 1986. l'aradoxu in pro/xzbility tlr~ory ond matlrtmatical statistics. L

Thome.s. h·or 1941. Stltctions illustraling rht hislory afgruk molhtmatics ii, L<X:b Classical
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t:
1
'"·~
•:
'
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Ttchnal. 26. H·60. Chapter 8
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Tzan~is. C. 1997. 'Thc quest of bcaury in rescarch and teaching ofmathematics and
ph) sies: an historic31 oppro~~eh', /l'onlfntar ano(1•sis. tlrtory. mtthods and opplicorlons 30.
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Man-Keung Siu
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Tl:ll13lis. C.. ~000. 'Prcscnting the rclntion betwcen mathcmntits nnd rhysics on the basis of Fung, Hélene Gispert, Torkil Heiede, Wann-SJxat Homg, ~ rcto.r Katz,
thrir hist~>r:- : ~ gcnrtic nprro3ch', in V. Kntz (ed.). Using híslory to leaclr marhematics: an
inrmrarrc-nal prr.•txcti•·r, Washi ngton. O. C: Mathematical Association of America
Mnnfred Kronfellner, Marysa Krysinska, Ewa l.áoma, Dav1d Ltngard, ~oão
Tl:ll1lkis. C.. ThC'rn)idis. Y.• to appcar. 'lntcgrnting lhe elo se historical dcvdopment of Pitombeira de Carvalho, Michel Rodriguez, M'l,gy Schneider, Constantmos
rnlthtmltio ~nd ph~sic~ in mnlhematics educntion: Some methodological and · Tzanakis, Dian Zhou Zhang
cpistcmological rtmll!ks'. For the learning ofmatlrematics.
\'asco. C.!;, 1995. 'History ofmathematies as a lool for teaching mathematies for
undcrstMding' In D.N. Pcrkins ct :11. (eds.) Sofn•are goes lo school, New York: Oxford Abstract: This chapler provldes further specific exam;ltf of u.ring hlslorica/ marhfmatlcs In
Uni•·ersit)' Press. 56-69 lhe cfassroom, bolh ta supporl and illusrrate lhe argu-s in r:hoprtr 7, ond lo indlcalt lhe
Ver Eeckc. P. 1982. Poppus d' Alt.torrdrit, lo cal/ectir>n matlrimotique ii. Paris: Albert WO)I$ fn wh/ch the reaching of particular subjecls m.,..lc supportcd by lht inttgrollon of
Blllllchard hlslorfcal resources.
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Wagner. D.B. 1978. 'Liu Hui and Tsu Keng-Chih on lhe volume ofa sphere', Chinese
sci~nct 3. 59-79.
Some of the ways in which history of mathemai:.s Qll help mathematic.s students.
Youschkc' itch. AP. 1976. 'Thc conccpt o( funclion up to lhe middle of the 19th ccntury' teachers and researchers were examined in the pmous chapter. Rcasons wcre put
.~rch;.., [r>r histr>ry ofe.tocl scitncu 16, 31-85.
forward for concluding that history can help us tlt
lch3,·i. N. Im . 'Hi~tory o f matltcmaties on the web: from now of inforrnation to signifieant (i) grasp more profoundly the meaning of co~. theories, mcthods and proofs
k3ming'. Prcrrint. Rcho•·ot: Weizmann lnstitute ofScience.
in mathematics; . •
(i i) identify crucial steps, difficultiés and obsla!b in the evolution of a ~bJect;
(iii) organise teaching better and provide motiváia for lhe s.tudy ~f a s~bJect;
(iv) build up a reservo ir of examp!es, problel't8'ard altemallve V1cwpo1nts about a
subject;
(v) appreciate mathematics better as a creative~ess~. .
(vi) see mathematics as a human endeavour 'VItich ts related to other human
~~ .
(vii) maintain an opcn and humane altitude tow.tttsthe sludy of~athematlc~.
Many examples were given to illustrate Vlliiu& ways of tm~lementmg t.he
intcgration of history of mathematics with mdilmatics tcaching m malhemattcs

John Fauvel, Jan van Maanen (eds.). History in •imralit:O educotlr>n: the ICM/ study,
Dordrecht: Kluwer 2000, pp. 241·290
 N2 8 Hlstorica/ support for parricular subjec:IS
cdutation. Wh ile these many c:umplcs are c:enainly illustrative and useful, they are
by d~ign. in ordcr to illustrotc: a wide range of implementations, a potpourri with
onl~ skelchy descriptions. In this chapter we will ofTer a funher list of selected
examples from classroom teach ing experiente, to be aceompanied by discussion ·
mo~ dct.ailcd than could bc a!forded in chapter 7.
To hdp n:aders btner orientate their anention :md intereslS we discuss these
extmplcs ngainstthe background of a lhrt:c-dimc:nsional framework:
I. lhe lc:vtl o f thc: curriculum, which in mosl countries has a tripartite layering,
&om primary or t:l:mentary school (!Tom age 6 to 12) 10 secondary or high
school (from age 12 to 18) up 10 univc:rsity or college (from age 18 and
bqond);
2 . tlle malhematkal 1opic within tbe curriculum, such as algebra. geometry,
analys is. probability 1heory. etc.;
3. lhe wa~ s by "hicb his1ory o f malhematics is integrated with mathematics
teachjng in malhematics c:duca1ion.
Clearly, a his1orical example will not oficn have a set of clear-cut coordinates in this
three-dimensional framework. The same topic may be prcsented at difTerent leveis
(often to di!Tcrent dcplh) or wilh the historical content integrated in difTerent ways,
and lhe sarne examplc may involve differenl areas of mathematics. In fact, as we
witnm time and a~ain in his1ory, many instances of mathematical development
arose from e>r ~sulted in the fruitful marriage of different areas of mathematics.
Thus. re:~ders :!tt rcquestcd to ~gard this framework only as a rough schematic tool
in a l:>road sense ral.her lha.n as a strict compartmentalisation. One example (§8.4.7)
is evcn sclected to display how the same piece of historical material can be usc:d at
different leveis in different subject arcas for di!ferent purposes.
Of course. there are as many diffcrenl ways to integrate history of malhematics
into c!assroom teaching as there are teachers. Different teachers have different
styles. hold diiTcrcnt beli e fs and place emphasis on di!Terent aspects, despite lhe fact
thal lhcy ali agrec: on lhe value of history of mathematics-and even on this point
teachers may differ in thc ir conception of what history means, not to mention the
di!Terent vil'ws a histori:ln of mathcmatics. a mathcmatician and a malhematics
teacher may adoilt on lhis issue! This is natural and not a bad thing: variety implies
richnm. which when gathered under combined effort will yield a fuller vista.
Hence. instead of anempting to tailor the variety of examples contributed by
different authClrs inlo one uni fClrm mould. we prefer to retain the individual style and
emrh:l.Sis. while g.rouping lhe examples into a more structured wholc: in a formal
closdy related to the genet31 directions and emphases givcn in section 7.2 and 7.3 of
chaptcr 7. Name(s) of contributing author{s) are attach~d to each section.
Swion 8.2 consim of exnmplcs oftcaching specilic topics in which history of
m3tbcm:~tics inspires the wholc structure of the teaching. Section 8.3 includes
8. J Jntroiiuclion 243
examples that unfold the evolving nature of mathc:matics, both in contcnt and in
form, as well as to present (some small piece of) mathematics in 1he contcxt of
difTerent cultures. Scction 8.4 treats some specific cxarnples from various arcas of
mathematics and leveis ofthe curriculum. Finally, section 8.5 highlights lhe social
and cultural aspeclS of mathematics in a brqad scnse. Readers are requested not to
interpret this structure too inflexibly-son\etimes examples in one section can
equally be placed in anotl\cr. Certainly such a small list of examples can hardly do
justice to the wide varicty or possible ways of integrating history in teachin& and
leaming malhematics. But we hope 10 exhibit a wide eoverage so as to stimulate
other teachers across the world to lhink of more examples and to make available
fwther didactical source material.
This c:hapter, then, is both supplementary and eomplementary to chapter 7:
supplementary in the sense that it provides further specific examples to suppon lhe
ugwnenlS presented lhere; complementary in that the historical dimension of
teaching, as i\lustrated mainly through the content of these examples, co":'plem_en~
lhe practical implementation,described in section 7.4 of chapter 7. Wtth thts m
mind, we present the examples for the conveniente of the reader by giving clearly
marked refcrences to relevant sections in chapter 7 in bold face sueh as 7 .l.cl.
8.2 Teaching projects inspired by bistory
8.2.1 Ex.amples from algebra and analysis
Marysa Krysinska, with the collaboration of Christiane Hauchart
Where history inspires tbe presentation of mathematics, thcre can bc a global
reorganisation ofthe conventional, deductively organised teaching approach (7.3.2).
The two examples which follow are taken from lhe Belgian teac_hing project !Jt
Qttestion en Qttcstion (DQQ), which led to a scries of textbooks w1th lhe samc: utle
for the {irst 4 years of high sehool (Thomas-Van Dicren and Rouchc 1993; GEM
1996). In these textbooks the teaching approach is heuristic, ~n this ~ense: a
sequence of problems and problem-situatíons is given, on the bas1s of wh1ch. ncw
conceplS are progrcssivcly constructed, in ordcr to solve a problem or to. prov1de a
proot The foWldationaJ questions and their answers appear at the end, m contras!
with convent.ional textbooks. In elaborating thcse textbooks, history played a
dominant role.
. Negntlve numbcrs ,
Negative numbers appear iq the project in the context of severa! models, like g~in
and loss, debt and credit, stairs up and down. Above ali, they are used for locatlng
thc poinlS on a straight linc. Their addition is introduced by means ?f
John Flll\c:l. Jan van Ma:lrocn (eds.). Hisrory in marhemaric1 educorion: Jile JCMI srudy,
Dordrccht: Kluwer 2000. pp. 243·245
 UI ,9 lfistorical support for particular subjects
- I\\ O graded rulers, sliding along each other, thus providing a mechanical device
for addition:
I
successi\ e mo,·ements o f the rulcrs forward and backward on the number line,
when the numl:>ers to be odded exceed the gradation ofthe rulers.
I
ln history. the multiplication of negative numbcrs constituted a very important
epistemological ob~tacle (7.2.c2). Today"s students share in experiencing such
obstacles. In the DQQ textbook. aftcr it is noticed lhat lhe intuitive models which
"orl\ for the addition o f negative numbers do not work for their multiplication, thc
multiplication of negatives is introduccd by trying to extend the multiplication table
o f positive numbcrs to negative ones and conserving the observed regularities. This
is donc by introducing. first the multiplication of a positive number by a negalive
one. and then the multiplication of two negative numbers. In the first case,
"t multiplication (I f 3 rositive number by a ncgative one is expressed by the succcssion
of two geomclric tmnsfomlations. For instance. multiplication by (·2) means, lo
take the or positc and to multipl~· b)' 2, or the reverse. In the second case, the
product of two n~gative numbers is found by extcnding gcornctric~lly a linear
functi(ln tahlc. c.g. (3.·6), (~ .·-1), (1 .-2). to ncgative valucs of x: that is, in our
ex:~mrk. h~ CNnputing y .. -::!..t for negative values oh.
History suggcsts that the conceptual extension from positive to negative numbers
is f3cil itatcd t7.1.al) in the context of analytical geomctry. Freudenthal (1983)
<'rsencd th3t m:uhcmaticians who npplied Descnnes' method could no longer avoid
all0wing the lettcrs t(l take negative values. lf straight lines are to be dcscribcd
algcbmically in thcir totality. or curves described algebraically in ali cases, negative
values of lhe variables must necessarily be admitted.
Functions
Functions appcar as a means to give a model ofphenomena in various contexts. For
instance, in the DQQ textbook a model ofthe dependente ofthe stopping distance of
a car on its vclocity ,. is gi.,.cn. From a data table, we observe first that the stopping
distante is a sum o f the "thinking distance" dr and the "braking distnnce" du. We
represent lhe data grnphically by venical sticks, in the manner of Nicole Oresme
(Calinger 1995. 253-260; Clagen 1959. Ch.6). This representation suggests the laws
of dependence: the dr-gmph is a straight line. while the dp·graph looks like a
pamh<.'b; nncr th is. we 1·erify in lhe tables that dr /v nnd d8 /v1 are constant.
This teaching nppre>ach takes into account the following historical facts:
Proponionality. ratio conservation and linearity are fund~mental conccpts which
can lcad to the discovcry of non-linearity (Freudenthal 1983)
Historically. rhe study ofmotion has been closely related to the emcrgence ofthe
function concept. and more generally, to the development of analysis (Ooyer
-
1959. Chaps 4.5). In the DQQ project this favourable relation is preserved (7.
2.al).
The represcnrntion of functions by the use of vertical sticks (c f. Oresme) makes
algebmic operations with functions easier. The representation of any magnitude
/{.t) (length. area. \'olume. time. etc) by a line segment scems to support the
function concept {Souffrin and Weiss) (7.2.a l).
8.2.1 Examples from algebra and analysis ].15
In contras! with thc usual teachin~ approach to analysis (in which thc function
concepl, in its abstract form as a relation, is introduccd right from the
beginning), distinguishing the independent from the dependcnt variablc lcads to
the less general, but more intuitive. conception of a function as a rui c by which
the second is expresscd in terms ofthe first (7.4.6(ii) and refercnces thcrcin).
Rtftrences for §8.2.1
Boyer. C.B. 1959. The history ofthe colculus and iiJ concepluo/ deveiopmtnr. Ncw Vork:
Dover
Calinger, R. (ed.) 1995. Ciassics ofmatlrcmatics, Enr,lewood Cliffs: Prenticc-ltall
Clagett. M. 1959. Tl1e science of meclranics in 1he midd/e ages, Madison: University of
Wisconsin Press
Freudenthal, llans 1983. Didactícal plrenonret10logy of matlrcmatica/ structures, Oordrccht:
Reidel
QEM 1996. De quution en qutslion 3 (Groupc d'Enseignement Mathématique). Bruxelles:
Didier Haticr
Sou!Trin, P.. Wciss. J.l'., 'Rcm~nJIICS à JlfiiJlHS tlc 101 tr.nluctinn dutmitt de5 configur~tio11s tlcs
qualitiés et dcs mouvcmcnts', Cahiers du Semirzairt d'Epistemolo~ie et d'llisroire dts
Sciences de Nice, No. 19
Thomas-Vnn Dieren, F., Rouche. N.• 1993. Dequcstion en qutstion I, Bruxelles: Didier
Haticr
8.2.2 A heuristic introduction to analysis implicitly inspired by its
historical devclopment
Maggy Schneider
The following is an outline of examples taken from the Belgian teac~in.g project
Approche Heurístique de /'Analyse done by the Groupe t\HA (conSIStmg of P.
Bolly, t\. Chevalier, M. Cina, C. Hauchart, M. Ktysinska, D. Legrand, ~· Rouche,
M. Schneidcr) (Groupe AHA 1999), cooccming the lasttwo years of hagh school
and in which history inspires lhe presentation (7.3.2).
An introduction to thc concept o f lhe insl:lntaneous rate of changc of a quantity
This introduction is based on the study ofproblems like this:
\
A pump is filling up n conical vase with an anglc 90" at thc vcrtex, in such a way thal lhe
levei h of the wnter in;:rcases by I em per minute. AI what stage does tbe now of thc pump
reaoh 100 cm3/min?
I
. This problem molivates students to test lhe applica\~lity of the conc~pl of a
stendy flow, and to lead them gradually to. understand that the flow is cont~nuo~sly
increasing. Hence, thcy begin to undcrstand that it is necessary to cut the 11me mt.o
smallcr and smaller intcrvals. With more working they may come to see that thts
· problem teads to the idea of a new calculus (putting l!t = O in the expression for the
·\
John fauvel. Jan van Mnanen {eds.), /fistory ;11 matlrematlcs educalíon: lh e ICMI study.
Dordrecht: Kluwer 2000, pp. 245-248

).16 8 Historical support for particular subjectS
a\'crage llow o f watcr in thc intcrval (t. 1 + <ir)) and lhe physically intuitive assertion
(comct ifnumcric:lly h "'t) lhat lhe flow is 100cm1/min whcn the cross-section of
lhe \'ll.Se is 100cm1• Fin:~lly, in order to help the studcnts overcome their uneasincss
about lhe boldness o f this new calculus, and their hesitation to accept the concept of
inSWitanCous flow. a thought experiment is proposcd (based on a reformulation of
lhe intuith·e assertion above. adaptable to the case h is difTerent from t), which may
tOI)\'Ül.cc lhem that the result obtained in this way is exact. lt consists of a
comp1risan of the fiow in a conital vase with a steady fiow in a cylinder, in
p:uticubr cases. Epistcmological and didac1ic aspeclS of this problem are analysed
in Schneidcr 1992.
T he co.nttpt o f a tangentlint
-. The conctpt of a tangcnt tine is originally studied separately from lhe eoncept o f
\'elocity. CalculaliC>ns of !ines tangent to polynomia\ funclions. oblained by linear
appro,;im31ions, challcngc lhe intuitive gcometrit idca that studcnts have for a
tangenl lmr. namely :t straight line intcrsecting lhe curve as a whole only at this
point. ~quemly, thc coMection bet\\Cen linear approximations and difTcre nlial
quolicnlS :is cstat>lished by thc formal similarily of the resuhs obtained from two
problcms. one about velocities and another about tangents. The instantaneous
vcl('(ity 2ad the slope <'f 11 tnngent. though a priori conceptual\y difTcrent, appear
hcnccfMk a.s l\\O a.<.:pccts of the same concept. Then. the calculation of
instant.:IACO\IS ratcs of chanse hclps the determination of lhe slope of tangents to thc
graph ol'•u~-pOI)nomial func:tions, without using a linear approximation (for details
sce Grauntcnry-Krysinska and Hauchart \993).
Thc limiU'Ol:tllccpt
~nc grud01Scr to the concept of the limit in order to prove that on infinite filling
~ 1elds 3:1 ~'\.act result for a cur\'i\inear are a or a volume. This can be seen, for
e:~:unple. 'ltbcn one lills up lhe area under y = .'C1 from :c =O to x =I using
I'C(tanglts. The sum of the arca of n circumscribed rectang\es gives the sequence
(I• u .....l1,.' ll4 . The sum of the area of n- I inscribed rectangles gives lhe
sequence tl-2fn+ lln')/4. These two sequences have the same limit 1/4.
Ho\\C\'C'I',Il.C\1 :1\1 stud~nts are convinced thnt this limit is the exact arca sought.
llcnce. lc iS i ntcrcsting to propose o proor. on the basis of which aspects of the
3bstractrcuc:ept of a limit are built up. Suppose that this area is bounded above and
bc\ow by-fle 11\\'0 gi\'cn sums abo\'e. Thercfore. the area under y = x' cannot equal
\.'4 + c.w ifllS as small as we like, for by subdividing the interva\ into a sufficiently
largc numtcr of segments, we may make the sum of the arca of circumscribed
rectang,l«o :be between 114 and 1/4 + E. Hence the area sought is larger than one
of ilS appgxiima1ions ftom abovc, which is a conlradiction. Similarly, lhe arca
cannot bt tqlillilto l/-1 .. c.
As sho\T.l in Schneider 1988, such a proof prepares the way to lhe (C. N)
fonnulationo!T thc conccpt of the limit o f a scquence. For example. the quantifiers
t- and 5 w L"le •radilicnal way in which they are pul forw:trd (V... 3.... ). appear as
J \..ind of ''a:tcrmJrk' in lhis proof. Namcly, on lhe one h3nd, one has to verify
8.2.2 An inlroduction to ana/ysis inspired by irs history 247
inequa\ities whDJever lhe va\ue o f & • On lhe olher hand, lhe contradiclio? appe~ng .f
in this proof follows already from the existencl! of a value of n fulfill_mg ~ _gtven
condition. Of course, the limit conccpt is constructed herc only in an 1mphctt a."ld
sketchy way. But actually, this proof is based on lhe possibility of finally getting the
term of each sequence above as close as one wishes to 1/4. Thus, it \eads the
students to appreciate the technical role to be played !ater by the absuact rigorous
fonnulation oflhe limit concept.
In severa! respects, lhis approach is inspin:d by history (7.3.2):
Order and choice of topics (7.2.a1). The conetpts (velocities, tangents, arcas
and volumes) are lirst introduced in physical and geometrical contexts without
any a priori connection betwecn each olher. This coMection is gradua\1~ m~de
evident: slopes of tangents and velocities are two aspects of lhe denvauve
concept; arca and volume calculalions appear !ater as lhe reverse procedurc of
the computation of derivativcs. Finally, lhe general relationship bclween these
problems is established through lhe rigorous formulation of the limit concept.
Studying lhe properties of lhis concept, one is led to sharpen the nature of the
numbcrs used.
The evoiutionary naJwe of the form of mathematics (7.l.bl). In lhe projecl,
limits are first defincd as rcsults obtained by cancelling terms wilh .11 or lln as
was done in thc 17th century. At the end of the project, limilS are defined in
terms of ..c, ó".
The evoiutionary narure of marhematical research activily (7.l.b1). The initial
motivation i.s lhe solution of problerns. In this way, lhe new ca\culus, though not
a rigorously foundcd method, is nevcrtheless a powerful tool, which_ produces
new results. And then lhe new melhod is validaled by thoug.ht expenments for
ve\ocities and linear approximalions for tangents. Later, concepts of lhe final
(rigorous) lheory are proof·generated conceplS (in lhe sense of Lakatos 1976,
Appendices I, 2), that is, concepts mathematically sharpened in order to mcet
lhe requirements of a rigorous proof.
Epistemological obstacles (7~c2). This approach takes inlo accounl difficulties
encountered.by mathematicians in the pasl, and by studenlS today (even after a
flfSt course in analysis). For example, some studenlS seem unwilling to accept
the conccpt of an instantaneous ratc of changc of a quantity, fecling rather lha~ to
obtain a flow. it is necessary that a sma\1 volume remains. Olhers are scepucal
about calculating lhe exact value o f a curvilinear area by canc:elling tenns tn th.e
sum of areas of rectangles, because their conception of a \imit rests on the•r
., visual perception of magnitudes, wherc reclangles have to be gr~dually narrowed
·. until lhey become real \ine segments (Schneider \988).
Jnte/lectual style of classical works (7.2.c4). Newton's k~nematic a.rgume~ts
have inspired this approach: lhe idea of varialion, hence lhe 1dea_of a dJ~erent1al
quotienl, was originally introduc:ed more easily in terms o f veloc1ty than m terms
 8 HIStorical support f or particular subj. 8.2. 3 History and lhe teaching of proh.Ji>i/islic concepts 249

o f the tangent concept. Other problems leading to the Fundamental Thcor~t:t of

Calculus are also inspired by Newton's kinematic arguments. The proof by
rtducrio ad obsurdum described above is inspired by lhe ancient Greek
exhauslion melhod.
~qe
Referentes for §8.2.2
Grand'Hcn~·Krysinska.. M.. Hiluthart C. 1993. 'RéOexions épisttmologiqucs à propos du rup of probnhilib~
con~ept de tangente à une courbe'. in: IREM de Montpellicr. Actes dt la lêre Universiti
d 'iri t11ropienne d'htstolrt ti d'ipisrlmologit dons /'iducotion motiJématique. 431-442
Groupe AHA 1999. (.,'ne opproche heuristique de l'ana/yse.louvain-la-Neuve: De Boeck .~
farluntt }ftDbllt!
Lakatos.. I. 1976. Proofs ond rt/utations: the logic ofmathtmatic'al áiscovery. Carnbridge: ptalma
"t
L'niYersitY
• •
Press
Schnctder. M. 1988. Dts objcts mentmtr « aire • et ~ ,·o/ume • ou calcrtl áes primilives,tMse ptobafut
de doctoraL Université de Louvain-la-Neuve llttitas probl!hilis
Schnddcr. M. 1992. 'A propos de l'apprcntissogc: du taux de variation instantnné',
ltut~ probahllilat
Educariono/ Stlldits in morhtmorics 23.317-350
fn ·~· ..
M: tlai•
8.2.3 How ma~· history belp the teaching or probabilistic concepts?
tl]lrd•li•
pro~a~UU~
EYa Lakoma
llrt\shul!ls

In the past 20 years. there has been a continuous evolulion o f ideas on lhe nature o f \Juhimilih&ho
mathematics and its leaching and leaming. lnstead of simply transmining lhe fnqumfll
b~ c~ann
definitions of basic conccpts. prescnting the formal structure of mathemntical
thcories and giving some: s~r.~ightforw:ud applicalions, it is riow acceptc:d that llalur
mathematics teaching at ali educational leveis should also stimulate students' pnsiht.
interest and promote their abilities to use mathemalics as a language for probah!t
communicating and describing mental. physical, or social phenomena. This point of tquipnssibLe
view. however. requires that mathematics leaching must lake into account lhe actual tquiprabablt
cognitive development or lhe students (cf. Freudenthal 1983; Sierpinska 1994,
1996). Just to supply a simpler version of already-made mathematics is insufficient !benf 'frequencu
to provide a didactical approach compatible with the above-mentioned point ofview 1nb~pttt~llm~ prabahilHu
(7.1, 7.2). This point is especially important in the doma in o f stochastics (as we call
prob::~bility theory and statistics}. Probabilistic concepts cannot be understood in
depth t>y simply giving their logical connections to othcr concepts and thc:ir place in
modem probability theory. founded for instance on Kolmogorov's axioms, which
are loo abstracl to be understood by students. Did::~ctically, a heuristic (non- Figure 8.1 The 'cup of probabillty' pofnts oi lhe hútorfcol dtvtlopment a/ IM duai
a:xiomatic) approach is needed, which presents stochastics as a live part · of probobility concept. On the lejl slde are lhe mental objects lhot correspond with IM
\ ...
mathcmatics. making possible lhe solution of real problems by describing real aleatory aspect, on the right síde the epistemological nature o/ probobilíry ir
situations on the basis of simple models which have a great explanatory value represented. Before /660 the two aspects e:xísted indtpendY:IIy.from Pascal :r time ar:
(Lakoma 1990). they joín, /eading to the 20th century foundolion thtwgh the notion of índtpendtnu
and Kolmogorov 's a:xloms.

A knowledge o f the ways by which probabilistic thinking naturally appears anj

John Fauvcl. J:111 ':111 M~~ncn (eds.l. History in marltematlcs tÓIICation: the ICMI study, of the peculiarilies of understanding probabilislic ccncepts is extremely desirab!e.
DNdrccht: 1\.lu"tr 2000. rr. N8-252 · ln thjs kind of educational research, it is very helpful, and tums out to be fruitful. !O

\
 8 Historical support for particular subjects
l a~ ~. inlo ?cco~nl lhe hisl~rical dcve1opmcnt of lhis dom;~in (Lakoma l999a).
G" m~ a hsstoncal persptctsve to the teaching of stochastics is helpful, not only for
e:-.plonng an~ un.d~rstanding lhe student's ways of probabilistic thinking (7.2.al).
bul also for mspsrmg lhe dtsign of a teaching approach to stochastics, the Local
M~~~ls Approach (LMA). which t:tkes inlo account the student's actual cognilive
:~b11111es (Lakoma 1990: 1996: 1998: 1999b: 1999c; 7.l.c2 and 7.3.2).
:\!' _anal~ sis \'f.thc historie:! I phenomcnolugy o f probabilislic concepts led 10 lhe
follo\'lng cC'nclus1ons tha1 hal'e bccn taken into account in the LMA (Lak
19901. oma
(a) The concept or probability has a dual nalure
. li)~ rpimmologica/ aspect. implied by the general state of our knowledge of a
~ gll'en phcnomenon. 1t is re lated to the degree of our belief. conviction or confidence
on an :3J!.ument conceming this phenomenon. and which is supported by this
asgument.
(iil . an alwtory aspcct. rclated 10 thc physical slructure o f the random
mecham~ms under consideration and with their tendency to produce stable relative
frcqucnc•cs of cn•nts (for the historical analysis scc lhcking 1975).
. ll1~ ~chance calculus" is bascd .o.n (i) and lhe "frequency calculus" on (ii).
H1st~~ ~h011s that 3 nrcessary condttlon for understanding probability is to make
rx rhc•: sts dual n:nure. . The analysis o f original or reconstmctcd probabilistic
rcasonmgs sho11 s \Hacl\mg 1975: Lakoma 1992) that from Pascal's era onwafds.
both these aspects are insrparable, affecting each othtt deeply. This analysis
sug~e.sts that emphasising only one of these aspects. or treating them separately in
teachm~ prevents studcnts · underste.nding of the fundamentally dual nature of lhe
p~ba~tlny concept. Also see figure 8.1 for a schematic reprtsentation of the
h1stoncal development of lhe conccpt o f prcbability.
tb) Thtre is an interplay btlwten the concepts of probability and o f cxpecta·tioo
De,·elorm:m o f the dual nature of probabilil)' goes in parallel with the emergence
and es~~hshment of the co~cep~ of expectation (expected value). This appears
alread~ m the pre·Pascal penod 10 both thc probabilistic reasonings used and the
conte~t ~f th~ problems studied. which were focused on the estimation of chances
for. wmnmg m a g.ame or on the distribution of a stake. n:lturally anticipating the
nouo~ of e~pect:n~on. In a more sophisticated form. expectation appears around
1660 m lhe reasonmg of Pascal and Huygens, who also appreciated the dual nature
of lhe probability concept (Freudenthal 1980: Hacking 1975; Todhunter 1865).
Apparcntly. lhe emergence of the concept o f expectation and its careful distinction
from pr~be.bility madc probability calculus more undcrstandable and clear for many
ptople. ~ lhe past. th~s cnhancing its development. Therefore, didactically,
p~o.babsh~ ~d ex~cct~llon _can and .s~ould be introduced and dcveloped in parallel,
'' htle ah1a~ s kcepmg m mmd that 11 •s necessary to distinguish and contrast them·
e.g. Clne ~ay CClnsidcr probabilistic problcms in connection wi th answering not onl;
tlle qucsuon "llow oficn?" but also thc qucstion "ls it worthwh1lc"
8.2.3 History and the teaching ofprobabilistic ccncepts 2.51
(c) Loca! models are useful
Historically, the probability concept emerged tlvough thc: solution of concrete
problems, arising from the needs o f everyday life. In ordcr to solve them. pcople
tried to observe the random phenomenon from which thc: probh:m arose. to disco ver
some (i f any) of its regularities and to develop arguments sufficient for providing
conclusions related to lhe answer to lhe problem. These activitics we re connectcd
with a lheoretical modelling o f the random phenomenon, which emphasiscd some o f
its features, neglecting others as less important. The concfusions drawn from such
models were not considered as absolute, but were tested in practice, confirming or
qutstioning the validity of the model. Hence, the natural activities on wliich
leaming probabilistic êoncepts cou!d be based is the detennination, fonnulation and
searcb for solution of concrete problems, according to the scheme (I) discovery of
the problem; (2) formulation of the problem; (3) construction of a modtl
representing the real phenomcnon under consideration; (4) analysis ofthc model: (5)
comparison ofthe results obtained with thc real situation. Originally, studcnts build
models, adequate only for concrele random phenomena and having an explanatory
value, which may be callcd local modcls. At a more advanccd levei, thcse modcls
become mathcmatically more sophisticated and general, appropriatc for thc
description of a whole class o r phenomena.
(d) Problcms with a finile and infinitc probability space should be presente(!
Ali thc old probabilistic problems considered in the pre-Pascal era could bc
described in modcJ:tl tenninology in tenns of a finite probability spacc. Thc problcm
of 'waiting for the first success' {onc of lhe simplest problems dtscribcd by an
infinite probability s~ce) appeared originally in Huygens's De ratiociniis in tudo
aleae (1657) (Hacking 1975, Ch.ll). Why was such a natural problem poscd so
late? Tbe answet secms to be connected with lhe establishment ofthe dual naturc o f
lhe probability concept, and lhe emcrgence of the concept of expecwion. lt is
worthwhilc to notice lhal the first attempt 10 solve this problcm wenl back to
Cardano's De ludo aleae (ca. 1550) {Hacking 1975, Ch. 6), who anticipated this dual
nature and the concept of expectation. By means of such examples involving
infinite probability spaces, it may be possible to help students realise this dual nature
of the probability concept. Accordingly, in teaching probability, it would be good
not only to presenl problerns formulated in fmite probability spaces, but also
problems in infinite probability spaces, which are naturally stimulating for the
srudents and which can be solved by methods that take ioto account lhe student's
actual levei of cognitive· development.
· The contlusions (a)-(d) have been taken into account at secondary school levei
in severa! cases which have been carefully analysed (Lakoma 1990. 1998).
suggesting that the LMA teaching stratcgy has a positive effect at th1s levei.
Referentes for §8.2.3
Frcu<lcnthal.llans 1980. 'lluyscns' foumlatrons ofprobabilily'. lfosrorw rnntlnuwt"·" 1.
11~117
 !).!
8 Historical supporl for particular .subjects
Freudcnlhal. Hans 1983. Didacricol phtnomenology of malhemarica! structuru, Dordrethl:
Rddel
Hacking, 1311 1975. Tht emrrgtna ofprobabiliry. Cambridge: Vnivcrsily Press
Lakom:1.. E. 1990. Local MoJds in probnbiliry ltaching (in Polish), doctoral thesis,
Derlln{llent of 1\tathem~tics. lnformntics and Meéhanic.s, Warsaw Vniversity
Lakoma.. E. 1992. T1ot hístorõcaf de•·elopment oftlle probabillry conctpr (in l'olish). Warsaw:
CODN-SNM
lil.k()m1. E. 1996. 'Loc31 modcls in stochliSiics teaching: nn example ofpost-modem
!pproach lo mathcmalits teaching'. in Procttdings of rl~e 8th f.uroptan Se minar 011
.lt.Jihcmatrcs in Etrginrtrmg &lucarion SEFI-8, Praguc: Tcchnical Vnivcrsity, 123· t 27
Lakoma, ~· 1998. 'On lhe intcractive nature ofprobability leaming', in Proceedings ofrht
49th lnlunationa/ Commissionfor the Study and lmprovemem ofMatlltmatic.s &lucario11
ClfAE.\f•.f9. Sctubal: Univcrsity, 144-149
~ Lakom3. E. 1999a. ·on thc hislorícat phenomcnotogy of probabitistic concepts: from the
didactical point ofview', Procudings ofli: Unh~rsiré d'Été d 'Hisroire des
,\forhtmatiq!Jts, Ju~v 1997. Nantes: IREM des Pays de la Loire, 439-448.
Lakoma. E. 1999b. 'Thc diachronic •·iew in n:se:nch on probability leaming and its impact
on the pnmkc of $lOchaslics teaching', in Procudíngs o[rhe 50tlt lnternarional
Commission for tht Study and lmpro•·tmtnl of Mothematics Ed11carion CluiEM-50,
Ncuchatel: l 1ni,ersit,·. t 16· 120
Lakoma.. E. t 99'k. ·oei cálculo rrot>abilístico ai ruonamknto estodstico: un punto de vista
diacrônico' in t ·,o: rt,'isla de didocrico dt las mottmalicas 22. SS-61
Sierrinsb.. A .. t 99~. l'ndusranding in mothtmotics, Falmer Pn:ss. London
Skrrinska.. .-\.. 1996. 'The dinchronic dimension in n:senrch on undmtanding in
mnthematics: usefulness and limitalions ofthc concept of epislemologicaJ obstacle', in:
H.N. Jahnke ti ai. (eds.). History· ofmothtmatics ond tducation: idtas and experiences.
Gilnin@.en: \'andcnhcxck Ruprecht
Todhunter.l: 18M . •~ hiJtory afthe mathemorical theory ofprabability; repr New Vorle:
Chclse11. 196S
8.2.4 Trigonometry· in the historical order
Victor Kat.:r.
Most modem trigonomciT)• te:octs begin the subjcct by dcfining lhe bnsic
1r!gonomc1ric rnlios. calculating thesc ratios using some elementary geometry for 30,
-1 . . nnd 60 del;,ree~. nnd then nssume thnl students will use cnlculntors to find lhe
trig(lnometric rnti()s for nny Nher volue. Students nrc thus led lo bclicve thnt their
calculators are "mngic boxes" with Jittle people inside measuring sides of triangles.
Funhermore, when the half angle, sum, and difference formulas are derived
students wonder what tneir purpose is. ' develop their numerncy skills. For instancc, it is usually fascinating for mature-age
lt is muc~ more natural to ad3pt lhe original order o f treatment of Ptolemy (or
t\'en Copem1cus) and develop the subject in a manner inspired by nistory (Aaboe
196-1. Ch.4: 7.3.2). Th3t is not to say that one should work with chords. There are
k'hn Fauvel. Jan '311 Malncn (ed~.). lfilto,· i11 marhtmarics td11carion: rlzt ICMI study,
DNdrecht: 1-\lu,,cr 1000. rp. !52-253
253
. 8.2. 4 Trigonomerry Íf! lhe hiJto rical arder
good reasons for using sines (and cosines and bngents). But given tne definition of
a trigonometric ratio, one can use geometry to determine these values, not only for
30, 45, and 60 degrees, but also for angles of 18, 36. 54, and 72 degrees. The initial
goal of the course is, then, to calculate, at least in principie, the values of sine,
cosine, and tangent for every integral-valued angle from t to 90 degrees. So one
derives the half angle and difference formulas and uses Ihem to calculate. Students
will soon realise that it is not possible to catculate the sine of t degree exactly,
however. (Teachers may well want to relate t~is impossibility to the question of
trisecting an angle (7.2.a3).) However, if students notice that the sine function is
essentially linear for small values, one can then approximate the sine o f I degree to a
reasonable levei of accuracy and then use the sum formulas to calculate in principie
the sine (and cosine and tangent) of any angle of an integral number of degrees.
(Again, the linearity of the sine function for small values is an important idea for
!ater use.) With the trigonometric tablcs now calculated, one can use them to solve
triangles of various types. In particular, another goal of the trigonometry course,
again one based on history, should be to solve spherical triangles as well as plane
triangles. Afier ali, the major use o f trigonometry, from the time of its invention,
was to solve spherical triangles relatcd to astronomy. Such questions still prove to
be of great interest to students. (See relcvant chapters in (Kalz 1998) for a more
detailed account.)
Referentes for §8.2.4
Aaboe, A. 1964. Episodes from rhe early hi$tory of machematics, New York: Random House
Katz, V. J. t 998. A hutory of mathtmalics: an introducrion. 2nd ed., New York:
H11rperCollins
8.3 Cultural aspects of mathcmatics in a historical
perspcctive
8.3.1 Number systems and their representations
8.3.1.1 Counting and symbol systems
Gail FitzSimons
I
Historical support is valuable for students of ali ages; not least, adults seeking to I
I
students to reflect on the number system currently used. ~here did lhe digits come I
from? How have they evolved? What about zero? What'Tirought about lhe change
from Roman numerais? What is the history of the evolution of symbols indicating 11
the decimal point, percentage, basic operations, index numbers etc? What is the
John Fauvcl, Jan van Maanen (eds.), flistory in malhematics educalion: tire ICMI srudy,
Dordrecht: Ktuwer 2000, pp. 253·254
 254
8 Hisrorica/ supporr for parricu/ar subjecrs 8.3. 1.2 A Babylonian tableJ 25.5
history of v~lg:~r tcomm~n) .fractions? What about thc term "vinculum"? What
a~ut countmg sr_stems tn non-Europeen cultures: linger rcckoning (e.g. Smith 8.3.1.2 A Babylonlan tablet
~ ~- 8). body countmg systrms (e.g. Bishop 1995), etc? Such questions (generated
b~ teach~ll or students} may lend to the realisation that mathematics as we know it Torkil Heiede
was not al\1-ays there. nnd that there is a historical nccessity ocross different culturcs Based on an Old Babylonian tablet of around 1700 BC, lhe following is an examplc
-~ in lhe creation of of how it is possiblc to help studcnlS-at ali leveis o f education-to discover for
mathematical ~{. I (c{.JI Co! I (j,(. Il.
solutions to
mankind's
challenges and
problems (7.2.e).
,. Smilh 1958
provides an
excellent resource
for teachers, both
in text and in
illustrations.
From counting

.' .
systems it is but a
short step to . .. ' '
representations in
the form of ' r' /
:'. \ ..... ~--
\.,. • ._ ~ ~
'·' I'• :\ •
calendars: l I ~~~·~~j I i
"probably the idea · ~· .. • . ' !. ~· ~'\...,.. ~ '
Fiprr S. ~; -~ Jlmpt.fi,•d .~boriginai Jeasona/ ralendar ., ·~:: t; .'J \
t:Dura: Da•'is. Horm & Traynor /980, 3) of applying the
syntax of causal
, I ....... }
..
• \

. . . . and temporal
chamm~ .UtanthmetJc and geometry was the origin of mathematics as we know it"
~Schw~tglll 199~. 300). Much work has bccn dane on the history of calend;us yct
m~pcclloa ~f .il.n Auslr.llian Ab~riginal calendar of the seasons (figure 8.2): for Figure 8.3: A Babylonion rablet. objecl of Jludy for lhe mathemolicJ class
cxample. wlll !llustrate a totally dtfferent world vicw (FitzSimons 1992).
Rcfcrcne~W to §8.3.1.1
themselves with minimal guidance how to read some ancient numcrals, understand
Bi~hC>p. :~ 1995. '\\'hal \\( can lcam rrom the counting systcms rcscnrch ofDr. Glcndon an ancient number system and find traces of this number system in their everyday
Lc:m .<~llotc :uhlr c5S lOlhe lnt~rnntiona/ S1111~1• Gro&tp for r/r(' Rdauons of lfiJiory and expericncc.
Pedagtt:ro.f,\fathematics, Caims. Junc/July 1995 Figure 8.3 (reproduced from and discussed in Aaboe 1964, 6-1 O) shows lhe
Da\'id. S~. J•• Traynor. S. 1980. 'Community baltd scicnce programs for Aboriginal obverse (O) and reverse (R) ofthe tablet, with writing consist.ing o f combinations of
schoo!s••Dnrloping Et:luca1ian 7(4), 2-10 just two symbols, a vertical wedge (vw) and a comer wedge (cw).. The signs in the
Fii.LSi~ons.Gail E. 1992. 'Mathcmntics D.S a way ofknowing'. l'inculum 29(1) 4-12 left-hand column (Co!. I) o f lhe lirst nine !ines on O may be rea<l as the numbers
SchwcJgct.fl.
c K' 1994. 'Mathcmatics is a l;mgua•e'. c
in D.F· Robitaillc• o• H. Wh'ec1er, from 1 to 9, since they consist of one to nine vw. (grouped in threes for easy
· tc~(~ s~ Sti~CU!d ler fures from rhe lih lnttrnationo/ Congress on Marhemazico/ reading). In the next line they see a cw, naturally read as 10, especially since the
Et:lucoun.Unl\crsné La, ai. Quc!btc City. 297-309
Smnh. O.'!E. r9~8 . Hmory ofmorhtmarrcs i i. Oo\'CT, Ncw York entries in the last four !ines on the O and the first four Iines on R can then be read as
the numbers from li to 18. The students can be told that, to read R, the tablet is
· tumed 180° around ilS lower edge. Thc next line in Co!. I on R ought to show 19,

John Fauvel, Jatt van Maancn (cus.), 1/istory in marhemalics edurolion: the ICMI study,
Dordrctht: Kluwcr 2000, pp. 255-257
 8 Historical support for particular subjects
and it does, but with a special sign (the usuJI sign is the one expected by the
srudents). This is supponed by the fact that the signs on the next four lines can
easily be interrreted as 20. .30. 40. 50. respectively. Only multiples of lO are shown,
but it is easy to guess that e.g. 27 would be wrinen by combining the signs for 20
and 7. ~
With ~11 this in mind. the students can now tum to the right-hand column (Col.
lll. Tite first six Iines on O can easily be read as 9, 18, 27. 36, 45, 54, and students
guess th:l! thc tablet is 3 multiplication table for 9. Hence, the following !ines on O
should say: 63. 7:!.. 81. 90. 99, 108. 117. 126: but what the students find is something
looki ng like 1.3: 1.12; 1.21; 1,30: 1.39; 1,48: 1,57: 2,6. This makes sense if the
digits to the lefi of the commas are interpreted as I x60 and 2x60 respectively (e.g.
1.48 means I x60 ...48= I08 a 12x9 which stands in CoI. li against 12 in Co!. 1). Then
-. alltexcept lhe last) lines on R can be similarly interpreted (e.g. 2..33 corresponds to
2"60+33=153=17x9 standing against 17 in Col. I) and the tablet gives ali multiples
of 9 from I x9 to 59x9 by combining different entries (c.g. 27><9:20x9+7x9). But
what about 60x9? A bright student might point out that. as a vw can mean I x60 as
well as I. we can go back to thc first line of the O and find 60x9 in Co!. 11 as 9
which can be understood as 9x60=540. standins against I in Col. I which is now
rc:Jd as I x60. Morco\'cr. the entT)' in the second tine o f Co\. I can be read as
~,(1()= 1~0. and the entry in Col. 11 as 18x60"'1080 which is precisely 120x9, and so
Cln thrCIU!;hCiut the "hCIIe tablet. Then by retum ing to the beginning once more and
inte!J.'reting. 1 as lx60:. 2 as 2x60\ and so forth. the tablet can be used eventually to
find ali multiples Clf 9! The students will observe that everything is expressed in a
r<-sitiC>n systcm jus\ like ours. based on 60 rathe r than 10. In our system we must
memorise ten different symbols for the numbers from O to 9, but it would be much
harder to memorise fifty-nine different symbols for the numbers from 1 to 59. lt is
remarkable that the Babylonians managcd with just two symbols. the vw and the cw,
and using lhe second for IO as a sort of auxiliary base (probably they had inherited
this from an earlier repctitive system based on I 0).
But there is even more to be said: just as we can express common fi'actions as
tfinite or infinite) decimal fractions in base 10, the Babvlonians could also
understand their YW as 1160, 1160:.... and thereby express ~ommon fractions as
m:ag.esimal fractions (c.g. 1.15.20 could mean 1+1 S/60+20/60\ However, the
system wns complicated by the absence of a sexagesimal 'point' and lhe meaning of
the te:d had to be deduced fi'om the context (in our lranscription we put a semicolon
to distinguish e.g. 1:1 5.:!0 = 1+23190 from 1,15:20 .. 75+113). There was no symbol
for zero (until very late in their history) so that 1.1 5:20 could also mean 1,0,15;20 •
3615+113. They tried to compensate for both weakncsses by appropriate spacing
(e.g. in Col. 11. se\'enth tine on lhe O. four vw should be read, notas 4 but as 1,3 •
I x60+ 3 : 63). lt is also clear that Babylonian scribes must have had tablets wilh
othet: multiplication tables. This explains thc mysterious last line on R of our tablet;
it is simply a sort of heading for lhe next tablet in the set.
Whnt eM bc g:~ined by exposing students to such a discovery procedure?
li) By coming to undcrstand a number system completely different from ours,
they may be able to appreciate lhat the same thoughts and insights can be
expressed in \'ery different but equally valid ways (7.2.c5, 7.2.d2, 7.2.e3).
8.3.1.2 A Babyloniantablet 257
(íi) They may thereby come to under~1and our own number systcm better and
wonder where it comes from (7.2.bl).
(íii) They may get a sense ofthe history of mathematics by being led to understand
that our subdivisions ofthc time and angle units are reminiscences ofthis 4000
year-old number system, passcd on to us lhrough ancient Greek astronomers.
(i v) Last but not least, onc should mention the pure joy of discovery (7.l.el ).
Rderence to §8.3.1.2
Aaboe, A. 1964. Episodes from the early hístory o/ mothemotics, New York: Random House
8.3.1.3 Abacus in rnind
Dian Zhou Zhang
Making history an integral part of mathematics classes for students, young and old,
has the possibility of stimulating further research on their part. Real personal
\
I
inlerest stimulates continuous qucstionin~ and non·routine branching of inquiry
(7.2.b2; 7.2.cl). The following is an example.
I Although the calculator is very common in many primary schools in China,
mental arithmetic is sti ll a popular tradition. In recent times, many teachers and
students are using 'abacus in mind', lha\ is, imaginary manipulations o f the abacus,
I
to do the basic operations on whole numbers. This raises lhe question: "The
procedure of operation with the abacus is from left to right (i. e. fi'om higher to lower I
digits), but in lhe normal pcncil-papcr operation it is usually from right to left. ,j
Which way is better?"
Some ten years a~o. in the Gerrnan curriculum the convention for order of
calculating changcd from 'right to lei\' to 'lei\ to right', lhe author has been
infortned. Many Chinese mathematics educators want to unify the two systems. I f
'abacus in mind' ís really a good way of operating. China intends to change the
curriculum just like in Gertnany. In lhis COIUlection, ít may be helpful to clarify the
historical aspccts of the subject. The Sun zl suan jing (c. 5th century) was the
earliest mathematical text in China in which an explicit description of the method o f
multiplication :md division appeared. Multiplication was done from left to right
(Lam and Ang 1992, §J.J). The same method was late~ employed in the Islamic fi
mathematical world. But in lhe earliest printed book on a.rithrnetic in Europe, the
Treviso Arithmetic (1478), mullíplication was done from right to left (Swetz 1987).
When and why were lhe rules changed? The clarification of this situation would be
of interest in mathematics education research. These questions are within the scope
of many schools and pre·service trainee teachcrs or in·se~!c~ teacher, in schools o f
education.
John Fauvel, Jan van Maanen (eds.), Hístory in malhtmatics educarion: lhe ICMI study,
Dordrecht: Kluwer 2000, pp. 257-258
 158 8 JIISiorica/ support for partiCll/ar Jubjecrs
Rtfcrrncrs to §8.3.1.3
l3JT1. L.Y.. .'l.ng. T.S. 1992. FlettingfootstrpJ : lrating the toncrption of aritlrmelir and
alsrlorb in rmri<·,., Cflit~et. Singaporc: World Scicnli!ic
S"ctz. f.J: 1987. Capitnlism a11d aritlrm t tic: tltt ntw math oftht 15th ccntrll)', La Salle:
orncourt
8.3.2 Tbe Pythagorean t heorem in different cullures
Wan.n Sheng Homg
...
Thc so-call_::d P~ thagorean theorem has witncsscd muhiple discoveries over the
course of hlSlory t7.2.e3). h has been demonstrated in different civilisations-the
word. 'dc~Cinstrared' r.tthcr than 'proved' is uscd here bccause the traditional
mcan~g of a 'proof (an. English tcrm equivalent to Greek apodeixis) is a specific
deducnve procedure leadmg to what isto be concluded. This can be traced back to
Greek pri_mary conccm about methodology in order to secure the cenainty of
mathtmallcs. For cxample, the P~11ulgorean theorem (Proposition 47 in the first
book of Euclid's Elcm enrs) is proved as a logical consequence of earlicr
pr<'positions togcthcr with the live postulates and tive common notions at the
be ~inlling of the book. 1t is interesting to note that the 17th century English
ph1lo~pber Thomas Hobbes w:~s convinced, by reading this proof, ofthe claim that
cenamty ofknoll'ledge is attainable through mathematics (7,2.e) (Siu 1990}.
. ~owever. the teacher should not regard the Euclidean demonstration as the only
legtt~te approach to 1his proposit!on in lhe classroom, especially since
multtcultural concems are now an issue or mathematics education. In fact ancient
mat~aticians ~n both China and lndia usually used some other appro~ches to
t:>.plam why ~etr _formulas or algorithms work (see Siu I 993). For example, the
tenn ~papam. whtc h appears often in ancient lndian mathematical texts, bears a
meanmg close to 'convincing demonstration'. Two argumcnts were associated with
the upapaui in Bhaskaracharya's
c (b.lll4 AO) Bijaganita (Joseph
1994). Modem versions ofthese
two dcmonstrations for the
lndian 'Pythagorean theorem'
are as follows:
I. Since triangles CDB,
ADC and ACB are
similar, ale : dia implics
ll'hn fau,d. Jan ':UI MlJncn {~ds. ). 1/isrot)' in matlrrmarks rducation: tht IC\11 srudy
Dc-1'\lrwht: ~lu"~r ~(\(\(1. rr ~58 ·262 •
8.3.2 The Pyrhagorean Jheorem 259
1
d"' a' f c and blc • db, implics e "' ll /c respcc1ivcly. Thcrcforc, c· • d+e • (u
+b1 )!c, and so c1 = a1 +b1 (see figure &.4).
2. Let ya "' c, bhuja • a and k.olli"'
b, then c1 ,. (b-a) 2 +4 YJab "' a1
+b1 (see figure 8.5).
According to Saraswati Amma
(1979, 3), the lndian upapplli is
different from Grcek apodeixis:
TI1ere was an important díiTcrcncc
betwecn tbe lndian proofs and lhcir
Grcck countCf])arts. Thc ln<lian's aim
was not to build up an cdilice of
geomwy on a few self·cvident axioms,
but lO convince thc intelligent studenl
of lhe validity of thc lhcorcm so that
visual demonstration was quite an
Figure 8.5
acccpled form of proof. This lcads us
to anothcr characlcristic of lndian
malhcmatics which makcs it di!Tu profoundly from Greck mathcmatics. Knowledge for its
own sakc did not appcal to lhe Jndian mind. Evcry discipline (saslra) must havc a purpose.
To teachcrs sharing multicultural conccms thc first o f thesc lndian approaches to thc
Pythagorean theorem is. of panicular intercst, since a similar method is also found in
ancicnt Chinese mathematics. The third century Chinese mathematicians Zhao
Shuang and Liu Hui gave their commentaries to lhe Zhou Bi Suan Jing (The
mathematical canon of the gnomon or Zhou) and the Jiu Zhang Suan Shu (Nine
chapters on lhe mathematical art) respectively. In showing how lhe 'Pythagorean
thcorem' works, both of the m prcsent visual demonstrations similar to that of
Bhaskaracharya. The Chinese 'Pythagorean theorem • was related to the treatment o f
the so-called Gou Gu problem, namcly, given two sidcs of a right-angled tria.ngle, to
find lhe third side. Note that literally Gou and Gu denote the Jeast and the medium
si de respectivcly. It is due to this fact that the Pythagorcan theorem is also called the
Gou Gu theorem in Chinese mathematics textbooks (see Swetz and Kao 1977).
Let us first see how Zhao Shuang commcnted on the Gou Gu problem and its
solution in his commentary to the Zhou Bi Suan Jing (Cullcn 1995, 83):
The base and altitude nre each multiplico by themsclvcs. Add to make thc hypotcnuse arca.
Divide this to open the square, and this is lhe hypotcnuse. In accordance "'ith the hypotcnusc
diagram ['Xian Tu'. sce figure 8.6]. You may fu rthcr multiply the base and ahitudc togcthcr
two ofthe red arcas. Double this to makc fourofthe rcd arcas. Multiply lhe diiTcrcnce ofthc
base and altitude by itsctr to makc central yellow are:l. If {onc suchJ di!Tcrence arcais addcd
[to lhe four red nreas], lhe hypotcnuse arcais complctcd.
 8 Hisrorica/ support for particular :subjtcts
'8.3.2 The Pythagorean theorem
161

We leave to lhe
reader to translate Zhao
Shuang's demonstration
into modem algebraic
notation. Essentially it
is very similar lo that of
Bha:skamcharya. We
can add one similar
example, namely, Liu
. Hui's exptanation of
how lhe algorithm for
the Gou Gu problem
works. In his commen·
tary to Chaptcr Nine
(entitled 'Gou Gu') of Figure 8. 7: out·ln patchíng

- Jiu Zhang Suan Shu,

Liu Hui explained ns
follows
1997, 296):
(Martzloff

llnse·squ:ued maltes lhe

red square, leg•squared
makes lhe azure square.
Let the Out·ln mutual
patching [technique} (beJ
applied according to lhe
categories to which (these
F•gt•rt 8.6: Tht "Xian Tu· diagram piecesJ belong by taJting
advantage or lhe raa that
what remains does not
move and form lhe surfaee
ofthe hypotenu.se.
Sin_ce liu Hui's ori~inal diagrarn had been lost by the lhirteenth century, perhaps
lhe rnuonal recons!TUclton by lhe late Qing mathematician Gu Guanguang (1799·
IS6:!) (Figure 8.7. from (MartzloiT 1997, 297) would help us understand how lhe
vtsual demonslr.ltion was actually carried out.
As to whether such explanation is related to the Greek sense of proof, Cullen
comments: "h may be misleading to call Liu Hui's "suasive explanations" by the
sam~ name as ~he tathcr diiTerently directed and s!TUctured rhetorical machinery
provtded by 1\Ttters such as Euclid, for which we may reasonably use lhe modem
term 'proof." (Cullen 1995, 92). Martzloff expresses a similar point· "(T)hc
explanation of P}1hagorns' theorem may only suggest how to set aboul it ~d since
the commentator's excessively laconic text is clearly, on its own, not sufficient to
re~onstitute the details of the ptocess, it foltows that it is not only whallhe studenl
Wtll read or heard that is importam butthe manipulation which he will have seen the
master undcnake. The fact that these two· or three-dimensional figures of Chinese
gcomctry oficn refcr to actual concretc objccts rcinforccs this intcrpretation."
(Martzloff 1997, 72). In using thcsc diffcrcnt explanations in lhe classroom,
teachers can use !hem to make contrasls, emphasising not only the methodology but
the epistemology as well (7.2.bl, 7.2.b2, 7.2.t5}. In other words, teachers should
try to stress that to prove is not only to convince but also to enhance understanding
(7.2.bl). After explaining what ,these proofs or explanations are about, lhe teacher
can go on lo urge students to explore their socio-cultural meaning. In this
c:onnection, the teacher is encouraged to introduce a criticai re-evaluation of
mathematics in different civilisations and thereby share with the sludents a sense of
multiculturalism in malhematics (Nelson el ai. 1993; Joseph 1991; Gerdes 1994;
7.2.e3).
For general information on the Pythagorean Theorem, leachers may like to refer
to Loomis 1968, in which over lhree hundred proofs have been collected. Teachers
who want to introduce to lhe class some related ethnomalhematics will find useful
material in Gerdes 1994. ·Those who are criticai of Eurocentrism and
Hellenocentrism in the hislory of mathematics should keep in mind that
multicultural concems help to promote in studcnts a flexible and open mind to
mathemalical culture o fany origin.
References for §8.3.2
Amma. T. A. Saraswati 1979. Geometry in ancient and meditval llrdia, Varanasi: Motilal
Banarisidass
Cullen. C. 1995. 'How can we do the comparative history ofma~l:rriatics? Proofin Liu Hui
and the Zhou Bí',l'hilosophy ond lhe lti.rtory ofscience 4 ( 1). 59·94
Euclid 1925. The thirteen books ofthe tlemems ed. T. L. Hcath, 2nd edn. Cambridge:
University Press 1925; reprint New York: Dever 1956
Gerdes. Paulus 1994. African Pythagoras: a study in culturt and mathemalics. Maputo:
Instituto Superior Pcdagogico
 Z62 8 Historica/ supportfor particular subjects
Joscrh. G.G. 1991. Tllr crrst ofthe ptocock: non·turopean roocs ofmathenratics, London:
Tauris
Jo~cph. G.G. 199~ . 'Di!Terent wcys of ~nowin g: Com=ting stylcs of argument in lndinn and
Greck ~athematicalar.~ditions'. In P. Emesl (ed), .\fotht motics. tducation anti philosop!ly:
~n in1ernati011ol ptrsptctil·t. London: Falmcr Prcss. 194·204.
loomis. E.S. I968. Tht Pythagortanpropomion. Rcslon. Va: National Council ofTeachcrs
of·M:ttJlcmaaics
~lartzlofT. J..C. 1997. A hislory· ofChintse matlttmatics. Springcr-Verlag, Hcidclberg·Ncw
York: ori!inally published in French. Mason. Pnris, 1987
Nelson. D.. Joscph, G.G .• Wílliams. J. 1993. Mu/ticultura/ matltematit:s: teaching
marhemaJicsfrom a global puspecti1·e. Oxford: Univcrsily Prcss
Siu. ~ !an~Kcung 1990. .\fathematica/ proofs (in Chincse), Nonjing: Jiangsu Educalional
Prcss
.,.Siu. Man·Kc:ung 1993. ' Proof :md peda~ogy in :mcicnt China: examplcs from Liu Hui's
Commc~· on Jiu Zhan~ Su>~.n Shu'. EdllcMoonal.!tlldits in mnthematics 24, 345-357
$1\clz. Fr.l.tll: 1.. Kao. T.l. 1977. ll'as Prrhagoros Chinese? 011 examit~atioll ofríght triangle
throry rn tliiC•rm Chi11a. l'cnns~ Ivania Slalc Univcr$ity l'rcss
8.3.3 l\leasuring distanccs: Hcron vs. Liu Hui
Chunlp fung. João B. Pitombcira de Carvalho
\\'ith lhe iJCOduclion of trig.onomelric ralios in lhe middle school or early secondary
malh~ma(Íl:s curriculum. sludcnts are ofien confi'onted wilh problems which rely on
the notion oC ;msle. Some studenls accepl without question thc use and availability
o f angles lii'develion or depression. The activity described below helps to re-instate
for sludents the ccntrality o f similar triangles in simple surveying situations.
The Sourat
According to thc Chinese classic Hai Dao Suan Jing written by Liu Hui, the
surYeying 0-f the height of distant objects could be done by lhe method of double
difTerence. Using this melhod, lhe Chinese achievcd complicated surveying of
remote oty:cts wilhout lhe notion of angle (7.2.a2; 7.4.3). Problcm I of the nine
pr(lbkms ~ L'le bo(ll; rends (Swetz 1992. p.20: :hang nnd bu are ancient Chinese
lcngth unia}:
Nll'' for {Ih: rurro~c ufllol'king nt a scn islond. crccllwo potes of the samc heighl, 3 :hang
lon lhe ttmmd]. lhe dis1:mcc belwecn lhe fronl and lhe rcnr (pote) being a thousand bu.
Assume 1h1111h:: rcas polc is nligncd with lhe fronl pole. Move away 123 bu from lhe front
pl)lc nnd cíbcn c the pc:1k of lhe isl:md from lhe ground levei: it is secn thal lhe tip of lhe
fronl poli: c.-õn.tidcs wi1h lhe penk. Move backward 127 bu from the rcar polc :md observe the
re.lk of lhe~àli:l;nd from lhe ground IC\'el again: the tipo f lhe back pele Dlso coincides wilh lhe
reak. I\llat ittbr hcigh1 of the island and how far is il from lhe polc?
lllhn F3u\cl. bn \DO ~l:~:~ncn (c~s.l. llmorr 111 matlrcmotics cducal/on: the /CM/ sludy,
DCirdm:ht I.lu:..,cr 2000. rr. 262-26~
8.J.J Measuring distanc_es: Heron vs. Liu Hui 263
The uctiviry
Ask studcnls to cs1ima1c thc hcight of an ísland withoul ac1ually goin~ onlo lhe
island (7.3.2).
Target student group
Junior secondary school sludeniS with knowledge of similar trianglcs, congruent
triangles, Pylhagorean theorem, and .trigonometric ratios.
The organization ofthe activiry
Step !: Let students discuss how.to do it with simple apparalus.
Step 2: Show how the Chinese did it by calculating thc area of suitably chosen
rectangles, as explained in Yang Hui's commentary (1275) on Liu Hui's Hai Dao
Suan Jing (Wu 1982). (See Example 8.4.4 for a related discussion in Greek
mathematics.)
Stcp 3: Ask studcnts to go on a ficld trip to cstimatc (in groups) thc hcighl of an
ísland in a fílmi\iar community.
Step 4: Ask students to compare their results with lhe data available in relevant
agentslauthorities.
Objeclives oflhe activity:
1. To lct students apprcciale lhat as far as solution of right 1rianglcs is concemed,
the trigonometric ratio technique is simply a tool derived from the propenies of
similar triangles;
2. To let studenls see thal the dcvclopment of mathemalics does not follow a
unique path, indcpendent of the civilisations in which it has developed (7 .2.e3,
7.2.al);
3. To let studenls see how mathematics intcnwined with survcying in ancicnt time
(7.2.a3, 7.2.d).
The problem described above, was tackled in a different cullure (namely, that of
Hellenistic Greece) by Heron of Alexandria (1st century AD). (Heath 1921, ii, 345;
for his life see Drachmann 1972). lt is inleresting to prcsent the problems from that
perspective, thus implicitly stressing lhe cultural dimensiono f malhematical ~ctivity
(7.2.c). To avoid rcpetition. wc considcr a Greek solution to the somewhat dtfferent
problem of measuring the distance AD, when B is inaccessible from A., e.g. becausc
there is a river between A and 8 (as in figure 8.8).
~-~
..J.Io._ _ _ _ A.L!L,__-l:·:·.~ B
' whcn 8 is inacccssible from A
Figure 8.8: Determine lhe ·
 8 Hi.storica/ Jupport for particular subjects
On thc strnight linc 8.4 produced, choose a point C and crcct pcrpendiculars AD
and CE to BC. The point D is chosen to lie on BE. The points C and E are choscn
in such a "~ny that AC. AD and Cê can be m~asured. Using similar triangles, we
ha1c th;n CEAD = BC-'BA. Lct AB =:c. Then (AC+:cVx = CEIAD. \f we call
CE AD k. "hich is known. we have AC+:c =/ex, and thus x(k-1) '"AC, and so
:r= AC"{.\-/) (Kntz. 1998; 4.3.1).
. This solution requires :1 surveyor's measuring chain (or tape) and a sighting
mstrument that can measurc: angles (in p:micular, right angles).
Referentes for §8.3.3
Drachmann. A. G. 1972. 'l;lcroof Alexandria'. in C. C. Gillispie (ed). Dictionoryofscientific
~ bíogroplry. Ncw York: Charlcs Scribncr's Sons. vi. 310·315
Hcath. T.L 19!1. A hiJrory· ~(grtd mothtmarics.:! 1·ols. Oxford: Clarendon Prcss: repr New
Yorl.:: D<wcr 1981.
Katz. \'. J. 1998. A l.isror:-· ofmorl•~moric:s: on introáuc:tion. 2nd cd., Ncw York:
II3Jl'cr{'ol!ins
$1\cl.l. F. J. 1992. Tht uo .,/ond mflllrtnrot•c:al manual: Jrln't_ting ond motlr~motics in
o~cient Clrina, Pcnnsylvania State Univcrsity Prcss
Wu. \\".J. 198~. 'lll\eSIÍSJiion on the sourcc ofthc :~ncicnl mcthods' in W. J. Wu (ed). Hoi
O.Jo Suu" Jm~. Jiu l/um Suon Slru and Liu Hui. (in Chinese). !kijing: Nonn31 Univcrsity
Press.. 16~·180
8A Detailed treatment of particular examples
8.-t.l lotroducing complex numbers: an experiment
Giorgio T. Bagni
The introduction of imagioary numbers is an important step in the high school
mathematits curriculum (students IS-19 years old). High school students of 11 to
1-1 )·ears old are often reminded about the impossibility o f calculating the square root
of negative numbers. However, at a !ater stage, they are asked to accept the
presence of •..J.J'. nnmed i. This incoosistency cao be a source of confusion.
On the (\(her hnnd. we mny consider lhe solution of cubic cquations following
the work of Niccolo Fontana (Tnrtaglia, 1500-1557), Girolamo Cardano (1501-
1576), and Rafael Bombelli (I 526-1573): imaginary numbers were not introduced
via quadroric equations. bul via ·cubic equations, an approach having a basic
advantage. Their solution does not take place entirely in the set of real numbers, but
one of lhe final results is always real. A recent study was motivated by this fac!
(7.3.2). In this rcsearch 97 high schoo\ students (age 16-18), who did not know
h•hn Fau,cl. 13n 1:111 :\la:men (cds.1. 1/istor:-· i11 moth~matics ~ducation: rlrt ICMI srudy,
O..•n1retht: Klu"cr ~O\lO. rr. :64-265
8.4.1 lntroducing comple:r numbers 265
complex numbers, were interviewcd (13agni 1997). For the equation i + I • O,
hence X'"±l, only 2% accepled the solution, 92% rejected it and 6% did not answc:r.
Afterwards, lhe solution of the cubic equation x1 =1Sx + 4 , namely
x • (2 + lli)Y, + (2 -lli)Y, so that :r .. (2+1) + (2-r) = 4, was accepted by 54%; 35%
rejected it and \I% did not answer.
Under the same conditions, a similar test was then proposed to 52 students of the
same age group, where lhe equations were presented in the reverse order: 41 o/o
accepted the solution of the cubic equation (25% rejected and 34% did not answer).
lmmediately after that, the solution or the quadratic equation was accepted by 18%
of lhe srudents, with only 66o/ó rejecting it (16% did not answer). These
experimental results suggest thatteaching a subject by Uking account of some basic
'facts in its historical development may help students to acquire a bener
understa nding ofit (Weil\978; Fauvel 1990; Swetz. 199S).
Referentes for §8.4.1
Bagni, G.T. 1997. 'MMa un passaggio non ~ il risultato ..." L'inlrodulione dei numeri
immaginari nella scuola supcríore', Lc matematíc:o t lo suo didollico 1, 187-201
Fnuvet,John (ed.) 1990. Hístory In the matlrematics classroonc the IREM popers, Leicester:
lhe Mathematical Association
Swetl., FJ. 1995. 'To know and to tocb: m3thematieal peda~ogy from a historical context',
Educolional st.,dies In mothematics 19, 73-88.
Weil, A. 1978. 'History of I!Utbcmatics: wby nnd how', in Pr« . o[l111ernoti011ol CongreJJ of
Mothemalicians, Voi. I, O. Lctho cd., Hclsinki: Academia Scrcntiarum Fennica. 227-236.
8.4.2 Intcrtwiniog a mathematical to pie with other (oon-)
matbematical topics
a Duplication of the cubc
Manfred Kronfellner
Tasks often play an important role in mathematics teadring, as well as in preparing
for teaching nnd in asscssmcnt. Onc stratcgy for intRKiuéing history would be to
offer suitable tasks in which a traditional curriculum t'Jic is connected with history.
Such tasks might act as 'kemels of crystallísation' for some further historical
information in order to connect these kcmels, by and bJ, to a network-like overview
ofsome steps in the historica\ development ofmathemlltics ~.2.a3).
An example of such a network may be based on tbe problêm of the duplication
of a cube, ·one of the 'three classical problems' w.iiich have been stimulating
mathematiciaos for more than two thousand years. rm question of how to duplicate
a cube-that is, the geometric construction o f ifí - wa.s expressed by Menaechmus
John Fauvel. Jan van Maancn (cds.), liistory in mothe/1Uiics educotíon: th~ ICMI study,
Dordrecht: Kluwer 2000, pp. 265·269
 .... ·~ '•

266 8 Historical support for particular subjecu 8.4.2 a Duplication oftllc cube 267 ,.. , .
'·
using lhe proponion 1 ::c "' x: y .. y: 2. By transfonning this proportion, we get y '·
= x:. .t:~•=2 so that :c = 2. This implies thatthe solution x can be obtained from the
1
Let C be a c:irc:le with diameter OA
inttrsc:çtion or lhe parabola Y ""X 1 wilh lhe hyperbola xy=2. and radius r. Let D be the tangent at
To find the solulion, lhe ancient Greeks invented devic:es such as Plato's A. lhrough O a line g is drawn,
wbicb intersects the circle in O and
P1 and the tangent in P2• The cissoid
consists of ali point that fulfil the
condition:
ÕÃ • a &oc1 õB = b are tbe givm =bcrs. OP=f.P1 •
By tllo siznilarity ofthe ~ wc obtain: The cissoid can be used to duplicate
lhe cube, sin.ce it allows to construct o
... OA("a):OK =OK.:OG=OG:OB(=b) two mean proponionals betwcen two

Th<n!ort given lenglhs !!. and a.

2
x = OK I.Dd y = 00
Let M be a point with ZM = .!.., and
are lhe sclutions ofthe gjvt:n proponion. 2
ZM .L OA . Then for each point o f
a r - a
Figurr S.9. PloJIO 's trto~hiur for conJ/ru~ting
OK ond OG such thot thecissoid: ==-=2:::::> LP =-.
<J:O/\ ~ CJK.OG = ()G::?Il. in wlrich casr OK is rhe sidt ofthr doubltd cube. LP -I r 2
2
machine :md Er:llosthenes· platcs, sce figures 8.9, 8.10 (Heath 1963; Eves 1976;
Kaiser 1996), or they created new curves like Diocles' cissoid, see figure 8.11.
- -
We have to show now that x =OL and y = LS satisfy the proport1on -
• ~ =-X = -.
y
· x y a
Because of the definilion of lhe cissoid OP =P.~ and lhereforc AT =OL, rcsp.
tratortlleac2 platcs
AL = OT . From 6.0LP- ó.OTP. a AALS- 6SLO we find LP : OL =OL: LS =
Thrt-e roctt.ng'.l!ar patcs rnovable in a hmc
are brougbt in a poJiúon ut.onling

figure. and lct AA'=a.. W =b

to lhe

bc gi-.en
numbcn. Thc:n by >imilamy of tri&ngles we
t}]:.: =LS =AL . In othcr words: !:. : x =x: y "'y: a,
2
which has twice the volume of thc cube wilh sidc
and so x is the sidc of lhe cubc

!!. . An arbitrary cube with side s

2
obl&iD: can now be doubled by determmmg " x =s: t •
· · t sueh that -:

Figure 8. I I; Doub/ing thc cube with the cissoid ofDiocles

Tbc:nfore ~ = BB' and y =CC' are lhe solutions of lhe givc.'l proportion.
\ .

Extensions to a hiszorical nezwork (see the table below):

Figure 8./0: Erotosrhenes' piares
In high school. the explanation of each of thesc machines or curves can bc posed,
indtpendently o f cach olhe r, as 1asks conceming applications of similar triangles and
proportion.s.
One .possible extension is to deal with lhe other two classical problems as well
(trisection of an angle, quadrature of a circle) and lhe ancienl G~cck me~hods to
solve 1hem (using further new curves such as conchoid, quadratnx, Archtmedean
spiral), or to revcal connec1ions of tllis problem with musical scales (sec Example
8.4.2b following).
 268 8 Historical support for particular subjecrs 8.4.. Duplication ofthe cube 269

Another possibility is to elaborate on the scientifidphilosophical background of A hístorical network based on lhe dup/ication ofthe cube
Grcck mathematics. The Greeks were not satisfied with the methods described
above because they wanted solutions using only compasses and the straightedge. starting historical topic prerequisites furthc r goals I
Why? ~ restriction of geometric constructions t6 compasses and straightedge, a c:nnnrctions
trndition that wcnt b:\ck to Pl~to and p os~ibly ear1icr (Ooycr 1959, 27; Wussing point I tot>lc (+ rcpctition
1965. 75). is reflected in the postulates o f Euclid's Elements, which formed a secure and application
basis for mathematics. The nced for such a basis seems to be connected not only of)
wit~ the discovery of the incommensurable magnitudes. but also with Zeno's
paradoxes. Among other things (in particular, criticism ofthe conccpt of motion and irrntional Mcnaechmus' proponion, similar tria.ngles, trisection of an angle
time (Boyer 1959, 24; Whitrow 19&0, section 4.4)), Zeno (at least implicitly) tried to numbcrs proponions,
Eratosthenes' pl~tes squaring a circle
criticise the mathematics of his period. (For Zeno's intention, see Boyer 1959, 23-
24; Kirk et al1983, sections 327-329.) An analysis ofhis famous paradoxes shows Plato's machine construction of proponions in (Pythagorean)
lhat application of discrete methods to infinity may cause problems: does a tine square roots mathematics, esp. music
consist of (indivisible) points (atoms)? Do points exist? Do we get these points
when we bisect the line infinitely ofien? Can we make up a line out of points? series and I or Zen o•s paradaKes modem mathematics
(Struik 1967, 44) Such questions could not be answered at the time. Thercfore, ín
addítion and in para !lei to the fact that the discovery o f the irrationals produced a axiomatic method Euclid's axiomatic method (Hilbert, 13ourbaki, ...}
deep crisis of mathematics by showing the incomplcteness of mathematical
argumentation based c)(clusively on rational numbers (a view not universally
nonlinear construction of if2 by Kepler' s use of conic
analytical intersection of a parabola and sections in astronomy
supported by recent historians: for a new interpretation of Greek work on
incommensurable magnitudes, see Fowler 19&7; Knorr 1975), the difficulties geometry a hyperbola (Menaechmus );
re\'ealed by Zeno's parado)(eS conceming the relation between lhe discrete and the ifi cannot be constructed
continuous led Greek. mathematicians to try to consolidate the basis of mathematics Galois, modem algebra
and to de\'elop a secure method. with straightedge and
The a.xiomatic method in Euclid's Elements-based on Plato and Aristotle- com passes
fulfilled this need (Eves and Newsom 1958, §2.2; Kaiser and Nobauer 1998, 18). curves cissoid similar trian&Ics, conchoíd, quadralrix,
The starting point o f this work, the postulates, grounded it implicitly (lhough not proportions Archimedian spiral, ...
explicitly) on constructions by compasses and straightedge: the first postulale (to
draw a straight tine through two given points) and the second postulate (to continue References for §8.4.2 a
a straight tine in either dircction) allow the use of a straighledge; the third postulate Boyer. C..B. 1959. The ltistory of rl1c ca!cu/us and its conccprual deve/opmelll, Ncw York:
(to draw a circle with a givcn centre and a distance) allows the use of a pair of Do ver
compasscs. This implies that ali one can construct with compasses and straightedge Eves, H., Newsom, C.. V, 1958. An introductionto tltefourtdarions andfimdamental concepls
is also deducible from lhe postulates. With the axiomatic method the ofmothematlcs, New York: Holt, Reinhart & Winston
mathcm:llicians posscsscd o tool which produces indubitnble results os long lll the. Eve3, 11. 1976. An lntrnductlon la t/1~ IJistory nfmntiJcmarics, 4t!! cdn, Ncw Yurk: Ilolt,
postulatcs are indubitablc. Zeno's paradoxes can already be found in school books Rlnehart & Winston; originally publishcd in 1953.
as tasks, but mostly they remain isolated as an oddity; lheir role in lhe history Fowlc.r, David 1987. The matltematics ofP/ato 's Academy: a new reconstruction, Oxford:
outlined above is rarely explained in textbooks. University Press (2nd edn l999)
There are also possible connections to more recent developments: besides Heath, T.L. 1963. A manual ofgruk matltematics. Dovcr. New York, 1963; orig publ1931
Kaiser. H. K. 1996. 'TI1e problem ofthc duplication ofa cube', in A. S. Posamentíer (ed),
Kepler's use o f conic scctions in astronomy, we can cope in some sense with Galois'
The art ofproblem soMng, Thousand Oaks: Corwln Pres.s, 37~•382.
theory which leads to the impossibility of a solution of lhe problem using only Kaiser, H., NObauer, W. 1998. Geschichte der Mathemacik,lnd edn. Munich: Oldenbourg
compasses and straightcdge. This proof can be explained heuristically in nonlinear Kirlc, G.S., Raven, J.E., Schofield, M. 1983. The presocratic pltilosoplters: a critica/ history
ana1)1ica1 geometry, when teaching the intersection of eircles (compasses) and lines wirlt a seleccion ofce.xu. 2nd edn, Cambridge: Univcrsity Press
(straightedge); these intersections always lead to equations of degree 2", but never to Knorr, W.R. 1975. Th e evolution oftlte euclidean elemer.ts, Dordrecht:.Reidel
equations o f degree 3: therefore cubic roots carinot be constructed with these tools. Struik, D.J. 1967. A cone/se ltistoryofmatltematics, revd edilion, New York: Dover
Whitrow, G.J. 1980. The natural philosophy o[tíme, 2nd edn. Oxford: Clarendon Prcss
Wussing, H. 1965. Mathematik in der Antike, Leipzig: Teubller
 170 8 Historica/ support for particu(ar subjecrs 8.4.1 b Musico/ scale.s . 27 I

b Musical sca lcs
Michel ~odriguez
Ali mathematics teachm in the world know that music was an integral part of
mathcmati~ in Grcek civilisation. but few know why it was so. Though many o f
them have le~d music theories and participate in musical activities, yet they have
no idea of the d ose relationship between the two disciplines. except for the famous
name of P~1hagoras. The history of mathematics can help to clarify this point.
Bdow we outline an activity which touches upon some of the principal
characteristiês of Greek mathematical culture. like the constructions with
... srraightedge and com passes. ilnd thc theory o f proport ion (8.4.2a above, 8.4.4 below:
7.!.3.3; 7.2.d).
The activity was carricd out in two 3-hour sessions with 15 students (half the
class) of a Frene h high school 2nd class ( 15-16 ) ears old). 11 was devised as a
serics of ~cti\'ity modules so that teachers can have more freedom when using them,
in contrast to the rigidit) and apparent constraints of the official curriculum. Firsl
\\em isit the duplic:~tion o f the cube.
f ir..t rar t: Problcm of Drlos- duplicnlion of the cube (7.2.n2)
I. A ,·o~a~c rrom Eudoxus to Descanes (constructions wilh straightedge and
compasses): (a) construction of line segments, areas and volumes, (b) emergence o f
unit seg.ment. construction of the product, quotient, square root (duplication of
square) o f numbcrs. their geometric mean, the golden ratio etc.
2. Thc: cenrral problcm. the duplication of the cube: (a) research with
straighledge and compasscs. until the conjecture o f the impossibility of the problem
comes to the mind o f the students ("\Vhat is the number that we want to construct?"
No, there are noticeable differences., (panicularly at the levei of the 4th space), bul
thc reading ofthe mcasutemcnts help to observe a geometric regularity ofthis scale.
· 2. The equal-tempered scale, which appeared in Europe in the end of the 17th
century: (a) lhe scale of Werckmeister in 1691 , temperament of 12 notes: (b} the
ralio of frequencies will forma geometric sequence; find the ratio r, say. One finds
,11 • 2, thus r = 2 1111 ; (c) particular case, the 4th space eorresponds to lhe ratio of
t:a
frequency (2 1111 21/J. Here we come back to 2'n. {Sec also Chapter 9 of Land
1975, whose figure on p.ll2 is reproduccd here as figure 8.12.)
3. Rctum lo Delos, by posing a simple problem: "ls the equal-tcmpered scale
constructiblc with straighledge and compasscs?" For concluding this activity, 1wo
diffcrent possibilities have been envisaged:
(a) A classical one is lo point out that this problem is equivalent to the problem
ofthe duplication ofthe cube: (i) To finda construcúon ofthe tempered scale with
straightedge and compasses means to settle the problem on the 4th space, which at
the same time solves the Delian problem. (ii) To find the solulion ofthe problem of
Delos means that the 4th space of a guitar is constructible. Now lhe sixth is already
constructible (26111 = 2'12, which we have already come across). Thus, we find the
5th space as the geometric mean, and lhe ratio of the 4th to the 5th (or o f the 5th. to
the 6th) will be thc ralio which enables us to construct the whole scale usmg
proportionalities!
(b) A more exotic
I possibility is to claim that
we can ·find an acoustic
I solution to the problcm of
I
I
I
Delos (7.4.8,
Suppose that we want to
7.4.9).

find the edge of a cube

twice in volume of a givcn
Emcrgcnce of :!1 )). cube. We stan by
3. Mcchanical solutions: (a) sctting up in parallcl thc problcm of finding the
double mcan proponional. {b) presentation of Eratosthenes' me.solobe; sludents are
I transferring the length of
the edge of the given cube
supplied with identical rectangular tiles on each of which the diagonal is already
marked. nnd tbey have to find out why these tiles can be used to find 2 1n, (c) wilh
thc Jid of hamlouts. a rapid prcsentalion of Piato's machine (sce figure 8.9).
I I
to a siTetched monochord
and observe the rcsonant
interval that this vibration
gives with a string o f a
Second Pari: Music:JI scales, Pythagorcan anel equal-tcmpered guitar whcn a lingcr hcs on
I. \\'1131 is ~ musical note?: (a) prcscntat íon o f the in verse proponional relation the 4th sp!lce ( one can
between lhe freque ncy o f the wave cmitted :~nd the length of the vibrating string (we cvcn adjusl lhe tcnsJon of
measure the lengths o f lhe strings o f a guitar); (b) the nolion o f a resonance inlerval: lhe monochord or of thc
octa'e and fifih trcspeclive ratios 2 and 312); (c) principies of lhe Pythagorean guitar for runing the two
scalcs. algorithm and computalion of the firsl li ratios by this melhod; (d) "ls the vibrations, and play them
~1hagorean sc~ie constructible with slraightcdge and compasses?" Yes, because ali at unison). Then. lcngthcn
mtios ;ue rJtional: {c) '·Does the slem of the gui1ar representa Pythagorean scale?" the monochord wuhout
Figuro · · r;uitar and scalc (from Lnnd 1975, I JZ)

J,•'l'l F~L d. hn ':'.ll ~l.\.1nm 1~.!~.). Jli.<iN'\' in mot/:,·.•111/ic's rnll((!/1()11' tlw /C.\1/ s:ud_\·.
1\~rJr ..-.:~~! · }.;.l~'''t.."I
:or\l'. t'T : · · :·~
 ]7]
8 Historical support for particular subjects
modifying its tension and compare now wilh the same string ofthe guitar vibrating
empry (space 0). Whc:n we, find out the same resonance interval (or the unison), the
lcngths will bc in the ratio, and the only thing lefl isto construct the double cube!
Thc, acth·it)· in this scction takes a lot of t(me, but it ís worthwhile, since it
touchcs on a variety o f domains (7.2.a3}. However, one may remark that at the end
o f lhe activiry there are still doubts about the consttuctíbility o f the duplícation of
lhe cube and of the scale of Werckmeister. lsn't this a gCiod illustration of an
essential aspecto f science? In se iene e, there is always something left to look for.
Rerercnce ror §8.4.2 b
Land. Frank 1975. Tht languagt ofmathematlc.r. re"ised edition, London: John Murray;
originally publishcd in 1960.
~ Rodrigucz. Michel 2000. 'Sure Ie manche de mil guitarc', in Lts nombrts. actes des journéu
acadimiquts de /'IRE.\ f de Li//e. P3tis: Ellipscs
c U.Onardo's geometric skctches
Chun lp Fung
Fascinating. geCimetric skctchcs are found in the notebooks of Leonardo da Yinci.
Most of lhe se figures are directly rel:ned to the squaring of curvítinear regions. The
following cat's eye diagram (figure 8.13) is one among them (Wills 1985, 11). ·
Thc following activity is designed for junior
secondary school sludents (age 12 lo 14) with
knowledge of the Pythagorean theorem, the area
ratio of similar figures, and knowing formulae for
area computaiion of simple figures including
circle, sector, rectangle. The 1ask is to calculate
the arca of lhe shaded part in the above diagram in
terms ofthe radius ofthe circle (7.3.3.b; 7.3.1)..
Design of tlte actlvlty:
Sttp 1: Ask students 10 compute the area,
Fi~r~ 8.13: n,c c-ar's rw or
"ltctr rart of rh~ crrclt· is ;,,..
making assumptions where ncccssary (7.lbl).
shad,·d arca' St~p 2: Show how Leonardo did it, using a
simple cut-and-pasle method , os displayed in
figure 8. 14 for a diiTcrcnt arca.
Purposes of rire acril·ity:
I. To let students ;~ pprcciate the.aesthctic na ture ofmilthematics (7.l.cl);
lohn f3U\'C:l Jan 'an Mil3ncn (cds.). Histary• in mathemotics educatiol!: the ICM! study,
Dordrecht: Klu\\er :000. pp. 272-273
8.4.2 c Leonardo 's geametric slr.etches 273
a
Figure 8.14: Haw Leonardo so/ved lhis lype of prablems, i. e. by simpfe cut-and-pastt
fjrom Wi/fs 1985).
2. To wam students that the exislence of mathematical products, such as
formulae for area computation, does not aulomatically downplay the importance of
having an alert and active mind (7.2.d).
Reference for §8.4.2 c
Wills. H.• 1985. Leonardo 's dessert: no pi, Rcston, Va: National Council ofTeachers of
Mathematics
8.4.3 Surveyors' problems
João B. Pitombeira de Carvalho
The following are two examples whose purpose is to show how concepts of
elementary Euclidean geometry were used· to solve surveyors' problems in times
gone by (7.2.a2). The tools used are simple and easily constnlcted, to enable high
schoo\ students to actually solve similar problems (7.4.8). An ordnance map, a
compass, measuring chains or tapes can be easily procured and offer the opportunity
ofletting lhe students prnctise their skills (7.4.12).
a The tunnel or Eupatinos on the island o f Samos
What is striking about this exnmple is tnat the tunnel was constructed, around 530
BC, starting simultaneously from both sides of the mountain, as would be done
today. However, today we have very sopnisticated instruments thal enable us to dig
both segments of the tunnel in such a way that both working crcws meet as planned.
How did ancient builders proceed, without our sophisticated surveying instruments?
The ~wer is fairly simple: they used plane Euclidean r,;ome~ry (particularly the
similarity of triangles) and had sighting instruments, ca!lé<l a d1optra, that enabled
surveyors to measure angles with good accuracy. (For further discussion of this
celebrated tunnel, in a classroom context, see §9.5.1.)
John Fauvel, Jan van Maanen (eds.), Hiltory in mathematics education: the ICMI study.
Dordrecht: Kluwer 2000, pp. 273-276
 l i -I 8 Historical supponfor particular subjects
As a matter of fact. students can easily build themselves such sighting devices
and practice mc:l.Suring angles, :l.S in ancient times. Suppose we want to dig a tunnel
with ends at A and B (see figure 8. 15), which are initially assumcd to be levei.
Draw an_nrbitr:uy straight line scgment BC. From C, draw the perpendicular CD to
BC, thcn' ED perpendicular to CD, then EF perpendicular to DE., and so on, till we
are close to A. These straight line segments are ali drawn in such a way that from C
you can see.p, from D you can see E, and so on. We now have a polygonnl line
BCDEFGH. Note that the angle nt each vcrtex C, D, E, G is a right angle. Ali these
right angles can be dromn using n dioptra.
Figu~ 8.JS: .\fr:king o stroight tunnel. stortingfrom both side;s ofthe
mountoir• •t!JO BC)
Choose J en GH such that JA is perpendicular to OH. Lct AK be lhe
perpendicular fi<lzm.A to BC. Since thc lengths DC, EFand GJ are known, and using
the fact that ourpolygonnlline is made up ofadjoining perpendicular segments, it is
very easy to fiai the length AK. Similarly, it is possible to find the length KB and
thus the ratio PXM.K. Let this ratio be callcd Ir.. Construct now the right triangles
BLM and ANB suclJ that the ratios BULM and NAJPN are both equal to k. The
similaril)· of thetriangles BLM, BKA and ANP assure us that the points P, A, B and
M are colline.at. fi is now very simple to dig the tunnel; just makc sure that the
crews working at Q and R, inside the mountain, can be sighted from P and M
respecti\'ely (v!D!dc::r Waerden 1974, 102-104).
This descri}tiou assumes that ali points are in the same plane. But it can easily
be modified to llle .::Jccount of diiTcrenccs in hcight bctwccn thc points considered.
275 ..
8A.J Surveyors' problems
We h11ve a description of a dioptra given by Hero, and thus it was possible to '.·:
rcconstruct this very ancient and useful instrument (van der Waerden 1974, 104; see ·
Drachmann 1972 for more on Hero's work). The a/idade (from the Arabian word
ai'Dad), a very simple sighting instrument, is still in use today by armies in the ficld
or prospectors. lt is simply a pocket compass placed on a horizontally hcld board.
b Heron's formula for thc arca of 11 triangle
It is known that the Greeks did not use trigonometry to solve surveying problems
(Katz 1998, 158-162). lnstead, they relied on plane geometry. We have just secn
bow they could solve surveying problems using elementary facts of plane Euclidean
geometry. Heron's namc is also attached to a formula, albeit one that is probably
dueto Archimedes (Fauvel and Gray 1987, 205-206; Thomas 1941, 470-477); let
ABC be a triangle with sides ·a. b and c. !f p =(a+ b + c)/2 , then Hero 's formula
states that the arcaS ofthe triangle is given by S =~ p(p-a)(p-b)(p -c).
Using this formula, it is easy to find the arca of any plot of land bounded by a
polygona11ine, if we are able to measure the distances between its vertices. Thus, to
find the area of ABCDEFG, we can decompose the polygon as shown (see figure
8.16). !f we can measure the distantes AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, FG, AG, AC, CG, GC
and GE, we can find the required area using only a vcry ~l,;;ple instrument, a
measuring cbain or tape, without having to worry about mea.suring angles and
'solving' triangles using trigonometry.
F
Figure 8.16: Dissecting a polygon in arder to determine its a~ea
These examples illustrate the way knowledge of its history may he~p teachers
and students to appreciate thc importance of mathematics for the solutton o f real
problems of vital. importante, by clementary means (7.2.e3; . 7.2.a3). _More
generally, vocational contexts offer opportunities for the use of htstory, e.g. m the
history of quality control, a vital a.spcct of most modem industrics (COMA? ~990).
In trade and technician arcas, it should be possib\e to brieOy trace the evolullon of
formulas and techniques, gcnerally presented to students as a fait accompli, to
 ]76 8 Hístorical support for particular subjects
~nhanc~ thc: dcpth of undcrstanding and to stimulate interest. Adopting such an
historical perspective will offer the possibility o f sti.mulating discussion on lhe social
uses to ~·hich mathematics is put: a competency not commonly found, if ut nll, in
current adult or vocational mathematics curricula.
Rcrerenc~ for §8.4.3
CGMAP 1990. Agoirur ali odds; tht somplt mtan ond contra/ chorts, Vídeo No. 18,
U:xington: Consortium for Mathematies and lts Applications
Drac~mann. A. G. 1972. 'Hcro of Alexandria', in C. C. Gillispic (cd), Dlctionaryofscimtific
brogroplry, Ncw York: Charlcs Scribncr's Sons, vi, 310-315
Fau,.el. John. Gray, Jcremy. (cds.) 1987. Tht history ofmathematlcs: a reader, London:
., Macmill311
Kau.. V. J. 1998. A hisrory ofmathemalics: an introduction, 2nd ed.. Ncw York:
H:ltfl<rCollins
Thomas.. I. 19~ I. Seltctioru illustraring tire history of gretk matlrematics ii, Cambridge:
Han·asd Universil\' Prcss
Van der Waerdcn. B..L. 197~. Sciencr awahning. 3rd edition, A. Dresden tr.• Groningen:
Woltcrs Noordhoff: ori~ Dutch publ 1950
8.4.4 Theory o r proportion and tbe geometry o f a nas
Carlos Correia de Sá
• •
The thc:ory of proponton played ~ central role in Greek mathematics. However, the
early ~1hagor::m approa~b, wbícb took into account only the positive integers,
proved msuffictent when mcommensurable magnitudes were discovered. Eudoxus
eventually created a new theory of proportions (exposed in book v of Euclid's
Elemenrs {Euclid 1925)) that worked both in the commensurable and in tbe
inco~mensurable cases. Meanwhile, the need for anolher method of proof was
certamly felt. Although there is no historical evidence that the geometry of areas
was created as an altemative method of proof, it allowed formulalions and proofs o f
old results witboul nppealing to lhe concepl ofproportion.
"f!'e intemlati~ns between tbe theory o f proportions and the geometry of areas
constltute a constdernble wealtb of resources lhat can be put to use in the
mathematics classroom: the concepts of ralio and proportion, the ideas of number
and aren. severa! geometric constructions with straightedge and compasses, the
Pythag?re:m tlteorem. the geometric solution o f 2nd degree equations and (perhaps
most tmportantly) many opportunities to practise the translation from the
geometricalto the numericat context and vice versa (7.2.83; 7.2.a2).
A significant part of lhe geometry of magnitudes lhat Euclid exposed in tbe
Elements admits an arithmetic-algebraic inlerpretation that may be explored in the
high school malhemalics classroom, in order to reveal thc interrelations between
arithmetic operations, algebrnic procedures and geometric constructions.
8.4.4 Theory of proportion and the gcometry of areas 277
The geomctric analogues of addition and subtractlon are obvious. In Greek
geometry, it is lhe construction of a rectnngle with givcn sidcs that is usuatly
interpreted ns a multiplication o f line segments. Propositions I and 4 o f Book ii of
the E/ements may then be regarded as the geometric versions ofthe distributivc !~w
of multiplication with respcct to addition and o f the formula for thc squarc of n som.
respectively. This part of lhe geometry of areas has no relation to the theory of
proportions; it may havc been created independently, probably long before the
discovery ofincommensurability. But the notions ofthe fourth proportional ofthree
tine segments, and of the mean proponional o f two line segments, admit altemative
formulations in terms ofthe gcometry ofarcas.
The standard constructions ofthefourth proporlional (Eiements vi, 2) and ofthe
mean proportional (Elements vi, 13), may have been the first ones to be used.
However, they require a theory of proportions for the incommensurable case.
Alternative forrnulations of these concepts, that avoid any reference to
proportionality, are lhe following.
Let tbe tine segments a, b, c be given; lhe ir fourth proportional is a line segment
x sucb that a:b=c:x or, equivalently, such that ax=bc. Thus, x is the side of a
rectangle lhat admits a as a side and has the area of the rectangle with sides b
ande.
ln an analogous way, let tine segments a, b be given; their mean proportional is a
tine segment y sucb that a:y=y:b, or, equivalently, sue h that l=ab. Thus, y is
the side of a square witb the samc arca as the rectangle wilh sides a and b.
These are examples of problems (I) of'application' o f an are a to a tine segment and
(11) ofthe 'quadrature' of an area, respectively:
(I) To apply a figure F to a line segment s means to construct a rectangle with
the same nrea as F and having s as one o f its sides (it is enougb to construct its other
side x); written as sx=F, where x is the line sought, this geometrical construction
clearly admits an arithmetical interpretalion as a division.
(li) To jind the quadrature of a figure F is to construct a square with the area of
F (it is enough to construct lts side y); written as I ==F, where y is the tine sought,
this geomctrical construction corrcsponds to lhe extraction of a square root.
Euclid presented these construclions, in the context of tbe geometry of areas,
using only straighledgc and compasscs; thc application of a rectangle to a line
segment (Eiements i, 43) and lhe quadraturc of a rcctanglc (Eiements ii, 5 and 6).
These propositions constitute altemative constructions of the fourth and mean
proportionals: "
(a) lmplicit to proposttton Elements i, 43 is the ·notion of the diagonal
decomposition o f a parallelogram; in the classroom, however, one may prefer to use
only the case ofthe rcctnnglc, which is the only onc needed in this context, although
the general case is not bardcr to prove. The proof uses only that a paral!elogram is
. bisected by any o f its diagonais, and that ifone sublracts equals from equals, then
one obtains equals.
(b) The idea behind propositions Elements ii, 5 and ii, 6 is the same: to transform
a given rectangle into a gnomon which is the differcnce o f two squares. The proofs
use only the equality of thc l!rcas of thc two complcmcnts of a diagonal
 ~-
218 8 Hisrorical support for particular subjecJs
decomposition (for the particular case of the squares). Once the rectangle is
expressed as the di!Terence of two squares. the Pythagorean theorem immediately
yields its quadrature.
. The ~rawi~g of parallcls and perpendiculars to given !ines, passing through
gtven (>9tnts. ts the only technical skill that is needed in order to be able to
manipulate arcas by means ofthe above mentioned propositions. Of course, this is a
topic wher~. appropriate tasks provide many opportunities to practice these
ekmenwy tfut imponant constructions with straightcdge and compasses.
~~ is. natural to deal with applications and quadratures of rectanglcs before
constdermg other figures: the gcometric constructions are the simplest ones and the
linlcs to the theory of proponions are very close. However, both operations are
easily generalised to an arbitrary
polygonal figure, by means of its
decomposition into (a finite number
o!) triangles. One need only
construct, for each triangle of the
decomposition, a rectangle with the
same area: the npplication o f ali the
.s rectangles to thc same line segment,
as in layers, yiclds a rectangle equal
Figurt S. I~: .~pplkotion of areas in area to thc initial polygon; by
squaring each of the rectangles and
by adding ali lhe resulting squares
(by means ofthe P)1hagorean theorem) one always obtains new squares as sums. A
l)lJicaltask l)lay be. for example, to give the are as A and 8 (A bigger than 8) and the
line segment s and to ask for (I) a reclangle equal to A+B anda side cqualto s, (2) a
square equalto A-8 (see figure 8.17).
Mas~ering the procedures used in lhe case o f polygons leads to an understanding
o f the d1fficulties mct in thc case o f mosl curvilincar figures and in particular, o f thc
reason why the quadrature of the circle was sueh an important problem for so long
(7.2.cl).
A generalisation of the concept of application o f areas, considcring 'deficient'
and 'exceeding' applications. can also be found in Euclid's Elements (although his
search for generality forces him to postpone it to book vi, whcre, after the Eudoxan
theol)· of proportions has bcen exposed, he dcals wilh lhe si11tilarity of plane
figures). The Greek names for the concepts of deflciency nnd excess were used by
Apollonius in order to classify the conic sections. and are still in use today in the
words 'cllipse' and 'hypcrbola' rcspectively. These generalisations of the concept
o~ the application of arcas ate panicularly rclevant for the mathematics ctassroom,
smce they allow for the solution of second degrec equations by methods based on
the geornetl)', of arcas (7.2.a3): there are historical texts of medieval Arab
mathematicians containing such solutions. In this contcxt, it is of course very
279
--·
. 'i-.:.
8.4.4 Theory of proportion and the geomelry of areas
interesting to compare this approach with lhe radically different one proposed by
Descartes in his Géomérrie.
Thc Greeks also considered an important generalisation of the notion of the
mean proportional. lf one insens any (linite) number of line segments between tw~
givcn line segments, in such a way that the ratio of any consecutive two segments ts
constant, then one obtains magnitudes in continuous proportion; this concept
corrcsponds to that of a geometrical progression. An important illustration comes
from Hippocrates' reduction ofthe problem ofthe duplication ofthe cube. to that of
inserting two mcan proportionals between the edge of lhe given cube and the doub)e
ofthatedge (cl example 8.4.2a above). ·
This topic also ex.tends, in a n~tural way, lo consideration of the ratios of other
types of magnitudes. The ratio of two arcas reduces to the ratio o f two lengths by
means ofthe -application of both areas to the samc tine segmcnt. Finally, ifone is
willing to jncorporate the use of curves into the prcsentation, then the quadratrix and
the spiral are most easily introduced, as curves that transform ratios between angles
into ratios between lengths. In particular, one obtains easy solutions o f the problem
of the trisection of the angle and one may also obtain less trivial solutions of the
problem ofthe quadrature ofthe circle (via the rectification ofthe circumference).
Referentes for §8.4.4
Aaboc, A. 1964. Episodes from ri~ early hisrory ofmathemarics, Nrw York: R~dom House
Euclid 1925. The lhirteen books ofrlae eltmer.ts cd. T. L. Hcath, 2u\l cdn, Cambndge:
University Prcss 1925; rcprint New York: Dovcr 1956
8.4.5 Deductive vs intuitive thinking: an example from the calculus
Dian Zhou Zhang
Mathematics is an exact scicnce, hcncc in its context dcductive thinking is
indispensable. However, mathematics is not equivalent to logic.. ' " Chin~ most
school mathematics teachers believe that thc sole core of mathcmattcs teachmg and
learning is the development o f pupils' logicalthinking ability. Any tcst piOblem is
almost exclusively dcsigned as a logical process, deductively organised. Ther:forc,
in China's 'examination kingdom', mathematics = fogic is a very popular tdeal.
Even at the university levei, including teacher training courses, evcry pr~fessor
emphasises in analysis the importancc ofthe 'epsilon-delta' language. Thcre ts evcn
a well-known motto: "Everything is inferior, only cpsilon-delta i.s superior!"
As a reaction to this,the work ofFennat (1638) may be presented,to show that a
great mathematical work in analysis might be non-rigorous, _with~ut ~~y use of the
epsilon-delta formulation, but based more on mathemat1cal tntu1tton than on
deductive reasonlng (7.2. b). ·
In bis study entitled Methodus ad disquírendam maximam el minimom ('Method
of finding maximum and minimum') (Fermat 1638/1891; Strui~ 1969, 223-4;
·Fauvel and Gray 1987, 358), Fermat gave the following cxample: Gtven a segment
John Fauvel, )an van MaaO(Il (cds.), History in mathematics educalion: thl! ICMI study,
Dordrccht: Kluwcr 1000. r r : ' ·•-180
 ,y lltllorh nlsllp('ortfor portfculor subj~cts
·;
VIl h '' ffl)lllrtd to f1 nd 11 polnt A on 11 sueh that lhe arca of a reclanglc with sides
0 .1 nnd AB t1 n mn.~irnurn . l hls Mea is A(B· A) .. AB-A 1• He replaced A by A+E
where E. '' :m infinuesimal quanlity. Thcn lhe leng1h of the other segment is 8-
(A+é) and the areas ofthe rectangle becomes (Ai'E)(B-A-E). By arguing that near a
musmllm the values o f a function (that is. here, the two arcas) do not change, he put
them equal obtainine:
(AB-A:· AE) + (EB ·AE-E1) .. AB. A1
~ividing by E. .he got 8 " ZA + E. He proceeded further by discarding the E-term
and gol Bc 2A. 1.e. the rec1angle is a square with a side half of the initial segmeot
(see e.g. Soyer 1959, I 55·1 56).
Many school teachers suggest that we can use the following deductive
argument: by noticing that
~ AB-A: •fi/.1- (A-8'2) 1
it bet:omes clear that for A=Bt]. we get the maximum value 8114.
\\'hich ~ument is preferable? I f we want to solve this particular problem only,
the second IS more comp<~ct. However, Fermat's demonstration is more powerful
~d . de: per. gi"ing a non·rigorous but intuitive elementary application of
snfimt~•mal calculus. of a much more general doma in of applicability and capable
of cons1derable genemlisation :~t 3 higher levei. Notice that, by essentially the same
Dtgument. one may introduce the concept of the variation of a functional in the
caltulus of \'aiÍations (7.2.tl ).
Rtfertnces ror §8.4.5
So~Docr. CB. 1959. Th~ history· ofthe colcufus a111i its conceptual developmtnt, New Yo/i(:
\ef
Fau,·ct. J~hn. Gray. Jeremy. (cds.) 1987. Tht Mstory ofmothematics: a readu, London:
Macmsllan
Fmnat. P. \63811891. 'Melhodus ad disquirendam ma.'(imam el minimam', in P. Fermat:
~u...,·-cs. Voi. I. P:lris: Gauthicr-Villan. 133·179
Struik.. DJ .. {ed.) 1969. A so11rce boo). in matlrt motic;: 1200·1800. Cambridge: Harvard
Un" mlt~ Press
1. 8.4.6 Tracing the root ofthe abstract concept of a set 281
8.4.6 Traciog the root of tbe abstr.lct concept ora set
Dian Zhou Zhang
In past decades more and more books in rnathematícs begin with very general
abstract concepts such as sets, axioms and categories. In particular, the nolion of a
set has become a basic concept for every mathematia leamer. In 1994. at the
beginning of a Chinese graduate course on real and co:aplex analysis, lhe class was
asked to say something about the historical backgroundof set theory. The students
replied that Cantor was the creator o f set theory in the 19th century and in Cantor's
view, any collection of things of any kind could be a sel They also said that,
because the concept is too abstract, Cantor suffered fram mental illness by thinking
too hard on it and finally died ata mental hospital! Nltwithstanding lhe inaceuracy
ofthe story, this seems to be ali that the class knew aboat Cantor and set theory!
However, we know that every mathematical conapt has its concrete root. In
order to understand better the thinking process o f a lmlllematician we must seek its
original historical source. This is well illustrated by tlEtxample of Cantor.
Cnntor was led into investigating inlinite scts -.kn he got interested in the
uniqueness problem of representing a function by its faaier series. He extended the
uníqueness theorem of Heine, as well as that o f himsd( to the case when an infinite
set or ' exceptional' points (that is, points at which a~e knows nothing more about
the sum of the trigonometric series) exists. The · m~re general question is: MWhat
kind ofinfinite sets can be edmitted as exceptional Jl:lS for the uniqueness theorem
still to holdT' Cantor considered a point setA in tlteilterval{a.b). Tbe set of limit
points of A is called the derived setA' of A. The &rived set of A' is called the 2-
derived set of A, and so on. An infinite set with a fui!e derived set is called a set of
the 1st kind. Likewise, i f the n-derived set of A is fui:e. then A is called a set of the
nth kind. ln I 872 Cantor published a paper in who he pointed out that i f in the
interval {0, 21t] a trigonometric series represents zer•for ali x, except possibly on an
exceptional set of the nth kind, then ali the coeffi.c:imts of the trigonometric series
must vanish. This means that the uniqueness the()I'IJlt on Fourier series is valid for
an exception:~\ set of thc nth kind. Titis work opcatd up the way for his point sct
theory to follow. (See Klinc 1972, Ch. 40, 41; Dauhm 1979, Ch.2 for more detail).
This story hclps students to understand the reaimathematical thinking process,
and is benefici:~l for them to acquire :1 corrcct insip into mathematics in general
(7.2.a2, 7.2.dl).
R.ercrenccs ror §8.4.6 J..
Dauben. J. 1979. Geol'g Cantor: !tis mothemctics and ph!Mophyofthe infinite, Cambridgc:
Harvard University Press
Klinc M. 1972. Mothemoticoltltought from oncient tom..., times, Ncw Yorlc OUPress
John Fauvel, Jan van Maanen (cds.). History in math~ia education: the ICM! study.
Dordrecht: Kluwer 2000, p. 281
 8 Historical suppart for particular subjects
8.4.7 Discrete mathematics: an e.xample
Man Keung Siu
\
Thc following is an example taken frorn discrete mathematics, which cuts across
diffcrcnt ·le'l~ls !Tom school to university: there are different purposes for using this
example as wcll as diffcrent ways of using it. The topic ís the famous problem of
lhe seven bridges of Klinigsberg, which asks for a way to walk across ali seven
bridges •. each cxactly once. and back to the starting point (see e.g. Ball 1974, ch.9).
A solullon was presented by Euler to the St. Petersburg Academy on 26 August
I~35 (Euler ·1736; for an English translation of lhe original, in fui! or in part, see
-B1ggs et al. 1976. Ch. l: Calínger 1995, 503-506; Struik 1969, 183-187; Wolff 1963
197-206).
Told in lhe form of a story, perhaps with some embellishment (7.3.1), this
example ~~n serve as a nice starter for a public lecture for school pupils, along with
an e~po~ltton on related topics such as mazes, one-stroke line drawing and real-life
apphcauons under the heading of the so-called Chinese Postman Problem, i.e. to
find an optimal way, in terms o f cost or length, to cover ali edgcs in a given network
(see e.g. Biggsrr ai. 1976. Chap. l; Chavey 1992: Steen 1988, Chap.l ). Besidcs the
aro~l of their intercst. and leaming some graph lheory and its applications, the
aud1ence can watch a problem expressed in a difTerent cultural contcxt (7.2.e3;
Ascher 1991, Chap.2) and experience a taste of problem solving (7.2.a2).
:ru-ough ~onsuhing contemporary works in the 60s and 70s on matching and
routmg algonthms (see Edmonds et ai. 19'13; Guan 1962), this cxample can be used
to enhance understanding of those algorithrns in an undergraduate course in
operational n:SQS"Ch (7.2.113).
This cxamplc can also bc usctl in :~n introductory undcrgraduatc course in
discrcte mathematics or graph theory. h provides cxcellent material for students to
witne~ how an important notion (in this case the degree of a vertex in a graph) and
a bas1c thcorcm (in this case thc so-<:alled llandshaking Lemma) arise from their
original forms and evolve into the familiar forms in modem textbooks ('1.2.bl;
7.2.cl). Students can see how a good formulation (not necessarily in lhe fonn we
know it today initiolly) facilitat es a solution and givcs rise to new dcvelopments.
Throughout lhe memoir of Euler lhere is no mention of the 'term "graph" or
"dcgree". and no record of any picture which resembles our modem notion of a
graph. 11 is eYen interesting to note that Euler's explanation is difTerent from, yet
rclated to, lhe standard exposition given in a modem textbook on discrete
mathematics (~.2.b2) . " Wh ~tthe first solution lacked in completeness and polish, it
made up for tn clarity, wealth of ideas, and revelation of the author's train of
lhoughts" (Siu 1995, 281 ).
Jolln FauYd. Jan 'nn Ma:tMn (cds.l. History• in mathematict education: tht ICMI s1udy,
Dordrccllt: 1-:IU\\Cf ::!000. rr ~"~ · ~83
8. 4. 7 Discrete mathematics: a11 example 283
A comparison of the differences and similarities between Euler's solution and
the standard exposition in modem textbooks, makes for a fruitful casc-study in a
course for in-service school teachers on the methodology of problem solving (see
Siu 1995, 280-281) and on tn~ nature ofproofs in mathcmatics (see Siu 1990. Ch.4:
7.2.c3). lt can also be used in a course on mathematics, or its history through the
study of original documents (Euler 1736) (7. 4.3; chapter 9 below). Papers on the
history ofthis problem, such as Sachs er ai. 1988 and Wilson 1986 are helpful.
Referentes for §8.4.7
Ascher, Marcia 1991. Erlmomarhemalics: a multicu/Jurol view ofmothematlco/ ideas, Pacific
Grove: Brooks/Cole; rcpr. Chnpman '!Od Hall, New York. 1994
Sal\, W. W. Rouse 1974. Mathematical recreotions and cSS0)'1, 13th cd. (wilh H.S.M.
Coxeter), New York: Dover; origínally publ. 1892Bíggs, N.L., Lloyd, E.K., Wilson. R.J.
• 1976. Grllph theory: 1736-1936, Oxford: Ciarendon Prcss
Calínger. R. (cd.) 1995. Classics of mathematics, Englewood Cliffs: Prenticc-Hal\, 1995
Chavey, D. 1992. Drawing pictures with one fine: e;cp/oring graph thtory, HistoMAP
Module 21, Lexington: Consortium for Mathcmatics and lls Applic:ations
Edmonds. J., Johnson, E.L. 1973. 'Matching, Eu ter tours and lhe Cnioese postman', Molh.
program 5, 88-124
Euler, L. 1736. 'Solutio problematis ad gcomctriam situs pertinentis', Commrntarii
Academiae Scitntiarum lmperialis Petropolitonae 8. 128-140
Guan, M-G. 1962. 'Graphic programming using odd or cven points', Chin~se math. I, 273-
277
Sachs, H.• Stiebitz., M., Wilson, R.J. 1988. •An historical note: Euler's Konigsberg lelters',
J. graph 1heory ll. 133-139 .
Siu, Man-Keung 1990. Mothematical proofs (in O•inese), Nanjing: Jiangsu Etluc:auonal
Press
Slu, Man-Keung \995. 'Mathematicalthinking and history ofmathema1ics', in F. s.wetz ti ai
(eds), uarnfrom the mostcrs!, W:!Shin~;ton: Ma1hcmnticat Associ~tion of Amcnca.. 279-
282
Steen, L.A. (ed.} 1988. Fora// proctical purposes: introduction tocontemporary
mothematics. New York: W.ll. Frecman
Struik. DJ. (cd.) 1969. A source book in malhemotics: 1100-/800, Cambridgc: Harvard
University Press
Wilson, R.J. 1986. •An Eulerian trai I through KOnigsbcrg', J. graph thcory 10, 265-275
WolfT, P. 1963. IJreakJhroughs in mathemotics, Ncw York: Amcrican Library
8.4.8 The rclation benveen geometry and physics: an examplc
Constantinos Tzanakis
The . study of the historical evolution of mathcmatics and p~ysi:s reveals. their
continuous fruitful interaction. · By following an approach msp1red by hLstory
(7.3.2), this interaction can and should bc unfolded in the teaching pr? cess, contrary
to what usually happens. Many cxamplcs can be given (Tzanak•s 1996; 1999;
Iohn fauvc\, Jan van Maanen (eds.), Nistory in mothematics educotion: the ICMI study,
Dordrccht: Kluwer 2000. pp. 283-286
 28~
8.4.8 The relalion between geometry and physics: on exanrple
8 Historical support for particular subjtcts

l. Crucial h isto rica! steps

2000). Here. we give an cxample at the undergraduate levei, by contrasting its
conventional prescntation to one inspired by history. This example is also indicative
of thc dose relation between differential geomerry~and physics (general relativity:
GR) (7. :taJ). of the way by which history can motivate the introduction o f a new
conçept (7.2.sl; 7.2.cl) and may suggest a way to present it (7.2.a l ). We nre
tl'nt(med with the introduction o f the concept of a connection. which describes the
idea. of p:ll'allelism on :m arbitrary manifold M. Conventionally it is introduced ad
hoc' in the following rather mystifying and unintelligible way (see e.g. O' Neill
1983. Ch.3; Bishop et o/1980. §5.7; Choquet·Bruhat et a/1982, 300·301):
- A connection V is a mapping fi'om pairs ofvector fields to vector fields, V:(X. Y)
-. \x r. which is linear in the lirst argument (over real valued functions.n and
" satisfies the Leibniz rule in the second:
\ r(fY) = fVxY+X(f)Y
- r is called parallel along (the integral curves of) X, if V.rY =O.
- A CUT\ e with ,·elocity .r parallel ta itself is cal!ed a geodesic ("straightest" line).
(a) Galileo's remark that all fi'eely fa\ling bodies in unh's (homogeneous)
gravitational field have the same a~celeratio~ (~alilei 16321~954, 65). (b) Einstein's
ingenious generalisation to a umversal pn.nct.ple, on which hc found~d gen~ral
relativity: at an arbitrary point o f any gravttatlonal lid~ ~I fre.ely .rallmg bod.•es.
trre$l)ective of their nature, move with the ~ame ~cce~er'2t10:4 wh1ch ts cons~nt 1n a
sufficiently small neighbourhood ofthat pomt (Emstem_lCJO_lll?SOa, 100; Pa~s 1982,
195, 205). (c) This implies that Newton's l~w of mata 1s l~lly vahd. By
choosing a coordinate system moving with th1s co.~IDO!l accelera~•on, a body on
whlch non-gravitational forces do not act moves recttlmea:iy and umfonnly.
3. Reconstruetion
(a) Mathematically, 2(c) says that at every paint p and for any direction (vector) V,
there exists an appropriate curve r and local coordi11atts (x•) in wbich r has
constant velocity V, i.e. zero acceleration, i x·f dt 1
=O. In a Euclidean spacc, this

I
desaibes a straight line. In general, this is true only itt a neighbou~hood of each
lf (e/eu' sê',) are the basis vector lields induced by coordinates (u;). the point p, i.e. y is loc:~lly 'straight'. Now, it is a computa:íonal exerctse (7.l.a1) to
Christoffcl functions are delined bvI v.?
'• 1
., r• a J' I
(henceforth, repeated indiees show that in arbitrary coordinates ( u•), this equation tzlls.the fonn
denote summ:nions over them). Subsequently it is shown that if f~ are tbe d 1 u· • du' du' ôu· a•::.·
- - + [ - - = 0 where r · = - - - (2)
corrtsponding functions for other coordinates ( u"), then dl " dl dt " ax· õu"&•

•
r~=-
(eu'•
cu' - -êu'J 1
-6r.. +ô-u"'
-- 6
)
(I)
with lhe functions L., transfonning by (I) in a chan~ o:f coardinates. That is, (2)
êu.. õu" éJu d õu" õu are the well known geodesic equations.
Con\'ersely. functions transfonning as above under a change of coordinates define a This approach answers the 'natural' questions lefi IO!ltlUChed by lhe conventional
coMection uniquely. prescntation: in 3. above, the idea o f a straightest ct'.lrVt' is expressed, i.e. a curve
This approach lea\'cs the following natural questions unanswered: with velocity parallel to itself. Hence, in arbitral"}' coordinates, r: expresses
Why• does V illustrate parallelism? Specifically, why does V.r Y = O give a 'parallelism', i.e. the possibility to decide whether tw~J 'if:tors at different pointS are
'stratghtcst' line'?
- What motivatcs the use o f the tenn coMection?
'paralle\'. Hence r:, establish the connection bet\Wl:CI ~e two vectors. Finally,

A n answer presupposcs lhe proof o f the (local) existente of normal coordinates,
hence. it is necessarily a posteriori (see e.g. O' Neilll983, 59, 72-7~).
In contrast, by taking into account the historical development of the subject
(7.3.1) we outline below another possible approach:
I. A general kn owledge o f lhe history of the subject
Although the appearance of Riemannian geometry precedes its physical
applications. (i) it was motivated by physical intuition (see quotations fi'om Gauss,
Riemann and ClifTord in (Mchra 1972. 111; Spivak 1979, 152-153; Clifford
1876/1956. 569). (ii) its funher development was (and still is) grcatly stimulated by
its applications to general relativity (see e.g. Levi·Civita 1927/1977, vii·viii).
Thcreforc. some aspeçts of differential gcometry may be better understood on the
hsis Qf \i) :md (i i t.
since r:, in (2) transforms by (I) in a coordinate chall'&e,we have lhe equivalente of
the (physically motivated) existence o f normal coordimakS-with the previ_ously given
abstract definition of a connection (ifthe laner is asswmcito be symmetnc).
' In this example, history appears implicitly (7.3.1!iii). g~e~ that: (i) Ori.ginally,
Einstein did not arrive at (2) in this way (Einstein t9t.6/l950b, section 9; Pats 1982,
203, 220; Mehra 1972, 103), although a few years C~he outlined this ~pproach
qualitatively (Einstein · 1922/1956, 76). (i i) The tllltept of parallells~n .w.as
introduced geometrically by Levi-Civita in 1917 im ~different way (Levt-Ct~tta
1923/1977. viii and Chap..V(b); Eisenhart 1926, sectia-24 and referentes therem).
The approach in J(a) appeared a few years \ater in Wl':!/s work (Weyl 191811950,
206; Wey\1952, section 14).

8 Historical support for particular.subjects
Rtferences for §8.4.8
Bishop. R.L. Goldbcrg. S.l. 1980. TetUor analysis on manifolás New Yorlt· Dovcr
Choqutt·Bruhat. Y•• DeWitt·Morcttc. C., Oillard·Bieick, M. 19Bi. Analysis." manifolds ond
~~rC"s, Amsterdam: Nonh Hotbnd
ClitTord. \V:K. IS7611956_. 'On th.c spacc thcory of ma!lcr' (1816). in: J.R. Ncwman (cd), Tire
. '"tv_ldoj mot~rnatrcs 1. Ncw 'I ork: Simon nnd Schuster. 568·569
Em~ttm. A.· . I9Jifi
'I 9.SOa· 'On th c ·•nnU\lllcc of grav1tahon
· · on the propagation of light'
~9_' 1), mA. Som<mcrfcld (cd.). The prilldple ofrelativity. New York: Dovcr
CJR. A. 1916119.0b. 'Thcfoundations of thc General Thcory ofRclativity' (1916) in
. A. ~ommcrfcld (cd.), The princ.ip/e ofrelativiry, Ncw York: Dov~
~~nstem. A. 192~956 .. The m~aning ofrelativiry, 6th edition. London: Chapman and Hali
~~art. ~.P. !9.6. Rremanr.IOJI geometry, Princeton: Univcrsity Press
GahlcL.". Gahlco 163211954 o·ra1ogues conurnmg . ovo nt'l• sciences, New York: Dovcr
"Lcvi- . •
Cl n:~.. T. 19ll'1!977· 71:e abso/11te differential ca/cu/11$. 1'>-l Long tr., New Yorlc Dover:
rtpr. frnm trans!atwn pubhshcd by Blackic in 1926: originalllalian edilion 1923
Mchn.. ~· !9?2. 'Einsu:in. llilbcn and thc theory of graYitation', in: J. Mchra (cd.). Tht
ph~-s:cur s C"~pc ofnature. Dordrccht: Rcidd
o·~cíll B. 1983. ~mi-Riemannron geommy. New Yorlc: Acadcmic Prcss
P3~S.. ~· 1982. SW~tl~ u rht .Lord: tire scienct ond the li/e ofA.EitUttín, Oxford: Univ.Press
Sp11'1l:.. M. 1979. Dlfferrnrral geommy ii, Houston: Publish or Pcrish
T;z;analas... C. _1m-. 'The hist?r;.' of lhe reletion bctwcm matbcmatics and pbysics a.s nn
~<c~ualm~ ofthm ~scntalion·. in Ptoc. HEM Braga il. 96-104.
Tza.~lll~: c..l999:. 'Linfolding intemlations bctween malhemnlics and ph)'Sits on lhe basis •
oft~N h•~o~-: 1\~o ot'\Ont~lcs'. /nr. J. Mutlr. Ednc. Sei. Tech•wl. 30 \ 1), 103-118
T~ts. .c..
-001. Pt:sentmg thc rdation betwecn mathcmatics and physics on thc basis of
~c~r ht~or;.: :ttrndtc appr~ach_'. in V. Ka~ (cd.). Ujing l1iJtory to teach matl!ematics: an
. '"'' rrwtta"~'~··tn·c: ".1\Shmgton. D.C: Mathemcticol Association of Amcrica
\\c~ I..li. 191!- 1~. "(jro,·•t~tton and clcctritity' (1918). in: A. Sommcrfeld (ed) Tht
pnnnpft of ~:lHh·~·. Ncw York: Dovcr .'
\\'c~ L lll952. ~- lime. marrer. 4th cdn. New York: Dover (original Gerrmõlll cdn 1918.)
8.5 lnrtpr~ing ~athematical awareness through the bistory
o matltemattcs
8.5.1 Hi:stO.J!X.fmatbematics education
Hélene Gispetl.M:Jm Keung Siu
Malhematics edati~ de~clops alongside mathematics, each exerting its influente
over lhe other. ~etmncs m a gradual or indirect way. In this very broad sense the
study of _the h~ryt of mathematics education is helpful to the training of a
~a~e~t!CS te~. Teach~r education belongs to a doma in which connecls school
dtsetpltnes and •·~~·. posmg questions concerning lhe function of schools and
wh~t knowledgeM<:tely needs. Thus. views on the role and nature o f mathematics
lolm F3u,·cl; Jõlll-.m 1~:'!i
<• a anen lc ds.J.
· JfIJIO')'
· · mathtlllDIIu
m · education: tire JCA/1 study
Dortlrccht: Klu\\et'l!OO:~ pp 286-288
187
8.5. 1 /fistory of mat/:rematics education
intcract with the goals assigned to the school system, which is affected strongly by
the society and the culture in which the school system is embedded (7.l.e2)). The
history of malhematics education, of how school knowledge was constructed, of
how social issues pattly dctennined and influenced education, is of pcdagogical
bencfit in the developmenl ofa mathematics teacher (7.3.3b).
ln (Siu 1995), thc aulhor attempts to illustrate throush a preliminary study of lhe
\ history of mathemalics in ancienl China Lhe thesís that "[the} development of
mathematics education. and with it, the dcvelopment of mathematics itself, is lo a
largc exlcnt dictated by lhe general prcvalent Anschauung of mathematics of lhe
community at the time at lhe place", and to discuss what lesson we can leam from
' the study. By "Anschauuns of mathematics" is meant "the conception one holds o f
the subject called mathematics, which breeds a framc of mind that will mould one's
action". ln parallel with mathematics education in the narrow sense, which consists ..
in the transmission of mathematical knowledge, in lhe broad sense mathcmatics
education is lhe formation o f an Anschauung of mathematics. A teacher who has
acquired a historical perspective on mathematics education will be in a better
position to help students in this respect. On a more down-to-earth levei, this
historical study can help a tcacher to understand oot only the way of teaching thc
sytlabus, but also the origin and rcason for its content. In Siu and Volkov !999, lhe
authors probe further into this arca and discuss the state examinations in
mathematics in the Tang Dynasty (618-907), thereby. offcring a somewbat
rehabilitated view iTorn the one hinted at in Siu 1995 and helping to shcd light on the
question of possible cultural differencc in thc leaming of mathematics; sce, for
instante, Biggs 1996 (7.2.t2).
In Gispert 1997 the aulhor rcports on hcr work with pre-servicc primary and
secondary schoolteachers in studying diffcrent mathematics syllabi in France ofthe
19th and 20th ccnluries. This includes the study ofthe accompanying commentarics
as well as the debates wnich were aroused at different times in thcír political,
economical, scientific and pedagogical contexts (7.3.3b). Such activities help to
render prospective leachers less naive, better equipped for the syllabus thcy are
going to teach and bener prepared for any change in the syllabus which they will
encounter during their teaching carecr.
Referentes for §8.5.1
Biggs. J.B. 1996. 'Westcm mispcrccptions oflhe Confucian-heritage leaming culture', in:
O.A.Watkins, J.B.Biggs (cds), The Chimse learnu; cu/tiii'OI. psycho/ogica/ and
conratual injluences, Comparative Education Researclt Centre, Uni v. Hong Kong. 45-67
Gispen, Hélcnc 1997. 'Lcs mathématiques dans la culture scicntilique ct la (ormation des
enseignants', in: 1. Rosmorduc (cd.), Histoire des sdences et des techniqúes. Centre
Régionale de Documentalion Pédagogiquc de Brc12gne, 347-355
Siu, Man-Keung 1995. 'Math:matics educatíon in ancicnt China: Whallcsson do wc leam
from it7' Historio scientiarum 4, 223-232
Siu, Mõ~~~·Kcung. and Volkov, Alexci 1999. 'Official curriculum in traditional Chinese
mathcmatics: how did cõllldidatcs pass thc cnminations7' Historio Scientiarum 9, 85-99
'
 288 8 Hisloricol support for porricular subjtcts
8.5.2 Teaching secondary mathematics in a historical perspective
Victor Kàtz
In a recently established private school in lhe USA. for which the author has been
acting in an advisory capacity, the basic philosophy involves centring the curriculum
on ihe cultural history of the wor!d (7.3.3b). Ali aspects of lhe curriculum,
induding language arts, visual arts. science. and mathcmatics are tied into that core
cultural history. Thus. ideally, students should be srudying the mathematics of a
particular time period at the sarne time they are considering the history, art, and
...jiterature of that period. In this way, srudents will understand the role of
mathematics in the development of civilisation (7.2.e3). lt is, of course, also
necessar)" to strucrure the mathematics curriculum so that students. by the time they
graduate, master 311 ofthe mathematics th3t a typical high school student in the USA
will ha'"e leamed by that time. Although thís curriculum is only under development,
the following is an indic<~tion o f how this is worldng out in grades 5 ( 10·11 year
olds) and grade 9 ( 14·1!' year olds).
In srat!e 5. the curriculum expTóres ancicnt Mesopotamia, Egypt. and lndia from
approximmly 3000·1000 BC. Thus, the students study such topics as the
development o f the base-óO place value system and its coMection with the decimal
place ,·alue system: thc extension of thcse systems to fractions; thc basíc formulas
for pcrimctcr, arca. and volume: lhe notion of a square root; an introduction to
alsebra using false position: and the Pythagorean theorem. In grade 9, where the
students are studying the pcriod from about 1450-1650, the mathematical topics
include solíd gcomctry, cspccially thc geometry of the sphere (so that students can
underst.and something of navigation in the age of discovery); similarity and its
applícation to perspective: the basics of the conic sections; the solution of
pol~11omial equarions. including the cubic formula in the work o f Cardano and the
subsequent disco\'ef)' of complex numbers: trigonometry, through a reading of the
fU"St book of Copcrnicus' De Revolutionibus (IS4J); the idea of a mathematical
model in the work o f Galilco; and the beginnings o f analytic geometry in Descartes
and Fermat. Although it remains to be seen whether the entire secondary curriculum
can be dealt with in this manner. this development is an exci~ing new way or
integrating histOI)' of mathematics with mathematics teaching and leaming.
JC'hn Fau,tl. J~n \:111 Ml:1!1m (tds.l. History in matlteml!lics ~ducalion: tltt lCAfl s.tudy,
D..•r.lrc(ht· KIU\\(T ~l'l1tl. r =~s
. 8.5.3 Adults' mathematics educational histories 289
8.5.3 Adults' mathem:1tics educational historie!
Gail FitzSimons
This section includes a description of some activities utiliscd by the author in a class
of women retuming to study mathematics, in an informal setting. Although the
subjecl was p3rt of a recognised credcntial. curriculum and asscssment were at that
time neootiable. The intention o f the course was to provide the students with the
mathem~tical skills they wished to leam; possibly, but not necessarily, with a view
to further srudy or to gaining employment. For some, the expressed intention was to
be able to help their children with mathematics homewolk throughout the different
stages o f schooling-an ímportant social and economic consideration according to
Faure et al 1972. Accordingly, the aim ·o f integrating history was in the forro o f a
general cultural and social awareness of mathematics and ethnomathema.tics (7 •.l.e;
7.3.3b). The goals included assistlng the women to overanne mathematacs an:.;aety,
to better coMect mathematics with the rest of their lives. to view mathematics as a
fallibilist discipline, and to enhance their metacognitive skllls by reflecting on their
previous mathcmatics leaming expericnccs (for more detd, see §6.2.3, above).
At various times the history of mathematics was used fOr:
a) teaching through history and ethnomathematics (7.3.1).
b) te:~ching obout history and ethnomalhematics (7.3.1) 3lld .
c) encouraging students' reflection on their personal history of mathemaucs
education lo encourage metacognition.
Thus, aspects of mathematics re\ated to philosophy, 311. archilecture, natural and
social sciences, for example, were integrated into classes, as was the cultural
heritage of different societies at different periods (1.l.t3). These three foci could
equally apply in other sectors o f education, as will be c:leaonstrat~d below.
There are many reasons why adults rerum to study mathematacs to pursue fu~er
or vocational education (fitzSimons 1994). Along Wilh some teacher educataon
srudents, adults frcquently exhibit signs of anxiety, if not low self-esteem, in
mathematics at least. They are likely, at some point, to have experienced
mathematics as absolute cold and unwelcoming, with iEtruction having been aimed
primarily at other more ~ble students in the c!ass. Mathmlàtics may hav_e even bee~
used to classify and position tbem. Re-entry to the s1Ddy ofmathcmatlcs per seIS
not always the choice of the srudent, but may be a .-apirement imposed by course
regu!ations or other authorities. The task ofthe matbematics instructor is not only to
teach mathematics, but also in many cases to help the st~~d~ts find new appro3~~es
to the subject and how it might be learned; even llO nercome difficulties ansmg
from past experiences ofleaming mathematics. .
Asking adult (and teacher educõllion) studcnb to reflect on t~etr past
mathematics education experientes serves many purpCECS. lt enables the mstructor
to know more about the srudents and to plan more ~propriate and meaningful
leaming experiences. More importantly, it hclps dx students to articulate their
John fauvel. Jan vnn Maanen (cds.), !flsrory in matltemaiU ~ducation· the IC.Ifl study.
OO<dtl'<'hl: K luw~r 2000,1' ?.~'l.1<lfl
 190 8 Uiswrical :supportfor particular subjects
belicfs and anirudes about the nature of mathematics ;md o f how it is leamed. Once
these a.re madc: cxplicit it is more likely that they can be addressed, enabling the
possibiliry of a greater brcadth of perspectivc. lt is also a step on lhe way to
de\·eloping metacogniti\'e skills.
Bôth cognitive and affective domains are likely to be invoked in the presentation
of personal mathematics education histories. A study (fitzSimons 1995) o f women
Yolunt.:Ujly murning to study mathematics given an open-cnded lask of reflection,
indicatecPlhat the following categories were considered important fn lheir memories
of previous schooling:
(a) collltnt: lists of topics covercd, especially lhe four basic processes and the
cmotions evoked by these items;
(b) P.edogogical pracrices o f their teachers, both positive and negative, and lhe
,. resulting seJf.images produced (somewhat diffcrcnt from thc majority of
mnthcmatics cducators!l;
(c) atcrnal injlucnc:cJ which affccted lheir mathematics and other education,
sueh as the c!Tects o f their parcnts' ·and t~chers' altitudes towards lhe ir gender, the
cxpcricnce of \\ar (common to many immigrants to Au.stralia), and the setbacks
as50Cilted wilh mo~·ing house. country, or even mathematics groups; and
(d) rl!ougfu.t mrd cmoriollS nbout the act o f retuming to study mnthematics.
lhe study 3lso prcsentcd e,·idcnce or joumal writing reflecting tbe integral part
played by the use ofhistory ofmalhcmatics in lhe classes.
Rdcrcncc.s for §8.$. .3
Faure. E.. Hcrrern. F.• K8ddoura. A·R., Lopes. H., Petrovsky, A. V., Rahnema. M.,
Cb;unpioDWard. F. 1971. l.tarning to bt: /Ire world of educallon todoy cwl tomorrow.
!'ruis: UNESCO
FiuSimons. Gail E. 1 99~. Teaching marlrtmatics to adults retumlng to study, G«long:
Oukin l.!nhcrsity Prcss
fiuSimons. Gail E. 199S. 'Thc intcr-rclationship ofthe history and pcdagogy of malbcmatics
for adults rctuming 10 study·. papcr prescntcd to the lnterrrorionDI Study Gro11p for the
Rrlorions of History and Pedogogy ofMothemalics. Caims
:_,
\I
l
·I Chapter 9
I!
The use of original so1.1rces in the mathematics
i
classroom
\ Hans Nicls Jahnkc
with Abraham Arcavi, Evelyne Barbin, Otto Bekken, Fulvia Furingheni,
\ Abdellnh Elldrissi, Circe Mary Silva da Silva, Chris Weeks
I
I Abstracl: Tire study of original sources is rhe mosl ambirious o/ woys in which history_ might
I be integroted into the reaching of motlremarics. but also one of lhe most rewardr.ng for
si!Uknu both at school and at ttachu training institutions.
9.1 Introduction
Among lhe various possible activities by which historical . a~pects mig~t be
integrated into the teaching of mathernatics, lhe study of an ongmal source ~s lhe
most demanding and lhe most time consuming. In many cases a source requ1res a
detailed and deep understanding of the time when it was written and of the general
context of ideas; language becomes important in ways w~ich are ~mpletely ne~
compared wilh usual practices of mathematics teaching. Thus, readmg a s~urce IS
an espccially ambitious enterprisc, but, as we ~ant to s_how, rewardmg ~d
substantially deepeniog lhe mathematical understandmg. In thts ch~p~er we descn~e
some ideas and intemational expericnces concerning the use of ongmal sources m
lhe malhematics classroom, referring to teaching at schools as well as at teachet
education inslitutions. : . .
In principie, the aims and cffects which might be pursued by v;ay ?r an o~•&•.nal
source will not be different from those attained by other types o f h1Stoncal attiVItles.
Howevcr there ore threc general idcas which might best bc suited for describing the
speclal ~!Teets of studying a sourcc. Tbcse are the notions of replucement,
reorientarion and cultural understanding. By lhese we mean:
 J.·
?91 9 Original sourc~s in the matltematics cla.ssroom
(i) replocemenr
lntegrating history in mathcmatics replaces the usual with something different: it
allows mathcmatics to bc seen as nn intcllectual aciivity, rather than as just a corpus
ofknowl~dge ora set oftechniqucs.
(ii) reorienration
lntegrating histor)' in mathematics challcngcs onc's perceptions through making the
familiar unfamiliar. Gening to grips with a historicaltext can cause a reoricntation
of our views. History of mathematics has lhe virtue of 'astonishing with what
comes o f itsetr (Vcyne 197 1). Ali too often in teaching, what happens is that
concepts appear as if already existing. This is true for thc concept of a set, for
~ cxample. but just as true for the concept o f a triangle ora function. And concepts
are manipulated \\ ith no thought for their construction. History reminds us that these
concepts were invented and that this did not happen ali by itsclf.
(iii! culturalrmdcrsumdillg
lntcgrating history of mathcmatics invitcs us lo place lhe developmenl of
mathematics in thc scientilic tlnd technological context of a particular time and in
the history of ideas and socicties, and also to consider the history of teaching
mathcmatics from ~rspectives that lie outside the established disciplinary subjcct
boundaries.
In this chapter we begin with discussing motivations, aims and uses which are
especially connected with lhe study of original sources (section 9.2). Of course,
lhere is some overlap with the general aims underlying the introduction of historical
components. but we concentrate on those dimensions specific for our topic. We
discuss especially the hcrmeneutic process o f interpreting a source and the special
role of language in it (section 9.3). In a further step we investigate four examples,
two taken from the context of tcacher education (sections 9.4.1 and 9.4.2) and two
from school teaching (sections 9.5.1 and 9.5.2). The special reference to teacher
education is motivated by our conviction that the reading o f original sources should
become an oblig:llory pan of mathematics teacher education at ali leveis. In section
9.6 we deal with didactic strategics, and in section 9.7 discuss some research
questions and issues of concem. Section 9.8 is the bibliography for this chapter, and
in the ap~ndix. 9.9.1he render wil\ find hints on useful resources.
9.2 l\loti\'ations, aims and uses
9.2.1 The spccific vntue nnd qunlity o f primnry sources
The role of prim~· sources in the integration of history of mathematics into
math~matics tducation should be considered in the light of different pos.~iblc
f'llfT'CISe~. lncc-rrN:uing rrim:u: sourcc:s is not good or bad in itself. We nced to
•
9.1 Morivations, aims and uses for work.ing wirh original sources 293
establish the aims, inc\uding the target population, the kind of source that might be
suitable and the didactica! methodology necessary to support its incorporation.
In the follo.,.;ing. we describe some objectives and examp!es of how primary
sources help to pursue them. There are almost certainly further ones we do not
mention (c f. Arcavi &. Bruckheimer 1998; Fauvel I 990 (see especially the pa~rs by
Jozeau, BUhler, Hallez, Horain); Furingheni 1997; IREM de Montpellier 1995;
Jahnke 1995; Laubenbacher &. Pengelley 1996, 1998; Lefebvre &. Charbonneau
1991· LeGoff 1994; Logarto et ai. 1996; M:ATH 1991; Métin 1997; Nouet 1992).
1~ contras! to merely relying on secondary literature the reading of primary
sources may help to
a) clarify and extend what is found in sccondary material,
b) uncover what is not usual\y fourtd there,
c) discem general trends in the history o f a topic (secondary _sources are usuall~ all-
topic chronological accounts, and some topics are very bnefly treated or omsned
altogelher), and
d) put in perspective some of thc inlcfllretations, value judgcments or even 1
misreprescntations (ound in lhe literature. 1
Reading historical texts may produce a cultural shock, by whi~h w_e may
experiente the replocement and reorienJaJion referred to .above.. Th1s W11l only
happen, however, if the reading is not teleologicol, that as, prov1ded we do not
attempt to analyse the text uniquely from thc point o f view o f our curr:nt knowl~dge
and understanding. Such a reading could carry with it erroneo~s mt~rpre~attons,
given that lhe writer may be using an idea according to a conceptton _qutte dtfferent
ftom ours. I f lhe value of history \ies in reorientation, in understandmg rather than
judging, then texts need to be contextualised. lha~ is locatcd in th7 contcxt of their
time. We need to remind ourselves that the wnter was addressmg not us, but a
contemporary audience. . . .
To have our perspectives of knowledge challenged is benefictal. Thus, 1t as
important to read Descartes' Geometry (\637) being aware that lhe te~t was not
understood by his contemporaries. We would then pay more .attentaon_ to the
changes brought about by Cartesian geometry, for example by the mtr~uctlon of a
unit segment, which appears so 'natural' in coordinate ge.ometry that ti passes. by
almost unnoticed. We can also show that the coordinate geometry system works ma
way that can be related with the Section Theorem in the geometry ~f the triangle
(Euclid's Elemenls vi.2, somctimes calted Thales' Theorem: :hat a !me ~arallel. to
one side of a triangle cuts the other sides in the same rat1o), someth1~g wh1c.h
i appears to be quite absent now from the official curriculu~i.n man! countnes.. Th1s
example shows that the rep/acement and reorientation aspects of htstory are duectly
~
I linked to didactical eonsiderations. ~
I Reading historical texts in class introduces history in .an explicit way.
Nevertheless, this activity has to bc intcgrntcd into the mathemahcs lessons and not
· provided just as an extra. tt also presupposes that the teachers have a sense of
1
history and, of course, that they are able to handle the mathematics involved. Thus, 11
reading sources prcsupposcs adequale prcparation (sce Chapter 4). 1

29./ 9 Original sources i11 the matlzemaliCJ cfassroom
9.2.2 Underst:1oding the evolution of ideas
There is a COIIIIl'lon belief held by many, teachers and students alike, about the static
narure of mlllhematical concepts: once a concept is delined, it rcmains unchanged.
Enn thosc: ll~ do not hold this belief may not have had opportunities to experiencc
lhe evolving<.ll3ture of ideas. Take for example lhe concept of function. At some
carly sta~. fioctions were restricted to those which could be expressed by algebraic
relationstiips. l atcr. the concept was extended beyond co~spondences whi<:h can
be e:tpressed .algebr;~ically, and !ater still to correspondentes not involving sets of
numbers at afL Thus we ha\c the more general and formal dclinition today: a subset
of the Cartemn product of two sets with certain properties. In anolher sense, the
concept '~-as ~tricted to univalent relationships. (For a detailed discussion of the
histo~· ofthcfunction concept see. for example Youschkevitch 1976 and for a brief
surny Klcincr 1989.) \\'e suggest that primary sources can o!fer the experience ofa
non·mcdiatc:i a>ntact with thc way in which ideas were delined at a certa in time,
different fi-OD i!l:lt in use today.
Anothere~:~mple is the notion of a cun·e. Curves seem to be considered the
same throuPt-nt the school programme. The circle, howcver, can be variously
prcsentcd: ;u a 'St~tic ot>ject in geometry, consisting o f points ai equal distancc rrom
its centre: au tlym1mic object produced by the rolalion of a line segmcnt about one
of its tfixti!t ~trcmities: as an objcct in algebra, namely an equation; or as a
functional .oij<t:t. I listo~· can make us awarc o f thc sisnificancc o f these difTcrcnt
wa~s of thüti~ about a curve through letting us understand the problems that led
mathcmaticims to pass !Tom one notion to the other. and also lo see the nature ofthe
changcs in wnccption thal camc aboul (l3arbin 1996). For cxamplc, lhe dynamic
notio~ of a<Ur\·e in the 17th century is linked to problems about movement that
scientists of tbr time werc considering. In particular, we can sce from reading
Dialogues as r!he rwo 11ew scienccs how Galilco changes the (static) parabola of his
srudy into ~ (tlynarnic) trajectory of a cannon ball. Whereas the para bola of Greek
geometry iis the intersection o f a cone and a plane, the Galilean parabola becomcs
the traject(J:! of a mo,·ing. body. subjcct to a uniform horizontal and a uniformly
accelerated'ICrtical mo,·cmenL
In ordc:r 101 sec how the idea of a curve evolved and became refined, it is
interesring \tl ~ad and compare severo I historicnl texls, for example to look at tbe
methods far limding tangents found in the works of Euclid, Apollonius, Roberval,
Fermat. Dteames. L6bniz and Newton. Similnrly, to see how lhe idea of function
or numbc:r:bs ~volvcd :lnd become rcfined, it is important to read texts related lo
stages of~ li.istory.
Prima~· romrc~s providc also livcly cxamplcs of how diffcrcnl rcpresemutional
s.rstt!ms wtt msed in the past. These examples may help students to put into
ptrsprctivellUit current representationõll systems as just one of many possible ways
of pcrfonnitg q:,pcrations Jnd handling and communicating concepts. Moreovcr. by
comparin!illld. J:cntrasting our reprcsemations with those in the past as they appear
in original ~:res . students might appreciate the crucial role rcpresentalions play in
the incepticmat<Ld evolution of ideas.
In Arcai 1"'987 an activity for elcmentary school students is described, in which
a brief e:o..tact Gom lhe Rhind Pap~Tus is presented; with the aid o f an accompan)·ing
295
9.2 Motivations, aims and uses for working with origino/ sources . .,.-
'dictionary', tbe challenge consists of deciphering the arithmetical operatio~s '·
performed, explaining how they work, and applying them to further examples. Thts ...
activity serves as the basis for discussion of lhe characteristics of the Egyptian
numeration system as opposed Lo ours, including advantages and disadvantages of
both. Van Maanen (1997) dcscribes similar experiences with primary sources from
a !ater period. His Sllldents report that they ftnd it a difficult but vny interestin~
puzzle, first to lind out what the handwritten text says and then what it meant and
why it wotited. Furthermore such a problem makes students aware that methods and
standards are changing. When students compare and contras! the representations
lhey know and use at school with those in original sources, they not only leam about
the latter, but most imponantly, their attention is rc-focused on the former, providing
an opportunity to re-discover properties taken for granted and which were "clogsed
with automatisms" (Freudenthal 1983, 469).
9.2.3 Experiencíng tbe rclativity oftruth and the human dimension of
mathematical activity
The fact that the idca of truth is rclativc can be seen when we consider how lhe
significante of proof has changed in history (Barbin 1994). W~ile .the li.rst
reasonings in Greek geometry had to do with explaining real problem snuat~ons, h~e
thc problem of finding inaccessiblc distances, thc purpos: of logicru proof.tn.Euchd
was to convince, or even defeat, the (supposedly stepttcal) reader. Thts t~ea of
proof was denounced in the 17th century by geometers who prefe~d to enhg~te.n
rather than o.lcfcat their rc:ulcrs. As for thc idca of proof in llilbcn's ~comctry, 11 ts
conceived of as a way of dcciding lhe validity o f a proposition, that is to determine
whether or not it is consistent with a set o f formal axioms. To obtain a feeling for
I what proof means. it is intcresting to reóld a variety of proofs ~f the sa.me theoretn,
for exarnple the different proofs for lhe sum ofthe angles of a trtangle g!Ven over the.
i two thousand years from Euclid to Hilbert (Barbin 1995).
lt is also illuminating to study examples of doubts and errors which arose when
mathematicians were working on new problems and concepts. This is different from
\ tbe usual presentatÍon of mathematical activity, described by Kessel in this way
I (Kessell998, 44):
This dctaehcd sty\e of spcaking and writing about mzlhcmatics suggests to .listeners ~d
rcaders that mathematics is indepcndent oftime and place ... ideas that are not ucd.tospeci~C
people, times. and p!aec.s, but which are abstract and timeless ... and wh1ch av01ds
mcntioning concrcte doers.
TI1us, in many classrooms ali ovcr thc world, mathematical activity is gcner~lly
perceived as tbe production o f clean and correc~ answers to problems. A~t~allve:
recent ex.periences (e.g. de Abreu 1998; Arcavt et ai. 1998; Farey & Meun 1993,
Lampert 1990; Pirie & Schwarzenbcrgcr 1988; V~igt 1985: Wood 1998) are
beginning to include the sharing of intuitions, conJectures, t~e ~evelopment of
heuristics and the encouragement of reflection and commumcatton. A11 these
legitimis: the explicit ra ising of doubts, committing errors, entering blind alleys, and
discussing seemingly non-solvable contradictions.

29tl 9 Original sourc('s in the marlremaric.l classroom
Thus. primary sourc:es can provide lively documented examples of genuine
mathematical activity in the making, and reading them may legitimise and humanise
it (.. if famous mathematicians went through it. why not IT'). Moreover, these doubts
b«ome issues for discussion with the potential o f enriching students' formal and
informal knowledge o f a topic. and their ability to 'talk mathematics'.
For example. one could confront teachers with the doubts mathematitians had in
the 16th and 17th century regarding the nature of irrational numbers (Arcavi et a/.
198'1). In the discussion of the source, teachers may dare to express their own
discomfort and'or uncertainties about the 'infinite' decimal reprcsentation of
írrational numbers. The~· can also share in the struggle between the usefulness of the
concept o f irrationals when rationals fail (e.g. in geometrical mcasurements) and
olheir uncertain nature as numbers. For those less troubled by such problems, the
discussion serves to de\·e1op an awareness 1ha1 the infinite digits in the decimal
expansion o f an irrational werc regarded as problematic lo the point that thcir status
as numbcro was questione~. By implication. this leads to a recognition that this can
be an issue with students as well, and to reflecting on the crucial importance of the
role of representations of a concept. their influencc on the way the idea is
conceptualised. questioned. and ultimatcly accepted or rejected.
9.2A Relations between mathematics and philosophy
The contribution that the history of mathematics makes to our understanding of the
cultural contcxt is an cxccllent opportunity, or a necessary reason, for relating
mathcmatics to other fields of knowledge (see Furinghetti & Somaglia 1998).
Frequently, mathcmatici~ns wcre also phi1osophers and it is quite artificial lo
separate thcir disciplines (13arbin & Caveing 1996). In any case, it is oftcn
beneficiai to read mathematicians with an awareness of the prcvailing philosophy of
their time. Consideration of the rclationship between mathematics and the real
world \\i \I benc:fit enormously whcn mathemailcs teachers work collaboratively with
tcachm ofthe physical scienccs. The example we quoted above conceming Galileo
itlus\r3tçs this point.
Rcading a source can be the trigger for establishing a dialogue -with the ideas
expres;ed. The source then becomes an interlocutor to be interpreted, to be
questioncd. to be answercd ond to be nrgucd with. This applies cspecially to sources
which discuss mm-mnthematical iss11es such os the nature of the mathemnticat
objects we handlc. and the cssence of mathematical activity. For example, one can
use extracts taken from nre principies of algebra (1796) by Wiltiam Ftend (1757·
18~1) in which it is proposed that negative numbers should be banned. Frend's
arguments against negative numbcro raised, ond continue to raisc for studcnts today,
serious discussions on issucs such as the use of models, ana1ogies, or metaphors in
mathematics (such as debts in accounting); the legitimacy of creating new ideas,
pro\'ided they are welt-defined and intemalty consistent; the ambivalence of
symbots \\hen used in allied but yet different r_neanings; and the need for formal
! definitions of concepts sue h as negative numbers.
\
\
9.2 Motivalions, aims and uses f or working wilir original sources 297
9.2.5 Simplicity, motivation and didactics
Occasionalty, primary sources can be used because they are simpler and friendlicr
than their !ater elaboration. One notable example is Oedekind's {1831-1916)
definition of real numbers, as it appears in his essay Stetíglceit und lrrationo/:al!len
(1872) (see Essays on the theory of numbers, 1924). . His sty1e is di.dactieal and
clear, first explaining the method to be followed, then usmg an analogy m ~rder both
to engage readers' established k.nowledge and also to share with readero hrs sources
of insight. Only after that are the formal defmitions carefully de~eloped ste~ by
step. Simplicity and friendliness can also be found in the sense-mak!ng explanatl~ns
proposed in some primary sources .for basic but formal mathemauca\ la~s, ~h te h
tcachers and curriculum designers struggle to ftnd. As we progress m htstory,
especially through the 20th century, many tcxts tend to adopt formal justifications to
formal taws, and many students may feel alienated. However, some older texts
often resort to everyday language and reasonable explanalíons whi~h can cnric.h the
didaetical repertoire o f teachers by appeal to students' sens: makrn~. ~uch 1s the
case with Viete's ( 1540-1603) presentation of simple algdlra1c laws, m h1s In orlem
analylicem isagoge (see Bruckheimer & Arcavi 1997).
9.2.6 Perspectives on mathematics cducation
Primary sources seem 10 be a most reasonable way to lean about the central topics
taught in schools in the past, curricular trends in general and various appr?aches to
1eaming and teaching. One activity that Bruckhelmer d af. (~995) ~estgned for
classroom use with 12-13 ycar old studcnts is based 011 old anthmetlc textbooks,
which give the flavour of what and how students st~ in lhe p~t methods of
calculalion were a central topic, and accuracy was a m3J« preoccupatlOn. There ar.e
whole sections devoted to calcu1ation checks, such as 'c:asting out nines'. Thts
checking method, as it appears in primary sources, prmdes an ~ppo~nity to deal
with many fundamental topics: why does the method 110rk, wh1ch kmds of errors
can and which caMot be detected, why 9 is preferred to,say, 2, or 7, and so on.
Besides the flavour of past textbooks and dealing 'll'ith mathematical issues, t~e
sources provide, by implication, the rea1isation thlll lhe goals for mathemaucs
education have changed rather dramatically over the 115t 100-150 years. I~ the past,
mathematics instruction for ali ('ali' in the past was probab1y more restncted than
'ali' is regarded today) may have been mainly devotedto producing good cler~ who
could calculate accurately. Today, with the e!'llergence of ~ee~y a~a1lab~e
calculators and the demands of a technological sociely. the emphasts m arJthmetlc
shifts tow:uds estimation, reasonableness of ans\'lfn., et~:· and other signs of
mathematicalliteracy.

198 9 Original sources in tht matllematics classroom
9.2.7 Local Mathematics
Primar)· sourtes can also be used in mathematics to rediscover and emphasise the
heritage of the cuhure in which students leam. As most cultures have wrinen
mathem:llical documcnts (and cem.inly verbal accounts of everyday mathematical
practicesl. it-it not hard to find appropriate sources suitable for classroom use or
teachcrs' workshops.
9.3 Sources, hcrmencutics and language
Reading an original source is a specific activity of relating the synchronous and the
4iachronous mad!em:~~ical cuhure to each other (cf. Jahnke 1994, 154 IT.). The tenn
synchronous cu!nlre refers to dialogue and work in the classroom as well as the role
of mathematics in public life. in economy, technology, science and culture and the
image which is anached to it. The diachronous culture means the development of
these elements through history and has to be related to the synchronous culture and
the life and thinking of the learners. However, ít should not simply affirm thc
s~ nchronous cuJture. but should rather widen and deepen the understanding of the
ltamer.
In traditi<:'ll:ll the<:'ries of hcrmeneutics the relation between the historical
me:min~ of a ttxt tthe in1ention o f its aulhor) and its meaning for a modem reader is
amply reOected and identificd as the essential problem of interpretation. In fact,
seen under the aspect of method, history of mathematics, like any history, is
essentially an hmneneutic effon. I f history o f mathematics is not to deteriorate into
a dead dogma. u:achers should havc some ideas about lhe herrneneutic process and
lhe fruitful tension between 1he meaning o f a text in the eyes of its author and the
meaning for a modem reader.
The process ofinterpre1ing an original mathematical source may be described by a
twofold circle. Texts and their authors (or theoríes and their creators) are interpreted
by a modem rmer. and the interpreler should always be aware of thc hypothetical
and inruitive c:hanc1er of his interpretation. The interprctation takes place in a
circular preces of forming hypotheses and checking them against lhe text given. In
the case of history of science. the objects of lhis process of interpretation, lhe
scientific subjem (individuais or groups) are themselves involved in a hermeneutic
proccss of cre:ning theories and checking them against phenomena which they want
to explain or against imended aims they want to reach. Thus, the whole process of
ínterpreting a scurce m:~y be described by a twofold circle where in a primary circle
a scientist (ora group of scientiSlS) is acting and in a sccondary círcle the modem
readcr trics to uarlcrstand what is going on. Titose concemed with history have to
engagc with a cvmplcx nttwork o f relations between their own interpretations of a
cena in concept O< thcory and the interpretation ofthe originalauthor.
Tcachcrs shot:ld b: 31\ó\rc ofthis t11ofold circle and able to move in it. Only this
will create a clis:tate in thc classroom adequate for encouraging students to generate
lhe ir O\\ n hypO'lleses about a text and so beco me rcady for thinking themselves into
othcr rcmms 'dlo h:we Ji,cd in another time.
9.3 Sources, hermene;~lics and language
299
,·. ·:
This thinking in to other persons and into a different world seems to be the core
of an educational philosophy underlying the reading o f original sources. She who
lhinks herself into a scientist doing mathematics ata dífferent time has herself to do
mathcmatics· she moves in a mental game in the primary circle reflecling what the
person unde~ study migbt have had in mind. One has to ask for the theorctical
conditions tnis pcrson is cxplicitly or implicitly supposing, and one will have to
mobilisc imagination to generate hypotheses about them. .
Thinking themselves into other persons motivates students to reflect about the1r
own views o f the subject maller. This reflcction, in tum, is madc objcctive by the
material (the text) they are studying. Certa in aspec~ of ~he historical p_erson~ ~d
lheir ideas will be easily accessible,. others will remam ahen. As a cruc1al pomt 10
hermcneutics, the student's se! f will unavoidably enter the scene.. notas a disturbing
fac.tor, but as a decisive prerequisite to insight. .
Even if an origina.! source is givcn in the native language of lhe students tts
interpretation presupposes a considerable linguistic competence. This requ[remc nt
should be accepted by teacbers and students. Oral and wrinen language are equally
important. The students should have the opportunity of extensive discus~ions, but
they should also be asked to produce their own wrinen texts. ~e 1 d~a of a
'mathematical essay' is old and sounds, since it is never realised, a b11 anllquated.
Historical subjects would provide natural staning points for such activities.
An imponant aim should be the elaboration o f the .individual language. of lhe
students. In rcading a source they are confronted Wlth at least three dtfferent
languages: the mathematical language of their usual lessons, the_ language of the
original source, and their own way of speaking about mathemallcs. 1hese three
languagcs have to be rclõlted 10 each othcr, and the students should bc a~le lO ~ove
freely from one language into the other. This should be a general educau~nal atm o f
mathematics teaching beyond the special occasion ofhistory ofmathemallc:s. When
in lheir future lives students practise mathematics, they will need above ali .'o
communícate and translate idcas and facts into mathematical language and v1~e
versa. History o f mathematics contributes considerably to the development of th1s
ability.
9.4 Integrating original sources in pre-service teacher
education
As we said above, lhe reading o f original sources should become an obligatory. part
of mathematics teacher education at ali leveis. This will not enly con.~lbut.e
substantially to their mathematical competente, but is also a necessary condJttOn. lf
lhey are expected to include historical components into ~heir ~u~ure mathemattcs
teaching. In the followíng we describe two experientes w1th ongmal sources from
teacher edueation institutions. the first from Morocco, thc second from Norway.
9.4.1 Example 1: Egyptian mcas ures o f angles
In this section, we prcscnt an examplc o.: ing an original tcxt in thc prc·servicc
education of mathematics teachcrs. 11 . ··ctive was to iniliate an analysis of
JUU 9 Original sources in the mathematic.s classroom
trigonometric notions. in particular the concepts of cotangent, tangent and angle.
The example was treated at the Ecole Normale Supérieure in Marrakech, Morocco
(see El Idrissi 1998). The text used is an extract ofthe Rhind Papyrus, written in the
17th centurv B.C. and now in the British Museum, .London. 1t contains problems
together wiÍh their solutions. The text was originally in Egyptian hieratic script; we
refer to a 20th cc:ntury English translation (Gillings 1972). The example hcre
conccms reckoning a pyramid. problem 56 from lhe Rhind Papyrus (RP 56) and its
solution:
A p{nmid has a height o f 250 cubits and n base of 360 cubits. What is its sekt?
Solution:
1) Find 1f2 o r 360: 180.
.fl How many times is 250 in 180: 112 115 1150 yard
31 Nem· a ~ardis 7 ralm~.
~~ Then multiply 7 \l~ ),11/S liSO: 5 1125 p3lms. This is its sckl.
The above extract was presented to teacher studcnts. and they were confrontcd with
questions and proposals for activities. Actually, an analysis of the problem was
dane even before the questions were posed. The mos\ importanl elements cmerging
from this analysis were:
L The calculation is givc:n by means of unit fractions .
Tht question is asked nbout :m empirical case, a pyramid.
3. The solution is gh-en without ony definition or justilication. 1t is an algorithm
for colcubting.
~- In the lirst stage of the solution, the studcnt is told to find the half of 360 and
not to divide }60 by two. These two seemingly similar operations are
conccptually diffcrent.
5. ln the second stJge. the resuh is given together with a unit, the yard. In
principie. there should not be any units as the intention is to divide yards by
yards.
6. In the third stage. the students transforma result given in yards into palms.
7. A naive interpretation of thc solution could make believe that the sekt is
identical with the cotangent (Smith 1958). Taking into account tbe earlier
remarks. however. sekt and cotangent nre different.
S. The sekt can be defincd as the horizontal shifi in palms which corresponds to a
vertical shift of one yard tsee figure 9.1 ).
one yard
I
Figure 9.1: Tire Jekt
9. The seJ..1 can be considered as a measure of angles.
1}.4 Original sources in pre-service teacher education JOl
On the basis of this analysis, activities were suggested to lhe students, working in
groups of two or three. These activities were to prompt students' renections on
trigonometrical concepts like cotangent, tangent, angle. .
The goal of the lirst activity was to define the sekt. As wc h ave: mcnuoned, thc
spontaneous answers given by thc studcnts tended to identify the sckt with thc
cotangent. After thcy had bcen asked to observe and to note the position o f the units
in the givcn solution, severa! students succeeded in giving more appropriatc
definitions ofthe sekt.
With the objective of helping them to consider the sekl as a mcasure of anglc, we
asked thcm to measurc the sckl of certa in anglcs whilc using thc mctric systcm, a
centimetre corresponding to lhe cubjt. They wcre also asked to compare an angle of
sekt s with other angles whose respective sekts were s/2 and 2s. With the same aim,
wc asked the students to solve othcr problcms posed in the Rhind Papyrus in which
the given and unknown properties are diffcrent, while using a reasoning analogous
to that of RP 56.
We also asked them to gucss how the Egyptians, on the basis of the sekt, might
have proceeded to construct the pyramids. This question illustrates.the. fact t~a~ a
straight tine has a constant growth rale. Another and no less fascmatmg ae~tvtty
consisted in constructing an instrument lo measure the sekt of angles, to prov1de 1t
with a name and to compare the measurements o f angles dane by means of a sekl
and by means of degrees. The activity of constructing real instruments was very
dynamic. lndeed, the participants made great efforts to s~.c~ee~. Some gr.o~ps
achieved classical results, while others showed more ongmahty by prov1dmg
instruments using gtides (see figure 9.2). Two names were proposed for these
instruments (in Fren!=h, as the language o f instruction): seketeur and sekrometre, the
second name being maintained.
B
9876543
Figure 9.2: lnstruments to measure sekts
Comparing degree to sekt raises the problem of the linearity of the eoncept of
cotangent and tangent. Classes discussing the issue are led to understand the
advantages of using the degree, and consequently o f using to c ire te ares to measure

301 9 Origit~al sourccs in the matloematfcs classroom
angles. Thus, if two angles (OA,OB) and (OB,OC) are given, and S 1 and S1 are
lhe ir selas respectively, the sekt of their sum (OA,OC) is not the sum (S 1 + Sv
of
their sekts. Speaking trigonometrically, this signifies that the cotangent function is
not linear:
ctg lO.-LOB) + ctg (OB.OC) > ctg [(OA.OB)+{OB,OC)}
The same is true for the t:mgent function. Measuring in degrees, however, the
meJ.Sure o{ the sum of angles is equalto the sum of the me.a.sures of the angles (see
figure 9.3 ).
Figure 9.3: .\ fmmring tht angle. witlotfze sekJ anti 1rith degrees
These are the main acth ities offercd to the students. We now dcscribe how history
was used and how we were able to profit nom it for the education of trainee
teachers.
I. Thc history o f m<Jthcmatics is first involved in introducing the text. The extraet
is presented :md placed into contcxt. Some information is provided about the
Egyptian culture and about rcsearch into it-thc problem RP 56 also provided
an occasion for discussing the notaiion and eoncept of the unit fractíoo, the
construction o f p)T3mids. etc.
2. The second part of studying the extract consists in analysing the reasoning of
the ansl\er presented in it. This analysis trics to keep as close as possible to the
Egyptian way of thinking. While we cann()( pretend to have identified the
underlying Eg) ptian reasoning in ali its details, an effort was made to draw the
srudents' attention to the contextual components which are involved in
analysing this reasoning. lo fact, this analysis is in some rcspects ao
introduction to the r~:asoning of future pupils. lt can be noted, for instante, that
young pupils do not take great pains to justify their own reasoning altogether.
They are sometimes qui te content with using some ambiguous properties or
operations provided these will yield correct results.
3. Histof)· is used in the above as a pretext to work on certain practical properties
from the concrpts of incline. tangent. cotangent and angle. The practical
interest of these pwpcrties is inspired by the ancient character of the text
çonsidered. The historical problem RPS6 enabled us to proceed to a
comp;uison of the concepts of sckt. cotangent, and of measuring the angle in
degrees.
-
JOJ
\.
1
9.4 Original SOIU'ces in pre-service (eacher education
I
4. The history of mathematics is in faet used in this example as a crucial
motivational clement for an epistcmological analysis. The lattcr consists in
analysing. from the perspective of teaching, concepts, reasonin~ ~ncl methods
used by the ancients, and the difficulties and obstacles which havc impeded the
evolution of concepts or methods. Thus in this example we have complemented
the historical or mathematical analysis proper by activities appropriate for the
education of future tcachers.
lt may be concluded from the abovc that original texts, even in translation. may be
used in a most relevant and fruitful way. To ensure the best contribution to the
educationlll process, however, they must be carefully selected, well analysed, and
prescnted in a dynamic and interactive way.
9.4.2 Examplc 2: complcx numbcrs in gcomctry and algebra
A wJgar mechanick con practice wlull he luJs been taught, but if he is i11 errar, he lcnows nol
how to find ouJ and correcl il. and ifyou put him ou/ ofhis road, he is ato stand. WhereaJ he
tlull is oble 10 reason. is never ot res/ til/ loe gets ovtr t very rub. (Newton 1694)
Theeourse MATH 9 at Kristiansand university
This course, first put on in I 978, was intended as preparation for teaching, bearing in
mind that there are differcnt ways to integratc history into lhe mathematics
curriculum:
(i) Following gcnetically lhe historical dcvelopment while teaching a theme;
(ii) Using historical problems and examples as a treasure chest to illustrate a
subjeet; . . . .
(iii) Opening the student's mind to the fact that mathemattcs IS contmually refinmg
its theories, by seeing lhe historical struggle to develop ~olutions to problem
situations with ncw conceptual ideas and theories of understanding.
' e
To read excerpts from original sources should contribute to a criticai and m~re
robust understanding of the methods of today. lt enables students to work wah
I problems from the origin of a concept, to look at historical mistakes, the erymology
of words and the development o f notation. The lecture notes (Bekken 1983 and
1994) were put together to help discuss
- issues from our teaching o f algebra through historical material,
\
- the growth o f ideas and their forms in algebra,
- \ in a problem solving style,
with excerpts from sourccs, and
- ~ith mathematical problem studies.
Sub-themes were developments of number concepts, like irralionals and
imaginaries, symbolisation, and accepted proofs, or demonstrations.
 9.4 Original sources.in pre-service teacher education 305
304 9 Original sources in the mathematics classroom

Sourefi for und erstand ing complex numbers
As Norwegians. we sludied lhe work of a fellow countryman, Caspar Wessel. One
of his concems was how lo add and mult iply directed I ines in the plane. Wessel's
st>lulion, flrst presented in 1796, provides a good introduction to the teaching of
complex numbers. bec:IUse in this source Wessel gave lhe geomelric: representation
<'f ct>mple:< numhers as it is taught today. 1t is onen overlookcd lhat this carne out of
his anempt to add :~nd multiply directed tine segments, veclors as we now call them.
In \\'esseI 1797 (see Nordgaard 1959) we find:
§4. Thc product of two lincs or length I in the samc plane :tS thc positive unit and with the
sm.c $tarting point. should bc in thc same plane. with an angle of dircction to thc unit being
thc sumo f thc direclion anglcs of the factors.
In this way he also solved another important problem of his time: to give imaginary
numbers a geometric reprcscntation. This is, in olher words, to reconnect t~e
rneaning of general numbers to something geometric, but in fact this problcm ss
nowhere mentioned by Wessel.
Glushkov (\977) points to tbe product of triangles (figure 9.4), in~oduc:ed _by
Viete (\59\/1983), which we can connect wilh Wessel's product of duected lme
segments. Students are asked to explore and explain lhis.
BG+Of
(I)

~~- lei +l .drnNe lhe ro~ilhe unit. and let n ccrtain perpendicular unit \~ith lhe same starting
J'('int t-e •c. Thc dircclion anl!lcs of •t • o• . of - I = tso• . of +c "' 90° and of
- c" ~70•. To oblain 1he rule of §-'. wc h:~vc to multiply according lo:
lBF-OOt

1 -1 & -E
8 F
D ·. _
-" BF+OG
I'

1 I -1 & -E
Figure 9.4: Viête's producl of trianglts

-1 -1 1 -E E

tmrossiblc quantities in algcbrn

& E -E -1 1 Earlier, imaginaries had come to be useful in algebra, first in lhe works of Cardano
(1545/1968) and Bombtlli (157211966), !ater also in Viete (159 \/ \983), Descarte~,
and Wallis. The most quoted passages in Cardano's Ars magna comes from biS
-& l -1 chapter 37 'On lhe rule for postulating a negative' ( 1545/1968, 219-220):
-E &
If it should be said, Divide 10 into 1wo partS lhe producl of which is 40, it is clear that this
From this "C see th3t E l>tcomcs = f::j. and lhe p~oduct follows lhe usual algebraic rules. case is impossible. Nevcrtheless, we will work. thus: We divide 10 into lwo equal pans,
making each 5. These we square, mnking 25. Subtract 40, if you will, from the 25 _lhus
§1. Thc tine ha,ing dircclion anglc ,. to the unit +I is cos v+ E sin v and when multiplied produced, as 1showed you in thc c:haptcr on opcrations in lhe sixth book, leaving a rematnder
"ith thc tine cos 11 + c sin 11. the product bccomcs lhe tine with dircction angle v+u, denoled of :..15, thc squnrc roo1 of which ndded to or sublractcd from ~- gives parts tbe pro~uct of
by co~,-+-ul + E sin(,+u). · which is 40. These will bc S+ J::i5 and S- ...r::IS , ... and you will havc that wh1ch you

§9. The general rcprcsentation of a tine of length r and dircction angle v to the posilive unil
seek.... Puuing aside lhe mental tortures involved, multiply 5 + J::í5 by S-J::í5 . making
25 -(-15). Jlencc this product is 40.... This is truly sophistic:ltcd sincc with it on~ cann~t
... , is Jicos ,. + c sin ~).
·carry oul lhe opcrations one can in the c:tSe of a pure negative.... So progresses anthmcltc
Next \Vessel demonstralcs that he knows very well how this relates to imaginary S\lblldy the cnd ofwhich, as is said, is :tS re!i ncd as il is useless.
numbers. and explains the fractional Euler-de Moivre formula. Thus, Wessel had
found :1 new :tpplication o f imaginar)' numbers: to lhe geomelry o f plane positions. which is also worth looking at in Latin:
 306 9 Original SOllfces in rhe mathematics classroom
. ,r.~ús dic~t,<liuidc r o in d11as pmcs,cxqu~rum unius i11
tcllqul": tlu.:ru_. IJroduCltur; o,aut"fo ,rn~ni(diumdl, quód c;fus
fcu qu.:rltt.o di t~npofst~ilts,lic r.m( opc~:lmnur~diu idanus r o per
:tqu~ltl.~ Eict nus ntcatcus ~ ,ducin [;;h 1f, autcru ex 1 ç, il'fum
produtolch::n, utputc to,ut docci tc,in ;:.p:a:ll.l o;>cr~tionum, in fu
xto horo ,fitr rcliúuutn m: J),cu ius r,: ~dd.r~& dunc1~ a f,oficndit
putu,qurinuiccm duci:z: producum 4o,crunt igin:r~,f p: ~ m:
lf,S.:p;ra;:m: I f .
This is lhe first known appearancc: of the square root of negatives, which hc:re reads
R m: 15.
A. fcw .pa~gra~hs later we fi nd lhe following example lc:ading to this case: of
"orktng wuh.tmagmaries, or 'sophistic negatives' as Cardano called them (Cardano
,. 1545: 1968, nl}:
lf it ~ ~JiJ. Di\ ide -6 ínto {\\0 rJns the product Of\\hich is +24.the probltm will be onc:
of lhe sophistic ~Li \C and " ill penain to lhe sccond rulc. and lhe pans will be - 3 + r-J5
and - 3- -r:JS .
The.se imaginJ!Ws are in Ars magna nol conncclcd to Card~no's main 1hemc of
cubiC. and qu;mic cqualions. but it is inlcresling lo note his point o f view on
negall\·es ll ~çi 9C>S. 15~ ): they may be neccssary for intem1ediate calculations
tC'ward a true ..ir. pCisitivc. ~nswer.
The S311lil' is truc for the imaginaries. bul Cardano does not comment on this.
lnst~ad. we _lolll ~~ an example given by Clairaut in 1746, who wants to solve the
cubtc cquauon x =63x + 162 . For lhis cquation lhe Cardano-Tanaglia solution
prl><edurc leadsto the fonnula
81:!:30·-f-i.,(-3: '!.J-3)'
where ~e c~ity may be \eriried b!' direct muhiplication. Then thc Cardano-
Tanagha soiU1on says that one ofthe solutions .r is found via
.T :(-3+ *3)-(3- 2.J-3)'" -6.
Thus thc: equllion has a factor (.r+6) and so the olher soiulions can be found by
factoring:
Hence 3 . !rue. posit~\·e solu~ion .is ·: == 9, bul Clairaut reachcd it only through
compulaltons lWC\Inng hoth m1agmnncs nnd ncgalivcs.
R:~facl Bonflclli l\572/1966} found lnat in irreducible c:ues like lhe one above
there are a\waJl three real roots, but mos! often you are not able to do the actuai
reductio~ as sinply as in the Cl.air~ut example. Other early examples werc given by
Bombdh (1517?1) as well as Letbntz (1676). In this process we have seen Cardano
computing withexprcssions likc {a+ bJ:l)( -bJ:i)
a treats the problem o f 'cutting through a mountain
and Clairnut " ih
(cHbJ=I:~"" +- J.f-1) = ac -M + (l>r + ad).J-i ,
9.4 Original sources.jn pre-service teaclter education 307
just using what the English mathematician George Peacock (1842) was to callthe
'principie of pc:nnanence of fonns', tbat such new numbe~ behavc structurally like
old ones. But if so, why isn't always .Jab= .Ja .Jb ? Becausc tben, we would get. as
pointed out by Euler ( 1770/1984), that
J(
-2 = ../-2,/-2 = -2)( -2)"' f4 .. +2.
Resolving this apparent paradox will be a helpful discussion item for studcnts ·
explorlng the ramifications of symbols thc:y may have come to take for granted.
9.5 Integrating Original Sourccs in the Classroom
In the following we present two examples of reading original sources in school
classrooms, one (§9.5.1} from Germany, lhe other (§9.5.2) from ltaly.
9.5.1 Example 1: Greek surveying: lhe tunnel of Samos
The story of the tunnel
The ancient Grcck historian Herodolus dcscribed a tunncl constructed on the island
o f Samos by the engineer Eupalinos about 530 BC. Knowledge of such a tuMel had
become completely lost when it was rediscovered lowards the end of the 19th
century. Fim archacological cxcavations showed that Herodotus's report was
absolutely reliable. Betwecn 1971 and 1978, the tunnel v.-as completely excavated
and examincd in dctail (Kicn:ut 1986/87). Thc tunncl cuts through a mountain to
supply the Samos fortress with water. It is 1040 metres long, 2 metres wide and 2
metres high, consisting of a path for ínspections
and a canal for the water bc:side iL h was mined
simultancously from both ends, and the two teams
mel under the mountain.
The underlying engineering feat ís considerable.
The standard procedure for tunnels of such length
at the time was to dig severa! shafts to the surface
in order to detennine lhe position reached and to
correct the direction of the diggíng. This method
was not used here. Since the discovery of the
tunnel, a much discussed question has been how
Eupalinos surveyed the lunnel's dircction with
such accu racy.
A possible answer may lie in a source of some
600 years later. In a handbook describing lhe
handling of a surveying instrument called dioptra
(figure 9.5}, Heron of Alexandria (40-120 AD)
in a straight line if lhe entrances of the tunnel are
given' (Schõne 1903, 238 ff). Hcron 's booklct
poses a number of olher in1eres1ing surveying
Figurt 9.5: He.ron's clioptra problems which could be treatcd in thc classroom.
 JOS 9 Original sourcts in tht mathematics classroom
In an introduclion. Heron descri bes the dioplra's uses. naming military applications
besides land sul"\ eying and astronomy. A specially nice remark says that, frequently
stonn attocks on fortresses were easily repelled because the besiegers had
underestimated the height of the wa11s, attacking wlth ladders which were too short.
In such ~ases. Hcron said. the dioptra had its uses, for it served to measure the
heights in question "out ofrange" (Scht\ne 1903, 191).
A ~cllching unit about Htron's surveying text
For a long time, lhe experts favoured the hypothesis thal Eupalinos had essentially
proceeded as described by Heron (c f. Van der Waerden 1956, 168 fl), and it is also
the basis ofthe following lesson. The above mentioned excavations, however, have
led archaeologists to prefer another theory. We shall see that the students
., discovered both these theories on their own.
On the basis o f this story about the Samos tunnel, a teaching sequence founded
on Heron·s text was developed and tested at various schools in the region of
Bielefeld. Germany (lahnke &Habdank-Eichelsbacher 1999).
A tunnel undcr thc condition thal onc end cannot bc secn rrom the other, provc:d to be
,
,,
I mountain is measured. From this one can calculate tfte segmcnts BN :~nd tJN whose
/
I '
,/
I
/
I
o;·:..::-.,~.s;;-::=----&
:
!/
I
!:~,
Figurt 9.6: Heron's method of svrvtying a tunntf
\Vhile one could expecl the story to be attroctive to the pupils, the source might
roise some difficulties_ For fourteen- or fifieen-year-olds il was rather long. As is
common in ancient Greek geometric:~l texts the essential idea is not explicitly
mentioned. lhe argu menl proceeds step-by-step. Some teachers expected even
problems wilh thc Greek lelters. Nevertheless, it was decided to present the source
unchanged as it was prinled in ScMne's Greek-German edition. The students were
told that this wa.s a section of an ancient original surveyor's handbook which had not
been especially devised for them. While it might not be too easy to read. they would
be able to cope \\ith lhe difficu lties. For a number o f studenls, this remark proved to
be quite motivaling..
Mathematically, Heron·s surveying method requires lhe notion of similarity.
This had not been e:otplicitly treated in the 9th grades where lhe teaching took place.
The idea was to rely on the studenls' intuiti ve previous knowledge. One could
9.5 /ntegrating original sources in the c/assroom J09
expect that lhey had a notion o f how maps work. In most classes thc: teaching unit
on the tunnel ofSamos served as an introduction to theconcept ofsimilarity.
All in ali, the teaching sequence consisted of 3 + 11 lessons. An inlroductory
lesson about the students' knowledge ofhistory ofmathematics ended with the story
of the Samos tunnel. In a second lesson the problem of how the dircction of thc
tunnel could have been detennined was discussed with lhe studenls. In lhe third
fesson the source was analysed, after a first reading had been given as homework. In
further lessons olher surveying problems were treated.
The classroom experience
Ali classes had a lot of fun estabHshing a map of the history of mathematics. To
both their teachers' and thcir own surprisc, the studcnts' previous knowledge of
history of mathematics was manifold. They knew a lot of facts. Above ali, students
have historica\ imagination and find questions sucll as why mankind started to use
and write numbers, or to drow and analysc geometrital figures, quite natural and
interesting. . . .
The discussions about how Eupalinos might have determmed the dtrecllon of lhe
very fruitful. Ali classes developed essenlially the same two solutions. And these
are exaetly those offered by the archaeologists.
The fi rst method is that o r the source. lt can be understood !Tom Heron's figure
(see fi gure 9.6). Starting from one entrance a sequence or segments around lhe
rntio givcs 1111: direction o f thc tunncl. Thcn, at botl1 entranccs beams are constructed
showing the right direction. The second possible strategy found by the stu~ts
results !Tom the question whether it is possible to me bearings !Tom the mountam's
summit on both entrances marked by flags. \f this is not directly possible, one could
put up a sequence of flags coMecting the entraJICC$ and then adjust the sequence
until the flags lie on a straight line from one crttrance to the ?ther. Mo~e~
archaeologists found signs suggesting that Eupalinns proceeded th1s way, but 11 ts
possible that he uscd both methods. . .
After this preliminary and informal discussion with the students whtch dtd not
\i end with a clear and definite result, but with a lot of ideas and a feeling for lhe
nature of the problem, they got copies o f the SOirce which was to be read as·
homework. Before lhe next lesson, there were ztready discussions among the
I! students about Heron 's idca. In the lesson ilself tbe general idea was presented by
one or severa! students, then the source was re:ad stcp by stcp. lt was a nice
experiente that in one class the discussion was opened'·by a studen~ with the
statement "Heron has made a mistake!". In fact, if one reads Heron hterally the
student was right, but others argued that this is a ~ of interpre.lation. .
lt was interesting to sec how the students expiamed Heron s method wtlhout
)mowing the notion o f similarity. In onc class, the:y argu:d th~t his idea ~lhe same
as that underlying the detennination o f the slope of a stratght hne. . As thlS had been
treated quite a whíle ago. this was a compliment tolhem and thetr teacher. In tbe
olher classes, the argumenl was a bit vague, but Ílluitively correct when students
argued that Heron constructed a sort o f a map.
 310 9 Original so11rces in the mathemarics classroom 9.S lnlegrating original saurces in the c/assroom 311

. After discussion o f the source. tcaching was continued in various ways. 1t was only passively. lnstead, he prepared 34 workshcets containing passages of the ·..
pomted out to lhe studems that thc workers didn 't meet cxactly, but missed each French text, with blanks in strategic positions to be fillcd in by the students. At thc
~ther by a~out lO mctres in the middle. lt was determined by drawing that the error beginning the original text was quite fully summarised, in !ater worksheets the
an measuqng t~e angle o f dircction had bcen less th:m I dcgree. Thc question how amount of original text was increased, and with the last worksheets the 1ext was
Hcron coped wnh thc diffcrencc in altitude was raiscd in ali classes. almost entirely the original. In the worksheets De la Chapclle's symbols wcre kept.
Since the original figures usually contain elements referring lo diffcrcnt
Written s"tu.âcnt productions
propositions, the teacher drew new figures containing only the elements essentialto
Ali students were assigncd the task of summarising Heron's me thod in a small a single proposition, during lhe first period; !ater on students were encouraged to use
wrine n essay. The rcsults show that more than two thirds of the studcnts had the original figures, and to dccode lhe information contained in them.
completely understood the text. Many students were able to free lhemselves from At the beginning, mediation by the
lhe l~g~age o f thc source and to express the ide a in their own words, finding quite teachcr was important, afterwards the
.,convanctng descriptions which represented a mixture of everyday lnnguage and of students' work was more and more
lhe expert language acquired in the classroom. Such written exercises and the skills autonomous. Students worked in groups.
~ey ~e\'elop and demonstr.lle are an important general objective of integrating and also did homework. They devised
hastoncal sources into mathematics teaching. thcir own strategies for handling tlte
difficulties, using coloured pencils to
9.5.2 Example 2: An 18th century trcutise on conic sections decode figures, and substituting the otd · - -
notations by new ones. In order to fillthe
Tht rcnching rnYironmtnt blanks, students had to undcrstand lhe
underlying reasoning. This metltod of
The 3CIÍ\ ity Itere anal~ sed has becn planned and developed in a classroom by a work rouscd livcly discussions among
sccondlry teacher (see Tem 1996). lt was carried out in an ltalian Scientific students. Aftcr they had worked at the
L)ceum. a hi~h s:hool in which mathematics is an important (and difficult) subject; given worksheet, the teacher showed in a
16 students (li gtrls, 5 boys) aged 16/17 vol unteered to participate. The total time transparency the complete original
cmployed was 16 aftemoons, after tht school time. passage and discussed the work pcrforrned
The subject taught is conics, wltich in the official mathematics curriculum is by lhe students.
suggested only as optional subject maner. In the first eight afternoons tlteories about
conics of Yatious classical authors such as Pappus and Eutocius were outlined. Also Figure 9. 7: Drawings from De la
lhe mc~ns for lhe pointwise construction of tlte conics (Euclid's Elements book 11) Clwpelle 's treatise
Evaluation o f lhe experiente
\\tre dascussed. The following eight aftemoons were devoted to the study of De la After each scssion a questionnaire was
Chapclle's Trairé des secriotiS coniques. et Olllres courbes anciennes. This text is a given to the students in order to evaluate the understanding of mathematical contents
re\i~ion_ with 'didactic eyes • of classic works on optics. There is a systematic and to check any difficulties. At the end o f the overaU experience lhey answercd an
apphcauon of algebra to geometry, a unifying use o f Euclid iii, 35; the links with open questionnaire aimed at investigating how they perceived the use of history of
physics are considered. The text was chosen for its clarity nnd elegance. The mathematics, in particular the use of original sources. Students were very
preface s~ows that thc author was aware of the students' difficulties in leaming collaborative. and gave a great deal of information; their protocols can be considered
malhemaucs and looked for ways o f overcoming them. as written interviews. The most significant points which emerged were:
The ltalian tcachcr's choices revcal his view on the use of history in
- . doing mathcmatics bccame more plcasant
~~~thcm3tics te;~chin g: to read an ancicnt tcxt is his favouritc way of intc~ratiug
lustory m_classroom. and doing history of mathematics is nothing otner than doing - .: it was easy to see lhe evolution o f mathcmatics and to become aware that thcrc
mathematacs. The teacher is historically well read and experienced. Thus to look are different points ofview to face problems
for original .sourccs and to work with them is nota problem to him. • - the method o f work led directly to secing whatthcre is behind a theorem
The cxperiencc - the study of the original text was preferred since lhe participation in lhe work
was more aclive
f~ ou r descriprion, we focus on the teaching o f De la Chapelle 's tcxt. The ma in - it was more difficult to grasr thc language than tlte spirit ofthe work
d1fficulty to face was the unknown language. The teacher rejected lhe idea of
presenting. a li~t·ra l transbtion. to avoid the temptatíon for students to participatc

JIJ 9 Original sources in the marhematics clo.ssroom
to work directly with the text required more careful reOcction on problems and
bener understanding o f their meaning: thus apparently simple problems revealed
unexpected aspects
- it was madc possible to go bcyond theorems and to arrive at the roots of
math~matics
- the experiente changcd the image o f school mathcmatics.
The words o fone student point out the effectiveness o f integrating original sources:
·'The proofs I had to complete helped me to leam working on my own. I liked
working with the graded worksheets because thcy implied a step-by-step reasoning
unlike my usual way of thinking:· Working with original texts tlearly produces
changes in the mode ofleaming.
"? The cxperiment had particular features which make it difficult to draw general
conclusions. Among these features were that it was an extra-curriculum activity
involving only volunteer students: the source concems a quite unknown author; it
deals with a language not mastered by students; the text used was conceived as a
textbook: and the teacher here possessed a remarkable competence in history of
mathematics and familiarity with the use o f original sources.
On the other hand for ou r study these clements can be seen as positive. since:
- being. an optional activity altowed the teacher freedom in planning and
de,·eloping thc didactic procedure
using a rarely considered author fostered originality and creativity in the
experience
- the presence o f an unknown language is a quite typical obstacle in using original
sources and thus it is interesting to see how the teacher has faced this difficulty
- to use a text written for didactic purposes is an intermediate situation facilitating
thc approach to an original source
the teacher"s competence has made lhe experience very rich in cultural values.
The lirerarure on the use o f original sources in courses (not specifically for history of
mathematics) shows that successful experiments generally refer to university levei
or. in the case of high school levei. to optional courses (see Laubenbacher &
Peng.clley 199-l: 1996). Other interesting examples exist. which concem limited
passages in limited activities: this is thc case, for example, with using of mediaeval
arithmetic word problems. A wider and systematic use o f original sources presents
diniculties oftime. souce availability, and so on. Undoubtedly the main point is the
role played by the teacher. He has to really believe in the value of original sources,
he has to be competent enough in order to find and to manage materiais suitable to
the needs of his classroom. hc has to plan strategies of mediation very carefully.
These strong requirements emphasise the difficulty in the transferability of good
experiences from one teacher to another and in making the use o f original sources a
routine acth·ity.
9.6 Dídactical strategies for integratrng original sources J/3
9.6 Didactical strategies for intcgrating sources
9.6.1 The triad: text - contcxt- render
As we explained above (section 9.3), reading a source is a her:meneutic activit~ ~nd.
thus, subject to the rules of herrneneutics. In every teachmg where an ~ngtn~l
sourcc is goin~ to play a role the teacher has to consi~ the concr~te re\auons~1p
between the text, the context and the readers. Dependmg on the a1ms of teachmg
there should be a certa in balance between the proper analysis o f the source and the
\ invesligation of the context. Usually, studcnts reading a mathematical text ~re n?t
used to asking for the context. In a way, they are even educated not to cons1~er 11:
I mathematics should be independent of the context and understandable out of 1tself;
the time when a text has been written, the country or the author seem to be
irrelevant. Therefore, students have to bc guided to asking meaningf~l questions
about the context. Frequently, it will be necessary to do some mdependent
investigations about the context and study the biography of the _author b_efore the
source can be interprcted adequately. Also, to relate the context mforrnauon to the
meaning of the text under study requircs some skills whi~h presuppo~e some
experience and have to be trained. For example, frequently 11 makes a d1fference
whether a text has been written by a theoretically ora practically minded author, _an~
it is possible to trace indications o f this prevalcnt habit of mind in the text. Th1s ts
very illuminating. but, of course, requires some experiente. . .
\ lt should be clear that the aim o f these activities is not at.all an imttatlon of the
professional historian in regard to rigour and sophistication. Rather, the srudents are
led to asking new questions which, in general, they had never asked before. .
The use o f primary sources in the c\assroom requires special care, to danfy the
proposed objectives and the adequacy of a sour~e to the students' ne~ds. The
concrete conditions of the students should be constdered, and, of course, tt makes a
difference whether a source is studied with scbool students or with future
mathematics teachers or with in-service teachers. The chosen contents need to be
related to the respective student interests, lhe availability of texts in the motber
language (or, at least, a language known to the students or the teacher) and in
accordance with the objectives that the tcacher intends to achieve.
9.6.2 Classroom strategies
At the moment there is no elaborated and generally acccpted approach available for
the reading of sources in the classroom. There are, howeve~some exp~riences, an~,
in the following, we want to give a generalised picture o f these expenences. Th1s
may be taken as a collection of ideas and guidance (which ~oes not p~etend to b_e
exhaustive) from which interested readers may select what 1s appropnate to the1r
.needs.
,,
 9 Original sor1rces in tire mathemalics classroom
(i) lntroducing a sourct
!o i~troducc_ original material in the classroom, two types of strategy are
r~agrn:~ble: darect :lnd indirc:ct. Using :1 direct strategy, the tcacher presents the te:<t
wnhou~ :l(ly previous prc:par:~tion. An indirect strategy is a situ:1tion where lhe
source IS consulted after some previous activities.
I. A dirc'1 str:llegy to a sourcc: might have as an objcctivc to provokc a shock in
thc: _studc:nts. through pcrceiving lhe diffcrcncc: between thcir modem view o f the
subJc:_ct ô!Jld lhe vic,~·-point expressed in thc source. This will provoke qucstions for
stud~ · Afkr rc~mg. the student is rcquired to answer a scries o f questions
prC\'tously c:stabhshcd by thc tcacher-or it may be suggested that the student
c:xtr.lcts ~ucstions from the text. Presenting the te:<t in lhis way has lhe objective o f
.,challcngmg thc studt>nt lnd r:~ising a pelem ic around the themc.
:!. :\n indirecl str:ne~~ ~1ig.ht resuh from solving problems. Thc teachcr presents
to thc: students 3 non·rouune problem. to raise lhcir curiosity and the need for a
de~~er study of lhe subject. Afier this the teacher might prcsent an cxtract of an
ongmal text rcbtrd to lhe questions the students had formulated.
3. Anolhcr indirect strategy could start with a historical author. The teacher
begins 1:-y showing how mathematics is connected with the society of a certa in time
and. together '' ith the students. he points out the mathematicians' names that stood
out. The students sclect one or more authors and try to ga\her availab!e information
at>out them. Only atier interest about the mathematician has bcen raised does the
teacher prcsent a source cxtracL and the class work culminates with its analysis.
~- Textbooks might be another point of dcparture. The teacher selects a lheme in
thc textbook used in the classroom. She questions its approach. Then she prc:sents
other textbooks, or e~tracts &om an old textbook, for analysis and comparison with
~he current on.e. 1t ra1ses the students' curiosity; they feellhe desire to discover who
tn~~duced that concept or lhcory, \\ ho form ulated or solved that problem. Thus, the
ongmalte~l appcar.; in a natural way and is worked on as a profound study o f lhe
tnt used m t~e class~oom. Further possibilities and problems with respect to the
process of mkrpreung and analysing ancient textbooks are discussed in
Gl3eser 1983 arul Schubring 1987.
5. In lhe edoc01tion o f adults it might be easiest and most natural to introduce a
source througb a presentation from lhe tutor. This is a discourse wilhin which the
rutor provides information. forrnulates 3 synthesis. or introduces a new question.
Thc tUtN sketc~es ~hc hiswrical b~ckground nnd con1mcnts ou difficultics. spccial
f~ atures. :md ob;ccuves of lhe 1ext m question. Switching between different texts or
d1ffcrcnt pans ofthe samc te:~.t can also be achieved by short presentations in which
lhe tutor provides a synthcsis of thc tcxt alread y treated and introduces lhe
su_bsequcnl onc:s. These presentations should not be over extended; a few minutes
WJI! do.
(ii) Analysis of a source and cognitive debates
The a~al~ si~ of ilistorical texts is a diflicult activity in history o f mathematics.
Someumes 11 shct~ld be supponed and guided through questions from the 1eacher
Sometimes. it S«ms to bc more adequate to lct the studcnts find out the righ;
9.6 Didactical str(ltegies for iruegrating origina{ sourcts J/5
questions. An important aspect is to find suitable questions so that students become
immersed in the historical context ofthe tcxt under study.
To improve the conditions o f analysis, some texts must be modified or translated
and adapted to the general context within which lhey are bcing introdliced. AI the
same time, they have to be modified soas to remain within the students' or trainces'
grasp. Neverthcless, it is impcrativc that thesc adaptations remain as closcly ali!incd
I
as possible to the original author's lhought (Barbin 1987).
I Frequently, the analysis of a fext gives rise to cognitivc debates. Thcsc are
I discussions within which the studcnts are caltcd to cxprcss thcir own vicws on a
concept's or method's validity and relevance, and abovc ali to give rcasons for thcir
I I
own choice. For this, great care is needcd in sclecling tbe texts or controversies
I
which are to be the objcct of debate.
I\ To prompl a successful debate, lhe educator should suggest to eacb group of
students or trainees lhat they prepare to argue in favour of one or other point of
i view. Notwithstanding their directive cbaractcr, thcse suggestions tend to motivate
students and inspire them to find out for \hemselves about lhe advantages of a
historical reasoning which at first glance might appear naive or erroneous (Oesautels
& Larochelle 1989, 1992; Legrand 1988; Lakatos 1976).
(iií) Construction o f measuring instruments
Humankind has always becn preoccupied with measuring physical or mathematical
quantities and this is particularly true for mathematicians and scientists. Historical
research reveals different conceptions of measuremenl Allhough these conceptions
may easily become apparent in some cases, they may not exist within a structured
theory and thcy may not evcn have been used to construct instruments. Nevenheless,
lhe ideas encountered through historical study may serve to inspire acti~·ities which
can help participants to analysc their own reasoning and also encourage them to
construct their own measuring instruments. For instance, mathemalical machines
for drawing curves may be of interest (Oennis 1997; El ldrissi 1998; Ransom 1995;
also see section I 0.2.2).
(iv) Vcrbalisation
With regard to acquainting the patticipants with the reasoning of mathematicians,
having them vcrbalise this rcasoning seems to bc an excellcnt strategy. lt mal<cs
studcnts attcntivc to original thoughts and helps prevent them from anributing to
mathematicians things they never said, and (i f trainee or in-service teachers) from
passing on such misunderstandi ngs to thcir pupils in due course. Take care to have
lhem distinguish in these verbalisations between things derived from the texts
themselves and intcrpretalions of the latter. This activity is also benelicia! in
alerting students to the difficulties which may be met whcn rcasoning in
mathcmatics without the support o f a fonnal system.
{v) Translation
As with verbalisation, translations of text extracts are intended to acquaint students
and trainees with the thought and conception of mathematicians in regard to
malhematical reasonings and concepts. At least two typcs of translalion can be
 9 Ortgmal sources in the mathematics classroom
di\lln~utShcd llcrc· translations inro modem math~matical language, and translation
fron• onc: la~guag~ inro anotllcr. \Vhile the former serves in particular to reconstruct
~ ~~~tll c:mauca l argumcnt. the laner has promising educational advantages insofar as
101
11 lla.t\s students and trainces into mastering a laiíguage and to conceptual analysis
tArc:l\'1 1'1 a/. 1982. 1987; Testa 1996).
(''i) \'alidation or rcnsonings
~l!ring. lheir first studi~s of historkal works. students and trainees sometimes
drsparage lhe math~matical value o f reasonings found in historical texts, especiaUy
rf t~ey ~ave becn accustomed to continuous praisc of rcccnt mathcmatical progrcss.
Thrs a~nude ~ay preveni studenls rrom realising the educational and mathematical
..,. potenllal contarned in ancient rcasoning.
To ch~l~eng.e lhis attitude. one m:~y ask students to validate the reasoning of lhe
malhemaucrans of old. Such validation.s are intended to demonstrate how well-
founded are lhe methods used in history, in the light of more elabora te mathematical
knowledge. This prompts the students both to give historical reasonings the same
status as pre~ent-day though1 with regard to mathematical foundations and also to
chall:n;e therr own c~nceptions o f present-<lay methods, in particular as regards the
lea~rn~ of ma~h~maucs. Thesc ancient mcthods ol\en have the advantage of being
"llh~n the puprls grasp and of pro\'iding interesting hints for teaching (Arca vi et a/.
198_, 1987).
('i i) Comparison
To .comp~e ~ifrw~nt texts or 1ext cxtracts is also a fascinating approach, in
P~tcular tn htst~ry of mathematics. The comparison may include texts of the same
perrod _or of drfrcrent periods, having lhe same or difrcrenl objects.. These
c~mpansons ..musl be ~ccompanied by activities and questions o f understanding
a1med at m~kmg analys•s more purposeful and more attractive.
Companng hislorical texts permils students to realise how the notation and
s~mb~ls of mathematics have evolved. 11 helps lhem to focus on the essential in
hr~toncal ~athema~i:al writings. In addition, lhe comparison of mathematical
textbooks •s a promrsrng approach to lhe history ofteaching.
l"iii) S)·nthe-sis
A~tivities of s~ nthesis should be done by studcnts outside of the course; for this
externai type of work. ali the strategies mentioned above can be used. This
homework. shoufd be designed cither as a preparation for future courses oras a work
of synthesrs. 11 may be planned for the end of course sections.
9.7 EYaluation, research questions and issues of concern
Tl~o~gh lhe içlea of integrating history of mathematics into mathematics teaching
~ngmated ~~re than a hundred years ago, practical efforts on a larger scale beyond
rsolated acttvtties o f individuais have been made only in the last twenty years. Since
9. 7 Eva/uation, research quesrions and issues of CO(!Urn 117
r~ading sources belongs to the most demanding o! J'lmible activities, it is not
surprising that up til! now there is no systematic t:;lirical research, investigating
opportunities, difficulties and outcomes of sources:asp;art o f mathematics teaching.
AI present, lhere are essentially two types o f 4:0111ribulions to lhe field. On the
one hand we have a number of reports reflecting ~~ experientes with reading
original sources in various contexts, be it school uelding, or the education of future
teachers (cf. Arcavi 19&7; Furin&hetti 1997; Jâmk 1995; Laubenbacher &
Pengelley 1998; Silene & Testa 1998). On lhe diiEt hand, lherc are quite a few
papers with proposals on what could bc done. Howt'IIU, to reach a new conceptual
nnd proclical levei wc do nccd more rcscarch. .. dlis sc:ction we sketch some
directions o f work which could be followed.
First o f ali, we should lcnow better whether re26"' a source does in fact make a
difference compared to olher possible activities:.. Gnten the large amount of time
required for using original sources, we shouldl te sure that the effort is really
worthwhile. From theoretical reflections we are 'l!Ú!e sure lhat a.source will open up
new dimensions of understanding. We have me:llloned above experiments where
the integration o f historical sources has been sucassful. The problem is to ensure
adequate conditions. lt is clear that lhe role d tbe teacher/tutor i.s crucial for
ereating the right atmosphere and providing t~ IICCCS$aty intellectual tools for
students.
This leads to further questions. Reading a snurce demands in a specific way a
feeling for lhe intellectual, social and cultural cc.ntext in which it has been written
and the ability to ask questions conccrning \11~ dimensions.. This in tum
presupposes that lhe leamer has already a ced!UlJtistorical background and an
ability which we woutd like to cal! historical irn-.llJijlltion. Under conditions where
history o f science is a curricular subject neitherr iinegular school teaching nor at
universities, a historical background in science Jtlll mathematics can only result
from personal reading or from lhe media (televíisioll, films etc.). Thus we should
investigate what previous lcnowledge about thes;elltãgs our students have and how
much we can rely on this as a historical foundaii.ixllb build on (see Demattê 1994;
Demattê & Furinghetti 1999).
Because of this context dependente, readiro:.a source is quite difrerent from
reading a normal texto f mathematics. Thus, onc:mto change one's reading habits,
and, again, wc should know more about this, thcurái:ally and empirically.
lt is very important to investigatc lhe readfilg strategies and the strategies o f
interpretation as well as lhe difficullies studenttstUOunter with sources. How do
students react to a text, how do they work witlb :tms whose meaning lhey do not
know? Are lhey able to identify essential elemelaor a text? How do they translate
the meaning of a text into their own languagcl? OJiy w\th ,a better understanding
about this shall we be able to devise more effectüireZ:lching strategies.
One ofthe essential ideas connected with tlhe%11iing of a source is that this will
influence lhe students on their meta-co~niti ve lle'tiand contribute to their ability to
. reflect about mathematics. Again, we need to 1!alrlll•rnore whether this is really the
case, and i f so, to what degree.
1t would be worthwhile also to know m01re;iout processes of mathematical
understanding which rnight not be intendcd, bnltlalertheless happen. Students, or
 3/8 9 Original sources in rhe marhemarics classroom Bibliography ond references for Chapter 9 319

tea~h~rs. may s:.e in a historical document a source of insight, which may add to
thc:tr understandmg. regardless ofthe historical context, and far liam thc: intention o f Bibliography, references and resources.
th~ original writer. Thus the quest ion to ~~piore is: can original documents be thc
Abreu, G. uc 199&. 'Rcbtio•tships !Jctwcen macro a od micro sO<:io-cultural contcx":
~riggc~ fo~ rc·thi.nking th~ m:uhcmatics. cvcn by way of c:rroneously attributing implications for the study o f interactions in lhe mathematics dassroom', in P. Abrantes, J.
tntenuons to the text. whtch are not there, or misrepresc:nting its idcas? In other Porfirio. M. Baía (cd.), Proceedfngs ofCIEAEM 49, Sctubal, IS-26
\\ords. the ~~ur.ct can be the mOii\·ation and inspir.~tion ror thinking diffcrently Arcavi, A. 1987. 'Using historical materiais in lhe rnathcmatics classroom', Arirlsmeoc
'l about a mathematical teocher 35 (4), 13-16
topic, in a way which Arcavi, A., Bruckbcimcr, M. 2000. 'Didactical uses ofprimary sources', Themes in
1-...1-t....\o!i\i'f" ..
cc... ~s-lt c.t-ll h:ls nothing to do with educotion. I (I}, 44-64
what any historiao Arcavi, A.• Bruckheimcr. M.. Bcn-Zvi. R.. 1982. 'Maybe a mathcmatics tcachcr can prolil
~·~l
wou ld have seen in the from the study of thc history of mathcmatics', For the learning ofmathemarics, 3 ( 1). 3().
37 I
source.
Arcavi, A., Bruckhcimcr, M., Ben-Zvi, R. 1987. 'History of mathematics for lcachcrs: the
s~ .....~ ..... S:-- &~(.;, 1t is obvious that case ofirrational numbers' , For the learning ofmarhematic;s, 7 (2}. 18·23
"1-"- u.~ '-1 ali these qucstions
"" olj•l~. Arcavi. A., Meira, L., Smith. J.P., Kcssel, C. 1998. 'Tcaching mathematical problem solving:

---- ....... ' ~·> l!al.ui'L•~ • kt I;-· .....

.:.u; .... lod.<..t ....
~~
might be answcred
differently for young
pupils or adults. Thus,
an analysis of an emcrgent classroom community', Restare h in co//egiate morhema!içs
education, 7, 1-iO
Barbin, E. 1987. 'Oix ans d'histoire dcs mathtmatiqucs dans lcs IREM', Bulletin de
Y"-•>q • w., (.r, ~·
~~ the age factor is I'APMEP. n• 358. Avril
:,f.... ~~... imponant. Barbin E. 1994. 'Thc mcanings of mathematical proof. On rclations bctween history and
la ....,. ....:;(,. G~c..~ ...
!&li~ l ""'< n..ltlM( Thcre is a pract ica I mathcrnatical cducation', in: J.M. Anthony (cd.), Eves' Circ/es, Washington D.C.:
, ...... \~ (>oJI 't'tl~t<:\ol)

@ ,._. ..., t.. n.I..U..lr .1,~

problem which will Mathematical Association of Amcrlca, 41·.52
Barbin, E. 1995. 'Mathematical proa f: history, cpistcmology and teaching'. in: Chcung. Sul
continue to remain a
.....
, '"•"'""
., ·t:~i:,.... .. , _ ...........
.,. ~...... ....cú -'i
~~ l~umút ~~ task of great
and Wong (eds.), Retrospec:t and outloook on marlremotic;s education in Hong Kong. Hong
Kong: University Prcss, 189·214 .
-§~ :::::q 1® o'(!) )4'Jtl t, importance for futurc
ti.....J, (A.& ,._ '(L·•I•'• Barbin, E. 1996. 'On the role of problcms in thc history and tcaching of mathcmatics'. in:
=-~~:.:- work: the
16-1 (u;,U. f>MJ'c. c.uJ....t&...
t Ronald Calinger (cd.), Vita Marlremaric:a. flisrarical research and integralion with
::-~!- : '.: (.., ,.~.~~ .... Ct ..:..... ~· idcntification and reaclring, Washington D.C.: Mathcmatical Association of America. 17-26.
......... ~""ff-'1- ...... editing of adequate Barbin, E., Caveing, M. (cds.) 1996. Les plri/osophes er lcs morhimoriques. Paris: Ellipscs
.!,..._ ...
......,,~ fiO

~- ~ ..,.< . ~ source material.
~ ..._)L.J:.U. ~ ' Tilis ovcrview
sr....r....
1,; rc.... .7; r.-{ shows that we are only
& ~ ( .. '!Wt W>Jo() o.4
-L(4~·~ at the beginning of a
"-"d). process in which
history of mathematics
mighl become an
Fípn OS: Gr.:.ir 9 t"rils (13 .w<lr olds) i11 11 Durch organic part of
sl'cond<J,· sch('()/ ,·xplor,·d tlris 17th c~nrun· Dttrc:fl mathematics teaching.
algcbra reo.:rt i•r ltaming a/>om quadrntic: equati~11s. The To achieve this goal
filie poge. cJIIti o p<~gf 1rit/r rh~ grometru:nl proof of n11 we have to solve a lot
equarion·sol•·ing mie. II'Crt supplied together wirh rhe of problems.
Itochrr's hond-~·riue, glossory to help puptls to sllldy ti~ Fortunately, thesc
tt.tt ot loome lvforl! the clussroom discussio11 (from \'an problems tum out to
.lfaanen 199"J
be interesting and
demanding.
Oekken, Ono O. 1983. Una historio breve de/ olgebro, Lima: Sociedad Matcm~tica Peruana
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Ursula GEPEM
Bornbclli, Rafael 1.572/1966. L 'algebro. Opera, Bologna, ed. E. Bortoloni, Rcprint: Milano:
feltrinclli
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APPENDlX: RESO URCES
Sourccs or original mathcmaticalmatcrial
The follo\\ing rrferences are to sources where original works can be found. The
selection of material has to be somewhal restricted and we have chosen materialthat
is currcntly, or reccntly, in print or material that is widcly available in libraries.
~ere. are a numbe.r of excellent histories of mathematics which, while being
htstonc:s. also contam a great deal of illustrative original material. These are not
listed he-re but a sdection of thcm will be found dircctly aftcr this appendix. Nor
ha\'e we. included here references to Complete Works o f mathematicians, assuming
that the tnterested reader would know how to access such material.
Archimedes: Dijksterhuis. E. J., Archimedes, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
Uni\'ersity Press, 1987; Heath, T. L. The Works of Archimedes, New York: Dover
Publications.
The Hea1h edition. with lhe 1912 supplemcnl, presents a translation of the extant works of
An:himedts. using modem notation to make the m~uhernotics easier to follow for the modem
~Jer. b~t this has thc. disld\'antag~ of rc-intcrpreting lhe original line of thought.
D~ks~crhuts uses a notauon that allows the rcadcr 10 come closer to lhe original Greek
thmkm_g. On lhe o1her hand. Dijksterhuis does not gi"e a translation of ali the proposilions,
prdcrnn~ to gutde the rcadcr through the essenti31 material.
Argand. R.: Essai sur une maniJre de repr~senter les quantités imaginaires dans les
constructions géométriques. new prinr. Paris: Albert Blanchard, 1971.
English tnt books continue to use lhe name Argand diagram for the representation
323 "' ........
9 Appendix: sources oforiginal mathematica/ material
of complcx numbcrs on the plane 1111d this facsimile of lhe 1874 sccond cdilion o( 1\rgwd's
1806 essay is a dear and simplc presentation of his argumcnt. An English translation of lhe
earticr publieation by Casp:u-Wessel on this subjcct will be found in O. E. Smith.
Barrow-Green, J. 1998, 'History of mathematics: resources on the World Widc
Web', Mathematics in schoo/11 {4), 16-22.
This paper annotatcs wcb addrcsscs uscful for historians of mathcmatics. Cf. § 10.3.2.
Berggren, L., Borwein, J, Borwein, P. 1997. Pi: a source boofc, New York: Springer
Not so much a history of 1r- is that possible?- but a collection of anicles about thc number.
Thus we find essays on thc scries formula, algorilhms, computer calculations and lhe Gauss
Arithmctic-Gcometric mcan. The book deserves a mcntion here becausc of thc wealth o f
original material. Many of lhe original papers appear in the original Latin, French or Gennan ·
and without translations. The photocopies of original printed works are of variable quality
and no editorial corrections of typos, etc. has been undenaken. Nor.etheless, having origin:1l
worlcs in their original presentations brings its own excitementto the interested reader.
Bernoulli, Johann. Lectiones de calculo differentialium. Mscrpl. Gennan edition: P.
Schafueitlin (ed. & transl.). Die Differentio/rechnung von Johann Bernoufli aus dem
Jalve 1691192. Ostwalds Klassiker der cxaktcn Wisscnschaftcn 211, Lcipzig:
Akademische Verlagsgesellschafi, 1924
This is a Gennan translation of lhe first textbook on ealculus ever written, though not
published ai its time. lt can be read ancr some introduction into calculus.
Bibby, J. 1986. Notes towards a history of teaching statistics, Edinburgh: John
BibbyBooks
Much of intcrcst hcre for projecls- it includcs many original sources and picturcs - as well as
giving lhe stalistics teacher uscCul information on how the teaching of the subject has changcd
over that past ccntury or two.
Cantor, G. 1915. Conlribulions lo tire Founding of the Theory of Transfinitc ·
Numbers, New York; Open Court Publications
An English translation of Cantor's 'Beitr.llgc zur BegrUndung der transfiniten Mengenlehrc'.
Cardano, G. 154511968. The great ar/ or The rufes of algebra, (T. Richard Witmer
tr. 1968), Cambridge: MIT Press
Fi.rst published as Ars magna in 1545, this a corncrstone book in lhe history o f mathematics
rcveals lhe author's solution to cubic and biquadratic equations. Long unavailable, except in
rve Latin editioos, now available through a Dovcr reprint
Chabert, J.-L. et ai. (ed.), Histoire d'algorithmes, Paris: Belin, 1994; English tr. A
history of algorilhms, Berlin: Springer, 1999 -
A rich source of historical material, including many non-European works. Each chaptcr
shows lhe developmenl of a topic with extensivc cxtracts from original writing. TI1is would
allow lhe teacher to introduce a topic di rcctly from lhe original publications of
malhcmaticians: Topics covcrcd include: methods of falsc position, Euclid's algorithm,
interpolation, approxiinate solutions and eonvcrgencc.
Cullcn, C. 1998. Astronomy and matlu:malics in ancielll China: the Zlwu /Ji S11an
Jing, Cambridge: University Press
This complete translation of an imponanl 1st ccntury Chinc~~ •nt pro vides rich material for
lhe mathcmalics classroom. lt is a1sn a vcry bcautifutly 1 .•·c,l h<w•k " ith ~n casily
 9 Original sources in the mathematics classroonr
lcces~iblc introductic>n to the dc,·doping m~thcmatic~l ond astronomical practiccs of ancient
Chincse a.monomcrs and ~ho"s how the gcncr~tion and 11alid~tion of knowledgc was closcly
rclatcd to ~tat~cran arte! r•>litics.
Desc3rtes~ D. E. Smith &:. M. L. Latham (ed .. tr.), The Geometry of René Descartes,
Open Court. 1925; New York: Dover Publications. 1954
La GiC'~t~étru. "hkh arrcJrctl originJIIy ns on uppendix to Discour: de la MM10dt (1637).
p~scnlS Dcscancs' algcbraic trcatmcnt of gcomctry. The English trailslation is in a simpfe
ond .dim:t SI~ k. "hile lhe paralkl facsimifc of lhe nrst cdition pro vides the possibility of
comp:uison "ith the original Frcnch. o..~ wellthc opportunity ofcomp:uing modern algcbraic
us;~gc with thc original French typography. Thc whole is cnrichcd with numcrous explanatory
footnotcs.
.,.Dhomhres. J. rt al...\fathématiqucs aujil Jes ciges. P~ris: Gauthier-Villars 1987
FN I'Cldcrs t'f Frcnch this i~ 3 'lluohle collcction of o,·er I00 e~tracts. some quite extensivc,
~"'ured tog~thcr to rctkct id~as in thc use of mathcm3tics. arithmetic. algcbra. analysis,
probability and gcommy. Thc chaptcrs on analysis and gcometry are subdivided to dcal with
themcs. ~uch as thc origin of the infinitesimal calculus and the reprcscntation of space. The
sclcctiCln of mat~riJf naturally rc:flccts Frcnch intcrcsts and contributions. Here vou willlind
Fcnmat' s U$C of !_:cClmctric prosrcssion to dctcnmine arcas under the hypcrbola a~d Condorcet
on com't-inins rrol-3!-ilities. Thc "hok is most attractivcly produccd. with fine illustrations.
and ct'ncludc~ 1\ith t-ritf~i••s.mrhics ofmNc tltan ISO mathematicinns.
Dilrer. :\.: t'ma,ristm~ da .lft.'SS!mg: Um einiges gekilr:t und neuerem
Srra,·hr:,.-rr.wd• •"'S!•Tllf!t herausgegebe11 so1de mil einem Nacl1wort versehen.
ReF~oo uctil'n of the edition Milnchen 1908: Wiesbaden. Sl!ndig 1970. Original
edtllon: NUrnberg 15::!5. reproduced in facsimile: NOrdlingen: Verlag Dr. Alfons
l!ht 1983
Contains a loto f geomctrical constructions.
Eagle. R. E.• Expforing matllemotics tlrrough history, Cambridge: Univ. Press, 1995
..\ collection of sources. frCim the wliest number recordings up to Fermat and Pascal's
di~cussion ofprobabili~ . prcparcd to bc used in lhe secondary mathematics classroom. Each
topic contains a dcscription ofthc contc.xt anda simple explanation ofthe mathematics for use
by th~ tcacher or by a student The material for use in class conlains brief extracts or original
matenal. The whofe is ddightfulfy illustrated ond is presentcd so that it can be uscd by a
tcachcr 11 ho has little o r no historical bacl:ground knowledge.
Fauvel. J. (ed.). Historr i11 rhc Marlzematics Classroom: the IREM Papers, Leicester:
Ma1hematical Association. 1990
Nine artides by Frcnch mathcmatics tcachers showing how they have used original material
in ~e~r classrooms. Each article contains the original material in English translation,
pron dmg the teachcr 11·ith ksson material. A wealth of ideas ond ex:pericnces. •
Fauvel. John and Gray. J~remy, n1e history of nrathemalics: a reader, Basingstoke
and London: Macmillan Press. I987
This sclcction of o' cr ~00 e.xtracts was originally prepared for the Opcn Univcrsity course
Toprcs in tfrt History of,\!atlrtmati<'s ond covers mathematical writings from the earliest ideas
o f numbers and counting up to the mechanis:llion. of c:~lculation. The eollection includes
many commcnts on thc nature of mathematical nctivity by mathematicians and olher
rhifo~ophcrs to sit afongside the original mathematicaf material. The contribution of lslamic
mathcmatics is gi,·en its riglllful place and of panicufar note is the chapter on the
9 Appendix; sources of original mathcmatical material 325
mathematic:al sciences in Tudor and Stuart England which contains m:uerial unlikely to be
encountered in other collcctions. The cxlracts have been C3rtrully chosen 10 be ensily
accessible nnd includc, for cxamplc. thc proof by Gauss lhal the regular 11·gon is
constructible.
Hay, Cynthia (ed.), Mathematics from Manuscripr to Print 1300- /600, Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1988
Papers on aspects of medi~eval malhematics. containing extcnsive ex1racts from the works of
Maurolico, Nicolas Chuquet and Agrippa not casily found elsewhcrc.
Heath, Thomas L. Aristarclrus ofSamos. thc ancient Copernicu.5: a history o[Greek
astronomy to Aristarchus together with Aristarchus's trealise On the sizes and \
distances oflhe sun and moon; a new Greek text with translation and notes, Oxford:
Clarendon Press 1966
This book contains Arislarchus' famous paper on the rclative distances of thc sun ond lhe
moon from the earth. The hypotheses and lheorcms can be discusscd in a eourse on
trigonometry.
Heronis Alexandrini opera quae supersunt omnía. Greek·German edition. Stuttgart:
Teubner 1976.
Contains a lot of valuable sourccs on measurement, optics., gcometry.
Hilbert, D. Foundations ofgeometry, Chicago: Open Court 1902.
A translation of the 1899 Gnrndlagen der Geomelrit, in which Hilbert showed that it is
possible to eonstruct a gcomelry based on a complete systcm of axioms. In the firsl chapter,
Hilbert began by stating 21 axioms involving six: primilivc or indclined lcrms. He presents
tive groups or axioms: incidence, ordcr, congruence, parallcls and continuity.
!'Hospital, G. M. L 'analyse des infiniment petiiS, pour l'intelligence des lignes
courbes. Paris: lmprimérie Royale, 1696. Reproduc:tion Paris: ACL-éditions, 1988
The first ca\culus tex:tbook ever published. See Bernoulli.
IREM: lmages, lmaginaircs, lmaginations, Une perspective 1\istorique pour
l'introduction des numbres complex.es. Paris: Ellipses 1998
Hlstorical sources on complex numbers, and experiences with thesc texls in lhe classrooom.
IREM de Basse Normandie (ed.): Une histoíre des équations par les textes. 1994
A collection of sources on the solulion o f equations from thc Babylonians to Lngronge.
IREM de Basse Normandie (ed.): La question des parall~les: une histoire de
l'émergence des géométrics non·euclidicnncs. 1995
Te111s by Euclid, AI Khayyam, Wallis. Saccheri, Gauss, Lobatchevsky.
IREM de Basse Nonnandie (ed.): La création du calcul des probabilités et la loi des.
grands nombres de Pascal à Poisson. 1995 \o •
Texts by Pascal, Huygens, Bernoulli, de Moivre, Laplace, Poisson: · ·
Klein, F. et al., Famous Problems and other monologues, New York: Chelsea
Publishing Company, 1955
Of lhe four monographs brought together in this single volume, the most useful from our
point of view is the translalion of Kfein's Famous Problems of Elementary Geometry. Not
only do we have lhe prescntation of the three classical problcms- lhe dupfication of the cube.
lhe trisection of an angle and the quadrature of lhe circle - as wcll as a detailed expfanation
 316 9 Original sources in rire mathematics classroom
for the construction of a 17--gon. but also. in part 11. a discussion of lhe trnnsccndence of x
Jnd a \Cr:' nicc prcscntation of thc countabilily of algebraic numbers. This last is ai a levei
1ha1 could be uscd as a rich source. acccssible 10 school mathcmaticians.
Lietzmann\ \V. Bd. I: Aus der Marlrematilr. der Alten: Quellen zur Arithmetik. . . .
1928. Bd. 2: Aus der neueren Mathematik: Queflen zum Zahlbegrif! und zur
Gldclumg~lc_hre. =um Funktionsbegriffrmd zur Arra(vsis 1929, Leipzig: Teubner
:\ useful colkc~on. unfonunatcly no longer in print.
Midonick. H. (ed.). A rreasury of matltenratics, New York: Philosophical Library,
Inc.. 1965.
An attractively produced volume of fif\y four original sources selccted to illustratc
contributions "hich changcd or altercd thc coursc or lhe developmenl of mathematics. More
c;.xtratlS from non·Eurt'pc;~n sourccs 1h:m in olhcr comparablc collcctions. Each seleclions is
prccroc-d b~ a short introductory essay.
Ncwman. J. R.• The world •!f' mathemmics. Lonc.Jon: George Allcn & Unwín, 4 vols.
1960
Dcscribcd as a ·smalllibrnl)· of ma1hcmatics'. this four volume collection of artieles contains
man~ namples of orir:inal•rolhcmatic~l wrilins. Hcrc will bc fuund. for examplc. Ncwton's
lcucrs of I 6 i6 in "hich hc cxplains lhe extcnsion of lhe binomi~l thcorcm to fractional and
ncpti\c e:o.pt~ncnL~ (as wcll_as his use of aVl Jnd a·• ). The Sand Reckoner by Archimedes,
Eukr's <'rig.inal artidc t~n lhe scven bridges o f Künig.sbcrg and Alan Turing's anicle 'Cnn a
~bchine Thin\;~'
~e111on. 1.. The nrarhcmarical papers of /saac Newton, ed. D. T. Whiteside: Voi. V:
Lecrurr.s on.-llgfbra . Cambridge: Vniversity Press, 1972
Nc'\l~n·s lccturcs on al[:ebra.. from 1683 to 168-l. A bilingual edition. Latin and English,
cont3tnmg a full commcntary by \\'hiteside and facsimilcs of New1on. Jt stans with 'First
book ofunhcrsal arilhmelit', \lhere il is possiblc to dclcctthe author's conception ofalgebra.
Panicularly imcresting is Ne\\lon·s didactic approach to show the use of algcbra ·in a
mathematical probltm_ tr.111sla1ing :1 word problcm from Mtural cveryday discourse to
mathema1ical ~·mbolism. Clearly expresscd. the text can easily be read by mathematical
bcginners.
Open Uni\·mity. l'opics in the history of mathematic.s. (General ed. John Fauvel),
Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1987
The Orrn l 1ni\'trsity cour.:e material for thc dcgree levei unit of this title contains 17
N-Ciklcts, c~ch Clf 1\hich c:m 1:-c nllt~in~d scpnrntdy. \\'hilc l>cing o tcnching coursc, each
l><'oklct ct~ntlins cxtr:tm of Niginal material. Villco materiais are also nvailablc.
Pappas. T.. .lfatltem,ltics apprecimion. John Bibby Books, 1988.
A St'un:c bo(l\; containint: tcn lcssons. cach wi1h photocopiable :!Ssignmcnt pages. Historical
m3tcrinl ar the levei o f elcmenla!)· mathemalics.
Rhind marhematical papyrtt.S: Chacc. A. B. et ai: Obcrlin, Ohio: Mathematica1
Associa1icm of America, 19::7. 1929: rcpn. National Council of Teachers of
~!Jthem:llics. 19i8: Robins, G & Shute. C., London: British Muscum Publications,
1987. 1998.
Thc Chacc edition includcs ;~Jrnost ali of the problems from the Rhind Papyrus. with
anraclinl~· rrcscmcd tcxt in hieroglyphic o.nd hieratic writing alongsidc thc English
9 Appendix: sources oforiglnal mathematical material 327
translation. TI1e British Museum publication only has some sample problems bul contains
attractive full colour plates ofthe papyrus.
Riese, Adam, Rechenbuch, facsimi1e of 1574 edition, Hanover: Th. Schafer, 1992
This book is perhaps thc most famous of thc carly printed arilhmetics ond lhe name Adam
Riese has come into the German language to signify accu ratc calculation. Thc fact that it is in
German, and in Golhic scripl as well, makes it dimcult for lhe non Gcrman rcadcr to use. but
the bcautiful woodcut illustrations alone rccommcnd lhe book as an important stagc in thc
change from abncus calculalion to writtcn mc1hods.
Schneider, I. Die Entwicklung der Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie von den An/iingen bis
1933 : Einfohrungen und Texte. qarmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft
1988 .
A comprchensivc collcction o f sources from lhe history of probability theory, translatcd in to
Gcrman.
Smith, David c., A source boolr. in mathcmatics, Ncw York: Oovcr Publicalions,
1929, 1959. .
A collection of 125 cxtracts. mostly not available in English clscwhcre. Thc book is dividcd
into five sections (numbcr, alg~:bra, gcometry, probability and calculuslfunctions). The
c~tlracts have beco chosen to illustrate significant incidents or ' discovcrics'. Some of lhe
extracts. such as Cardan on imaginary roots or thc correspondente betwcen Pascal and Fermat
on thc notion of probability, are: capablc of being uscd in uppcr secondary school
mathematics.
Struik, Dirk J., A sou;ce book in mathemarics, 1200-1800, Princeton, New Jersey:
Princeton University Pres.s , 1969, 1986
A selcction of mathematical writings of authors from lhe Latin world who lived between lhe
thineenth and the end o f eightcenth century. By Latin, Struik means that there are no Arabic
or Oriental sources, excepl whcre much uscd Latin translations are available, for tl\amplc in
thc case of AI·Khwariz.mi. Struik inlerspcrses hclpful explanatory commentary on the sclecled
texts but substantial blocks of original writinll rcmain inlact. Thcrc is a grcnt dcal of rich
material here. ranging from Stevin's description of decimal notation to Euler's lhcory of zeros
of different values.
Swctz., F. {ed.) Leam from the masters!, Washington, DC: Mathematical Association of
America, 1995
A collcction of twenty-thrce articlcs by contributors who are actively engaged in using histol)'
in lhe teaching or mathernatics. The intcntion is to show how one can use histol)' in
mathcmatics tcaching nnd many of thc articlcs contain dircct extracts from origina.! material
which could be used by the teachcr. An exccllcnl staning point for the interested mathematics
teacher.
Swctz, F., Capitalism & arithmetic: the new math of the fifieenth century. La Salle,
lllinois: Open Court Publishing Co., 1987
The Treviso Arithmetic of 1478 is the earlics1 known dated printcd arithmctic book and this
F.nglish lranslation from the Venetian dialcct comes with a use fui commcntary. Many of lhe
problems, for example on thc rulc of thrce or problcms of inhcritancc, could bc uscd dirc~tly
in thc mathcmatics classroom. Students will also benelit from seeing so many ways of sttt rng
out 'long' multiplication.
 "
•.. 318 9 Original so11rces in the mathematlc:s cl0$SI'Oom

Thom3s [=Sulmer-Thomas). lvor. Greek marlremnrical worb , Cambridge, Mass &

London: Harv:nd Unimsity Press, vo1. I, 1939, 1980. vo1. 2, 1941, 1993.
'
I
This ':~.lu lblt coi1CC1ion of \\Titings is nrrangcd roughl}• chronologically wi\h the Cirst volume
dcalin~ \\ Íth lhe rnJthcmatics up to Euclid (/1.300 llC) und the sccond volume taklng the story
on as far as Pappus uf Alc:-.andri a VI. 300 AO). Thom:u n"angcs his material oround lhcmes
se> S(lmc late r writinp apr.:ar in th~ first <volume. whcn giving exnmplcs of Orcck writing on
• • õlrithmctic. for namplc. Thc wholc work is sct with the Grcck original alongside lhe English
tr:~nslntion :111d hclpful footnotcs are uscd to csplain thc tcxt. Among thc gcms for use in the
I
mathcmatics classroom are: Nicomachus on Ciguratc numbcrs and his description ofthc síeve Chapter 10 li
., of Eratosthcnes. sclcctions from Archimed~ bnd early ideas uf trigonomctry, induding
Ptolem(s !ablc o f chords and Diophantus on typcs of equations.
Non-standard media and other resources
\\'ieleitner. H. Mathematische QuellenbOcher. Bd. I: Rechnen und Algebra, 1927,
Bd. :!: Geomwie und Trigonometrie, 1927. Bd. 3: Analytische und synthetische
Geometrie. 1928. Bd. -1: Analvsis, 1928. Berlin: Salle
A useful collcction. unfonunatel;. no longcr in print.
Ryosuke Nagaoka
\'ii:tc. l'rançois. lmroduftron lo in: J. Klein, Greek Marhematical
the Alra(l•tical Art.
Thoughr and rhe Origin of.4lgebra. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1968, 313-353 with June Barrow-Green, Maria G. Bartolini Bussi, Masami lsoda, Jan van I
Klein's Study of thc rcl'h-31 of Greck mathcmntics. via Arabic scicncc, in thc 13th to 16th Maanen, Karen Dce Michalowicz, Maria Victori3 Ponza, Glen Van 1
cmlurie~. CI'OI3in$ ~n f:n~li~h trnn~lation (b)· J. Winfrcc Smith) or Vii:tç 's importanl work
Brummelen
"hich mJrks lhe t-c~innin~ of lhe use o f symbolism in mathcm3tics.

Ab!tracl: The inttgrotion of hislory ls not confined 10 lrodilional tcoching dtlivery methods.
but can often be belle~ achieved through a var/ety of media which add 10 the resourcts
available for leamer and /eacher.

10.1 Introduction

Jan van Maanen

10.1.1 Why otlter media?

Can we stitl speak about 'traditional' ways of teaching malhematics? If so, would
this be the ehalk·and-blackboard manner which wil\ be familiar to most readers of
this book ftom their own scbool days? In his address to the 7th lntemational
Congress on Mathematical Education (Howson 1994) Geoffrey Howson showed
slides of classes learning mathematics. The range of conditions in which classes
worked was enormous, from open-air teaching in ~.fr ica to spacious western
classrooms, from barefoot kids to strictly disciplined Asian classes. Despite the
wide variety of teaehing and leaming conditions, in many cases the blac:kboard was
the centre of activities and chalk was lhe medium. In many countries of the world,
the majority o f schools have no electricity supply let alone telcphone cables, andare
often too poor even to provide pencils and notebooks for schoolchildren. And
although it is clear that in many parts of the world the situation is now changing, and
that other media, notably computers, are coming into classrooms both as

' .... .... .. . .

JJO lO Non-scandard media and other resources
p~senta1ion 1ools for the teachers and as working tools for the students, the usual
method of te~ching mathemalics is still with blackboard and chalk (or sometimes
"hite.bC>:U:d :~nd m~rker). At :my rate this is the starting point for this chapter. !f in
the hfe·tlftlC of thiS bool; lhe CentraJity Of focal board-whether blackboard
\\ hi1cbNrd or indted overhead projector-and board-writing implement (chalk o;
n~ark~r penJ.no longer holds. pcrhaps lhe reader will consider this chapter as a
htStC>ncal do~ment, foreshadowing, things to come.
During the past century or more. blackboard and chalk were identical with
mathcmatical activiry. Thus in 1925 the Dutch te;:cher and historiao of mathematícs
E. J. D.ijksterhuis characterised and defended deductive mathematical thinking by
p~senung th~ prototype mathcmatician as one who begins with nothing but chalk
~nd then starts lo create ncw m~themati cs (translated from Van Berkel 1996, 132):
Th~ m311 tCimes lllld St311Js in front of you: hc has a bl~ckboard and a piece of chalk: he has
~«n nolhins, nor cxpcricnced 311)1hing th~l hc comes to rcpon about; hc does not necd
arrar.~tu.~ in ordcr lO gi\'C lifc lO phCIIOO\COJ lhat lc~d tO ljUCStÍUns, but hc buiJds an
unmalcnal \IOII.l for~ ou. app:l.rtnlly from nothing.
The ~ditional way of tcachin~ is not~ble for the way it focuses lhe class's
attcntl(lns C>n a vertical surface (bo~rd or screen) ai the front, whose content is
CC>ntre>lled by the teacher. Present teaching practices are strongly govemed by
technol,,g~ and media: they are- just so familiar that we may not think of them in that
''a~· This techniquc is highly etTcctive in the sensc: that it conveys messages, from
the teacher to the student. quickly and with little cost of material and personnel.
Some stud~nts (ofien those "h o go on to be teachcrs in their tum) lcarn very well
thro~gh. thts process. On the other hand. il appears that this way of teaching does
n~t m,·,~e ali learners. 1t m~y be, as researchers are beginning to realisc, that the
dtfficullles experienccd by many students are as much to do with the traditional
teaching mechanisms as with any innate l:~ck of competence or application. Making
~n appea.l to ma~y leamers seems to require other means than just passing accurate
mformat~on. lt ts here that the non-standard media discussed in this chapter may
ha1 e an tmportant role to play in educating young people broadly across the whole
range of sl'lldenls and instit"Utions.
The underl)ing issues lme are investig:~ted in some more depth in the remainder
o f this introduttory section. Thcn in section I0.2 some specific cases o f using non-
standa~d media i~ conncction with the history of mathematics, to improve
educall<'nal e~;penences and opportunities. will be presented and investigated.
Section 10.3 explores the educational \'alue of one of the most r:~pidly developing
uses of n.ew technology, the World \Vide Web, in the context of support for
mathemallcalle;:rning from historical resources.
10.1.2 And which media?
N~n~standard media fe>r tcaching ma1hem~1ics huve been listcd already in Ch. 7,
wnhm the broader framework of possibk ways of implementing history in lhe
mathcma11cs cbssroom. Some of thcm fit \\'t'll \l'l lhm traditional melhods such as
hal'in.g 'historie:!! snippcts' in textbooks (§7.-1 1 1. 'ISi ng 'workshcets' (§7.4.4); and
' 1'Nkmg on rrrNs. ahcm~t il'c conccptinll' · ,11hcr insl~nces whc re histnry
JO. I IntroducJion 331
prcsents a contrast to the usual perspective (§7.4.6). Severa! of the itcms surveyed
within §7.4 will not be considered bere. This chapter restrict itself to explorations in
more depth of domains, such as working with mechanical instruments or doing
dramathematics, that the authors have experiente with themselves.
The media chosen for discussion here form but a small selection o f those which
are possible and have been used by imaginative tcachers. An important earlier ·
survey of the range of possibilities wa.s the eighteenth yearbook of lhe US National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), published in 1945 under the title
Multi-sensory aids in the teaching of mathematics. lts opening paragraph provi4es
an interesting historical record (NCTM 1945, vii):
Teaching aids in mathematics are nol new. Thc las1 hundrcd years ~ave brought us lhe
telephone., the phonograph, t~e radio, telcvision, lhe silent and sound motion piclure. lhe
stmoscopc. lhe thrce-dimcnsional coloured pictures on lentiçulated film and the Polaroid
three-dimensionol picturcs, :llld motion picturcs in colour. Thesc inventions and
dcvclopmcnlS are bcing used in many forms in our schools at lhe prcscnt time. lt is only
natural thal mathematics teachcrs, too, considcr lhe possible adaptation of these materiais to
\ the improvement of instruction in lheir field.
I lt is interesting to compare this list with a list one might drnw up now under a
II similar rubric. Perhaps discussion of precisely this point may providc a useful
exercise for trainee teachers who are exploring the uses of history and media in their
I future mathematics classroom.
A powerful examplc of how insights from new media can be integrated into
leaming is the innovative book by Eduardo Veloso (1998). Veloso discusses,
among a wealth o f other things, how historical problems can be taken as a source of
inspiration for investigations with computer programs like Sketchpad and Cabri.
The publisher of this book, which aims to prescnt materiais to teachers, is the
govemmental institute for educational innovation. Apparently media like computer
programs are still seen as an 'educational innovation', at least by the govcmment.
This is but one instante of how the range of ideas developcd in this chapter can be
integrated lnto thc development of progressive mathematics education.
10.1.3 Affect and effect
The work done in preparation for this ICM[ study has produced very positive reports
about the greater affectiveness that non·standard methods can bring about. That is,
the way students warm to mathematical leaming through lhe range o f methods such
as doing projects, watching films, constructing models, resean;.hing history in
libraries, devising dramatic presentations, surfing the World Wide Web. In part, of
course, the perception of the leaming benefits arise !Tom a 'new technology' effect:
something seems good just because it is new, a perhaps welcome change from
traditional lessons. But even here the conccrned educator can leam a lcsson: pupils
and students today have a far wic.Jcr range o f outside influences than once thcy did,
anda pedagogy thot does not take that inlo account will fail to inspire anc.J carry with
it an ever-growing proportion of the youn~ people conccmed. On 1his argument, the
development o f using non-standard media, as a delivery mechanism for tcaching, is
essential part for mathcmatics tcachers in thc ycars nhcnd.
33! lO Non-standard media and ather resources
The general experiente is that at first the media discussed in this chapter take
more time to produce l c;:~ming effccts than the traditional teaching methods, but that
in lhe long run teacher and leamer will e;:~m their earlier investmenl back. This is
true. o f course. of lhe use of hislory as a whole in mathemalics educalion. Some
teachcrs :1~ fearfu\ o f using historie a! resources beca use they expecl them lake up
more prccious class time. This fear may be jusli fiable in lhe shot1 run. lt is the
long-term gro,,,h in undcrslanding, however, which is at stake. The advantages
arg)led for history in general. and non-standard media support in particular, are to do
wiih the ovcrall educational experiente and lhe devclopment of lhe leamer over
time.
As an example. consider lhe experiente of Argentinian fourteen-year-olds
dmribed by Vick>· Ponza in §I 0.2.1. There is a narrow sense in which they might
!la' e been taught more .mathematics more quickly by conventional means than they
leamed by researching and conslructing a play on lhe life of Galois. This view,
howe,·er. fails to understand that the students were somewhat disengaged from
mathcmatics bcforehand and showed no promise of mathematical leaming
achieHments in any e\'ent: the subject hlld scemed too remate from their toncerns
and too alienating as nn emotional experiente. lnvolving the students affectively did
13..\;e time. l>ut had a rossibly lifelong benefit for them in seturing their engagement
with the idel o f developing mathemntical strengths.
Thi~ has l(lng t-cen the experience o f teachers experimenting with non-standard
media acti' ities. One medium that has been explored, for example, especially in
primar;: and middlc schools. is that of curve-stitching. This was a lechnique
popularised in English education circles at lhe end ofthe nineteenlh century, notably
by Mary Boole (thc widow of lhe mathematician George Boole), for constructing
cur\'CS by stitching thcir langenls on cards. When these prattices wcre tried in lhe
US in the l940s it was found that hitherto-alienated students were attracted to
mathematics as a resull of lhe novelt)• and interest o f this praclical aclivity. One of
the leathers involvcd recorded the following observations (McCamman 1945, 85):
.-\n intricate :llld lacy desi&n was m:1de by a boy noisy in voice and manner, who was so
unramiliar with ~e" ing that he thought the needle had to be tied to the end of the thread. A
ranicularly miking design was made by a Chinese boy who at one time had been considered
incapaNe or t3king lhe resulilr math~m3tics courses. His chie! difficulty was his inability to
e:'(r~ss him!elf in a strcnge language. [... J Some students who have not been doing well in
~e(lmen~· tind in this wNk 3 new (lpponunity to be succcssful nnd to tnrn the prnise oftheir
~h~~m~1c~. In mnny ~~~~h C:J$\'S. the inc rc:~.~cJ intcrcst ln ~cnmetry seemed to carry ovcr to
>ul-scqucntllork.
Not that non-slandard media benefit only previously under-achieving students. One
o f thc major argumcnts o f this book. for the media.discussed in this chapter no less
than elsewhere. is that there are benefits across the full range of student abilities,
ages and institutions. A second message IT.om the accounts here is that multi-media
teaching ideas work best when the teacher is personally committed to and
enthusiastic about the tethnology in question. That is one reason why what we
present is a range o f possible resources. and ideas'for using them, and in no sense a
recommendation that teachers 'should' use this. that or the other. A teacher who is
personally excited about sundials. say, or dynamic geometry soflware. or the
IO. I lntroduction J))
pnttems :1nd rhythms of folk dances, can do wondcrs in thc classroom with that
material which another teacher could not. w e· intend lha\ this chapter will also
provide useful ideas and stimulus for a teachcr whose particular cnthusiasms are
something else again from the particular cxamples discu~scd here: for film-making.
perhaps. or basket-weaving, or architccture, or devising mathematical trails, or
encouraging poster production.
The question o f lhe effectiveness of the various teaching modes, technologics
and experiments dcscribed here is not casy to evaluate scientilically by thc norms of
modem experimental science. Elsewhere (Ch. 3) there is a discussion of research
criteria and lechniques, and thcre it is argucd that anthropological or soeiological
research methods are better paradigms for evaluation in situations with as many
uncontrotlable variables as the leaming situations in question here. Hence
observational reports !Tom teachers, and the sharing of subjective experiences by
both teachers and students, are an important way of the researcher's gaining
confidente in the effectiveness ofthe proccdures.
10.1.4 Media a nu cognitive aspects o f learning
One of lhe ma in benefits o f having a range of media resources available is that this
enables lhe cognitive needs o f a greater number o f students to be mel. Through
recognising more explicitly thal students are very different, their individuality is
allowed for and addressed more than traditional teaching methods are supposed to
do. Thcre have been serious concems fi'om many leathers in retent years, in two
different direclions. One is that traditional mathematics education preferentially
benefits students with particular cognitive skills. The other is that ali students are
affected by thc range of stimuli in their lives 1oday, notably on their attention spans,
in a way which has consequences for leaming. Of course this is a t omplex and
contenlious area on which much work has been and continues to be done. But lhe
implication for the present contexl is that students whose needs.are not well met in
the present system, for whatever reason, may find renewed leaming possibilities in a
range of other approaches.
This viewpoint again has deep historital roots: the French writer Jean-Jacques
Rousseau was among lhe foremost advocates of leaming aids, in lhe eighteenth
century. Yet they have always rcmained at lhe periphery of pedagogic strategies.
Pre-echoing lhe discussion of traditional cducational techniques at the beginning o f
lhis chaptcr. a Ncw York tcachcr a\ thc end of World War 11 dcscribed the
classrooms she saw as follows (CarroI! 1945, 16):
In the high school, classical subjccts [... J are ali too tommonly taught by thc medieval
methods of lecture, question, and answ«. Exccpt, pcrhaps. for tile differentes in dress and
altitude ofthe students, a casual visitor might be unable to tcll the difference between many
1944 classrooms in mathematics and their prototypes of thc: Middle Ages.
From the historian's perspective, these concems (like the perennial concerns·about
the value of history in mathematics teaching) are always with us. Each generation
needs to confront afrcsh the ways in which contcmporary technology and media can
support the role ofthe mathematics teachcr.

JO Non-standord media and ot11er resottrces
\"arious Olher aspectS are likely to play a role here, but need further rcsearch
before their dfcct on mathematicalleaming c:~n bc: established. In an arbitrary order
llist some of~se. Reading skills. panicularly skills to understand ideas lhat are not
familiar to tht student. are probably well stimulnted through the study of historical
prot-lrms\ and methods. Given the effects of socialisation upon gender roles, girls
and boys may respond difTerently to mathematics taught with history than to
mathematicS~llght without. And students vary dramatically in what grips their
imagination: understanding and describing what Fibonacci asked about the rabbits
may be a goal that is beuer realisable for some studcnts than proving general
statcments about Fibonacci numbers. This does not mean that teachers should forget
about general proofs. but rather that we could think about setting a richer variety of
goals among mathematics leamers. Mathematics is a diflicult area to reach the levei
.. of producin~ indep.!núent resuhs. or othcrwisc feeling 'ownership' of Lhe subjcct.
HistOr} of mathcmatics may bc helpful here. In this urea students may sooner have
lh~ fetling tlut they h;l\e done valuable independent work, and be proud ofit.
10.1.5 Media and asscssmcnt
An increasingly important aspect of m:~thematics education. in many countries, is
the assessmrnt procedure. Examinations as a criticai component of the school
exrerience bcg;m to be developed in lhe early ninetee nlh ccntury, with the
tducational reforms followi~g the Frene h Revolution, and ha11e come over the past
two centuries to aHain great significance. Sometimes teachc:rs' pay has depended on
the exa~ination results of their pupils. and sometimes the status or remuneration o f
the school. bcsides the familiar factthat students' future progress, through education
or lhe outsme wor!d. depcnds upon the results of tneir malhematics and other
c:-xaminations.. Not ali tcachers, still less studcnts, view these developments with
equal cnthusiasm. but nevenheless this dimension of school experiente ís with us
for lhe foresteable future and tan be made to yield benefits for the participants as
well as for \M wider political-cconomic system.
In this mntext. the form which examinations take is of great importance.
Tradítionally. these consist of students writing down answers to mathematical
problems. gmerally within a fixed time limit. In rcccnt dccades other forms of
asses~mcnt Ju,·e been cxplored. such :1s rcl3xing. the time limit and assessing work
d\'n<" (\\ cr tbt whl'le l'f the study period (see Niss 1992~. 1992b, espccially Izard
1<>0 : : S\\an 199~). lkre it tan be useful to explore lhe way in which the
combin:llion of history and non-standard media can provide a much richer
assessment azvironment. in which lhe skills and t:llents o f a wider range of students
can t>c reprc-srntcd :llld g.i\·cn c1cdit.
lllany of lhe resources discussed in this chapter givc rise to asscssmcnt
335
10. 1 Jntroduction
.......
opportunities ~hich can satisfy both the expectations of lhe ~ider system, for a ·
ranking of students for various public purposes, and Lhe expectallons of student~ ~or
a ful fill ing and relatively stress-frce mode of assessment. The Argcnuman
experiences recounted by Vicky Ponza (§I 0.2.1 ), for instance: cone em ~e
construction of a drama in sue h a way lhat every member of the class IS concemed 10
some aspect ofthe production. The instrumentS whose classroom use is dcscribed
by Maria Bartolini Bus$i (§ 10.2.2) again o !Ter opportunities for non-standard
assessment in terms o f mathematics classrooms, but which are familiar in creative
arts. Studcnts can be askcd to a.ssemble thcir own productions in a ponfolio, or to
present it to fellow-students or to an outside audience. This wi!l be a way o f ·
assessing progress in malhematics of increasing importante.
Refcrcnccs for §10.1
Carro!!, L Grace 1945. 'A mathematics classroom bccomes a laboratory', in: NCTM 1945,
16-29
Howson. Geoffrey 1994. 'Teachcrs o f malhemaliu', in C. Gaulin et ai., Procttdings of the
7th {nlernotional congress on mothemalical education, Sainle-Foy: Les Presscs de
I'Université Lava\, 9-26
lzard. John 1992. 'Challcnges to lhe improvcmcnt ofassessment practicc', in: Niss 1992b,
185-194 •
McCamman, Carol V 1945. 'Curve-stitchil\f, in geome1ry'. in: NCTM 1945,82-85
NCTM 1945. Multi-sensoryaids in tire tea~ing ofmathematics, NCTM 18th ycarbool:. New
York: Columbia University .
Niss. Mogens 1992a. Cases ofassessment in malhematics l!ducation: an ICMJ Srudy,
Dordrecht: Kluwer
Niss, Mogcns 1992b. [nvesligations into assessmcnl in matllemarics educotion: on ICMf
Study, Dordrccht: Kluwer
Swa.,, Malcolm 1992. 'lmproving lhe design and balance ormalhem~tical assessment', in:
I Niss 1992b, 195-216
I Van Berkel, Klaas 1996. Dijhterhuis Etn biografie, Amstcrdam: Bcn Bakkcr
Vdoso, Eduardo 1998. Geometria: temos actuais: materiais para prof~ssaru, Lisboa:
I Instituto de lnovaç!o Educacional
I I
10.2 Learning through history and non-standard media
i 10.2.1 Mathematical Dramatisation
I Vicky Ponza
I I There is a clear tendency in lhe world today to use sophisticated electronic med ia in
I education. In many countries howevcr, suth as Argentina. such facilitics are not
widely available to students in edutational institutions. Even where compu1ers are
lohn Fauvcl. Jan vnn Maancn (eds.), 1/urory in marl~matics rducotion· ti•~ IC.\f/ study,
Dordrccht: Kluwcr 2000, pp. 335-342
, ... JJO
/O Non-standard media and orhcr resources
3\':lilablc. in some cases teachers and students cannot profit wholly by thcm owing
to the ~ack of resources such as funding for telephone bills. In the face of these
necds. tn my country teachers usually assume one of the following altitudes: either
they come to tenns wilh technological limitations., making use of whollv traditional
methods,\or they try to explore new ways to make up for these dcficie.ncies. What
new :'·ays are thcse~ We misht. for instance, memion mathem3tic3l dramatisation.
B~ th•s 1 me3n. the. search for elements which may touch the sll•dents' sensibility and
Nm mathem~ucs tnto a \\'armer. friendlier subject. Thus mathematical dramatisation
means ,,·orkrng on mathematics by involving intuition, creativity and the human
body.
. The n~e~ for developing such dimensions ofmathematics has long been known
b~. "'?re mstghtful commcntators. In a lccture delivercd nt the beginning of the
..,1\\entleth century to the Psychologica1 Society of Paris. Henri Poincaré commented
l'n the rsychological dimension o f mathematical activity in these words (Poincaré
191 J. -19-50}:
:\ m:~~hematical <.kmonstration is not a simpk juxtopositiun of syltogisms: it consists of
5
~ ~rcos<sms plc:crd "'a art.1i11 ord~r J. .•). !f l ho,•c thc fccling. so to spcak the intuition. of
lh:s .conkr. ~o th~t l can r~rcci'c lhe \\holc of thc argumcnt ata gtancc. 1 need no longer be
afr:.•~ l'f fors,ethns o~ c of the dcmcnts: each of thcm ''ili ta~c pince itsdf naturalty in lhe
ro.111on rrcrared for 11. \\llhout m~· ha,·ing to make any dTort of mcmory. (.. . ) 11 is time to
renetrate further. :md to see "hat hap~ns in thc \ 'ti')' sou! ofthe mathematician.
Searching deep into the mathematician's soul is an approach in which teachers can
help enco~rage their students. In Argentina I have worked with students in a number
of wa~ s .. n order to help I hem develop their feelings in harmonv with their
mathema!lcal skills and interests. • good to expose a form of childrcn or grown-up sludents to a variety of different
I. lnNiti~n and creativity. ~ related to the body allow us to go from dance (lhe
chore.ograph~ of the Argen!lntan dance music lhe 'zamba') to the drawing of
d~scnt-~d curves. and from these to the discovery of graphs of conlinuous
d•scontmuous and quadratic funct ions. as well as their characteristics. ' made in 1997 with students between 12 and 13 years o f age (2nd school year) of the
2. They may also Iead us to what I call 'corporised geometrv'. Geometry is
perh~ps ~h e pan o f math~m~t ics most closely rclated to the nat~ral and artificial
surr?undt~g created by thc human being. Bodies. planes, straight Iines. angles are to
l:>e loun~ ·~ ~he human body <~nd we can lliscover lhem or mnke thcm up among
~~wr:lltndl\'ldu:tls. · I. Dividcd in task-groups from lhe bcginning of lhe c1ass ycar, lhe pupils looked
. 3. .SllnlC Sllld!.'nl~ ha\'c a natural talent ror perfomJing as mintics. Bodily
expr,esston may be onentated ~om an~ towards geomelry nnd a theo rem may be
pro,ed. or at 1east made plausrble. wnhout resorting to either verbal or written
language at ali.
4. And by fusing these talents with the act of performance we will be able to
produce 'mathematicaltheatre·. that isto say. write and act mathematics.
These four activities are among those made wilh students between 13 and 17 and
evaluated at Mariano ~loreno School. Rio Ceballos. Cordoba, Argentina. For
example. two students whose interest in human relations is more vivid than their
comma~d of mathematical language may nevertheless be encouraaed to relate the
two: Jullet may ask Romeo to lea,e. appealing to mathematical tem~s: "You have'to
·/0.2. J Mathematical dramatisation 337
1eave. My mother interposes as a transversal between the parallels of our love. We
are altemntive exterior. Although we may be congruent we will never be together."
Mathematical dramatisation becomes an open door towards interdisciplinary work
and consequently towards a wide range o f possibilities for ali subjects.
lnterdisciplinary trials were madc all through onc year (1994) at an Argentine
school, which involved seven subjects including mathematics. The work revealed
the nced to start rrom history and take history as its leading theme. Matnematics
was involved through working on a play with the students, whose scene was the
Alexandrian Library. Sludents carried out research into the history of mathematics,
which opened the way for introducing a dialogue between Euclid and Eratosthenes,
which included referentes to severa! mathematical topics which formed pan of lhe
cuniculum. The biographical allusions served the purpose o f humanizing concepts•
(Similar dramatic activity, also relaling to ancient Alexandria, is seen in the
'Museum Strategy' ofPennington and Faux 1999, described below, §10.2.1 Annex.)
Once lhe potential of these teaching and leaming techniques are explored, it will
be clear that they are of value whatever the original motivation for lheir
introduction, whether or not there are economic or other difficu1ties about the use of
other media. Dramatisation is an important tool in the repertoire of every teacher, in
whatever circumslances they work. Other teachers have workcd on mathematical
dramatisation, notably Gavin Hitchcock from Zimbabwe who in a series of
contributions (Hitchcock 1992; 1996a; 1996b; 1997) has devised dramatic pieces for
humanising and contextualising thc development of malhematical concepts.
Hitchcock 1997, for example, dramatizes the developmcnt of negative numbers
between 1870 and 1970. In his introduclion to that Hitchcock notes that "it might be
approaches to this lopic or others and encourage them to become active critics
instead of passive receivers".
The cffcctivcncss o f lhis working method became cviucnt in lhe course of a trial
above mentioned Argentine school and its follow-through in 1998, which I now
outline hcre (for fuller dclails see Ponza 1998~.
Dramatisation o f the lif e o f Galois
for information aboul the history of mathematics. They were instructed to
search in their own 1ibrary (which in general had rather poor resources), in the
schoollibrary and in the town during a period oftwo weeks. They did this work
outside school times. They had to bring the material and note carefully the name
ofthe work and ofthe author. ~.
2. Once ali the material had been gathered, it was sorted out in the school during
mathematics class-time according to the people and themes they had researched.
Despite the fact that in lhe whole village there was no specific bibliography on
the history of mathematics, some o f lhe pupils surpassed my expectations on the
quality and quantity of the information found. 1 made use of my personal
library, contributing as a member ofthe research group.

JJS lO Non-stnndard media and other resources
:;_ I madc a second selection o f thc material contributed by us ali, rtlating it to the
contents to be devcloped in lhe second year, and I planned the classes from the
starting poinl ofh istory whcrevcr possible.
-t When st..ning a unit. I would distribute amongst the groups the relevant
material. The pupils would look up lhe historical elements appropriale to the
specific themes and they wou td then read out the researched inforrnation to the
\\hÇ>Ie-~lass. Each onc would do their own introductory summary, emphasizing
distinct aspects. according to their personalily and inclinations. This
inuoduction scrYed to motivate and would be cnriched by new additions
discovered in the course o f the unit's devclopment.
5. In some units pupils were captivated by the life of particular mathemalicians.
E'-ariste Galois was a case in point. whose life and work arose whcn the pupils
,. were reseuching into lhe histof)' o f equalions. They decidcd to write a small
dr:lmatic piece and show it frrsl within their own course and then before at\
intcrested pupils in the school. In the writing and performance of the play they
took thc following strps:
a) The groups looked for details relaled to the li fe o f Galois.
b) Each group informed ali others about the details thcy had compiled.
c) Each grocp wrote a play and read it to fellow classmates.
d) A new bsk·te:~m made up of represenlatives from each of the original task·
group~ ~-nthesised the different-plays into lhe final work 10 be shown.
e) They shami ou1 responsibilities or every aspecto f lhe produclion: betwecn those
acting. tllcse in charge of slage design. wardrobe and othcr helpers, always
bearing in mind and with due regard for personal idiosyncrasies and leanings.
This enabkd ali the pupils on the course to panicipate in one form or anolher.
Here :1re ex1rzns from the play. We give here the firsl and second scencs, and lhe
concluding swement (the full text is in Ponza 1998; the translation is by Antonio
Luqu~).
FIRST SCENE
(('/a_<m>em iatht· Ewlt Lorlis Le Grand. l'arious studellls, Galois and François, a
frh·nd. com·.ni'u g. .4 wmr is dose b.1· /ril ll'riting desk, talking in private with a
swd<lll '·
GALOIS: De~ Fr.mçois. l c:~n't stand this place any longer. lt is all se strict! They
don'l let us think fCir oursc\Yes. nor have our own opinions, one cannot slecp ar eat.
FR.A!'\ÇOIS: Ye:s. the food is meagre, ali is dull. but you need patience! Here we
leam Greek ud La1in and ali else to prepare us for the future.
GALOIS: I :w oot interested in Greek or l:~tin. What is more lhe tutors... (the tutor
talking to the ·cther studem raises /ris 1·oice. grabs Jrim by lhe scruf! of his neck and
s-tnrrs sfapping him)
Tt'TOR: So ~-ou can ' I repeat lhe phr:1se \\ hich l gavc you in Latin. nor in Greek.
huh"
GALOIS: {Juurpmg rowards the tlllor} Enough! Stop hitting him. you havc no righl!
339
10.2.1 Mathematical dramatisation
TUTOR: Oon't I? Of course 1 do. Just as l'm allowed 10 tell you to sh~t up.
Particularly you, who are rcpeating lhe course, and still can't pass Greek or Laun.
GALOIS: 1am not interestcdl And you can't punish us for that!
TUTOR: (Calmer now, as Jre has come across someone ~ho srands for himstlf) . ~
1
fimd you stranoe Galois Your parenls were very studious m those maners. You ":I
" will
not go far. You • remain · Ihere anyth"mg wh1ch
· medíocre ali yow lifc. Let's see, Js
interests you? .
GALOIS: 1 enjoy geomelry: there 1 can see, feel and think. L~gendre 1S a master.
And also algebra. Se it is that I chose the subject of mathcmau:s, and no':" I know
what 1 want to be in lifc: 1 shall be a mathcmatician. I am studytng analySJS and the
algebra of Abel and will enrol in lhe Ecole Polytechniquc. .
TUTOR: Bah! ... Justa simple optional subject! You are a day-dreamer and you WJll
be nothing but a failure ali your life.
SECOND SCENE
(Other students /eave the stage. Galois moves forward and sits down on a writillg
desl Whi/e he is talking the scene changes lo the Eco/e Po/yrechnique.)
GALOIS: 1 havc got to prepare really wcll. 1t is difficult to obla~n. a place .in the
Ecole Polytechnique but from it have procceded the best rnalhe~atlctans. I wtll also
write down my discoveries on equations and will ask 1hose gemuses to present them
to the Academy ofScicnces.
(Continues working. Meanwhile in the Eco/e Polytechnique. Dinel and Cauchy are
now sei up. Galois taltes up his nOle book and walks towards them)
GALOIS: Morning. Profs! Are you the yeat sage mathematician Cauchy?
CAUCHY: Yes, 1 am. And this is the yeat professor Dinet, who marked your exam
paper. .
OINET: (He is very old and a bit deu/) Tcll me you~g man, ~hat dtd you mean
when you V.'Tote here that it is possible to define wh1ch equattons can be solved
using roots?
GALOIS: Ah, yes. lt appears that looking f~r the condi~ions ne~essary for the
coefficients to have a formula which would g1ve the soluttons, I d1scovered what
you have just read, becausc if you analyz.e an algcbraic equation... _ . _
DINET: (fnterrupting) No, no, no. Don't come to me with weird thin~, mvenl:~i
discoveries. What can a young man likc you ever discover! Why d~n I you sho
your rough work, all the stcps you've takcn? Why did you not move each term one
ata time as you have been taught?
GALOIS: But professor, this is something obvious, allow me lo pursue my
explanation of the solutions that I discovered.
DINET (lnterrup;ing) And besides, what is 1his about l~gari_th.ms? These are bul
·hieroglyphs (looks ai Cauchy) Plainly you l:~ck a syslemauc lramtng.
GALOIS: (Looking ai Cauchy as if asking for hclp} Gcntlemen pleasc.
DINET and CAUCHY: Oismiiiiiiiiiiiiiissed.
 ,,
J.JO 10 Non-standard media and other resources
GALOIS: (d('.tpnirin~~l') Wait gentlcmen. please wait (he .stops ond shows thcm his
nores). Listen to my theories and you will see that I am right. I have discovered the
solution to equations of dcgree beyond two and three: in order to solve them by
roots. it is\ neccssarv. ...
CAUCHY: (talt.es tire norebook and leafs lhrouglr il} Rubbish, rubbish. Why have I
gotto rcad the \\Ork of a 17 year old youngster like you? Besides, I don't understand
any of it at ali trlrrows ir inlo a paper bin)
GALOIS: You are. ~·ou are ... I can't stick ·- you two idiots. And you look it! (he
tlrrou-s allloose slreers on tire writing desk over tireir lreads).
DINET and CAUCHY: Oismissed, dismiiiissed for good ande-ver.
[... I
...
Concluding statemenl
NARRATOR: We identify ourselves with man>· aspects of the life and experiente of
Galois. and so as k: for how much longer will the superficial prevail over the deeper?
\\"i !I wt forsake the opportuniry o f developing ourselves in school? Will we lose our
humanity':' He was only twcnty years old when he died. He suffered the greatest
injustices of the so called geniuses of the epoch. Notwithstanding the theft, envy,
indifTercncc: they could not stop him bc:coming, years !ater, one of the most
imp<>nant men in mathem:uics. \V e believe {Creemos] that justice was linally done,
but \\ C request [queremos] that j ustice be realised in real time. 1t is not good enough
~cars !ater.
Evaluation
This play is only one o f the many issues of a school year devoted to working at
mathematics with history as a starting-point. supplying evidente for the possibilities
ofmathematical dramatisation. For further discussion ofthe issues, sce § 6.2.2.
Can malhematics be leamed by means of dramatisation? If so, is it just intuitive
leaming? The trials mentioned in this section have provcd that mathematics can, in
fact. be leamed in this way. By starting fi"om the intuitive-emotional as a means of
apprNching pure and abstract matter. we ovcrcome the resistance oflcn put up
against mathematics. This method is endorsed by biological res~arch which, as
concems mathematics. holds the existente of an almost total Jack of formation of
(mCiti\·e memorics lright cerebral hemisphc:re). In his essay 'EI saber si ocupa un
lugar'(Knowledge does occupy a space), published in 1994, Osvaldo Panza Ooliani
bases his judgment on multi-comprehension, lhat is to say, on the development of a
scientifk disc ipline supponcd by ali sciences, the epistemological basis o f which is
natural evolutionary rigour. He holds that
allthe cYcnts that tal.:t place. be th~· orderly or disorderly, tum out to teach the human being
a lem•n. Therefore. \\hcn teaching. the incenti>;es are not just pclasogical. but various. The
thru issues rel3ted to binlogi~~~ findings '' hich should lcad lhe way to a new pcdagogy are:
3\ The fact thaL so f:ll". tn ching has scmcly cons!dered the biological tempo needed ror the
Npnisation of memork$. t>l Disregard of the fact that senso()· perception is the life of thc:
t-r.Jin and. consrquently. the lauer dcpends on it. c) Disregard of the fact that scnsory
r~rc~rtion dercnds on teacning.
341
' /0.2.1 Malhematical dramatisation
This method of te:~ching is not just intuitive. Whcn stullcnts writc or dance or
perform mathematics they work out, they analyze. organize and sol_vc. .
As well as inquiring into the potentialities, it is well to constdcr the ns~ ~nd
limits of mathematical dramatisation. Thc main risk lics in remaining at the tntttal
phase of the process, that isto say, at its intuitive, motivating stage..at the sta_ge of
mere fun. This means overlooking the educ:ational factor and, accordmgly, fathng to
transmit to lhe students the need of arriving at the pure matter, of anaining
mathematical rigour and an appropriate language. This w_ould reveal thatth~ teacher
has not understood thc: real motivating meaning of the htstory o f mathemattcs. We
have to work out strategies which may hclp us to approach practical as well as purc
and abstract mathematics, and that may have students realize that they are also
building up their knowledge when they spend long hou rs studying_by themselves.
Regard ing its limits, 1 consider the main problem ~o bc: ttme, wors~ned by
bureaucratic hindrances and disorganisation of the educauonal system. ThtS makes
it very difficult to devc:lop a coordinated task among parallel courses, which might
permit us to go deeper into this method in lower courses of high school, so as to ~e
free to work on pure, abstract mathcmntics in thc higher c~urses. Thc ~con~~11c
factor is a corollary of the _time issue since, among othcr thmgs_. teachers tratntn~
depends on it. The qualification of a few teachers and the effort mvested by them ts
not enough to guarantee the ful lillment ofthese aims.
Annex: Thc Museum Strategy
The work of the UK mathematics educators Eileen Pennington and Geoff Faux is
another ·example of exploring the potential of mathematícal dramatisation. In their
ten Iesson project No royal road to geometry (named after Euclid's r~ported
response when King Ptolemy asked for a shortcr route than by studymg the
EJemtniS) Pennington and Faux encourage children kl act the roles of ~us~um
designers who are working to bring ancient mathematics and it.s context to l~fe ~n a ·.
modem museum setting. By engaging the children in a second-level dramattsatton,
as it were, playing the pan of museum workers who may decide to play the part o f
Greek mathematicians. the situation is both ':"ore realistic and bencr able to meet
othe.r peda!;Ogic aims such as explicitly cncouraging research act!vities, de~ign and
other cross-curricular work and an even wider range o f coles for dtfferent chtldren to
adopt. In addition, the focus on needing to carry out a range o f research activitie.s i~
order to prepare lhe museum exhibit usefully helps pupils attend both to thetr
sourc:cs of information and to transmuting it for the bcnelit of others. The teacher
participates explicitly in an unforced way as the museum curator. This stratc:gy of
dramatisation provides much opponunity for childrcn in middle schools (the work ~f
Pennington and Faux is aimed particularly at I0-11 /ear olds) to develop thetr
understandings across a range of mathematical, historic:al and design subjects. For
example, there might be lively and valuablc discussion arnong the museu~
designers as to whether ancient Alexandria would bc likely to have had a publtc
· statue in the market-place labc:lled "Aristarchus ofSamos. 320 -250 BC"!

10 Non-standard media and other resources
Rder-cnctS for§ 10.2.1
Bcx~. P.. Pcdcmom: B. and Rob~lli E. 1997. 'Approac.hing thcorctical knowlcdge through
1
e>•c:s and tche>cs: :1 Vy~olsk•an pcrspcciÍ\·c'. PrCH:ctdíngs ofrhe 1/sr tmemarional
D ~on;~rtnr~ on tht Psycilology o{.lfmhemarics Education. L~hti, Finland. ii, 81-88
Ur.ln. ~tenro JO:~ 1996. lf~toria. con pusOIIIJjes. tÜ los r:onr:epros de/ cálculo, Madrid;
Ed. Ahanz:a L'mvcrs31. 17·22.
Hi"hc~k. <.R' in 199~ ·n .. __ .. · ~ . The history of mathematic:s can enter classroom activity, besides lhe olher ways
~ . - tt g, .uN cntcna~nmcm ; dramausing the binh and dcvdopma~t
. ofmamcnut~cal conccp1s·. For tl.t feanung ofmoJ/remat1cs 12 (I). 21-27
H•lchcod. Gl\ m 1996:~. 'Dram:uizing lhe binh and ad1•cnturcs of mathematical concepts·
11':0 dialogues·. in R Calinger (cd), I 'ita maJirematica: Msrorica f restare/r and inltgrall~n
>41th Ttaching. Washington: !IIAA 1996. 27-4 1
Hitchcock. Gavin 1996b. ·A window on the world of mathematics, 187 1: rcminiscenccs oC
. De Morglll-:-3 dr.~matic prcscntation". in E Vcioso (cd). Prac. HE.M. Broga ii. 35-42
., Hnchcock. Ga~-m 1997. 'Tcaching thc ncptii'CS. 1870-1970: a mcdley ofmodels', For rhe
lcarnrr.g CJj marhcmc!ics 17 (I). 17-25. ~2
Mu~oz S~toja. Jose. Carmen C3Stro. Maria Victori3 Ponz:~ 1996. 'Puedcn las malcmátit3S
nmar · : ~lima_ 22: Z;u';lgou: fedcración EspaAola de Sociedades de Profesores de
1\lltcm:lltnS. JUnto. 97-102.
P3.11~ oor13.111.· O. Ponu:'lo. P... 199~. Ef sabtr, si ocupa lugar. Córdoba: Ciencia Nucva. 13-
Penning.t~~- ~~k(n ,f,; Gc,>lT F:~uco; 19?9. ~xo:~Y11 rood to geomtll)•~: a ren ltsson project in
_mml.~ ?.,m,s. lu$tw;,· un.l drnmo jor _1-ear .> or 6. Dalston: Educn.tion lnítíotives
r<'an.::trc. l lrnn l<ll-1. ' !\bthcm:~tic:~l di~COitry·, in Scimct nnd mtthod, (Ir. Fr.lncis
!'lbllllllJ\.lonJ,•n: Nds,,n; rcpr. Nt\\ York: Do'·er 1952.46-63
Ponn. ~lariJ \'ictNÍJ l9<l6. 'Lo npcricncia intcrdisciplinaria cn la rcalitlad c.Juc3tiva de
ho~ · Su~u 21. Z:uagoll: fcdcr:~cióo Espaoola de Sociedades de Profesores de
Matrm:ihQS.. fcl:ortr<>. QJ.IOI
Pe>nz:L. ~'-_1ari3 \' ictori3 I ~98: ·:\ role for the history of mothcmatics in thc tcach ing and
_IC3t'l'lmg of lllJthcmJt•cs . .1/uth,·matics "'schoa/27 ( ~ ). 10-13
Ru•z RU3n:· P:~ub &: Pc:ez. Pilar 1996. 'Hipatia en el pais de las cmpatias', Re~ista Centro
de rro.rrsqrts dr Linarc;. Jaen: Con,ejeria de Educn.ción y Cicncia.. 9-18.
S:tutcr. fm\31ldo 1997 E/ w:.lor de rducar, Oarcclona; Aricl SA
"' .
343 . '·.....
'!:.'·
10.2.2 Ancient instrumen/s in the modern c/assroom .
10.2.2 Ancicnt instrumcnts in thc modcrn classroom
Maria G. Bartolini Bussi
discussed in this chapler, by investigating also copies of ancient instruments and
other artefacts, reconslruttcd on lhe basis o f historical sources. In muscums of the
bistory of scicnce throughout lhe world lhere are to be found beautiful collectio~s of
original instruments. We may refcr to the Musco di Sloria delta Seicnza, in Florcnce
(ltaly), to lhe Hilbert Raum of the Mathematies lnstitute in Gõttíngen (Gerrnany)
and to the Emperor Colleetion, stored in the Palace Museum of the Forbidden Cily ·
in Beijing (China), to mention justa fcw in dirferent parts of the world. Because of
thc delicacy of those preeious artefacts, vis itors are not usually allowed to touch
them. Hence an important part o f the experiente, narnely the visual taclile feedback
while bandling the instrument, is not accessible to teachers and students. lt would
be really more use fui to ha,·e rough yct working copies of them in the classroom
(preferably as physical objects, although computer simulations increasingly have a
role to play io this area). To provide even rough working models is not an easy
matter, especially for complex oncs, but some spccimens representative o f important
class of instruments could be built by teachers or students themselves (see CIEAEM
1958; Cundy & Rollet 1952). Herc we present briefly some ideas for instruments in
the modem classroom, catcgorizcc.J by thc mathcmatical subjcct maucr involvcd.
Arithmetic
Modem copies of arilhmctic historical artcfacts comprise for instante Mesopotarnian
tablets, different kinds of abaci and Napicr's rods. Mesopotamian tablels were made
of clay, but copies may be built now by plasticine, so allowing the same material to "'
bc uscd severa! times. Thc system of signs for numerais in thcir sexagesimal
COWlting system, an early positional system, may be introduoed in the classroom by
mcans of realistic re-creation of copies of the original tablets (Robson 1996; 1998)
and tbe tablets can be used for various problem-solving -and investigation activities
(Bums 1998; MacKir.non 1992).
Fig:ue 10.1: 987 654 321 on/he soroban
Jo!to Fau-.cl. lan van Maanen (eds.), /lisrory in mathematin .A..""''"" ·'
Dorrlrrrhs· 1l ' ........... "'"'"'" .. · · -
HI 10 Non-srandard media and other resource.s
The posi1ional system of nolation up lo lhe construction of algorithms for
arilhmetic operation is embodied by
severa! kinds of abaci: ins1ances are
givén by
lhe dust abacus of the Babylonians. lhe
line abacus of lhe Greeks, lhe grooved
abacus o f the Romans. the bead abati
in lhe Chinese (suan pan), Japanese
(soroban) or Russian (s 'choty}
vc rsions (Metallo 1990; Yoshinko
1963; Soyer 1968 ch. 12; Smith 1958,
156-196).
Multiplication in the decimal
positional system can be carried out by
using Napier's rods (early 17th
century). a way of utilising, in wood,
bone or cardboard, lhe principies of
thc ancicnt 'gelosia' method of
calculating on paper (Smith 1958, I O1-
128: Swetz 1994, 179-192). This may
be thought o f as an idea about carrying _
out arithmetic calculations with
carefully designed physical objects.
Later devices to the same end, true
calculating engines in lhe modem
sense, are less easily reproduced in the
classroom. Even the 17th century
engines (eg Schickard's, Pascal's or
Lcibniz's calculating machines, cf.
figure 10.3} involve quite complica1ed
machinery, let alonc !ater develop-
ments such as Babbage's difference
and analylical engines (Swade 1991).
Algebra
Figvrt /O 3. n,, dt1ign of o
Solving equations by mechanical
cokulatiug nrachint wrllich artefacts dates back to the classical age.
Schirkard se111 ro Krplcr in 16n The problem of finding two or more
mean propor1ionals be1ween two given
segments, that· is equivalent to solving
an equation of deg.ree at least three. lcad to the production of meanfinders or,
acct"rdin~ to lhe ancient n:1me. of e:oc.amples of mesolabon. Instantes are offered by
lhe mesolabon of Era1osthenes (Fauvel & Gray 1987, 83-85}. of Plato, of Dürer
tDOrer 15:!5'1995}. of Descartes (Fau"el &: Gray 1987: 344-5}. A mechanical
metht'd of solution o f equations is given by D' Alember1's machine (Diderot 1751):
/0.2.2 Ancient insr;umencs in the modem classroam 145
two working copies at least have been buill, in Pisa by Fmco Conti and in Grenoble
by Jean Marie Laborde.
Geometry
A very rich collcction of more than one hundred and seventy geometrical models
and instruments have been constructed in Modena (ltaly) by a group of secondary
l school teachers, under lhe scientific direction o f M. Bartolini Bussi. A virtual visit
might be done by surfing one o f lhe following sites: . .
I http://www.museo.unimo.iúlabmaú or http://www JJiusco.ummo.ltllhealruml.
The former is a trilingual (1talian, English, French) site updated to February 1997.
The latter is a monolingual site (ltalian) updated to Dectmber 1998 with doz.ens of
photos, animations and interactive simulalions: a copy 011 CD-rom may be. delive~ed
free to interested people who send a message to tbe author of th1s secuon
(bartolini@unimo.it). The artefacts are made with wood, plexiglass, brass, lead and
thrcads, on the basis o f historical sources from the classical ages to the nineteenth
century. For each model, historical shcets and activity shects for secondary and
universily studcnts are available.
A visit to thc collcction could start from thc visual txtilc explorntion ofthe most
ancient instrumcnts, namcly Platonic and Archimedeat solids and bir, size s~tic
models which illustrate lhe three-dimensional theory of conics. from the anc1ent
static models, to the compasses of the XVII century. The classical problems of
doubling the cube or trisecting the angle are considered. For the former, meanfmders
can be used (see above). For the laner, severaI trisectors•e available (see also Yates
1945b). o
There are also severa! instruments related to the lwo ttends that charactense
modern geometry from 1he seventeenlh ccntury onw•ds and carne together in the
Figure /0.4: /nstrumenr designed by van Schooren (1616J to draw 011 /ryptrbola. On .lhe
/eft 1/1e designfram rhe Exercitationum mathcmaticaruralibri quinquc. /656: onthe nght
the instrvmenr as ir is reconstrucred by rhe Laboratoriodi Marematica of rhe mrtStu~ of
the university of Moàena and Regglo Emilia. A Java-simtlcti011is ovailoble oJt CD 011d 011
rkintvner.
 I 10.2.2 A'hcic'nt instrumcnts in lhe modem classroom
lO Non-standard media and other re.sources
l3te ninetecnlh century: lhe mcchanical-analytical style iniliated by Descartes, and
\l
the projecth·e-synlhelical style initia1ed by Desargues. In lhe fonner area, lhere are
on show se\·er.1l curve-drawing devices 10 draw conics, cubics, quanics and curves
of hi~he\ degree :1nd pôllltogr:~phs to realise linear or more generally birational
tr.lllsfoml:llions. In panicular, the problem of drawing straight !ines (i. e. of
ttar~sfonning a circular motion into a linear molion) is illustrated by means o f the
link:!g.es \,'tlich re01lise the most relevant solutions proposed in lhe nineteenth
century. The history of the represenlation of curves (Bos 1981) can be explored
lhrou~ the instrumcnls l'rom the classical age (eg Nicomedes compass), lo the
works of Descanes and van Schooten, to the multifaceted study of organic
generation of curves (with Newton's contributions), up to the thcoretical proof o f the
possibility ôf drawing any general algcbraic curve, offcred by Kempe in 1876. 1n
"tthis case the story reaches forwards to today's development in pure and applied
mathematics (Bartolini Bussi. 1998).
In the case o f thc projtcti\'c·synthelicnl branch of gcometry, working models o f
prac1ical perspec1ographs can be used by students and teachers. These ins1ruments
(dating back to Dürer. Niceron. Scheiner, Larnbert and others) allow lhe exploration
of various gcomwicll 1hemes. In art. for inst:mcc, the production of real life
paintings that sive the illusion of reality, or anamorphoscs that can retum an
understandable imagc of somc1hing only when they are looked at from a very
panicular and unexpected point ofview. Desargues' and De la Hire's projective
a~pn:•ach to conics is illustrated by dynamical models that explain the genesis of
plane dcfinitit>ns. and Nc\\tOn·s study o f cubics by shadows is presented.
A complete imeracliYe catalogue, in ltalian, is in thc CD Rom realised by
Bartolini Bussi &:. ai. (1999) (see also 1hc webpage reference). A historical
excursion through the models conveys lhe idea of lhe progressive expansion of
geometry tltat goes along wi1h the introduction of more and more lheoretical
Frgurr /O 5: Durrr ·s 'prrspecrograp!J · w11h thrce strings. i11 tht \'enion from tht
L'nd~f\\C~ sur.~tl!-:!5! andas a modr/111 tht ,\ lodtna unwtrsity museum
inmuments :0\et thc centuri.:s. An example is offered by the shil\ from Euclid's
geomeuy, bastd on 1he ~tr.lightedge and compasses-in which contcxt problcms like
the trisection cf ang.k and thc duplica1ion of cubc \\Crc (it cvcnlua!ly turncd out)
th~l.'rcl icJII~ tll1'S.l'habl~-1u Dcscancs· gcomctry. Here the same problems became
347
solvable by means of olhcr kinds of mechanical de~_ces to be com;eived as
lheoretical instruments. This shift paves lhe way to a cnttcal approach to t~e more
sophisticated electronic instruments that are today available: ~he computer ts m~ch
more flexiblc than ancient instruments, yet the unde~standmg of lhe ~nderlymg
lhc:oretical assumptions that make it possible to solve problems (approxunately or
rigorously'?) is more difficull and hidden inside lhe black box.
Applied mathematics
Nearly al\ the instruments from ancicnt and modem te~hnology embody a lot of
mathematics hidden in the ins1rumcnt ilself and acccsstble only through a careful
and intentio~al analysis. Just to quote some examples, we refer ~o astronomical
instruments such as sundials and asttolabes (Ransom 1993), tnstruments for
navigalion (Albuquerque 1988a, 1988b; Ransom 1993), for surveying ~Kiely 1947;
Eagle 1995, 65-74) and mechanical instruments (Gille 1978). A very nch catalogue
i.s in lhe 1972 reprint ofBion's classicallreatise ( 1758).
Examplcs of classroom activity
Classroom activity witb instruments of the kind described in this section can take
place in severa! ways, ofwhich lhere are tw~ main cat~gories: ..
1. visiting the instruments, either in reahty or a vt_rtual vtst~ (eg. by mea~ of
vídeos, computer simulations, CO roms, or websttes). Thts can a~dress tn an
agreeable way the cultural dímension of mathematics, s~cb as the hnk b~twee.n
visual tactile and intcllectual activity in mathemattcs, and the dtalecttc
intera~tion between pure and applied mathematics over the centuries. .
2. specific classroom activities for helping students experiente thc tasks. of wforkmg
mathematícians (eg constructing proofs) or develop thc underslandmg o some
specífic piece of knowledge. .
Pupils can handle inslruments with mathema:tcal goals from very early. An
interesting example is given by a Portuguese prOJCCI. ~n th.e last.decade a number o f
teachcrs of malhematics in Portugal have been explonng 10 thetr lessons the theme
of 1Sth and 16th century Portuguese voyages. In the past, this theme was used
mainly by general hislory teachers, and lhe relevante of"inathemalics as a maj~r way
to understand the processes used in high sea navigation by the Portu_guese na:•gators
was almosl neglectcd. But during thc school year 1991-1992, a nattonal proJeCl was
set up which involved around three hundred pupils of 8th and 9th grades. They
inlerpreted marine rules, studied maritíme principies, built and graduated models of
nau1ical instruments, and lcamcd how to use thcm lo measure lhe altitude of the
stars. They uscd and developed their knowledge of mathematics to undcrstand lhe
basic principies o f astronomical navigation (Veloso 1992, 1994).
This is but one example of the way an infonned teacher can make use . of
hislorical ideas involving instruments, devices and artefacts from the pasl to ennch
their matbematics lessons and allain various education 11,oals. I givc referentes here
·ror some other examples, ata range of educationallcvcls:
perspcclobfaphs (scc figure 10.5) in primary school (Bartolini !3ussi 191J6)
gears in grades 3-6 (Bartolini Bussi & ai. 1999)
J.JS lO Non-standard media and o/h,• .;urces
- Napier"s rods in grildes 5-6 (Navarra 1994)
lhe kaleidoscope for midd!e-school geometry classes (Graf & Hodgson 1990)
- linkages in grades 6·8 (Damiani et ai. 1998; Yates 1945a)
- cross-s'taffand sundials in years 't0-12 (Ransom 1993)
- pan1ographs in grade li (Bartolini Bussi & Pergola 1996)
curve drawing devices in grades 12 {van Maanen 1992; Dennis 1995; Dennis
~ 1997)
- pulleys in calculus teaching (van Maanen 1991)
- 3-<limensional theory o f conics in grade I 2 (Bartolini Bussi & Pergola 1994)
- abaci for prospecti\·e leachers (Metalio 1990) .
")
Figure /0.6: A ·~ompasso perfeito'. nre jirst /tg ca11 be p/aced OI O ji.ted a11g/e /Owards
tht plane. tht length of tlle second leg is voriablt through a pin wlrich can slrifl in/o a
tubt. Htrt tht drsign by Boro=i (Admirandum iltud geometricum problema. Venfce
1586) and lhe moJe/ bui/r in .lfodena.
1t is quite difficult to compare difTerent methodologies in such a short space. What
setms to t-e sharl'd is the focus on mnnipul:\tive activity: it means that instruments
are not only looked at but really handled by the students. This tactile dimcnsion add
something specific lo thc historic:ill dimension o f olllhe nctivities lhat are described
;trroughout this wholc book. We can wonder why tactile activity turns out to be so
tmportant not only with young pupils but also with high school students and adults.
Surel~: a part of lhe answcr is in motivation: not Jeast, people who do not like
mathemaucs (we_could _say, especial~!' people who do not Jike mathematics) enjoy
recourse to phys1cal obJccts, closer to their everyday experience than blackboards
full of symbolic equations (hencc the success o f 'hands on' scientific exhibitions, ali
over th~ world) .. But this is only a part of the story and, maybe, the less important.
In tacule expenencc there is an importao! part of the cognitive foundations of
mathemalical activity. ' Dennis, David 1995. Hislorical perspectivesfor the reform ofmothematics curriculum:
·/0.2.2 Ancient instrumcnls in tire modern classraom 349
An interesti ng epistemological analysis of the abacus (and of other important
media) is offered by Brian Rotman. The abacus is a machine whic:h kceps track of
the processo f counting, :md Rotman ( 1993, 33) points out that
to move from abacus lo paper is lo shifl from a gtstural mcdium (in which physical
movements are given oslensivcty and transiently in rclation lo an cxtcmal apparatus) to a
graphic medium (in which pcrmanenl signs, having their origin in thcse movcmcnls, are
subject to a syntax givef\ indcpendenlly of any physic.el intet])retation).
A similar analysis c~uld be done for most o f the instruments described above. This
cognitive aspect is analysed by Bartolini Bussi &. ai ( 1999) for the genesis o f the
sign 'arrow' to denote orientation. In a similar way, Dennis (1995) studies the
genesis o f the idea of variable and o f singular points o f a curve in the manipulative
activity with curve drawing devices o f the geometers of the 17th century. In this
way many important experientes and conceptual transitions from the past may be
replicated in today's mathematics classroom.
Rcfcrcnccs for §10.2.2
Albuquerque de L. 1988a. Asrronamical novigalion, Lisboa: National Ooard for lhe
Celebralion o f lhe Portuguesc Oiscovcries
i\lhuquentne de 1.. l'lR8b. /nsrrrullellf.t o/11ovigorimr, tisho:•: Naliona\llo~ru for lhe
Celebration of lhe Portuguese Diseoveries
Bartolini Bussi M. & Pergola M . 1994. 'Mathcmatical machines in lhe classroom: lhe his1ory
of eonic ~ections', in Mal ara & Rico (ecls.). rrnc. nftlrc l.tl ltnlion·Sprmi.<lr sym,wsium in
marlremotics educafion, Modena: Oipartimcnlo di Matem~lica, 233-240
Bartolini Bussi M. & Pergola M. 1996. 'History in lhe mathematics classroom: linkagcs and
kinematic geomctry', in Jahnke H. N., Knoche N. & Otte M. (eds.), Gtschichfe der
Mathematik in der Lellre, Goeuingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
Bartolini Bussi M. 1996. 'Malhematical discussion and perspective drawing in primary
school', Educarional sludies in mathematics 31, 11-41 .
Butolini Bussi M. 1998. ' Drawing instruments: theories and practices from history to
didactics', Documenta mathemolica- afro volume lCM 1998 iii, 735-746.
Bartolini Bussi M., Boni M., Fcrri F. and Garuti R. 1999a. 'Early approach to theorelical
thinlting: gcars in primary school', Educational srudies in-.mathemacics 39, 67-87
Bartolini Bussi M.• Nas i 0., Martinez A., Pcrgola M. Zanoli C. & ai. 1999b. Labora/orio di
mate marica: rheatrum macltinarum,l CO rom del Museo (I), Modena: Musco
Universitario di Storia Naturale e della Slrumenntazione Scicntifica
Bion M. 1758. The constrrtctlon and principal uus ofmallrematícaf instrumenls, (repr.
1972), London: The Holland Press
Bos H. J. M. 1981. 'On lhe rcpresentation of curves in Descartes' Géomi trit', Archivefor
· history of txacr scien~es 24, 295-338.
Boyer C. B. 1968. A hlsrory ofmathemalics, John Wiley & Sons.\-
Bums, Stuart 1997. 'The Babylonian clay lablet', Matlremalics te~ching 158, 44.45
CIEAEM 1958. Lt matérfel po11r l'ensefgnemel!/ des mathématiques, Neuchatel: Delachaux
Cundy H. Martyn & Roltet A. P. 1952. Mathematfcal modeis, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Oamiani A. Me/ o/. 1998. 'De l'élude d'un "mod~le dynamique" aux délin ilion: un parcours
· interactir, Proc. ClEAEM 49 (Setübal), 377-384.
geometric cun.-e drawing devices and lheir role in rlre lransition to an algebraic
description offunctions. doctoral thesis,lthaca: Comell University
 lO Non-standard media and other resources
/0.2.J fnq!!iring marhemarics wirh history and software .·'. ....
J50
t.

Dcnnis. D;~,;d & Je~ Confre~· 1997. 'Drawing logarithmic cur\'es wilh <kometcr's
skctchpad: 3 mCJhod inspircd by hislorical sourccs', In: J.R. King andO. Schallschneider 10.2.3 lnquiring mathematics with history and software
(cds) Gtomtrr;o· turned on 1 ( •••).Washington: MAA. 147-156
Didcrot Denis&. d' Alcmbcrt. I751. 'Constructcur uni versei d'cquations', E.ncycloprdie Masa.mi Isoda
Dilrcr. Albrcchl 1 52~11995. Giomitrit ( 1525), priscnl:llion ct trôlduclion de J. Pfeiffcr, P2fis:
Seuilt trnn~lation o f l'nden•·tynmg der Mruung) Many mathematical instrurnents are di5cussed in lhe pre~ous sec~~~~ se~~~
EJgle. l\1 Ruth 1995. E.tplorillg mathtmolics tiJrnugJr hiJtor:r. Cambridge: Univcrsity Prcss instrument can also be represented by some computer s~. ware:
FaU\cl Jo~ & Gr.~y Jcrcmy 1987. n~ lristor;o• ofmatllrmatics: a reader. London: MacmiUan
discusses software from lhe viewpoint of íntegrating tradtllonal tlnestruof ~oe;c~p:;~
Gille B. 19•8. Hisrorrt drs ttclrmquu. P;uis: Gallim:trd h .cal· ·ry in lh· classroom As an examp
Graf. Klaus-Oictcr and Hodgson. lkmard R. 1990. ·fopul;uizing gc:omctrical conccp1s: the computers for mat emau tnqut , ~ , · · d b th r. ·nstruments and for
case o f lhe k:llddoscopc'. For rhe /earning ofmorhematics lO (3). 42-50 integration, in what follows the word tool may stan o or I
Kicly. Edmond R I9-H. Sun·eying instruments: tlteir history ond c/assroom use, NCTM 19th malhematical software. ,· . d
yt";U"book. Ncw \' ork: Columbia Uni"crsi1y Malhematics software enablcs us to rcprcsenl mathcmaucs. on a computer an
Maancn. Jlil '31\ 1991. 'L'Hopnars \\cighl ptoblcm·. Forthe lraming ofmarlte1111llics 11 change this represenlation depending on mathematical rules. Ftgure s~owsb~e
'?·7.
"? (~\. J~-17 recent history of software iMovation for general users o f ~at~emaucs.. ra~~!
~bJ.Ilcn. Jan 'an 199~. ·s~wntc~ntb ccn1ury ins1rum.:n1s for drawing conic sections', · Software (Aigebraic Exprcsscr, Function Probe, Calculus Unhmrled, _ele.), D~heets
.\loJrhrmtWC<lf s.:::wr 761~761. 212-230 Geomet Software (DGS) (Cabri, Geometer's Sketchpad, e~c.), Sprea .
!llac Kinnon. l'o:id; 199~. 'llllmagc lu l);~b~ !unia' . •lfmlwma/lcol ga::elle 76 t475). 158-178.
~lttallo F. R. I 990. Thc a/o11cus: IIS hiJtor;o· and oppl1catío•u. Himap: Module 17
\
J
(Excel, i.otus, etc.); Compuler Algebra Systems (CAS) (Denve, Mathe~;~c~~
Ma le etc) Using functions or macros, some of lhese packages can be ex te .
Xa\31r.l G. 199~. ·Dalla mt>ltiplicuione a "gelosia" ai bastondni di Genaille'. Atti I desr , spe;ial instruments. Some were develope~ for research, but the evoluuon o f
lhe ~erface bas made such software more accesstble to general users. '_fhesc days,
lnttrnucltí Sc-~tola drii'Obbl•go tSa.fsomaggiore Ttrme), 23-28
RJ.Il~Om. Pctcr 1993. ·:--;a,·igation and sul'·c~;ng: tcaching gcometry lhrough lhe use ofold
in~trum~nt~·. in . IRE~ I d~ f\lontpcllier ted.) Actcs de la Ire Univ. d'tlt Europ., 227-239
many malhematical software pac:kagcs int:orporate multip~e represenlatlon ~~alur~
Rob!-Qn. Elc~r 1996. ·from l~k to lhbylon: 4500 yc~rs ofMc:sopolamian rnalhtm31.ics', (Yerushalmy &. Schwartz \993, 47) and enable us to use 11 on lhe world wt e we
in Proc UE.\f rBrogoJ) i. 35-~.1 with Java (Cabri Applet, Sketchpad Applct etc).
Rob~C'n. EkJ.Ilor 1998. ' Counti ng in cuneiform', Marlttmarics in schoo/21 (4), 2-9
Rounan. Brian 1987. Sigm,l;nng nO!hing: tlle semi01icr of :era. Stanford University Prcss Singlr
l.iupbins
Smith. Da,·id Eugene 1958. Histor;o·ofmarlte.matics ii: special ropics oftlemtntary &pr<~UIIOtion Ctkulllo<
marhemalics. Ncw York: Oo\"cr Software ..s
e•• on
Numcncal
S"adc. D. 199 1. Chorles Babbage and his calculating rngi11es, London: Science Museum C•kularioo
S"cll. Fcank 199~ . Ltarning acti'<itics from tht h<stary ofmatllematics, Ponland: Wakb Gr>pbin'
Cak.lbror ..O
,. clo!oO. Eduardo 199~. · Ponugucsc discovuics: a source o f inlercsting activities in lhe Com pule:<
Algcbf&
mathcm>~tics classroom ·. papcr prescntcd to Toronto mccting o f HPM Study Group. &Gromtl
\'c!~. Eduardo 199-t ·PraclicaJ uses o f mathcmatics in thc p3SI: a his:orical approach to lhe
k:t.ming o f mathcm3tics·. Proc. .\1'111 P.IIE Conftrenr:e (Lisboa) i. 133·136 Af/er Mid 90's
\';llcS. Rot>m 19~~a. ·Linkagcs'. in .lfulti·SfiiJOt;~•aicfs i11tl" ttaching ofmathemarics,
NCTM 18th Y<:;uboot. Ncw \'ar\:: Columbia Unhcrsily, I 17-129
lnttgration
tlJ Envíronment I
\.
\'ate$. Rot>cn I 945t>. 'Tri~cction ·.in .lf~<lti·s~mol)· mds i11tile reachi11g of marllemarics,
(Nsxl Grnmuon's Handhe!d Malht,alig Içjjí)
NCT!II1Sth Ycarl-N>k, Ncw York: C'olumbia Unhcrsity, 146-153
Yoshin~o. Y. 1963. Thr Japa•1es~ abar~<s t.tp/oJm~d. Ncw York: Oover f igure 10.7: EYDiutíon of mathcmatic-s software for general ~ers
Web references
Comi . Severa! studies have already indicatcd lhe power of multiple repres~nlation tools
http://•~~.sns.it/html/OlttellCompasso/Mostra­ for knowledge construction. Through the use ofthese lools, w~ can asstst sludents to
Nate!natica /mostra/macchina.htm translate and inlerpret concepts through various representattons (Lcsh, Landau &.
Banolini Bussi
http: I lw-.:-.:. rnusec_. unimo . i t/labmat/
http: / /~ww.~u seo.unioo.it/theatrum/
" (cds.), Hisrory in morlrrmarics ~ducation: rhe ICMI study,
John Fauvcl. Jan van
Dordrccht: Kluwct 2011• ' \1·358
35: IO Non-standard media and ocher reso11rces 10.2.3 lnquiring matlrematic.s with history ond software 3;51

Hamilton 198~. :!71: 1\.aput 1989. 171; lsod:l 1998a. 270), and hclp students' inquiry
imo mathematical idcas.
10.2.3.1 1 lnquiry using multiplc nprcsentation tools: a historicnl view
To use sonwarc and instruments for mathematical inquiry. we should identify some
features o f tools used in such inquirics. In the following. the roles o f tools and the
contcxt for using them are discussed l'rom a historical viewpoint. In addition, an
In thc lasi decade, thc muhiple rcpresentation environment of tools has
encouraged new laboratory appro~chcs and has changed leaming contex~s
(Zimmermann et a/\990; Leinbach et a/1991). This environment helps students m
their mathematical inquiry through multiple represcntations (see figure 10.8, \soda
1998a, 269). In this environment, no undue emphasis should be given to a particular
representation or tool so that students will bener appreciate the power and beauty of
various representations or tools.

...
e~xamplc o f students' inquiry is presented.
A loto f historical examples indicate the following roles of tools in inquiry:
Oiseussion ~
ai detcrmining.the subject ofthe mathematical inquiry; ~
bl giving 3 method for the m3thematical inquiry:
c) re,ealing the cpistemological obstacles inherent in using such tools in the epresentations
... s~ecific comext. using
Th~ cbssicaltools of ruler and compasses are well known examples for ali three of Paper and Penei/
these roles. ea
As Da' id Dennis and Jcrc Confrey ( 1997) discussed. the problem of using tools Situation,
is cl osel~ rebted to tl1e protolem of represent:~tion because any tool can be used to Phenomenon
repre;.ent :1n idc:a. FN ~~Jmple. in the 17th century Descanes (1628) lnmented the via /nstrumenl
loss ('tf !_!(e>metric intuiti<'n P<'Ssessed by the ancients. So. in 1637 he applied an
algetoraic re~re~entation to the :mcients' geometry and tried to develop a new
:mJI~ sis <'f ho'' to c-arry out mathematical rcsearch. He felt the restriction of ruler Figure /0.8: /nqulry based on tools which ollow Multiple Represtntolion
and t<'mpass 1\':IS strange as hc could use many tools outside the context of"Euclid.
\\'e should recognise the following points about the context for using tools:
1. "e c:~n change the role of tools depending on the context;
~. "e can support students' underst::~nding through the changing of tools and For example, Jan van Maancn (1991) discussed his classroom teaching activity
representati<'ns. based on L'Hõpital's weight problcm (L'Hõpital 1696, 62) with physical
History tells us that the tools used for mathematical inquiry are themselves instruments (figure 10.9).
refC'rmulated using mathematical (especially algebraic) representations, as
mathematicians in the scientific re,·olution tried to select, flnd or construct
conYenient representations and instruments for their research. Even though Pascal Let F be a put!ey, hanging freely at thc
(16-10) tried to r~tain the ancients' geometry for the discussion o f truth, we find that cnd of a rope CF which is fastened a\
C, nnd let D be a wcight. D is hanging
::!00 y~ars \ater his projective geometry was reconstructed using algebraic
at the end of the rope DFB, which
representation. Such computational contexts have cnabled mathematicians to passes behind the pulley F and is
derelop innov:~~ive sol\ware for mathematics. so that everyone can use multiple suspendcó at 8 such that the points C
representntion sonware on computers. In thc: area of education, the increasing &nd 8 are on the same horizontal tine.
dominancc of algebraic formulation of mathematical ideas strongly influenced 44· One supposes that the pulley and the
school mathematics untilthe age of modemisation. The positives are balanced by ropes do not have mass; & one asks nt
some negative aspects. Today, in many countries, students, and even leachers, have whal placc lhe weight D or the pullcy
no opportunity to lcam about the higher c:oncept of geomctric represcntation of Fwitl be.~. -
curves because they have only leamed about curves through algebraic Using this physical problem,
representation. To guarantee student inquiry, we should avoid anti-didactic Figure /0.9: The problem fronr tht Analyse dcs
L'Hõpital
infiniment petits {1696) thot L'H6pitol used to demonstrates the
iÍ\\'ersion (Frcudenthal 1973. 122). Thus we should add the following additional significance of the method of
point about the context for using tools: . . sl1ow che powar ofthe dif!erentlal ca/culus
calculus by showing that the result
• . although the gcnerality or viability of a mathematical ideas dep~nds on the
is same as that obtained by the mcthod of geometry. The problem can be
represent:nion. we should gh·c: students the opponunity to select, find or create
investigatcd in today's classroom using a concretc modcl, through thc means of
new tools e>r reprcsentations for constructing knowlcdge.
computer algebra (CAS) or dynamic software (DGS). Masami !soda observed
 10.2.3 Jnquíring mathematics with history and software
355
lO Non·standard media and oriJer resources

under!;radU3te students' mJthematical inquiry: the roles a, b. c :md the contexts I, 2, . .

3 \\ere contirmcd. Using such tools. studenls exptrienced lhe visual correspondente
between geometric represent3tions of molion and sraphical representations of
motion. the emergence o f the same equations by differemiation and by geometrical
re3Soni n~ the correspondence be1ween data from measurement and lhe resuhs of
môlthematics and so on. These correspondcnces are not the same as in L'Hôpital's .~ Ellissoyalo di Van Sd>OO\tn
discussion br;t sludents are able to experiente the methodologica\ correspondence ~~: l.'ulll AB h• reotre,.• B doti1.0
1:-~tween geometry and calculus lhat L' Hõpital wished to highlight. Thus students ...---:-;-- di •• c.-.ore SCO<Te••'- nela
appreciJte lhe power ;md beauty from these correspondences. ·. :.,';. s<:.n.alatun re\tiWM:a c. m-tn\re
· h su OA t Ílbpomilla in 0 td
õoe<ornier~l• in A ali' uu AB in
10.2.3.2 Technology and history ao<» ltlo che MJ;.Afr- L
f oc...SO ocor.ore i INnto B
Technology tan help sludents to uoderstand history bener, and thus mathematics nela \CanaCatt,n,. un pun\o P
okrtslll AS ta distanra d ll• Sl
more deeply. \\'hen students rc:~d Oescancs· Gl!omctl)· bascd on lhe ir knowlcdgc of , . . . ok..,;.,e ""' ellisM..
school alget-rair ~COJ!l~l):. thcy cannot underst:md it vcry well because they are not
staning liom v.hen: Dtsc3nes was staning. Dcscanes was trying lo make a new · . ...______...,..... "' ......
uni, erse of rmthcmatks beyond classical geomctry, including moving beyond the ·.....
lirr.it o f three ~ometrical dimensions. If studcms think that, say, multiplication is .. ·..
rci-rotsenled ~· numerically and graphs are scts of ordercd pairs, lhen it is difficult
for •hem to tlllderstand Descancs' gcometrical reasoning. Bul i f they try to draw
·-~~.~ ~::~.:.~-:~
each figure inllis. Cc!om<'lf)' using Drnamic Gcometry Sol\ware. lhey easily find out :.(~~.'"~;
""'·.,.:~:-:­
"h· :>e~canesli.ld to discuss the geometric representation ofmultiplication from the .......·,.1.· - r 1- ~~> . 1 --.. 1 ··....: ··
t-eg:·ming.. So ~dmology hclp us to understand the hislory mon: appropriately. But
th:. remains.-adistinct cognitivc difference between Descartes and the studenls. By =--·--·- - - -- ------'• ct..

using. DGS. s\Jlicnts' understanding may well come closer to that ofOescanes. But
D(s,::'.fles' lamm that the :~ncient intuitions had bcen lost cou\d not be understood
by stJ lents. m1 kast ~use DGS givcs them altemative intuitions for inquiry.
Desc :es haJ! to. reconstruct mathematics based on algebra as a new way of
knowlng. So lhe use of technology is not puning students back into Descanes'
fr.lme \)f minlibUit is t>roadcning their awarcncss of the richness o f mathcmatics and
its TCINS . Onr o( the major pcdagogical concems for many years has been that
student5 ha\·e ToS! the opponunity to experience classical geometrical intuitions,
"hich are noti12iJia:ed by a haze o f algebraic symbols; DGS begins to offer a chance
to re-expcric~some age-old intuitions.
In a simillllr'~·. modem programmable calculators cnab\e today's students to
rede calculalims 0f former times. oficn to !;fCater accuracy and far funher inlo the
calculation. 111 t::1JPturing in a few seconds a calculation which may have taken a
sixtecnth ccntul!'asttonomer days or months, sludents are arguably not recapturing
thc experiente llf old but g.cncra1ing a frcsh one. In some cases today's students
may bc 3ble loífcd thin~s in lhe figures which their predecessors could not.
Another cs: in point is the Japanese mathematics wasan, or traditional
mathcmatics (!mitil and 1\tikami 1914). Some ofthe high levei numerical mcthods
dcrelClped in hg:r.a before the influx of wcstem malhematics in the ninctcenth
cenrua;· ha1 c \1!eti lClst: ali lha! is ~nown is 1hJt they were differcnt from westem
proof-based maflan3tics. and that thc results are correct. The comparison o f results
tclls us thc co~ ss Clf 13panese lost methods, but we could not know the method
by thi~ CCimp::li!mn. To explore what thcir mcthods might have been, computer
~\omu1'nb
•..:.!
.·' .. . ·-:-.1 ~· .· ': . ..iiíTí
Figure 10.10: j(llla opp/et of elli(ne compass by l·on SchOOlen, on a JapaJ1ese web-page
that ~isirs Darrolini BuSJi's 'mwe1U11' (http: I /www .rnuseo. unimo· H/lilbma t/ J
software is available to track through the calculations under different hypolheses. ll
is thus a powerful tool for checking conjectures a~o.u~ histori~al methods •. as ~ell as
doiog mathematics, but also it introduces the posstbthty of mtsunderstandmg,~ust as
much as if we make conjectures about ancieot methods of sand-board calcutauon by
using paper and penei L
10.2.3.3 lntegrating approach with too\s . , .
There are many research projects which have been designed to cxa~tne lhe
integration of mathematics wilh tools. Some ongoing projects are atmed at
curriculum development of mathematics with tools and othcrs at lhe development o f
a curricu\um which integrates malhematics and history, but each of them adopts
bistory in the classroom. .
As examples of projects that focus on curriculum devclopment ~tth t<X?ls, lere
Confrey and David Oennis (1995, 1997) in lhe US, ao~ \ater Masamt !soda m Japan
(1991, l998b), have designed projects for tL·· mtegratton of ~cometry, al~ebra ~d
calcu\us using drawing instruments, and m\••:•;•lc representauon software tncludtng
 IO Non-standard media and otlrer resources / 0.2.3 /nquiring mathematics with history and software J57

DGS. Their physic:al instruments are made from a changeablc p~ns set. so new students to make a drawing tool from LEGO with different parameters, some
instruments are easy to construct. To allow studems to consrruct instruments, Jere students changed the parameters o f the figure on OGS first: which led to success. In
Confrey and Masami Isoda (see Web reference) began to use LEGO. Their projects short, various representations support students' mulliple reasoníng abilities and the
used tools,for inregrating multiple representations which are supported by history. development o f their relational understanding.
Here ase tv;o examples of projects that focus on lhe development of a
curriculum which integrates mathematics and history. Recently in ltaly, the project
of Maria G. Banolini Bussi devetoped Java tools (figure 10.10} for her virtual References
~athematicallaboratol')· and now in her project. many kinds of representation tools, Anarello F., Miche!cui C., Olivcro F., Paola O. & Robuni 0., to appear. 'The transitíon to
iristruments and software are available for the teaching of mathematics and history formal proors in geometry', in: Paolo Boero (ed.), Th~oref11S in school: from history and
(see § 10.2.1). Arzarello's project in ltaly originally named EuCart (Euclid & tpúttmology to c()gnitíve and tducmiOttal issues, Dordrecht: Ktuwer
Descartes) is focused on the teaching of proof. The project uses the multiple Anarelto, F., Olivero. F.• Paola, O. & RobuUi, O~ in press. I problemi di eostrulione
rcpresenration tools of DGS and CAS. In the project, there is a focus on three gcometriea con raiuto di Cabri: L'inscgnamento delta matematica e deite scienze integratc
ilistorical periods. Euclid. Descartes and Hilbert, with an introduction of original Bartolini Bussi M.. Nasi O.. Martinez A., Pergola M. Zanoli C: tt a/. 1999. Laboratorio di
Matematica. Thcatrum Machinarum. I CO rom dcl Musco (I). Modena: Museo
sources in the classroom. framed b" the teacher's introduction. DGS is orientcd to
Universilllrio di Storia Natura te c delta Strumcnnuzione Scientifiea
de\'eloping the semantics o f proof ~,·h ilst CAS is oriented to develop the syntax of
Dennis, David & Jere Confrey, 1995. 'Functions ofa curve: Leibniz's original notion of
proof. functions and its mcaning for the llarabola', College matftemaJics journa/ 26. 114-131
Dcnnis, David. and lere Confrey, 1997. 'Drawing logarilhmic curves with Gtometer's
10.2.3.-4 Beyond each tool's d isaduntages skttchpad: a mcthod inspired by historieal sourccs', in James R. King and Doris
An insrrument can be made from m:my kinds of representations.. Each Schauschneider (eds,) Geometry tumed on! Dynamíc software in learning, teaching and
rcpresentation of it has ad\'antages 3nd disadvantages. One aim of integrating research. MAA, 147-156
':lfiC>us tools (Ir rerresentations isto de\'elop the student's competence for selccting Descartes René 1628. 'Rulcs for thc dircction ofthc mind', in E. llald3nc, G Ross (te). The
o ? and creating appropriate tools or philosophical warlcs of Descartes. Cambridge, 1-77
Descartes. R. 163711954., The GtomttryofRene Descartes. (D. E. Smith & M. L. Latham
_____ r : ;;. _ representations. For example, in the
/,...- 11 ~ ''-.. Algebra, geometry and cafculus for ali
ed., tr.) Open Court. 1925; reprinl Ncw York: Dover Publ. 1954
Frecdenthal, H. 1973. Mathematlcs as an educational task. Dordrecht: Reidet
t. ' ~- .1. , _L_~'l;1 \~:... project by !soda (1999), students were !soda M. ( 1997), 'Connecting mathematits "'ith machine engineering and art: ~tives for
, ~?>7, 1
• , ·- • asked to explore ellipses, with original
•
calculus end gcometry ror :~11 vi;~ technology·, in W. Yang & Y.l!asJn (eds). Procttáings
'-.._.~'? 1 ..~·-/ pictures by Van Schooten (Maanen of tht 2nd Asian Ttchnology Conftrenct in Matlrtmatics, University or Malaysia, 60-70
·· - -cc ..-- 1992: see also figure 10.11), using !soda M. (l998a), 'Mathematical inquiry enhanced by harmonizcd approach via technology'.
various representations. When in H. Park et a/, (eds), ProuedinRS of!CMF.-EARCOME 3. 267-278
students used physical pieces of !soda M., t998b. 'Dcvcloping lhe curriculum for curves usins history and tecnnology', in W.
LEGO. they commented on the Yang et a/ (eds). Procetdings ofthe Third Asian Technology Conftrence in Mathematics,
changing of physical resistance when Springer, 82-89
lhey tried to draw an etlipse. In the !soda M., 1999. Annu31 rcport of' Algebra, gcomctry ond calculus for all' projcct, 6 vols
case of DGS, they did not. With (wrillcn in Japanese) .
physical tools, students discussed the Kaput J.• 1989. 'Linking represcntations in thc symbol system ofalgcbra', S. Wanger and C.
Kicran (eds), Research issues in the /earning and teaching of algebra, Lawrcnce Erlbaum
difficulty of using them for drawing.
Associates, 167·194
In the case of DGS, students could Lesh R., Landau M. & Hamilton E., 1983. 'Conceptual models and applied mathcmatical
Figr1rt /O. I/: l'an Schootttl ·s tllipse-
d:rm•·crs (/6l61: a scrctn sl•o•ring a Java draw some parts of an ellipse quite problcm-solving research', in R. Lesh and M. Landau (eds),Acquisition ofmathematical
simularion is sholl'n in figr~rt 10. !O. easily, but to draw other parts they concepts and processes, Academic Prcss, 263-343 ~. ·
needed addit ional constructions and Leinbach L. et ai, 1991. The laboratoryopproach to teaching calculus, Washington, OC:
this advantage led to misunderstandings by some students. A student reportcd that Mathematical Association of Ameriea
we must ftr'St solve equations if we ase to represent an etlipse using BASIC. L'HOpital, Guillaume Francois Antoinc de, 1696. Analyst dts infinimtnt pelfls, pour
Students began to change parts without the teacher' s intervenlion because they had . l 'intelligenct des lignes courbts
experience o f changing LEGO parts when they were young. But students did not try Maanen, Jan va.11, 1991. 'L'Hõpilal's weight problcm', For rl1e learning of mathematics 11.1,
to change equation parameters until the teacher suggested it. By using LEGO and 44-47
DGS. students could find the general equation of an ellipse. Wben teacher asked the
 lO 1\'on-srandard media und orllcr resources
:\ta.111cn. Ja.n va.n. 1992. 'Sc,·cntccnth ccntury instrurnents for drawing conic scctions',
.1/athrmoriro/ ga:ettt i6. 222-230
$r~lllh. Da' id Eugcnc &. Yt,shio ).!ikumi 191~ . ..r hislory o/Jc1pa11cse mmhemalics. Chicago:
Orcn Coun
\" cru~ha1m~' ~1. & Sdl":l.rt~ J. 1993. ·seiling thc opponunity to makc ali!ebra
m Jth~maucJIIy and rcdlgogically intcrcsting·. in T. Romhcrg. ct al (cus). brrtgrnlitrg
. rrs,·,trc-/r Q1! rhr ~raphH"ül rcprrsrnlolion offimclrOIIS. Lnwrcncc Erlbaurn Assoe.. 41·68
Zommcrmann ,\.. a?d ~unningh:un S. (cds). 1991. f"isun/i:ation illleachillg anú itar11iug
ma fio.; malta.\\ ashongton: Mathcmatica1 AssociJtion of Amcrica
Web reference
Confrc~. Jcre. and :\lasami Isoda
~: ~!=": .: I l J(.l. l5S. 186. ll ir.:a thedu/mathedu/ forAll I index . html
10.3 Resources for history of mathematics on the World
Wide \\'eb
10.3.1 Tc:lchcrs,lcarncrs and the Worltl Wiue Wcb
Gkn \" an 13rummden
~lassi,e. eroch-making revolulions in communications technology are so rare t.hat
~nt~: a couple _lthe printing prcss. and perhaps the telephone) occurred before our
hfeumes. ~ut m the last lhiny ~ ears we have witnessed a cascade of revolutions, ali
rrC>duct~ ~f com.puter technology. New developments often seem more dramatic
fre>m '' uhm thao from without: ne,·crthcless, the computer revolulion secms to be
changing. ~enuinely and substantially. who we are. and how and what we think.
The \\"orld \\"ide \\"eb. for example. has evolvcd fTom non-existence only five years
Jgo to become the ccmral storchousc of human knowlcdge today. The Wcb is more
th;u, thc nc:oo;t step in a larger proccss; it is the !irst major realisation o f the alteration
of ours_elves by our own machines. The Web in its current incamation may not be
recogmsable teo years from now, but our childrcn will idenlify it as the birth of a
new era.
As is typic~l for tech~ological advances. the Web thrusts its new tools upon
educators much more qu1ddy than wc can adjust lo them. The mathematics
education communi"ty lus _only reccntly come 10 terms with the use of pocket
calculators. and debate SIJII rages ovcr more sophisticated tools like graphing
calculators and computcr algcbra systcms. Thc Web's revohnion is more
fund:une.ntal: it 30:ects no_t just malhematics but ali disciplines, j:trring into motion
t.he prei· Jo~sl~ ~t~1c med1a o f paper. chalk and books. and expanding globally lhe
~Cimmumtlt's wuhmou r 1cach. We shall examine what is now available for the use
of educators in tht llistory o f mathematics on the Web, but perh:tps mor~ important
/0.3.1 Teachers, /earners and tire World IVide IY~b 359
..
to our vision of the f mure 1s an exploration of thc medi um itself. The best way to
leam what the Web represents is not to rcad about it, but to use it. Hence, readers
are encouraged to set lhis chap1cr as ide for now and visil the site that accompanies
this article:
htt p:llnme. benn ingl o n.cd ulfacu IIy/gvn nbru mil um iny/t itle. ht m
(As a self-refcrcntial hint to thc possibilitics o f global communication of this ncw
technology, the author prescnted this work from Vancouver, Canada, to the ICMI
Study Meeting in Luminy, France, during the main drafting ofthis section.)
The new mcdium
The Web's innovation. deccptively ;imple and over thirty years old, is hypertext. A
hypertcxt document is a book freed of its binding: onc may link the pagcs any way
one likes, unlike the sequcntial ordering of a conventional book. Ralher than
pursuing topics according to lhe author's dcsign, readers follow their own path
through lhe contcnt, guided by their own purposcs and intcrcsts. Hypcrtcxt IHlS beco
uscd lo some etTect in computerised referente sources such as Windows Help and
CD-ROM encyclopaedias. However, hypertext <Jlone does not revolutionise lhe
planet. The power of lhe Web is not primarily in its navigational flexibility, but in
its universality. lt is a system with fcw barriers to communication. Anyone with
modest financiai resources may access, contribute, and alter it. The Web thus
spreads ideas globally by removing thc physical ~nstraints o f publishing, marketing
and dissemination. The rcsult is a virtually endless supply of informal íon with lhe
absence of imposcd structure. Unboundcd access lo knowledge frees lhe user to
construct her own intellectual environmcnt, uninhibiled by other perspectives: an
Enlighlenmenl nightmare, and a poslmodem paradise.
The recent advent of Web applets (programs that can be executed lhrough the
Internet) promises to extend lhe mcdium substantially. CGI and Java applets now
run seamlessly, often unnoticcd by the uscr, to produce the distracting graphics and
banner advcrtiscments at commcrcial sitcs. More positive educational uses include
instruclional aids that pennit the user to internet with simulated environments,
tapping leaming chanriels that recai! the tactile explorations of childhood.
Developments on the horizon include incrcasingly seamless interaction not just
with machines, bul with expcrt systems and with other people. Videoconferencing
and virtual 'whiteboards will transform thc Wcb into a means whereby one could
hold a seminar where every participant is in a different country, yet lhe
communication will be as smooth as if ali were in lhe same room. Through our own
natural choices in such a fluid environmenl, lhe existing lrcnd for ou~ communities
to be shaped by our intercsts, rather than gcographical barricrs, may accelerate.
hm.ovations seldom Jive up to the unbounded expectations of instantaneous
reform, or to the apocalyplic wamings o f c)etractors. Consider, for example, lhe real
place oceupied by p!-)Cket calculalors in today's classroom compared to thc over-
enthusiastic predictions of thirty years ago. Some problems with the Web are
already surfacing. For instance, the very democracy treasured by Internet
enlhusiasts produ<,., " number o f undesirable side effecls. Relevant to education is
the spread of ,. ·; rormation. With printed material, the financiai overhead
involved in its , : tion ensurcd that publishers hnd some commitmcnt to the
360 /O Non·slondard mtdia ond olhtr re.sources
quality o f their works. With the Web. one can be no surer or what one reads than o f
"hat one o,·erhears in a conversation at a dinner table. The Web's fluidity implies
that teacher; can ne,·er be surc that a resource which exists during their preparation
period "i[l exist at class time. Advcnising is bccoming so prevalent that many
people lind it anno} ing. ahhough the Web is hardly the only medium to sulfer from
this rankul3r vice. Fin:~lly. tlass distinction issues raise worrying problems: of\en,
only wcahhicr students with computers-in weahhier countries-have access to the
n~w technology. This is p3rti31ly resolved. in weahhier countries. through rree
Internet services sponsorcd by advenising 3nd access at public libraries.
Some good uses o f Wcb technology in tbc history of mathcmatics
-.lhe rest ofthis section high li~hts some o f the most creative uses of Web technology
for clas~r{'om use "ith respcct to the history o f m;uhematics. In some cases these
sitcs are choscn l:>ecause of thcir eiTecti\'c use or the new medium: in many other
C3SCS they are choscn mercly because they makc globally avail:tble a powerful
resource. Mosto f the sites are aimed at high schoolto undergraduate students.
T"o largc sitcs are good comprchcnsive sources of information in the history of
m:nhrm:llics. Thc St. :\ndrews t.lacTutor History o f Mathematics Archive contains
biogTJphics of hundrcds of historical milthematicians. and a number of survey
anicl(s on a 'ariet~ "f historical topics. David Joycc's history of mathcmatics sitc
c<>ntains :t grc:tt dc:tl of use fui bibliographic infom1ation. An inde:ot o f Web sites
rdJtC"J ''' thc histo~ of mathcmiltics is maintained at the Canadian Society for
History and Philosophy o f~ lathematics site. Due to the fluidity and expansion of
the \\'eb. índices like this onc are becoming more difficult to maintain. Scarch
en~ines such as Altavista and Yahoo can be useful for finding new sites, and
britannica.com regularly reviews sites of interest in addi tion to providing content
from thc EnC)·cloptdio Bril!mnica.
Da,·id Jo~ ce·s f.uclid 's E:ltmtms Online is an e:ccellent example o f the
intcracrh·i~· made possible by the Wcb. Joyce provides lhe entire text of the
E!enrems. but what makes the si te special are its geometric figures. The points in the
d1agrams may be mo,·ed while the geometric relations between the objects in the
diagram are preserved. much like Geometer's Sketchpad or Cabri Géométrie but
"ithout thc nc-ed for sonware. TI1e meaning o f a theorem can be made tlear with a
few simpl( experiments with the handsomely rendercd figures. The Famous Curves
lnd.-x at thc St. Andrews sit.: contains explorations of a similar nature. suitable for
mathc.-m:uical cxperiment:uicm with historically imporlant curves.
Although the technologic:~l ad\·:~nces displayed at the sites listed above are
intriguing and entenaining. equally imponant is the increased availability of le.ss
technologically-oric:ntcd material. PBS's Nova Online, for example, includes a site
devotcd to the recent telcvision programme on Andrcw Wilcs' solution to Fennat's
Last Theorem. In 3ddition to a complete transcript ofthe program, users will finda
biog.raphy of Sophie Germain. teacher's guides to using the program in class, and
exer<:ises in P~1hagore:m mathematics appropriate for use by students before and
Jft~r vicwing. The ~luseum of History of Science (Oxford, U.K.) has severa!
., inuJI exhibiticms·. pro' iding an experiencc thnt comes closc to an in·pcrson visit.
Ga~· Stoudt maintai ns a page desig.ned for his history of mathematics course that
10.3./ Teochers, ltornus ond lhe World Wide Web 361
allows student access to a variety of primary sources. The Galileo Project (Rice
University) contains an impressive amount of detail on Galileo's life. work and
times, storcd in an unconventional and innovative manner. Much of this material
would have been very difficult for a teacher to locate and distribute to his or he r
class prior to lhe advent o f the Web.
A number of brave attcmpts have becn m:~dc to place entire courses on the Web.
While this has not yet occurred in the history of mathematics (to my knowledge),
severa! sites contain material of at least tangential interest. Brian Manin, at The
King's Uni versity College, Edmonton, has converted his utronomy course, taught to
a great extent from an historical perspective, to the Internet The site is used as a
supplement, not as a replacement for student-teacher interaction. From hi.s and
others' experientes, readers tempted to follow suit should be wamed that the elfort
required for such an enterprise is enormous, well beyood any o f the authors • initial
expectations. I have heard estimates that the commitment is up to ten times that
required for a standard course.
A number of instructors have initiated projects wherdly students' efforts in the
course are placed on the Web. Where this occurs gradualy over successive years of
the olfering of a course, lhe resuhs can be quite impressive. Larry Riddle's site
honouring and exploring the work of women matbanaticians at Agnes Scott
Collcge. writtcn by studcnts in his cl~sscs, has won a lllllllber o f Internet awards. A
more general effort is underway with Len Berggren"s history o(mathematics course
at Simon Frascr University, Vancouver, Canada. A nlllllber o f sites contain student
papers done at a variety of schools ond universities, for instance Tufts University's
course lnven/ing Scíence. lt would be as well to be aware of the.se sites not only for
their potential for benefit, but also for the poteotial they provide for students'
academic dishonesty.
Wbere are we going?
Clearly, extensive elforts have alrcady generated ae:ltive and helpful Internet
resources in the history of mathematics, but much mo~ could be done. The terra in
is covered haphazardly and the quality varies considm.bly !Tom site to site. As
communication speed increases, students will come to expect much greater
interactivity. and educators may have difficulty comi~ to grips with how it might
bc used effectively. Finally, lhe potential for cl355es ind seminars that transcend
geographical boundaries· has not yet been realised. Wllbin "severa! years students in
France, for example, may bc able to share a virtual classroom with students in South
Africa and North America, with instructors or leadersiom Australia and Germany.
For a small, geographicatly scattered community like lhose bf us dedicated to the
history of mathematics, this will be ground·breakí-sg. ~.In the end. however,
computers do not organise such co-operation on thcir own. lt is incumbent on us to
begin lhinking how this might be accomplished and toí:lcrease our collaboration, so
that when the tools are placed in our hands, we will bettady.
keferences for §10.3.1
The following list providcs lhe addresse.s o f sites refared to in th is section. For a
categorised listing, see the next scction (§ 10.3.2.3).
 lO .Von-standord media nnd o1her rcsources 10.3.2 Web hisla1icaf resources for tire mathemntics tcachcr 363

Canadi:m Society for History and Philosophy ofMathematics before or during their teaching career. Of course, one must be realistic about what is
http :/ /www .kingsu.ab.c a/• g l en/cshp~/home. htm possible wilhin the time constraints of lifc, and lhe time commitment that this
Euclid's Elcmcnts Onlinc tD. Joyce) suggests will not fit the current needs or options of ali teachers or future teachers.
!lt :p: I I alepht'. cl a rku. edu/ •djoyce/ja\•a/ elements/ e lements. html One can treat history of mathematics as an area to become acquainted with
\
Famous Curves lndex tSt. r\ndrews) gradually, as and whcn time pcrrnits, but one can bcgin to use rcsourccs sooner and
develop the skills on the hoof, so to speak. In this context the internet is a
~ttp:;!"ww-çroup~.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/•history/Java/index.html
tremendous boon. But therc is a problcm, as Glen Van Brummelen pointed out in
The Gailieo Project the previous section (§ 10.3.1): information on lhe Web is of such variable quality
http://es .rice .edu/ES/humsoc/Calileo/index.html that a responsible teacher must both be aware of that and seek to traio students in
History of Mathematics {J. L. Berggren, Simon fraser University) lechniques of criticai judgement (see also Fauvel 1995). This section consists of
~ttp:/~,v.r.ath.s!u.ca/histmath some ideas lo help both teachers and,.studentS in this process.
Ahavista As with ali resources, gaining a sense o f what kind of thing they comprise and
-..'l::p: .' ;,-~v.al ta•·1sta. com gaining some practice in using them is strongly desirable as a preparation for
Enc~clopedia Britannica exploiting them later on in an educational context. What this seclion offers is firstly
~::~: / ,..,....,....... ~r1 t tan!ca. c~m
(§I 0.3.2.1) some guidance on web searching and determining the likely reliability of
information; secondly (§I 0.3.2.2} a listing of sample questions which could help you
lmcming Science tTufis UniYersity course) to use the internet with your studentS; and thirdly (§ 10.3.2.3) a listing of some sites
::~ :p: ·, ...._.,..~e r seus. :uf ts. edu/GreekScience/ which could provide answers or generate material for helping the teacher who is
Da\ id Jo~ ce's HistCiry o f t>.lathematics Si te seeking to use history as a resource.
:'1:: r: ' "ler!':t'.: !.a rl;u. edui -djcyce/lna thhis t /ma thhi s t. html
Bri:m :'ll3nin's lntr,-.Juction to :\stronomy C0 urse 10.3.2.1 Searching and reliability
::: :;:: : -~"'". ~ i:-:~s·~. a c. ::a/ -b::i.!n/ astro/ a200home. htm
Museum of History o f Science {Oxford) There is now a wide variety of material on history of malhematics available on the
!":.::~: ;. /l.:"'-....: .chs. o:<. a c. uk Web, ranging from interaclive texts and museum catalogues, through to high school
studcnt projects, and including 01 widc range of refcrcnce sources. However,
NC\\3 Online: Thc: f'roof
wonderful lhough il is lo have access to huge quantities of information. it is not
:-.: ~;: ' '"""' -Fhs. crç; "'91:~/n~ v a /proof/ much use if you cannot find wbat you want. Moreover, lhe quality of Web pages
Primary Sources for the Histo~· of Maihematics (G. Stoudl) varies widcly and so far thcre is no common standard. Anyone, anywhere, can pl:~ce
:-.::;: ~·...-".n~""· i\:p.<!dc ' "'" çsstcudt/history/maJ~O/sources_home. material on the Web and so il is importam to develop a strategy for assessing the
!':::':11 quality of lhe inforrnation. This is especially imponant ibr students, given the
St. Andrews f-!acTutor Histo~· ofMathematics Site importante (for general education, oot only in malhematics) or web users lcarning to
~ ::, : · ~k~-~=~uFs.jc~. s t-and . ac . uk/-his tory/ assess lhe reliability o f web information. To make the best use o f lhe Web you need
\\'omen ~lathem:uicians tL. Riddle) to be able bolh to search the Web efficicntly and to recognise a good sit.e when you
~:~ p: ~~.,..~~~e~~~~tt.edu:lriddle/women/wocen.html
find one. Funhermorc, it is recommended lhat you check the status of a si te before
you recommend it someone else. Just because a site was located at a particular
address last time you looked, that is no guarantce that the next time you look it will
10.3.2 \Ycb bistorical rcsourccs ror lhe mnthcmatics tcachcr slill be at lhe same address, or indeed that it will still exist! What follows is a
summary of some general points for using the Wcb with a criticai awareness of itS
June B:m('lw-Grecn possible flaws.

The general a~ument of this book is lhat mathematics te3chers and leamers can be Searching the Web
~reatly empo,,ered by h:~,·ing historical resources available to them. 11 is argued in I. Let someone else do the work! Start from an annotated lisl of Web rcsourccs.
chapter -t that mathematics teachers will bcnclit from some historical training, either such as provided in§ 10.3.23 below.
2. Be as precise as possible. Rcmember that compulers are very literal-minded!
_l,,hn F3u,d. );m 'an :-.l~an~n (~ds.l. limon· ill mothemntiC'J etlucoriow tlrt /CMf studv 3. Try diffcrent search engin. ·
Dordr~dll : Klll\•cr 20\líl.(lp. .'62-370 . ·•
36~ /0 Non-srandord m.· ·! orher resources
.1. Look for indicators of downloading time, eg graplucs, video, software
applications. etc. The site may have b«n deve\oped on a more powerful
compute r or network than you have at home or scl\ool, and what seemed a rapid
imag~ to the site's constructor can clog up' your computer or communication
links for minutes on cnd. or indeed cause it to frecze.
2. When wcre the words quadrati c and cubic first md?
5. Bc aware o f your browser's limitations.
6. Makc bookmarks for future reference.
b·aluating a Web Site
I. Establish lhe authority (or not!) of the author. check any links to the author's
home page: look for evidence o f other publications; look for reason/motivation
3. Find an illustralion o f a page from E11clid's EleterU. What does it show? How
for the site's creation.
,
't
Accuracy o f information: look for references to established sources: try to cross·
check some information tbut beware of the proliferation o f errors through web
pages copying each othcr!).
3. Currency o f in formation: look for the dates when tbe site was created and when
it was last revised.
-1 . Links to other sites: extemallinks need scparate evaluation.
5. Gcner:~l characteristics: consider the standard ofthe prose, the ease ofnavigation
lrt'und the site. the completcness of the information. and any evidenc:e of
commercial interest.
10.3.2.2 Some sample questions in cxploring Web resources for hislory or
mathematics
Herc are se ven examples of questions which teachers could use either to find out
information themselves or to use as a project (or component of a project) with
StUdents. For spced. some 'answers': that is, the addrcsses of sites whic:h the search
might lead to. are gi\'en here. Note that addresses which are too long are split over
t\\o tines. 1t would be useful to gain practice by starting wilh the question (without
yet knowing a suitable site) and recording the stops along the way while getting
closer (hopefully!) to the goal. The aim o f this e:mcise is three-fold, therefore: to
answcr particular qucstions or follow particular leads, to indicate the ki nd of
inqu iries that could be pu! o r followed. and also to gain c:<perience in searc hing and
~,·aluating the Web.
I. Find three different types o f numeral systems (apart from the Hindu-Arabic 1, 2,
3 ... ). Compose a sum which includes one or more of the basic operations (+, -,
x. ... ) in each ofthe different systems.
Clrinese:
http: // www. mandarintools.com/numbers.htcl
htt~: i/AlephO.clarku.edu/~djoyce/mathhist/china.html
Eg)plian:
ht tp: I /eyelid. ukonline . co. uk/anc ient /nwnber:s. htm
.\111)'(111:
htt~:/íw~~-~~ds . ws u .edu/fair_9 5/qym/um00l.htm l
10.1.2 IYeb historical rcsourccs for tire malfrenratics ltadrer J65
Old Babyfonian:
http://it.stlawu.edu/~dmelvill/ro~th/index/html
Roman:
ht t p://www.deadline. demon . co.uk/~n/ftont . htm
http://membe rs.aol.com/jeff570/~a~rd .html
Who was the earliest person to solve a quadratic ~ cubic equation? When?
What method did they use? What did the eqomiÍ!:IIIs look like? When wcrc tbc
formulae for solving quadratic andlor cubic eq~ first used? 8y whom?
http://www-his tory.m~s.s t~a nd.~bklbi story
old is it? How does it differ from a modem gef!Mirytcxt?
http :/ /metalab.unc . edu/cxpo/vatitan-exhibit /exh ibit / Hai n
Ha l l.h t ml
ht tp: // rsl. ox. a c. uk/ imaca tI inoS..klll
http://cccw .adh . bton. ac .uk /:sch~fo!éesiqn/MA .COURSE/ 17/~
OB.htrnl
4. Who was the first femate mathematician who v~ tnowabout?
http://~~~.aqnesscott.edu/lriddE•1women/kova. htm
5. Alan Turing was responsible ror cracking th<=Enigma cipher in World War 11.
Who was Alan Turing? What were the essentiãr ú:alures of the Enigma machine
and where can you see one?
h ttp ://www. tu r inq.org.uk/turin~
http: //w;.·w. cranfield .ac. uk/ccC'.fówork/
6. In October 1998 an Archimedes manuscript \Was!:llil at Christie 's in New York.
What was on the manuscript'? How otd was ill? 1jo, much did it fetc:h?
http://www.thewalters.org/arch ,Un~às .h tml
http: //www.rncs.drexel.edu /~c ro,rr~Archimedes /contents.h
tml
7. What is 'Fcrmat' s Last Thcorcm'? Why did ib.takeso long to prove?
http://www.pbs.org/ wgbh/nova/~~!/
http: //"""""'- groups .dcs. st-and. a.~uk/\7~h is to r y/ H is tTopics
/Fermat • s_last_theorem.ho::i
I 0.3.2.3 'E.xa mples o r internet siles as a rcsow13.fs bislory o r mathematics
8etow is a selection of internet sites which may·liz:;ffitmd use fui as a resource. For
case of refe rence, and to emphasise the wide ran~~il ..ble sites, thcy have been
put· into twelve categories: 81 General HistoqyafMathe.matics S ites; 82 Web
Resources; 83 Biography; B4 Regional Matlhlnulks; B5 Web Exhibits; 86
8ooks on-line; B7 Student Presentations; 88 'llbfàgraphy; 89 Soeieties; B lO
f:{istoryofComputing; Bl l Education; 812 MiS!.ábzous.
The listing here is fairly compact, w ith the ITI!aD'JIII'POSe o f illustrating the kind
of historical rcsource avaitable on lhe Web. ,4;~ygilen site is only mcntioned no
more than oncc, although the larger sites coutd: lbeaitd under severa! o f thc above·
 ) 66
/0 Non·slondard mediu and other resources
headin~s. and \hosc flllgged in Glen V:m Brummelcn's discussion (§ 10.3.1) havc:
not always ~c~ includ~d again. Slow-loading sitc:s or those requiring special
t>ro"sers :ue rnd1cated wuh an asterisk ("). Fuller descriptions and funher sites may
bc found,m lhrrow-G rccn 1998. :md on the BSHM Resourccs wcbsite givcn in B2.
B I Gencr:tl Uistory of l\latbcmatics Sitcs
Large ·sir~s ~\'C a gateway page which give an indication of the type of resources
that are avatbble on other pages o f rhc sire. The following are the addresses of
gateways to some o f the best knO\\o of thc general sites on history of mathematics.
(Some o f the pages on these sites are also included in other sections.)
The i\lath Forum Internet Resource Collection
"?!".~ ~F:_'! ~c=. swarthr.u:•r e . edu/,steve/steve/math history. html
Thts sue 1s p3.lt of The l\lath Forum. an on-line mathematics education community
centre. hosted by S"arthmore Collegc. and provides an exrensive list of annotated
links to other sitcs. The sites are ordcrcd alphabctically and thc collcction can be
'ic"ed in outline o r :mnot:ued form. There is a well designed search engine which
allows for :nariety o f searches. i.e. ke)·words. categories and dates.
Trinit~· Colltj!c. Dublin, History of l\1otbtmatics archive
!'! ~ q :•: ':w....><.:::;;~ t !'Js. tcd. i e/pub/HistMath/HistHath. html
This site. crcned _and maintained by David Wilkins. includes biographies o f some
;c' ~~~c~nth :atd e1ghteemh century mathem:11itians, material on Berkeley, Newton,
H~tlton. Book. Riemann and Cantor. and an extensive (but unannotated) directory
oflustory of Zl3\hcmatics wcbs ites.
B2 Web Rrsourtes
~ lany sites t!lRl;lin rages that are devoted to links to other related sites. Provided
the~ art kqp! np to date. these can be extremely useful. However, there is a
tendency to~ ide lists of links with no annotation. which means that thcre is no
"ay oftelliqp,ilether a sitc is. for example, hypenext, interactive, image intensive,
or indeed "~r it has been prepared by scholars or students. You can therefore
end up wastitg :a lot of time waiting for a sitc: to be downloaded which turns out not
to ha,·e the tilfc11rmation you require. Until you have visittd a lot of sites and know
your \\ay :~mmd enough to recognise sites only by name, ir is gencrally bener to use
an annotateillist of resources.
BSHM lttst'lurccs
ht t;:-: .' /o..-..:.:.d.:;s. "'a r...-ick. a c . uk/bshm/resources. htrnl
An anno~td ~ide_ preparcd on behzlf of the Brilish Society for the History of
1\!athemallcs \\.iuch mcludes n fuller range of sitcs under the same catcgorisation as
in this sec1ica. Useful to bookmark!
The l\b~aticall\lus eum • History Wing
h~ tp: ! e l;h · :::ib- ber lin. de: 88/Ma t h- Net /Links/mathe-rnuseum. h i s t .
1
ht::-.1
The 'Historf \\ iTng of The 1\lathcmatical Museum is pan of the Math-Net Links to
the Mathemtti~ \\'orld and conta ins links to exhibitions. hypcrbooks, information
syst~ms. mmeuuns :md pages of imerest for the history or mathematics and
/0.3.2 Web historicol r~ourcesfor the mathemolks teacher 367 . ...
~
associated fields. lt consists of sections un history of mathcm:nics, hbtory of
computing and communication, and related history information. lt is well annotated
and includes some sample illustrations.
WWW Virtual Library. llistury ofScicuce, Technology & Mcdicine
http://www.asa.uni melb.edu.au/hstm/hstm_ove.htm
A gateway into a wide range of resources covering the history of many scientific
fields iocluding mathematics. A panicular feature of the si te is its rating system that,
with given cri teria. evaluates thc depth, contcnt and designo f each site listed.
B3 Biography
There is plenty of material on the Web concemed with lives of malhematicians. 1t
comes in a wide variety of guises, much of it excellent, and, on tbe whole, the Web
is a very good place to start looking for biographical material. These 'personal' sites
generally conta in a broad spectrum of material about the individual and have good
links to other relevant sitcs.
Archimedes
http://www . mcs.drexel.edu/-crorres/Archimedes/contents.html
An extrc:mtly rich collcction of Archimedcan misccllanea produccd by Chris Rorres
of Drexel University, Philadelphia, including a pages on different aspects of
Archimedes' mathematics, books on Archimedes, information on Syracuse, and links
to other related sites, eg a bibliography of Archimedean literature.
Hypatia of Alexandria
http://www.polyamory.org/~howard/Hypatia
An extensive and partially annotated list of web resources connected with Hypatia.
The internai links include a long list o f published books and anicles which contain
information on Hypatia, as well as transcriptions from 18th and 20th century texts.
The Alan Turing Home Page
http://~w.turing.orq.uk/turing _
A large and well structured site on Turing's life and work maint~ined by A~drew
Hodges, the author of Alan Tllring: The Enigma. lt includes matenal on the btstory
o f the computer as well as links to other related sites.
B4'Regional Mathematics
There are many sites on regional, panicularly ancient, mathematic~. Many of the
general sites include good regional pagcs. The following is a short list of some
smaller (in terms of their history of mathcmatics content) sites which illustrate a
varicty of presentations.
Mathematicians of the African Diaspora
http://www .ma th .buffalo.edu/ mad /madO.html
An excellent sile created and maintained by Scon Williams of thc State University -
o f New York at Buffalo to exhibit the nccomplíshments of the people o f Africa and
Africa Diaspora within the mathematical sciences. The history pages include the
 _,,. \
IO .Vnn-.H<llldnrd medw cmd nther rl!sources
mnthematics of r\ncicnt Egypt. Pre-Colonial Nigeria. nnd Swaziland (lhe Lemombo
BC'nel. There are good links to other related sites.
Egyptian l\13thematics Problcms
~::ç : · ~ ye l id . ~k~n l~n~ . c~.uk/anc i enc lmathsl.htm
:\lso thc addresses thnt end on /ma ths2. htm nnd tma ths 3. h tm They· prescnt
~c-me 1'-~sic mnthematic:JI rn,hletns for hig.h school pupils. produ.:cd bv artist Mark
:'<-lillim,,r" <1$ r an ,,f his cxtcnsh ely illustrated r\nc ient Egypt s::c. .
. :'>1csopotami:m ;\lathcmatics
':-.: :;: : · ~: · s t !a"'u. edu t-dmel vi ll /mes omath/ inde x. html
Plenty of int~resting a_nd historically accurate material. collected and writtcn by
Duncan :>.lehtlle fN lm undergraduate history course. nnd nn extcnsivc annotatcd
rit-lic-graph~ l>~ Eleanor Robson.
..
D5 Web Ex hibils
Thc~~ are sites "hich make use of a ,·nriety of devices nvailnhle to those with
Hlfridentl~ cnhanc.:d l'Til\\Sers. :md also tend to be ,·erY imngc intcnsive. However
it i~ li('\ I a"' a~~ ncccs~ary to cnabk :111 the tools in ord~r to ~ct a good scnse of th~
FC'tential C' f the >itcs and they ôlfe well wonh visiting, if only to g;t an ideo of what
;C'n ofthin~s are rossit-le.
•Thc .-\rchimcdc~ Pnlimpscst
·· - -~ · ._.._,..,.,. :!":~·-•: l :ers. ~rg ta rchimedes/ f r ame. html
An excellent site created by the Walters Art Oallery, Baltimore to complementtheir
exhibition of The Archimedes Palimpsest (20 June-5 September 1999). 1t contains
richl~ illustrated. pages on the li fe o f Archimedes, the history (past, present and
future) ofthe Pahmpsest anda commentary by Reviel Netz.
B6 Dooks on-line
Te.x~s on-line come in two forms: straightforward copies of original texts-
pa~tcul::u-ly useful if the text in question is otherwise difficult to obtain--or copies
"htch ha' e been annolated o r translated in arder to increase accessiblility.
•tuclid's Elements
~::r: ' ' aleFh0.clarku.edu/•djoyce/j ava/elements/toc.html
A full text interactin \'Crsion o f Euclid"s Elements with historical and mathematical
c('lmments pr('lduced by Da\'id Joyce. With a Java enabled browser (Netscape or
l~temet Expl('l rer \'ersit'n 3 ('Ir higher) it is possible to dynamically change the
d1agrams. A remarkable site which makes the Elements accessible in a completely
new way (see § 10.3.1 above; Van Brummelen 1998). Highly recommended.
B7 Student Presentations
Student projects are now well established across the curriculum, and the Web can be
an extremely useful resC'urce in this context. 1t can be used not only as a means of
suppl~ ing inform:ttion for the projcct. but also as the medi um by which the students
rres~nt thcir work. In the latter case students not only have the chance to share the
fruits o f their labours ""ith others. but a[so lla\'e lhe opportunity to rece ive feedback
: ( \1(\.
Web historica/ resources for the mathemotics teochcr 369
•Galileo Project at Rice University
http ://es.tice.edu/ES/humsoc/Galileo/Student _Work/
An excellent collection of student projects which derived from a course on Galileo
in Context
B8 Dibliography
These sites contain lists of published books andlor articlcs which are rclcvant to
using history ofmathematics in an educational context.
BSHM Abstrnc:ts
http: //www. dcs. wa.r wick. a c. uk/bshm/abs. html
llrief abstmcts, sortetl alphabetically by author, o f papers published in joumals and
books. There is a separate education section covering abstracts of papcrs on the uses
or history of mathemntics in education, history of mathematics courscs. and thc
history o f mathematics education.
B9 Societies
Most academic disciplines have societies which exist to help the promotion o f their
subject ata variety o f leveis. The Web now provides a very convenient way to find
out what such Societies offcr their membcrship, how much it costs to join, as well as
supplying a means of obtaining an application form. Both ofthe following societies
actively pro mote the use o f history o f mathematics in education at ali leveis.
The British Society for lhe History of Mathematics
http://www.dcs.war~ick.ac.uk/bshm/
The site includes membership details, BSHM abstracts (see Bibliography), an
archive containing a list o f talks given to the Society, and a page of links to other
sites.
The Canadlan Society for the Hislory and Philosophy of Mathematlcs
http://www .kingsu.ab.ca/~qlen/cshpm/home.htm
The site includes membership dctails, free access to the History and Pedogogy of
Mathematics Newsletter, and a page of links to other sites.
BlO History of Computing
The Virtual Museum ofComputing
http://~ww.comlab.ox.ac.uk/archive/other/rnuseum3/
computing.html
A site, developed and maintained by Jonathan Bowen of Reading University, made
up of an extensive collection of links to sites connectcd with thc history of
computing and computer-based exhibits. The site is divided into galleries covering a
variety oftopics such as general historical information, onJ.line exhibits etc.
Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine
http://www.fourmilab.ch/babba ge/contents.ht ml
An excellent site containing texts of historical documents. including Menebrea's
description of the Engine translated by Ada Lovelace, and a detailed description o f
an Analytical Engine emulator which runs as a lava applet.
'
ro lO Non-standard media and olher resources

B 11 Edu cation

~o~e of lhe ~ost interesting sites are emerging from teachers with an interest both
10 htstof')· and m using c-omputcrs. See also Sharp 1998.
Tnchiog "ith Original H istorical Sources In Mathematics
ht:;: : · t r.-..J t h.r-'llsu.ed u/•history/
The e~~~ritnces of Reinhard L:~ubenbacher and David Pengelley of New M ·
State L'\Jtw• 'r- . . . . cxtco
_ . . rst . · m usmg. ongmal historical sources in teaching mathematics. The
~ne ts "·ellrefere~ced and there are links to severa! ofthe articles mentioned (mostly Chapter l l
mthe formo f .d1·1 or .ps files) as well as links to other resourccs.
Bl2 I"llis~lla neous Bibliography for further work in the area
?ther sÍtes \\hich are hclpful or interesting to visit but which do not fali naturally
tnto any ofthe categories above.

Earl~t Uses o f Various 1\lathematical S}·mbols

ht:;:,;~~~e~s. ao l.com/j efí570/mathsym . html
EJrlicst Kno1\ n l 'ses of Some of lhe Words o f Mathcmalics
~t ~;:: ·r-..e::-.he rs . .lC' l. co:n/je !f570/mathword. html
Thc .at:o\·e t'' <' s~tl'S. 11 hich are thc product of multiple contributors, are very hi~h
~Juaht~. and rnwtde a~ excellent resource. They are maintaincd by Jeff Miller of
Gulf lh~h Schl'(\1. Flortd3 :md conlributions :ne welcomed.
Referen~s for 10.3.2
John Fauvel
with Éliane Cousquer, Fulvia Furinghetti, Torkil Heiede, Chi Kai Lit, Harm
Jan Smid, Yannis Thomaidis, Constantinos Tzanakis
Abstrul: A considerablt amounl ofrutarch t.as bun dont in ruenl dtcades an the subjeel
of this study, wltich is lrere summarind. in Úte form of on annotaced bibflogrophy. for works
opptaring in eightlonguages of publicaríon.

B:ITTI'\\·Gonn.. Junc 1998. ·Histof) ofmathematics: rcsourccs on lhe world widc wcb'
.1/.J:h.-m:tics on sc/uJo/271~). 16-22 '
11.1 lntroduction
Bru~mcle11. Gkn .\'an 1998. 'Books. the ncx.t gencration·. Britislt Sociery forthe History o[
.\,.;tf:("':f::ICS .\CIIS/<11.-r 36. J8- 50
F3U\(~••JI'IIr 1995: ·tti~IO~ or m3thcmatics on thc wcb', Bririslt Sociurfortltt History of John Fauvel
·1!-r::.-l!'.:tr,·s .\ .-11 si.'rr;r 30. 59- 62
Sh:ur: 1 ~'1-m 1~98: ·~isto()· ~bsm ed :u it hlppens: computers and the revival of gcometry',
1
Dr.tu tSoc.r~ .fOr tire HrJT(II)" of.\lorlrtmorics Stwsltlltr 31. 51-53
Tbe fmal chapter o f lhe Study illustrates something of lhe range and scope o f work
in recent decades on the relations between history and pedagogy of mathematics,
across a number o f countries. lbrough annotated bibliographies o f work published
in eight l.anguages some imp~sioo is given of how much and how varied the
activity has been. moslly in the last two decades, of which the presenl work is in part
a consolidation. One of the aspects of intemational activity which the chapter
highlights is how many different countries have been engaged in internai discussions
about supporting malhematics teachers through the integration of history. Note that
for the purposes of this book, the annotalions are given in English, with the
exception ofthe Chinese bibliography (§ 11.2) which is written in Chinese.
This chapter does not fonn this ICMI Study's bibliography, in the usual sense,
since individual chapters and somet.imes sections of the book have their own
bibliographicallist o f referentes. Nor is it for the most part a list of primary source
or other printed resourccs for classroom use, such as works of the great
mathematicians or secondary histories of mathematics. Help on these issues is given
elsewhere. The resource appendix to Chapter 9 contains an annotated listo f original
sources which may be helpful to teachers, other useful works are mcntioned in

John Fnuvd, )an van M~ancn (cds.}, Hisro'"'t in matlrematit:s educatron· rhe ICM/ srudy,
r'\,. .. ··~ ... •·· · ••~ ••••••- .. ... (U'U'\ ... ,_, • ' "
 373
-· - /I Bibliography for further work in the area ; ·~tinese

'arious places throughout the book, and other resources are discussed in chapter 1O,
for cxample the guidc to internet resources in §10.3. In making lhe seleclion of 11.2 Chinese
papcrs lo include in this chnpter, we had to put to one side mosl of lhe very
CCinsidcrable numbcr of cxcellent piec~ of work which mediate benvl!en history and
the mathcmatics classroom. providing resources for classroom teachers to use and Chi Kai Lit
lc:~m from . (While recognising thal there is a continuum of work here, and lhat it is •
difficuh lo draw :1 ri ~id tine between cl:usroom resources, on lhe one hand, and
discussions aboul lhe value and use ofthose resourccs. on the other.)
r t._ !. .i_~ K ~ r,_ ~ .1 T ~ .~ Jt Il .#<.
: Of course. for future rcsearch in this arca to build upon lhe work already done it Jj t_. ti ~
is not sufficicnt merely to list that work bibliographically: it has to be categorised
and cvaluated for iu rc lcvance to particular rcscarch questions. In lhe preparation of
this Study quite some discussions were held on various possible categorisations.
.,:'-lotable work "as done by Harm Jan Smid, who divided the themes addressed in the t g i. l. i: :it l -ti. - 11. ft. ,, 'f t t »._

l~ t. i. ~ '~ l t. ~ i ! l ~
Outch and GermJn reports he had surveyed as falling into five categories (a refmed
'ersion ofthc 'continuum' referred lo above). 1" '- J rf
(i) Oiscussions and!or advocacy in general of the possibilities and advantages of ~ ~ li . lt \. ! .:t j__ .it: MJt.
thc use of history o f mathematics in teaching and leaming mathematics.
\ÍD Examples. didactical ~uidelines aod hints for teachers on how to use historical é .t if &i '~ :t:t ~ tc.. l: r; +
material in their lcssons.
ti ii\ Thc: pro' ision o f more or less ready made historical resources to use in lhe
cl~sr<'om.
~ ' !*j ~ §<J • «l ~~ l -f,\ .l::. t ~

t- ~ 00 iTr ii ~- ~ ~ 4t !t .i !:it.
\ Í')
t')
Empirical descriptions ofthe use ofhistorical material in the classroom;
Research focussing on the results and effects of the use of historical materiais,
t>oth affective and'or cognitive.
Any particular anicle might well incorporate Se\'eral ofthese themes. In lhe event it
H i\.. ill .tt
~- ·~
*r.. ~ l. er 1 ~ ! -tt . t t... .
·.:l
seemed besl to present the bibliog.raphical data in this chapter, coveriog a yet wider
range of approaches from different countries and linguistic traditions, in a more
unmediated form (that is 10 say, without an elaborate classification), while urging
tl. ti ~ ;\: ~ Ã ~ ~ l:l11F ~- a~. ~1·
that some such categorisation would be a good starting point for future work in the tlt~±:r-%-'-;E. 1t:_$g1lB
arca.
The point ofthis chapter is, then, to provide in capsule form an impression ofthe \, ~ ~ l .ft ~ '~ J... ~ ~ M.•
kinds of work published in eight languagts on lhe lopic of lhe study, namely
discussions o f the relations between history of malhematics and the teaching and
leaming of mathematics. Whilc no complete coverage is achievable, even in the
l:1nguages here let alone across lhe rcst o f the world, it is hoped and intended that a
fairly represenlative selection of work has been noticed here. Reading the
\
annotations provides a furthcr reinforcement of various messages and argumenu pot
forward in lhe rcst ofthe book. about the many different ways of integrating history,
reasons for doing so. and the different benefits to mathcmatics curricula and leaming
* 9 i..! it"" i i. ~ K.~.~f,l! 'i; .t ~ t .t
~xpcriences acr!'ss lhe world. !t. ~ "!..I.J... 't (%, ~- t .

John Fauvd, Jan van Maancn teds.). Hisrory in mathematics education: tlle ICMI srudy,
Dordrecht: Kluwer 2000. pp. 373·383
) --.
~
11 Bibliograph.v for jiutf:,•r work in the urea 11.2 Chinese 375

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11.2 Chincse 377

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f I Dibliogroplty for further worlc in lhe areo ._'hinese 381

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4{ .~ dz_ Jl lt1!1) ft.. 3 fLJ1 f '~ ií._! ·
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 li Bibliography for funher work in lhe area
JJ.2 Chinese 383
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Figure 11.1:dclegotn a/lhe /CMI Study mceting take an eve11ing wa/k: Chí Kai Lit. Fung
1r , ••. Kit Siu. Clrun lp Frmg, Man Kung Siu, Masaml /soda, Wann Shertg Harng, Ryosuk.e
.~ ~
Nogaoi:JJ

11.3 Danish

Torkil Heiede

This section is an annotated list of some of the works written in, or translated into,
' .f/lJ Á.. '} .G Danish which are suitable for use in teacher education or in lhe dassroom: not
• lb G) • J. !3 comprehensive but indicative ofthe kind ofmaterial available.
•
Aaboe, Asgcr, Episoder fra matematikk.ens historie ['Episodes from the history of
fl.t t ~ (ftn) • l ! =-lm 1 mathematics'], Copenhagen: Munksgaard 1966, repr. Borgen, 1986
Both in its original Amcrican edition and in this Danish translation by the author. this book
lb llf.) . l Sê- 58 has been an inspiration for many tcachcrs of the history of mathematics. Chapters on
Babylonian mathematics, Greck malhematics and Euclid's Elements, Archimedellll
4S. .R t ~m l 1110) mathematics, and Ptolcmy's trigonomctry.
ti t lt t l ~ =1 i. t ti Andcrsen, Kirst i, ct ai., Nogle kapitler af nratematikkcns historie ('Some chaplers of
i!~.~.
(( l: :t t " .k .f S' , 1.,
:>) I
the history of mathematics'], Aarhus: Matematisk Institui 1979, 2 vols.:
Ninete<:n essays on difTerenl historical lopics by Danish histo~ians of malhematics, wilh
cmphasis on lhe hi slory o f analysis.
Anderscn, Kirsli (ed.), Kilder og lcommentarer til ligningernes historie ['Sourccs
and commentaries to the history of equations'], Vej1e: Forlaget Trip 1986

John ; ·. d. Jan van Maancn (cds.), lfistory ;, mathemotics t'ducation: the JC.\11 Jtudy,
Dorc.!: · K luwcr 2000, pp. 383-386
 li Bibliogrophy for funi•u· work in the area
nc ch~pters tby si~ different authors) on thc history Ófalgebra from Babylonian antiquity to
:--: 1
Desc3J1es and Ne"ton. with a shon cpilogue on the fundamental theorem of algebra, and on
equ3tiCins or dcgrce higher than four. With long exeeq1ts from original sourc:es (in Danish
t1311Siationl. exercises. notes Jnd refcrences.
Andersen, ·,Kirsti. Henk Bos &. Jesper LUtzen. Trak af den matematislct analyses
ilistorit: En antologl af kilder og sekundar /ilteratur ['Features of the history of
malhematical analysis: an anthology or sources and secondary literature'], Aarhus:
Institui for de Eksakte Vidensbbers Historie, Aarhus Universitet 1987
nie first pan contains 18 substantial excerpts from original scurces. some of them in the
originallanguage (Latin. French, Gennan. English etc.). allwith translations into Danish, and
with int1oduc1ions. notes and exercises in Danish. The sccond part contains li excCTpts from
second~· literature. in English o r Oanish. With ao annotated listo r rc:fercnces.
Beck. Hans JNgen. et ai.. ,\farematik i lcxreruddamrelsen: Kultur. kund.skab og
*ompctmce ['Mathem3tics in teacher education: culture, knowledge, and
competence'}. Copenhagen: Gyldenda\1998-. vols. l-
A texti:'CIOk (planned in two volumes) ror the eduntion of primary and lower sccondary
mathem atics tcachcrs. "ith emrh:uis on thc historie~ I •nd cultural dimension. The l'irst
ICIIum~ lrc:Jts numt>crs. ~eomctry and prob~bility. Two volumes of work cards are also
rlanned. and a' olume on thc did:tclics of mathematic:s.
fit'mann. Gunnar. Tal.•y.<t,·mcnrc og dues ud,·iklingshistorie ('Number systems and
1he histCiry o f their e1·olutiC1n ']. Copenhagen: Danmarks Lcererh0jskole 1992
The histo~ of lhe numt-cr concept and the 19th century eonstruction of the natural, rntion3l,
rc31. and compkx numbcrs. Writtcn mainly for lhe further cducalion or tcachers in the
,ti:olkrskolt (grndes 1·1 Oin thc Danish school system); many pMraits and referentes.
Clausen. Flemming, Poul Printz & Gert Schomacher, Jnd i matematikken ['lnto
mathematics '), Copcnhagen: Munksgaard 1989- I 994, 6 vols.; 2.ed. under publ.
Thc mathcmatícs CUI'TÍCulum or lhe Danish g~·mnasium (grades 10· 12) is here prc:sented in a
fu11-size historical and cultural frJIIlc. permcating lhe whole exposition. Written as school
tcxts. l>ut cminentl,· useful aho in IC3chcr education. The six volumes are: NumbtrJ ond
gtC'"!Cr17>·: Anolrtic gromrrry· and functioru: Differential colculus: Probability thtory and
sr.:rmic's: l'tcrors ancf solid grometry·: Integral calcr~lra and dif!trential equalíoru.
[\cJutifull~ and richt~· illuslrntcd. e3ch Yolume contoins hundrcds of exercises.
Eukli.is Elcmmu:r J••\'Jlf. Copenhagen: Gyldendal 1897-1912,6 vols.: repr. of I-IV,
\'ejle: FNI:!set Trip 1985
Heircr~·s Greek lext Clr Euclid's Elemerrrs. translatcd by one of his students. Thyra Eibe,
hnsc:lf ~ g~ mnJSium mathcm3tics teacher: thc s1andard texl for generntions of mnthcmatics
Hudtnts Jnd theír tc~chtrs ~~ Danish uni"crsi1ies.
Heiede. Torkil. MatematisJr. analyse: hvad er detfor noger? ('Mathematical analysis:
\\ hat is it?' ). Copenhagen: Matematisk Institui. Danmarks Lrererhejskole 1991
Heiede. Torkil. Dilftrmfialregnlng: hmd er det for noger? ['Differential calculus:
what is it?']. Copenhagen: Matematisk Institui. Danmarks La:rerhojskole 1991
Heiede. Torkil. Jnregralregning: lwad er der for noget? ('I ntegral calculus: what is
it'?'}. Copenhagen: 1\tatemalisk Institui. Danmarks L:r:rerhojskole 1992
' /1.3 Danish 385
Heiede, Torkil, Logaritme- og exponenti~lfunktioner: hvad er det for noget?
('Logarithmic and exponential functions: what is it?'}, Copenhagen: Matematisk •
lnstitut, Danmarks Lrererhejskole 1993
Aimed ai in-scrvice education of teachcrs a.nd at c:vening classes at introductory university
levei, these four volumes trcat diffcrential and integral calculus wilh c:mphasis on lhe hislory
ofthe subject. With excrcises and referencc:s.
Huygens, Christiaan, Om regning p1llykkcspil {'On thc calculus of fortunc gamcs'}.
Tr. Kirsti Andersen, Aarhus: Videnskabshistorisk Museums Venner '19&6
A translation orHuygens's classic trcatise, wilh commentaric:s. exercisc:s. and rcferenccs.
Heyrup, Jens, Algebra pá lertav,ler [' Algebra on clay tablets'], Copcnhagen:
Matematiklrererforeningen 1998
Detailed readings-with substa.ntinl exphmations and commentaries-of 18 original
Babylonian sourccs in Danish translation, with I Oothers tento lhe readcr as exercisc:s. More
demanding and more rewarding than many other lreatments, this book arguc:s that lhe
Babylonians' starting point was geometric rather than algebraic.
la Cour, Poul, Historisk Matematik (' Historical mathematics'], Copenhagen:
P.G.Philipsen 1888, latereds. 1899,1909, 1942, 1962
A classie among Onnish historical prescntations of clcmcntary mnthemntics. The boolc was
orlginnlly writtcn ror the authors' own teaching at onc of Denmark's folkehojslcolcr (folk high
schools), a special sort ofhistorically·minded schools for young adults (in those days mostly
from rural surroundings).
Lobatjevskij, N.l., Geometriske undcrsoge/scr over teorien for para/lei/e linier
['Geometrical investigations on the theory of parallel \ines'}. Transl from Gennan
by Lars C. Mejlbo, Aarhus: Matematisk Institui, Aarhus Universitet 1988
An annotated tra.nslalion ar the first publication in a modem westenn languagc on non-
EuelidWt geometry. The first Danish translation ofthis important source.
Lund, Jens, Regn med en skriver: Matematik i det gam/e lf:gypten ['Calculate with a
scribe: mathematics in ancient Egypt'}, Copenhagen: Munksgaard 1997
A detailed presentation of Egyptia.n mathematics, mainly in the form o f exerdses involving
problems from original sources (thc Rhind and Moscow and other papyri, the lcathcr rol\,
inscriptions on stoncs), with very full comment:ll'ies a.nd rc:fercnces.
LUt.zen, Jesper, Cirklens kvadratur, vinklens tredeling, terníngens fordobling: Fra
oldtidens geometri til moderne algebra ['The squaring ofthe circle, the trisection of
the angle, the doubling of lhe cube: from the geometry of antiquity to modem
algebru'], Heming: Forlaget Systime 1985
A history ofthe whole of mathematics, secn as inspired by lhe three great classical problems
and ali their ramifications~in geometry, algebra. and analysis-from antiquiry to lhe
transcc:ndence of lt. With ma.ny exercises and :1 fulllist of referc:n!cs.
LUtzen, Jcsper & Kurt Ramskov, Kilder til matematikkens historie ['Sources for the
history ofmathematics'), Copenhagen: Universitet 199&, 2nd ed.l999
Acollection o f 36 sourc:es, in Danish or English translation. with commentaries and exercises.
They are chosen so as to be of central imponance for lhe history of mathema1ics and covcr the
whole range from Babylonian c;J.\culations to Dedekind on irralional numbers. One of them is
from the sccondary literature and consists of cxtracts from the Unguru - van der Waerdcn
discussion oflhc 'geometrical algebra' in Euclid's Eltments Books ii and vi.
3$6 I I Bibliographyfor further work in the area
llle_ilbo. Lars C... Uendelige rakker: cn IJistorisk fremstilling ['lnfinit~ series: a
historical exposition"), Aarhus: !1-l;llcmatisk 1nstitut, Aarhus Universitet 1983
lnlinitc scri:s ítem ;mtiquity till modem times. including lhe conuibutions ofthe 1ndians. and
thCI$c o f mcd~~~l ;md Ren3issanc.: ltalians.
}.1ejlbo. Lars C_ Om den elementare geometris historie ['On the history of
tlementlr}$ec!IIetf)··). Aarhus: Matematisk Institui. Aarhus Universitet 1989
:\ 'cry dctlilc<l ;md full prcscnt:uion of thc whok history <~f geomctry, from antiquity to
Hilt-cn and Pciac::lrc: '' ith :mnotatcd sourccs 3nd cxtracts from sccondary litcraturc. ponr.~its,
t>io!!f3phical stdches. cxerciscs and copious rcfcrcnccs.
:'\iss. Mogens. .\latenratikkens udnJJing • op til renomancen: Skitse med poilller
l'The e,·olutim of mathematics to the Renaissance: a sketch :Vith highlights'),
~sl.ild:: lMFUFA 1985
A 'c~ ShC'n hist!~ of m:~thematics tin largc formal) from antiquity up to but not including
thc Eul\'rcm R.cn3is~cc. emphasising the rcbtions bctwccn mnlhcmatics and socicty.
S<Jrdi.sk .\fl11.im01J.Sk Tidskr{fi (!Tom 17. 1979, also called Normat)
Sincc 1953 lti$ joumõll h~s bccn publí$hcd join1ly by lhe malhcmatical socictics and
l.~!-\-.:i:nit'ns ,,r lochcT$ o f m~lh~matics in the lhe Nordic countrics (Dcnmark. Finland.
lcd;md. ~ONJ!. S\\cJ.:n). Sincc ilS ~ginnins. a main inlacsl lias always becn the history of
m31hcma!ics. * o'crthc ~cars m;my plpcrs ofhistorical or biographical conlcnt have beco
rublishcd. in Danish. };orwcgi:m. or S"cdish. This joumal has always becn an imponant
~'UrcC o f mJloiJ.~ tdC\ 301 lO lhe .:duca1ion Of \tachcrs.
Zcu1hcn. Hier,n~ymus Gcorg . .\farhcmm.~ru Historit: 0/dtid og Middelaldu ('The hiSiory of
:n~thcm:llics:-quity and lhe middle ages"). Coptnhagcn: Ht>Sl & Son 1893, ncw cd. rcv. by
Ouo ~(u~ct-:nc. 19~9
Zeuthen. Himmymus Gcorg, .\fatllematikens Historie: 16de og 17dt Aarhundrede
CC>p:nhagen:Ht'St & St'n 1903
lltcfe l\\O \01mu:'s cons1i1ute Lhe c!Jssic~l Danish e,;position ofthe his1ory of malhcmatics up
to :'\c\\tOn anJ l cibniz.. in thcir time transl3ted into both Germnn and Frcnch. Thcy are now
datcd. but ;o.l~baucrs rcvision of1hc first ,olumc is still useful.
llA Dut<b
Th: papers K'·iewed and annotated in this section are chosen from those on the
relation bellleeD history of mathematics and the teaching and leaming of
mathematics which have appeared in Dutch over the past threc:-quaners of a century.
.·\mcn:"~m. Bn:bar-a van. Gl!lcltiedenis \"IUI de wiskwrdc in de klas. Mastcrs Thesis
l 1niwrsirv ofGrc:.:min!!.en. 1994
B:1.«..l t'n ~ri{!i:;!.~ !'ourc~s. two t-ool.kts on diiTcrcntiation and intcgration wcrc composed for
U$t in lhe c~. Thc booklc1 on diffcrCllli;nion was used in fi,·c classes. and took some
h'hn FJU\cl !!m "an 1\t~en tcds.). liiJtOI}· in mather.ratics r,:ucatioll: tire ICMJ study,
DNctrccht: ""hr..-r-v.=ooo. rr. 386-:\SQ
11.4 Dutch 387
live lcssons to worlc lhrough. l'upils' rcaclions wcrc dctcrmim:d by mcans of dassroom
obscrvations, interviews with lhe teacher and õl qucslionnaire. The rcsullS were thal lhe pupils
found lhe tcxts too difficult and lhey werc not interested in historical matcri3ls.
Auwera, N. van der., 'Diophantus in de klas', Wiskunde en ondenvijs 21 (1995),
207-211.
Two simple problems of Diophantus in thc ori&inal Grcck wcre giveq to 17-yc:~r-old pupils
(wllo werc studying Grcck). Bcforchand thcy studicd a workshcct wilh an cxplanation of
Diophantus' notation and symbolism, thcn answcred qucstions.
Barbin, Eve[yne, 'Het belang van de gcschiedcnis van de wiskundc voor de
wislcundige vonning', Uirwiskeling lO ( 1994), 1-7
Edueational intcrest in history of matheinaties criginattd in part from resistance to the 'new
math' . Leaming deductively only makcs sense if mathematics has a mcaning for thc pupil.
A historical perspectivc, for instante by rcading historical tcxts, givcs insight into the
dcvelopmcnt of mathcmalics, and providcs a tc3chcr with more undcrstanding of lhe pupil's
problcms.
Beckers, D.J., 'Histeria magistra vitae: de geschiedenis ais inspiratiebron voor cen
rckenles', Euclides 72 (1997), 2.59·262
History of malhcmatics should be a sourcc of inspiration. Thcrc is no simplc analogy
betwecn lhe history and the leaming processes of childrcn. History of mathematics should not
becomc a pan of thc mathcmatics curriC\Jlum in school, but ideas and examplcs from tbe
history o f mathematics could enrich lessons.
Breugel, K. van, 'Van kleitablct tol overhead', Euclides 63 (1987), 117-118
Thcrc are three main rcasons for using lhe history of mathematics in mathcmatJtS tcaching.
Whcn teaching mathematical concepts, it ca.n be hdpful to know somelhing about the
historical developmcnl of the conccpt. History can cxplain why some detinitions or notations
origin3tcd. like lhe division of a circlc in 360 dc~rccs. And lhe bistory of mathcmatics has
interesting stories lhal can arousc lhe intcrest of the studcnts.
Bunt, L.N.H., De geschicdenis van de wiskunde ais ondenverp voor hei gymnasium
A, Groningen 1954
During lhe ycars 1951-1953 cxpcrimcnts wcrc hdd in live classical gymnuia on thc tcaching
ofthe history ofEgypúa.n, Babylonian and Grcek mathcmatics. Thcse cxpcriments took place
in lhe classés S and 6 (lhe two highest classes), wherc usually solid geometry was taught.
Thcse expcriments can be regartlcd as highly succcssful and satisfactory. Onc result was lhe
publieation of a tex1book on lhe hiSiory of malhematics for this ~ of school. Due to thcse
cxperiments lhe te3ching of the history of malhematics was made a optional subject (which
was widcly chosCll} in classical gymnasia. (This possibility disappcartd from the curriculum
in lhe 1970s whcn lhe Dutch educational sys1cm underwcnt a major change)
Grootendorst, A.W., 'De geschiedenis van de wiskunde en het onderwijs in de
wiskunde', Wiskunde en onderwijs 8 ( 1982), 287-306
Onc task of a mathcm3tics teachcr is to pass a cultural inherilance to futurc gcnerations.
History is very appropriate for that purposc. Also, it is nowadays difficult for a teachcr to
remain an active mãlhcrnatical scicntist. Studying history of malhcmatics is a good way to
rcm3in active in mathcm3tics, apan from its hclp in tcnching.
Gullikers, !ris. Geschiedenis van de wiskunde in hei ondenvijs: literatuur/ijst,
Repon Univcrsity o f Groningen, 1996
 JSS li 8ibilography [o1 .· .:r II"Ork in tl1e orea
:\ lis1 dcscrihin~ 23 anicles for thc use ofthc history of m~thematics in t~:~ching. main!y f:om
Eud:Ja. Tire .\latlrenratical Gu=ettf', .Vieuwe wiskrant and Wiskurrdt trr orrder,.ijr.
Hairs. E de. 'Het cultuur-historisch elcment in het wiskundeonderwijs', Euclides 4
l l027). 106~1 17
fhe cultural-historical dem~n t in mathcmatics teaching should be more than just an
illustr.~ti,,n to rc~ubr tcaching There is an intcmationll movement goln~ on 10 reform
m1thcma1ics tcachrng. Thc teaching o f thc history of mathematics tits in that movement: the
~enelic-historical mcthod \lÍ tcaching. especial!~. ean prolit very much from lh~ use of thc
history of mathcmatics.
Huisj~s. J. and l:mgel:lnd. J. ·W:n deed cen Egyptenaar 4000 jaar gc1edeo met cen
di1Terenti::~alnrge1ijl;ing':'". ,\'it:rm·e wi.skram t t (1992), 32-35
111' 10°!. J qucsticnnlire \\35 send to 600 mathcmatics teac~rs of ali lcYels about lheir
l..n,'" kJ~c l'f hi$1N~ c:> f m~thcmltics ~nd their intcrcst in using it in the ci:JSSroom. Most
l~.:hcrs did nc:>t l<nc"' •c~;- much ahout thc hiSIOf\" of mJthcmatics: 90~ó somctimes
m,•mic-ned histc~;o· in cl:l~~- \3": ing frc:>m just a casuaÍ rcmark to c~tcnsi ve trcatmcnt of a
histNicJI tc:>r ic. !\l:ln) tclchcrs "<'uld lil..c to do more on hiSIOr)' of mathcmJtics. but are
imr:J~d !-) IJ;:I; c:>fl..n('\\ kd:;c. tim~ :lfld nrrropriJtc materiais.
"""'- ~1.. "\\"aJrC'm kort :1ls het ook lang kan'?. Wiskundige notaties in zestiende-
.:cu" se rcl<cnt-c:>cl..cn · . .\"""""e u·isl.rant 1St 1998). 5·9
INh ccntu f)· 3!ithmctic N>c:>ks hJrdly used modem s)·mbolic mothcmaticol notations. Trying
' '' ~nJ~r<unJ lf>th .::ntu~;o s{llutions and :tbt>re...iations can bc 3 chalknging. and intw:sting
karmn~ <•rcrkncc f,u t{ldJ) "s ~tudcnts.
LC'oij. H. '"an. 'Het nut van de geschiedenis van de wiskunde'. Wishmde en
cllldo!m(is 6 tl980). -t:!9-.1.U
I! moi') o f mathematics c:J.n help pupils to discard lhe idea that mathema1ies is a compleled
:!nd f:ultl~s edificc. inste:J.d o f a human projecl with many new de ..ctopments and unsolvcd
rr<:'t-l:ms. \\'ith lhe hhtNiC·!_:enetic melhod the le3cher CJn help the pupil lO gain a better
under;un.Jins 3nd t{l <'\rcricnce m3thematics as a li\'ing entily. History of rnathematics a!so
le~chcs the pupil to see math~mJtics :~s n part ofhuman cuhure.
Maancn. Jan van. ·o,·er het verdelen van aangeslibd land: ecn brugklaspoject',
Euc/iJ,•s 60 ti9S-n. 161-168
Enslish 'ersion l'Teaching. seomet~;o· to li ye:~r old "mediacval lawyers-') c(§ 11.5.1.
}.IJJnen. J;m \'Jn. "Een gewichtig. problc:em van L'Hõpital', Nieuwe wisJ:rant, 10
l 1000). 6-Q
En!;lish \CfSÍOm r L"Hõpital"s wcig.ht problem') rcftrred lO in §11.5.
Mcskrns. Ad. 'Zesticnde-eeuwse wiskunde doorheen het middelbaar onderwijs' ,
lf'iskrmde tn ondemijs 18 .( 1992). 232-248
:\ number of examples from 16th-centUry arithmclic books for schools are presented, mainly
fr(\m tr:l..!in~ applicJticns. Such problcms could bc used in the classroom.
:-.IOll ij. H.. ' De gcschiedenis \':In de wiskunde en de: didactick •. in: Over de didactiek
\ '011 di! meerkrmdt benewns benaderingscoiiS/rucri;s re; verdeling va11 een hoelc in
gd(ike dflt11. Amsterdam 19-18. chapter 2
lncNf\'lr:ltin~ the histN~ of m:uhem:J.tics in t(aching. (Spccially in pl:~ne gcomcuy. is useful
1-: .:Ju" rurils p in :1 1-wer undcrstandins of lhe neccssity of doing mathematics. the
J iA Dulch 389
imporuncc of intuitive and inductive re:lSoning is illumina1ed and ihc mutual influencing of
mathcmatics and society can becomc more dear.
Schrck, D.J.E. 'Het cultuurhistorisch elemcnt in het wiskunde·ondc:rwijs', Euclides
t ( 1924) 29-46
Paying attc:ntion to history narrows the gnp bctwcen the e:uct sciences and lhe libera! ans.
History o f mathematics !las betome a full grown branch of science; in severa! countries. e.g.
Germany, history of m:uhcmatics has bccn rccommendcd as a school subjccL Historical
examples, problems or lhe study of lhc:orcms in their original Greek formulation can broadcn
lhe cultural horizon of childrcn. Nowadays there is enough material availab\e for leachers to
interweave elcments from the history of mathematics imo their mathematics lessons. lt
should not be taught as a separa!e subjcct..
11.5 En glish
John Fauvel
Arcavi. Abraham. 'Two benefits o f using hi.s tory', For rire learning of mathemotics
11.2 (1991), li
One benefit lies in using history to unpack lhe automatic quality of mathematies, to rc·
examine known and l3kcn-for-grantcd mathcmatienl ideas. Anothcr isto sensitise lhe teacher
to possible tlifficulties of sludent undcrstanding, and help in lislening to studenls' arguments.
Arcavi, Abraham, Maxim Bruckheimer and Ruth Ben-Zvi, 'History of mathematics
for teachers: lhe case of irr:tlion:-al numbcrs', For the lcarning of mathematics 7.2
(1987) 18-23
The development and implemenlation oi a eourse on irrational numbers, taught through
workshcets with funher materiais and answer sheets. The course objettives were to
slrengthcn the leachers' knowledge, pursue othcr pedagogic issues. devclop work around
primary sourccs, and foster an image of malhematics as creative human endeavour.
Arcavi, Abraham, Maxim Bruckheimer and Ruth Ben-Zvi, 'Maybe a mathematics
teacher can profit from the study ofthe history of mathematics', For rhe learning of
mathemotic.s 3.1 (1982) 30-37
A two-day teacher workshop was designed to crcatc a picture of lhe development of a topic
(ncgative numbcrs), with details ofworkshecls and ofthe reccption~fthe event
Barbin, Evelyne, ' The reading of o riginal texts: how and why to introduce a
historical perspective', For lhe learning ofmathematics 11 .2 (1 99 1) 12·1 3
Reading original texts allows the tcacher or leamcr to study mathemalial activity, and gain
access to lhe conccpls permealing mathemalial texls. This proccss changes thc image of
mathcmatics and enablcs lc=ers to sce it as an activity, illustrat~d by ccmparing the way
Euclid and Clairaut approach anglcs o f a trianglc.
Barbin, Evelyne, 'The role o f problems in the history and teaching o f mathematics',
in R. Calinger (ed), Viro mathemarico: historica{ reseorch ond integration wilh
teaching, Washington: MAA 1996, 17-25
John Fauvel, Jan van Maanen (eds.). History m mathematics ~ducation: th~ ICMI study.
Dordrecht: Kluwer 2000, pp. 389-404
 390 I I Bibliograplly for further work in the are a
lntr(<i•Jcing history.af mathcmatics to futurc teachers trnnsforms the practícc of tcaching
mal'·. .3tics. thro~ chanEing 1he epistcmological conccpts o f mathematics: in panicular by
<mt•i•m\ing lhe ccanuctwn ofknowlcdgc out of the activity of problem solving. This is scen
in U\1' '· \amp!cs ofJirc cooccpt o f :~ngtc and thc conccpl or curve.
8 3 tl<:. '' ni Bussi. N!:!ria. and Maria Aless:~ndra Marioui, 'Semiotic mediation: from
hislut ·:to thc-illalkmatics classroom', For the /earning ofmathemarícs 19.2 (1999),
::!7 .. ; .~
Wn<t' ·r a scc:1ion cfa cone is thc same as a scction o f a cytindcr. nnd whether cithcr is cgg-
shap:. 1as long b«t dclxlted. Students trying to !índ the flaw in historie arguments such as
tt\·:>~ ; vy Witelo td200) and Dilrcr ( 1525}. nccd hclp in harmonising the figurai and
ce>nc~;tuat asrc.cts·tfithc· prohlcm. Thc te~chcr has a kcy role ín hclping 1hcm to mastcr the
'~'11 ,.·-• :ut.! achic>ea nt" conccptu~l control.
Bos 1. J. !lt.. 'l\·hthematics and its social context: a dialogue in the staff room, with
histo ai cpisod.s. For thc leaming ufmarhemutics 4.3 (1984) 2·9
Thc · :ory of =tkmatics t3n inform both pupils and tenchcrs abou1 the social context o f
mat h~. \~tics. andir:!p them to decide "hat position they hold in debates aboul i1.
l3rummdcn. Gia; Van. •Jamshid ai·Kashi: calcul:lling gcnius', Mathematics in
school 27.-t ( 1998': ~0-4-l
Thc rcmarkable õlatbcautiful insights of lhe Cl 5 lranian astronomer al·Kashi, working in
:':unli~3!1d in thci\I.~Os. Ic.! to unprcccdcntcdly accurale valucs of n and the sinc of I 0 (lhe
(qui,alcnt of 16m I 7 decimal placcs. rcspcctivcly). His mcthod for sin 1° is essentially that
"' fi~cd·roint itcr.uon "hich can be donc on a calculator in class.
Brummelen. Gmo Van. 'Using ancient astronomy to teach trigonomctry: a case
study'. Histoia et épistcmologie da11s /'éducalion mothématique, IREM de
:O,Ionrpellier (19.91:), 275-281
Studcnts 1\ho J:'t1Úml '~ell on tcchnic~l examinations al lhe end of a course may still not
~;rup "h~ lhe s~o~t cxists. "hat the m~thematics mcans, or how to ask mathematical
que;tions. C;uc"fDI! planned u~c of hislory can hclp address thesc problems. A guided case
11udy of ancicnt m-onomy has pro,·cd fruitfut in evoking grcalcr trigonometric confidcnce
a."ld undcrstandin,g.
Bum. Bob, '\\lm are the fundamental concepts of group theory?', Educational
swdies in mot'-aJics 31 ( 1966). 371-377
Thc con,cntion:il""ay of tenching thc notion of group, as a set with a bin;uy operation
~tisf~ in~ fe>ur a6ms. is mNc logically than psychologknlly satisf"ying. Starting from the
historical origins~crmutation and S}mmetry may havc pcdagogic benc!íts.
Bum. R.P _ 'h:!ividual development and historical development: a study o f
calculus', /171. J.:Jath. Educ. Sei. Techno/. 24 (1993), 429-433
The rigour of ullÍi:fgraduate analysis "as introduccd by Cauchy and Wcierstrass during the
19th ccntury. anl!Ac con,·cnlions of prc-19th ccr1tury calculus are closc lo thc convcntions of
rrc-uni\c r~ily c:®Jus in Engl;tnd today. Thc nn~logr bcl\\·een personal developme nt nnd
hist.-rid d~' ctorr:mnt in calculus is richly suggcstil"e-but may not be prcsscd too far.
lhnus. Stu~rt. ~1\c 13abylonian cl3y tablct', Muthemotics Teuching ISH (1997),
J~-l5
lmcstiptit>ns cd":u Oah~ lt,nian 1ahlrt hy middlc school pupils rcvcalcd some rcmorbhlc
.li lf~r<owr~. fl\•n·&~c " l1<> .SiS\'111 crco.l "hat il " as ~boul withoul rcalizing wh~t thcy had
11.5 ênglish 391
achievc:d, to thosc who uscd a book to lcam what ali thc numbers wcrc-to givc thcm lhe
' right' nnswer-without gaining any idc:a whatthc tablct was aboul.
Carvalho e Silva, Jaime, 'History of mathematics in lhe classroorn: hopes,
uncertainties and dangers', Sergio Nobre (ed), f'roceedings of HPM Meeting,
Blumenau, Brazil\994, 129-135
Ponugal provides lU1 example. in lhe 19S0s·60s textbooks of José Sebastião c Silva. of
hislorically-informed sthool texlbooks whose successors. when fashion chnnged, containcd
no history. Although lhe Ponugucse syllabus now pays vague lip-scrvice to history of
mathematiQ, proponcnts mus1 safeguard against changes of fashion and politi~l whim. ·
Coopcr, Arnira, 'lntegralion of thc historical dcvclopmcnt of rnathcmatics in
mathematics teaching in lhe high school using self reading', Eduardo Veloso (ed),
Proceedings of HEM Meeling. Braga, Portugal\996, volll, 3·1 O
Providing historical material for studcnts, lo r~d on thcir own at homc, contributes to a
significa/li change in students' attitudes towards malhcmatics. as wctl as incrcasin& tbc
number who saw individual rcading as an important part o! the learning process.
Crawford, Elspcth, 'Michacl faradny on thc lcaming of scicnce and auitudes of
mind', Science and educaiion 7 (1998): 203-211
Famday's ideas about leaming are relcvant to scienti!íc leaming in general. lt is central to
learning in seiencc to acknowlcdgc thal an inner struggle is involvcd in facing unknowns.
Following Faraday, for 1eachers to understnnd lheir own fcclings while teaching is cssenliallo
cnable empathy with thc fears and expcctations of lcarncrs.
O' Ambrosio, Ubiratan, 'Ethnomathematics and its placc in the history and pedagogy
ofmathcmatics', For the Jearning ofmathematics 5.1 (1985)44-48
A suggeslion for looking at the history of mathemalics in a broader conlext, to incorporale
practices which are mathematical in thcir nalure withoul constituting mathcmatisation in thc
traditional sense. Such an approach has implications for curriculum dcvelopment, particuhuly
in lhird world countrics.
O' Ambrosio, Ubiratan, 'Where does ethnomathematics sland nowadays'!', For the
/earning ofmathematics 17.2 (1997), 13-17
Histocy is criticai to clhnomathcmatital studies; converscly ethnomathematics calls for a
broader concept of sourcQ and a new historiography for the history of mathematics, which in
lum arreeiS mathcmatics.
Oeakin, Michael A. B., ' Women in mathematics: fact versus fabulation', Austra/ian
mathematical society gazeue 19 (1992), 105-1 14
Many historical accounts of womcn in mathcmatics. some recent. ovcrlook Theon's
instruction to his daughter Hypatia "To reoch superslillons os tr11ths i1 o mostterrible thing."
To pursue lhe truth about mathematical women in the pastleads lo recognition ofthe divcrsíty
of role modcls thcy provi de, in their very disparate talcnls ~nú intcrcsts.
Oeakin, Michacl, 'Boole's mathematical blindness' Mathematícal gazeue 80, no.
489 (1996) 51 1-518
George Ooulc ncvcr solvcd a pattícul<>r probl~"' in opcratiunul cakulus, dcsp itc wurking un il
Unougbout his life and holding lhe kcy to its solution. Analysing lhe factors which prcvenlcd
him-a technical dcficicncy, couplcd with fai ling to conccivc of lhe solution as bcing a
solllthm hclrs us u11tlcrst~n<l úiflicultics cucmullcoc<l hy ltHlay's studcnts.
 /I Bibliogrnphyfor furo•.·: n·ork in the arta
Dcnnis. D3vid. :IIld lere Confrey. ' Drawing logarithmic curves with Geometer's
~t.-rdtrad: :1 met.hod inspired by historical sources', in James R. 1\.ing and Doris
SchJnschneider ltds.) Geometry lllrntd on! Dymmriç .sofm·ore in leaming. teoclring
Jlld rtstarth. M.U 1997. 1-t i -156
:\ mcthlllitJIIinbsc dc, ic~ rrt-m Ocscancs· <l.·omrrn·. 1\hich c3n !lc use.! fnr tintliM nnv
mrml-<·r l'f r••inlll'n J h•prilhrm.: <>r c:oiponcntbl curv.:. cr111 t-e ~imulatC\1 e>n compu1cr. -Such
31<"-'' hdrs rcrul:Uc lhe dial<'gcc bcl\<((0 groundcd 3Cthity 3Rd S)'Sic~lic inquiry. bCl\\CCR
rh~}ical in•csli~Jii!ln s antl ~~mh••tic languagc. in malhcmatics t.:a.ming.
Dennis. David, and lere Confrey. 'The creation o r continuous exponenls: a study o f
the mcthods and epistcmology or John Wallis'. CBMS /s.sues in mathematic.s
educarion 6( 1996} 33-60
ijiHl'F:' rro\·ides rich sourccs of ahcmath-e conceptualizalion nnd dh·erse routes to thc
·k• dt'rment t'f Jn idcl. This dccpcns lhe closc listcning or t~achcrs aml rcsenrchcrs to studcnt
mllhcmatics. lnd kads to r~conccptualizing the ~pis~cmolog~· of mathematics. History is
''en as thc tOl'rdination ••f multipk forms of rcprcscntation. Ho\\ gcomctr~ and ratio
>urrl·n~d \Yallis's r.lc\dopmcnt <>f cxr\lncnls is c:-;plorcr.l in dcpth.
Dc-rier. Je:m·l uc. ·on lhe tcaching of the theory o f vector spaces in the first year of
Frc:nch scic:nce unÍ\ersilies·. EJwnt~tlr 6 (1998}, 38-48
fli~tNicll anal~~is en3!ok~ us lo c~rl3in lhe spcci!ic mcaning which formalism has in lhe
t\,:,·~ . llld thu~ thc tcadun);. ''~'-ceio r srlces. Olhe r pcdagogical issucs. induding studcnts'
miStll.cs. Clll t-e undmtood wd actcd upon Õ(llcr 1hrough the study ofhistor:·.
Do•\nes. Ste\·en. ·Hypatia \·ersus the National Curriculum', Matfremotics teacher
1~3l199~). g.q
Rcllccti••ns on lhe tcnsit'ns b<t\\cen lhe dcm311ds of a national curriculum and nllempts to
hclp rurits rnjo~ mathcmalics through historical aclivities.
Downes. SteYen. 'Women mathematicians. male mathemalics: a history of
contradiction?'. ,\fotlrematics in sclroo/26.3 ( 1997), 26-27
h is not sufficknt 10 sho\\ pupils that some women (lhe familiar fcw namcs from histor:·) can
do ~lh,matics: rather. il is neccssary to educate girls into seeing thatlhey as women ore not
·othcr' lo malhcmatics. through a hisaorical analysis of how women·s participation in
mathcmltics has Õ(en conslructcd.
Eagle. Ruth. 'A ~-picai slíce'. ,\ [arhemalic.s in schoof 27.4 ( 1998), 37-39
E:>.r l<'rins Archimcdcs· .lfrtlrod \1 itb trninee tcachcrs re,·enls n method for determining
\l'lum~ "hich kindks inter..-~ :md is \\CH \\Íthin lhe grn.sp o f secondaty school pupils.
Emest. Paul. 'The history of mathemat1cs in the classroom', Matltemorics in school
27A (1 998). 15-3 l
E'amrks of cla!<sroom workshccls dc,·ised hy studcnt teachers drnwing upon the history or
mathem3tics.
FauYel. John, 'Algorithms in the pre-calculus classroom: who was Newton-
Raphson?'. ,\fatftematics in .sc/roo/21..1 ( 1998). 45-4 7
Th~ so-cJlkd Ne-\10n·Rapbson mcthod (duc in ils prcsent form 10 Thomas Simpson) providcs
msighls into al~orilhms and iterati\·e r rCicesses which can be use fui for pupils Õ(rore as well
l.< at\cr tht~ 1n.'1l c31C\Ilus.
/U English J9J
Fauvel, John, 'Empowerment through modelling: the abol ition o f the slave trade', in
R. Calinger (ed), Vila mathematica: historical research and integration with
teaclring, Washington: MAA 1996, 125-130
An exampk o f lht use of a historical artef~ct-a diagram from Thomas Clarkson 's History of
tht abolitio1: of tht A/rico slave-tradt (180\S}-in ordcr to hclp studcnts 10 think and le:1Ill
about graphical modclling lcchniqucs.
Fauve1, John, ' Piatonic rhetoric in distance leaming: how Robert Record taught the
home learner', For the /earning of mothemarics 9. I ( 1989) 2·6
The texlbooks of Robert Rccord (c.l 510·1558), lhe lirst writcr of mathemalics tcxtbooks in
English. show astonishing frcshness and pedagogic insight, not lca.sl how lo cmpathisc with
lhe readcr at a distance.
Fauvel, John, 'Using history in mathcmatics education', For the learning of
mathtmatics 11.2 (199 1) 3-6
A survey of ways hlstory can be uscd in lhe mathcmatics classroom. the rcasons advanced for
doing so, and political and othcr issucs surrounding lhe introduclion of a his1orical dimauion
lo malhc~tics cducation.
Femandez. Eileen, •A kinder, gentler Socrates: conveying new images of
malhematics dialogue', For lhe learning ofmathematic.s 14.3 (1994) 43-47
Revisiling thc cclcbratcd cncounlcr Õ(twecn Socratcs and lhe s\avc-boy, in Plalo's Meno, with
a view to drawing out ils implicalions for mathcmatics tcachcr lraining: in particulu. how it
might be uscd to promote an image o f leachcrs and students empowering ooe anolher.
FillSimons, Gail, 'ls there a place for the history and pedagogy of mathemalics in
adult edtJcation under economic rationalísm?', Eduardo Veloso (ed), Praceedings of
HE.M Meeting. Braga, Portuga/1996, volll, 128-135
Before thc growlh of economic ralionalism and lhe adoption of industrial values to the
c:cclusion or ot.~ furthcr education classes in Austra.lia enabkd adults retuming to study lo
lca,n aboul lhe history of mathematics and recreate parts for lhemsclvcs.
Fowler, David H.• 'A final-year university course on the history o f mathematics:
active1y confronting the past' , The mathematical gazette 76 (1992). 46-48
History is lhe aclive confrontalion of the past and the presenL Sludents on this course are
encouragcd in lhis by (a) reading a sclcction of te~ts and writing a short dcscripúon and a
short cssay on 1heir reactions; (b} giving a 15-minute talk to lhe class at some st.agc; (c)
writing a substanlial essay. Some o f the skills 1his coursc develops are notoriously neglectcd
in malhcm<.ties courscs, andare in great demand in lhe outside worla.
Frankenstein, Marilyn, 'Various uses of history in teaching criticalmathematical
líteracy', Sergio Nobre (ed), Proceedings ofHPM Meeting. 8/umenau, 1994,91 -98
A prime use of his1ory is for students to examine their pcrsonal schooling history. Anothcr is
lhe hidden hístory, involving pcoplcs' ~thematical developmen~. which can be used lO
demystify lhe structure of malhematics and o r society. ··
Freudenlhal, Hans, 'Should a mathematics teacher know something about the bistory
ofmathematics?', For the learning ofmathemotics 2.1 (1981) 30-33
The tcacher's knowledge of history should bc inlegratcd knowledge, familiar to the tcacher
illld a comucopia available for instruetlon: not hiddcn in dmwcrs lO be opcned :11 prc-
cstablished momcnts. For students and lcathcrs. lhe his1ory of mathemalics should conccm
lhe processes ralher than lhe produclS ofmalhemalical crcativity.
 39./ li Bibliogropf~\·[or funher work i11 the area
Fricdelmeyer. fran-Plierre. 'What history has to say to us about the teaching of
Jn.1lys is'. E"·d!a·e elarbin and Régine Dou;~dy (eds), Teoching matllemotics: the
rd <lllomhip batcc'c'ut lwoH·It?tlge. Cllrriculum ond practice, Topiques êditions 1996,
IO'J-1 22,
Rer.mns in 31'1~lÍS l~atching have anempted to reconcilc the npparenllv irreconcilablc nceds
rN ·igou~ :!!'~. lin- 11n~1ctstanding. Tcaching in u historical contc't cn;bles the mcaning and
r ~<'ur to bd tl:llUrcu,«ly conmuctcJ along wítn the studcnt's mathcmatic31 insíght, by a
r • <t SS \\htth Íl"O';Itl\IÍC :>.nd li\·ing.
F' ••er. Lutz. 'llisr!Orical stories in the mathematics classroom'. Ma~hematico/
gu:eue 76. no.<U5 (;11992) 127-138
7h ; Jcsirabi~it~·ofine(.orporating hisiOJ)' in mathcmatics tcaching is casier ;o cstablish than
' "' ' in practice 1lma~~· t-e done. T\\Q stories-Eratosthcncs. and idcas of ~-illustrate that
" I '·:e.-. is too Íl'l!f'f!larnl to u~ to horc and pcrplcx pupi l~: ralhe r. it l'rovidcs a changc<l tonc
f '' ••:,c t'ratnc"oi'l. 1\ltlhin "hkh mathcm~IÍCS cducahon tal;cs pl~cc.
;· ;nghett i. F.!ilffia. 'History of mathematics. mathcmatics education, school
!' •. tice: c:asr 5:ldie91 in linking different doma ins'. For the /earning ofmathemalics
l '. J t l9Q7).5~.{;1
F ' l'~ricnccs e<f llt':ldhtrs .::-.rk,ring ditl'crcnt "a)'S of using histOr)' are discusscd and
t..\W!I>'mi$cd: inftcminJ:g stu.krm ' imagc of mathe matics. os B sourct of problcms. as nn
t'\'11' ''" ' ltti\ i~.:>.nd :u~ :1 diff~rcnt approach to conccpts. 'lntcgration · is prcfcrablc to 'use'
' f h< •~>t;o. tt> duoctcri~ a mt'le mcthodical dc"ctopmenl ond :molysis.
F1•iinghetti. F.liNia. ·The ancients and the approximatcd calculation: some examples
a,.d suggesti0115 forr thc classroom' Mathematical ga;:elle 76, no. 475 (1992)
I " >-l.t:!
''isto!'· is :1 soot soua:e of rroblcms for thc ctassroom. panicularly in rd ation to the arca of
• \'ll)Ximatcd dcullltf1.0n. '' hich is of increasing impertance in thc practical mathcmatics
;;nrdr.ula t>f I~ T~se problcms are of intcrcsl not only from an algorithlllic point of vicw,
t :: .llsQfl•r de•d!rin~ mathcmatical conccpts.
Ft ingheni. f.dvi:~.. :and Annam<~ria Somaglio., 'History of m:nhematics in school
across disciplires·. J'!athema1ics i11 schoo/ 21.4 ( 1998), 48-51
lli~'"'Y of mal!lm:ttic:li c:>.n hdp pupils sce the gencsis of ide~s and connections between
>u:C•ih!S. " ith e::ll 1-e::nclits fM thcir ~cing the hornogeneity of knowledge as well as
111:1 ~lltical tbd<'f'l'll~nl. Se\'Cral intcrdisciplinnry projects relate mnthematics ond
rhil. :;•phy. 311. nu~i c::. & c. Students' mathematic~l difficul!ics are :uldrcsscd bv a eonsidcred
:~rr• .::.;h dr.l\'"'ur<>o C\'ntcxts from thc histc>f'. or mnthcmatics. ·
Garcia. Paut 'Dismissis incrutiationibus', Histoire er épistémologie dons
Uduculion rmrMnraJique. IREM de Montpellier (1995), 171-190
:\mong the rt2SDIS w~· sccond:lr)' schQol leachcrs might consider using history an: to show:
thlt todny's 'lcmcmary· conccpls may not have been obvious to t\'en grcat pasl
mathcmatici:uu::dl:llt~c pcr~onalitit$ ot' m3thematicians ha\ c the same problcms os everyone
d~c: 3fld that mn to<.h~ therc c:>.n be disputes about ideas.
Gardincr. TO!!!- 'Ooce upon a time' .\fatlrr:matical gazeue 76,. 475 (1 992) 143-1 50
HisiOf'' of tn:Wr.matia lias much to offer the teaching of mathcmatics. Two pitf.11ls, lhough,
are the temrt:l'lim to ('nlist thc ~urron of 'history' whcn trying to ch:>.nge social altitudes, and
thc uncr i tic:~l ~in u.Jlich inlclligent students rcspond to psc udo-history.
I 1.5 EngliJh 395
Gardner, J Helen, "'How fast does the wind travei?": history in the primary
mathêmatics classroom', For the learning ofmalhemolics 11.2 (1991) 17-20
Examplcs ofincorporating a historical dimcosion into multi-cthnic primary education (8 to lO
)'cru'·Oids}.
Gauld, Colin, 'Making more plausible whal is hard to believe: historical
íustifications and illustrations o f Ne wton 's third l;~w', Science and cducation 7
(1998): 159-172
Similarity between lhe notions of young pcople today and those of prc-Ncw\onian scientists
suggcsts that a study o f allempts to justify Newton's third law from the C 17 to thc: C 19 may
pro~ ide argu mcnts 10 hclp studcnts to c:onsidcr it plausiblc.
Gerdes, Paulus, ' Examples of incorporation into mathematics education of themes
bc1onging lo lhe history of &comctry in Afric01', Sergio Nobre (cu), Pruc·cc:dillgs uf
HPM Meeting. lJ/umenau, Brazi/ 1994, 214-221
Two examples: lhe living tradition of the originally female gcometry of handbags in
Mozambique. and lhe almost disappeared tradition of male geomctry of sand drawings from
Angola and lambia.
Graf, K1aus-Dieter and Bemard R. Hodgson, 'Populariz.ing geometrical concepts:
the case ofthe kaleidoscope' , For the learning ofmathemai/cs 10.3 (1990) 42-50
Historical and pedagogic account of the kalcidoscope (Brewster 1817). a particularly
successful examplc of :>.n instrumc:nl which captures lhe allention of pupils and involves them
in nuuhematics. With further reOtctions on its transference to compu ter software.
Grattan·Guinness, lvor, 'Some neglccted nichcs in lhe undcrst.anding and teaching
ofnumbers and number systems' , ZDM 98/1 ( 1998), 12-18
Historical examples in the ficld of nu mber. sekcted for their possiblc use in teaching al school
or college levei, with pedagogic eommentary: including frac:tions and ratios. integers wi!h
propenies, algorist vs abbacist appro:~ches to calculation, and zero.
Griffiths, H. B., Massimo Galuzzi. Michael Neubrand and Colene Labo rd, 'The
evolution of geometry cducation since 1900', in C. Mammana and V. Villani (eds)
Perspectives in the teaching o[geomelry for the 21" century, Kluwer 1998, 193-234
The roles of geometry in lhe curriculum ovcr lhe past century in Engl and, ltaly, Gcrmany, and
France. compared as a considcred exercisc in undcrstanding the past bcucr in ordcr to avoid
futun: mistakcs of education policy.
Hahn, Alexander J., ' Two historical applications of calculus', Coltege mathemotics
jouma/29 (1 998), 93-103
L'Hopital's detennination of the static geometry of a pulley, and GalileQ' s expcrimcnl wí th
balls rolling down an inclined plane, are two problerns pi tched :u just lhe right levei ror
students beginning calculus. Through such problems studcnts can both dcepcn their insights
and practise their computztional skills.
Hefendehi-Hebeker, Lisa, 'Negative numbers: obstacles in their evolution from
intuitive to intellecrual constructs', For the learning o[ m01hemotics 11.1 (199 1)
26-32
Thc intcllectual hurdles that blocked the undcrst~nding of negotive numbcrs thou;>hout history
may also block thc understanding of prescnt-day students. The examples of D' 1\lcmben and
Stcndhal ill ustrate lhe confusions. Among othcrs, Hcrmann Hankcl in 1867 soughl to
ovcrcomc the dimcultics by a changc of vicwpoint.
_196 li Bibliogrophy for fi"''•a work in the area
Heiede. Torkil. "\Vhy tencl1 history of mathcmatics?' Mothenrotica/ gazelle 76, no.
-175 (1992) 151- 157
Occnu~~ '"~ hisiOI) or" snhi~c• ;, r•n nr lhe subjcc1. lf you r.rc no\ nwnre 1hot mn1hcmn1k•
ha.~ o his1o~ 1hcn ~ou havc no1 bccn 1au~ht mathcmatics. but havc bcen chcatcd of ~n
indi!'{'cn~t>lc ~ of it. You a.re not a m~thcm~tics lcacher if you do ool leach a1so lhe
hi~IOJC> of mn1hcm"1ic~
H i~chcock. Gavin. 'Dramatizing lhe binh and advenlures o f mathematical concepts:
!\\'Odialogues'. in R. Calinger (ed), Vira nrathemotica: historical research and
integratíon wuh tc.'achi11g. Washington: MAA 1996. 27-41
The F'O"<' of dialogue and thcaue in reconstructing lhe historical story of infonn~l
mathcmatics·making is shown in I\\O ptaylcts. aboul lhe aeceptanee in Europe of decimal
~\r:lllsions o f irr::llional numbers (a di~logue bctwecn Stiftl and Stevin) and of ncgative roots
of cquatil.'ns (f rcnd. Pcacock and De !llorgan).
Hitchcock. Ga\'in. ' Teaching the negatives. 1870-1970; a medley of models', For
th<!l.:arni11g of nrath~matks I i .I ( 1997), 17-25. 42
Sh; cont~tins classroom ~ccnes of good tcachers at work: C. Smith (1888), A N Whitchead
\ 1o 1Sl. E. L~ndau ( 19Jl1l. T. :\po~tol ( 19571. Americon te ache r ( 1961 ). English leocher
\ I 966). " ith prl'loguc (Á. De Morganl Jnd cpilogue (F. Klein). With qucstions Jnd e~erciscs,
IN tcachcr·tr.linins " l'rkshor s.
Hitçhcock. Gavin. 'lhe ''grand entertainment": dramatising the binh and
de"elt'pment of mathematical concepts'. For the learning of mathematics 12.1
(199~) ::!1-:!7
L1 ~c of dialogue and theatre is n "ay to allow lhe studenl to share somcthing of thc creative
tcmions 3Jld intcllectual excitcmcnt experienced by human mathematícs·mJkers in their
histcrical problem-situations. An cxample is given. a synopsis of a six-scene play on the rise
ofncg3ti\·e numbers. 'Gr:llld cntertainment' is Keplcr's phrasc.
lsaacs. lan. V Mohan Ram and AM Richards, •A historical approach to developing
the cultural signi ficance o f mathematics amongst fi rst year preservice primary
school teachers' , Eduardo Veloso (ed), Proceedings of HEM Meeting. Braga,
Portugo/ 1996, vol ll. 26-33
A cour·se at lhe Northcm Territory University, Australia. set out to modify the belief systems
:md pcrccptions or troince prim3~' te3chers about the nature of mathemaJics and lhe purpose
of !'Chool mathem3tics. \\"ork inctuded geometry from China, lndia. Egypt and Greece.
Results \\Crc mi~e.J: m3n~ ~tu.Jents werc unco•winccd nnd more work is nceded.
Jones. Charles V .. ' Finding order in history leaming: defining thc history and
pedagogy of mathem<~tics'. Sergio Nobre (ed), Proceedings of HPM Meeting,
8/umenau. Bra:i/1994 . 35-45
Historio·pcdagogy "ill bccomc a discipline when a founding set or assumptions ~nd a
rcsearch agenda is agrced: for example. seeing the processes of history and of leaming as
comrlcx s~ stems "ith cmergcnt arder. This ,·iew must criticise many assumptions in current
rcdJf>t'SY: tcJcher and lcamer might bcgin to relate as mentoring panners.
Kat.z. Kaila. 'Historical content in computer seience texts: a concem', Annals ofthe
lrisrory of conrpwing 19.1 ( 1997). 16-19
ThC>;~ tcaehing computcr ~cicncc courscs may ha"e little chance or competente to evaluate
thc hi$t,•rkal mJt~riJl fl>un<l in ~tud~nt tcxtbooks. Yet thcrc are problcms with thc hi storicnl
1/.S English 397
contenl of many currcnt tcxts. Thc historv o f thc licld dcscrvcs thc samc carefult reatmcnt in
thcse texts as do other aspccts of compu I e~ scicnce.
Katz, Victor J .• 'Using history in teaching mathematics·, For tire letuning of
mathematics 6.3 ( 1986) 13-19
Use of histnrical mnlcrials i~ profit>hk b01h fnr motivatinf. studcnls nnd for dcvcloping thc
curricutum, and can sive rise to valu3ble pedasosic idcas. Examples a.rc givcn from
algorithms, combinatorics, logarithms. trigonometry, and malhcmatical modelling.
Katz, Victor, 'Ethnomathematics in the classroom', For tire leaming ofmatlll:matics
14.2 ( 1994), 26-30
Many imponant mathernatical ideas grew out or the needs of culturcs around the world.
These are exemplified in examplcs from combinatorics, arilhmetic and geometry. Studying
these broadc:ns students' undcrstanding not only of mathematics but also of the world.
Katz, Victor, 'Some ideas on lhe use o f history in the teaching of mathematics', For
the learning of matlrematics 17.1 ( 1997), 62-63
To discover ways of making leaming better for students, tcachers nced to experiment with
varlous ways of using history and sharing lhe rcsults. Succcssful use may require action on a
larger scale: sctting a scries of idcas, or even a whole course, in historie ai context.
Kleiner, Israel, 'A historically focused course in abstract alsebra', Mathematics
magazine 71 ( 1998), I 05-111
A course in abstract algebra, for an in-service master's programmc: for mathematics teachcrs,
was based around lhe theme of showing how abstract algebra oríginated in, and sheds light
on. the solution of concrete problems. The historical material was mainly approached through
secondary sources.
Kool, Marjolein, 'Dust clouds from lhe 16th century', Mathematical gaze/le 16
( 1992) 90-96
Working wilh historical materiais in the classroom is a way of motivating pupils. In
particular, it can be very uscful with students of bclow average capabili ties or with lcaming
difficulties, who are easily distracted in mathcmatics lcssons and have little intcrcst. Hcre thc
cxample is givcn of working wilh 16th ccntury Dutch arithmctic texts.
Kool, Marjolein, 'Using historical arithmetic books in teaching mathematics to low
attainers', Histoire et épistémologie dans {'éducation mathémalique, IREM de
Montpellier ( 1995), 215-225
Low-attaining leenagcrs can be enthused and stimulated by working with carefully selccted
samples from old arithmctic books and mss. Thc:y come to see m3themntics as problems done
nnd solved by othcr pcople too, wilh whom they can identify. With severa! pages of
worksheets.
Kubli, Fritz, 'Historical aspects in physics leaching: using Galileo's work in a new
Swiss project, Science and education 8 (1999), 137- 150 ~-
A questionnaire about incorporating historic:al material in thcir physics programme was sent
lo students in Swiss high schools, canvassins diiTerent typcs of intcrvcnlion (eg sporadic
recounting, original texts, reconstructed historical expcrimcnts). Early results show a
diiTerencc in lhe responses ofmale and female studcnts.
39$ I I Bibliography for jurrher worlc i11 the area 399
I 1.5 English

Laubenbacha. Reinhard. õlnd David Pengelley, 'Great problcms of mathcmatics: a
baseiS on original sourccs'. Americon mollumratical monrlrly 99 (1992),
CC>Ur$c
~13-31i
In lhis coursc.. Jimc d at ~iving s1udents lhe "bi~ riclurc". we examine lhe evolution of
sclrcted ·srcat fi'Obkms from tive ma1hcmatical subj~cts: 3re3 and the detinitc intcgr.~l set
thcory. solutiozof alr;d•raic rquations. Fcrm:lt's l:l~tthcorcm. :md lhe paralkl postulate. The
u·~ l'f ••ri~inll1o.•ur.:-cs allo"s studcnts to apprcciatc th~ progr.:ss through time in darity and
~"nhisticai~n o( concepts ;md techniques.
l · · benbachcr. Rci nhard. and Michad Siddoway, 'Great pro_blems o f mathcmatics: a
mn "ortshop for high school students'. The co/lege mathemaric$ journal 15
. ' "~). 112-H-l
I. r J·"<c):: $111Tlmcr \\Otkshnp f\lr n high school studcnts from across the counlry wc
·i,~.J. U$~ ••risinal St~urces. lhe C\'Olutil'n of selected great problems from set lheory,
·r thcll~. 311J ~alculus. The 1irst ycar used a traditionalletture :~ppro:~ch. The second
' ·~hin; >t~ lc incQrpl'rJI~d I\\ O pcd:~gogicill deviccs th:ll provcd am:ningly ciTcclivc:
J' ·~ • mclh<'J ~nJ Jail~· \\Titin~ Thc tli~o,·cr~· mcthod led to far dceper
~ in~ n hit.: lhe \\nling ":15 a ,-alu:~blc 1001 for comprchcnding and mastering
ti,·~. TI1c at-i l it~ <•f prim:~r) sourcc nt3tcrialto cngage sludcnts' atlcntion ond spur
.I~ u~ aln!tl~IÍt3ll~ n idcnt.
Today's Slude:nts Me intrigucd anú in!>pin:d by C17 1cxtbool: problcms ata numbcr ?~leveis.
from dcciphering gothic typc (a moralc-boosting activity for wc~cr studentS) to rcaliSing lhat
problems can bc solved geometric31l)' as wcll as algcbraicall~·.
Maanen, Jan van, 'Scvcnteenth ccntury instruments for drawíng conic sections',
Mathematicol gazette 16 (1992), 222·130 .
A consequencc of ~scartcs' ncw ~ppro;~ch to ~;comctry ( 1637) was an incrcoseú i~t~rcst rn
instrumcnts for drawinrt conie scc1ions. takcn up particularly by the l)utch mathcJm\ICian Van
Schooten {161516-I 660).
Maancn, Jan van. ' Teaching geomctry to l i year old "mediaeval lawyers"',
Marhenratical gazefle 76, no. 475 ( 1.992) 37-45
11-yea.r old puptls studying l..alin and mathematics studicd a 1355 trcatist by ~artol_us o f
Sa.xoferrato on tbe division of alluvial deposils. Besides integrating lhe two subjcct.s rn the
same project, il wes a way of encouraging pupils to work togelhcr•. to ser: thc im?Ortance of
mathetrot ics in socicty. and to disco ver ruler·and·compass construcllons.
'
MacKinnon, Nick, 'Homage to Babylonia' Mathemorical gatefle 76 (1992) 158·1_78
I Some resourecs on Old Babylonian mathematics thal have been uscd with classes. <11 vano~
placcs in lhe ewriculum. in relation lo placc value, Pythagoras' lheore~. and quadrauc
equalions. How thc material may be integr:nctl into pupils· general educauon, and wherc to

I
,,IT. JC3ll-r iwc. ·cut>ic equ:llions :11 secondary sc:hool levei: following in sce cunciform mathc:matics in Brilain.
I'CI.-:5rers·. Ewl~ nc Barbin :md Régine Douady (eds), Teaching MacKinnon, Nick, 'Ncwton's teaser', Mathematicol gazefle 76, no. 475 (1992) 2-27
ICIICS: rire r!'lcJtiomlrip benr·een knowledge. curriculum and practice, Leibnit's serics for TCI4 and Newton's ripostc in his Epislola posterior (1676). The lauer
·~>
éditi<ns 1996, li · 3~ "makcs an cxeellenl p~g on which 10 hang a numbcr of lessons on infinite serics: and
r cr no1 indudcd in 1hc curriculum. cubie equations are important for lcading 10 lhe integration, and in the course of rescarching lhis article I found I had t~uchcd ~ase wtth so
c ·'''ICe ofüugin:u~ numbcrs and to thc solution of trigonometric equations. A class of many A·IC'Iel topics 1ha1 my whole lcaching at this levei has been rcvoluhomscd.
1. · (l lds in ~e>nnand~ tacklcd a t~xt of Euler as an in\'cSligation. here described in detai l. \ McBridc, Carl and Jamcs H Rollins, 'The effect of history of mathematics o_n
T' -~ tcx1~ (\plorcd Jiffcrcntl~ in anothcr cbss.
anitudes toward mathematics o f college algebra students', Journal for research m
L '· li. OOmpia. ' Aristotclian physics in the context of teaching science: a mathemarics educaríon 8 (1977), 57-61
h; <ll·ph.llosophical :lpproach', Sciencc aud cducarion 8 ( 1999), 217-239 lncorporating iúcus from thc history of mathematics into a collc.gt algcbra coursc pruduccs a
\ r' . _;~n ri'!5Ín for ditiJCtic purpose1 is so"'ctimcs prcsentcd in 100 fntnlentary and sif,llificanl positive eiTect on studenl altitudes towards malhemaucs.
O\ ~ ·<j)líri ccl l\\3y. Rtading the originallcxt.s is a richer inlcltectual experiente and shows
Menghini, Marta., 'Form in al~;ebra: reflccting, with Peacock, on uppcr sccondary
lhe '. ··s lhoeght in attion.
school teaching' , For the learning of mothematics 14.3 ( 1994)_ ~-14 ..
!lia .lan \ao. ' L'Ht\pital's weight problem', Far rhe leaming of mathemaria In teaching algebra it is beltcr :ll a ctnnin levei to undcrlinc exphcllly lhe transmon f~m
1t.:! · •· ., 1.u..n arithmctical to symbolic al&ebr:l. The work of George Pcacock and othcr Cl9 Engltsh
\.'l.l:o: '~~ u;:.c t.. ith l~·~(~H'ld rurils in~ Dutch gymnasium) of ll problcm from lhe firsl algebraists (Grcgory. Babbage, De Morgan and Boole) provides a useful analogy.
<:3lcul·• 1 ~"\th'\'i.. l 'll\•pitnl'5 Ancl(\'U cfts mjimmmr perus {1696), wilh a discussion of thc
Monk, Martin, and Jonathan Osbomc, 'Piacing thc history and philosophy of sciencc
'alue ., \ }'UIJ'OS< of this a~ti,·ity.
on the curriculum: a modcl for thc devclopment o f pedagogy', Science educalion 81
~ta:mrn. hn \';111 . ·Ncw m~ths tnay prolit from old methods', For lhe learning of (1997}, 405-424 . . .
m.uiJ,·mcw.s li.! ( 1997). 39--16 Two main issucs for lhose wishing to introduce HPS roto sctcncc teachmg are lhe
Four classroom acti,·itics-bisccting an angk. solving a quadratic equalion. cstimating a justitication., and lhe plnccmcnl of materiais. Thc juslilication must point to placcs whcrc _the
logMithm. CJ!cubing lhe óUC3 Of 3 trÍ:!nglt-show hO\\ tackling probJems from old tcxtbooks inclusion of hislory will diretlly contribute to the lcaming of science conccp~. Maler~als
can cnlt-lc ~chC'<>lpupils and tt~incc tcacl\crs to gain frcsh and invigorating pcrspccth·cs on must supponteachers' main aims. and undcrstanding of science education as cp1Stcmologtcal
" 'UI ;l-c~ ;.r loming. justilication, rathcr than scem boltcd on in a conlext of discovcry.
\ 1aanen. Jart \. an. ·QJd maths ncwr dies· . .\lutht!marics in l 1 .. ••I 27 ( 1998), 52· 54 Morley, Arthur, 'Should a mathematics tcachcr know something about thc history o f
mathematícs?' , For the learning ofmatltemal~c ' 2.3 ( 1982) 46
 .JOO 11 Bib/iography for furth.:, worl< in rhe oreo
Yts. f1>r I" O rea.sons· to gct student leochus to reOcct on lhe: naturc of thc subjeet they will
tcJch. :~ond to undcrstand íssues of curriculum contcnl.
~lo"er. Pat. ' Mathematical fiction', Humanistic mathematics network journa/ 19
~ 1999). j 9-16
Studcnts in the history of mathematics class at Washbum Uníversity devdoped their
undcrstandin~ of mathcmatics and its history through crcating imaginative fiction includ ing
·A day in thc life of Oiophantus' and a ncwspapcr report on the discovery of an ancient
sl<>cumenl by Oiophantus.
Nouct. Monique, ' Using historie a( texts in the lycée', Evelyne Barbin and Régine
Douady (eds). Teaching marlrematics: the re{ationship between knowledge,
currirlllum nnd prnctiCI!. Topiques éditions \996. 125- 138
~ l'sin~ rrim~· historical texts has severa! benctits. cnabling students to cxpcrience the
ple:~Surt <>f di~co1 cr:~ to scc that mathematics has devcloped and that the same conccpt can
arpear in a varie~· of ways and contexls: and to be reassurcd. improve their rcpcrtoire of
appro3ches and impro1c thcir perform~ncc. Thcse bcncfits are seen in thc study of texts by
Rl>btt, al. P:uco.l. Archimedcs. 3nd Arnauld. in thc linul-year class ofa lyc~c.
Otir. Ron. ' Historical happenings in thc mathematic:a1 classroom', For the learning
o.f mothemarics 11.2 ( 199 1) 21-23
Oiscussi~n of :1cti1itics dc,·cl~>pcd fo r classroom use ( 12 to 14 ~"Car-olds), in the context of
numN:r s~ !'tem~. frJcti<'OS. J.nd lt.
Ofir. Ron. and Abraham Arcavi. 'Word problems and equations: an historical
actiYi~ f<.'r the algebra tlassroom', Mathematical gazetle 16, no. 475 ( 1992) 69-84
A histt>ry o f algcbr3 3ctiYity for junior high school students (aged 12-14), relating to problems
that rtduce lin modem terms) to a.t ~ b, taking the forrn of a tcacher directed
presc:ntationldi scussion with accompanying transparencies and worksheet.
Orzech. Morris. 'An actiYity for teaching about proof and about lhe role o f proof in
mathcmatics'. PRJ,\IL'S 6 ( 1996). 125- ()9
A linear al~ctor:1 class "a.s infuscd "ith history and philosophy of mathcmalics. to help
studcnts undcrsland the notion of proof. The methoú here involved expericncing a historical
ski~"dialtoguc :tbout the dcfinition of proof. and looking ot some historical proofs to understand
the deYclopment o f thc notion.
Perkins. Patricia. ·using histor:· to cnrich mathematics lessons in n girls' school',
Ft>r rla·lc:crming of m()lltC'mcJtics I 1.2 ( 1991) 9-1 O
Senins mathem3IÍC$ in a histnric31 contcxt. prcsenting it n~ rnn nf cultnrnl hcritagc. has
rrc' c..! 3 succcssful str:ucgy for pupils in an índepcndent girls' school, particularly on issues
conccming Ct>nfidence :md gcndcr 0.\\ 0.rcness.
Pimm. David. '\\'hy the history and philosophy o f mathemat ics should not bc rated
X' , For tlte leaming ofmat!lematics 3.1 (1982) 12-15
History and philosophy of mathcmatics can be of use to mathcmatics cducation through
inforrning <>ur understanding of mo.thcmntics, whith is cnriched and eneouraged by an
3\\ arcncss of its rr<>l>lem sources. lt givcs a sense of place and meaning. from which to le:trn
m3thcm31ics. ch31lenging thc notion of a static list o f accumulated truths.
/1.5 English 401
Ponza, Maria Victoria, •A role for lhe history o f mathcmatics in the teaching and
leaming o f mathematics: an Argentinian experience', Mathematics in school 27.4
( 1998), I 0- 13
The experiente of writing and producíng a play about Galois (whose text is reproduced here)
had notable effects upon the intercst and enthusiasm of pupils for mathematics.
Radford, Luis, 'An historical incursion into the hidden side ofthe early development
o f equations', in Joaquim Giménez et ai, Arithmetics and algebra education (1996),
120-131
A historical ease-study, of lhe risc of the algcbraic concepl of equation, shows thal
mathematical reifitalion processes (processes o f abstraction and/or generalisation) are sacio·
culturally related, in this case to the developmcnt o f writing ando f socially elaborated forms
of mathemntical explanation: equations havc always had a meani11g shaped by the social
structures in which they were practised.
Radford, Luis, 'Before the other unknowns were invented: didactic inquiries on the
methods and problems of mediaeval ltalian algebra', For the learning of
mathematics 15.3 (1995), 28-38
Didactícal-epistemological analysis of probtems and methods in llalian algebra from the 12th
eentury onwards hclps us understand the menning of algebraíc ideas, and hclps draw out
ínforrnation that can bc used in teaching: not to follow the same path, but to fi nd new teaching
possibilities (e.g. links between algebra and negative numbcrs).
Radford , Luis, 'On psychology, historical epistemology, and the teaching of
mathematics: towards a socio-cultural history o f mathematics', For the learning of
mathematics 17.1 (1997), 26-33
The history ofmathcmatics can bc uscd. in a lcss naive way than anecdotally ar as a source o f
problcms, as ao epistemological taboratory to explore the dcvelopment of mathematical
knowledge. This requires criticai analysis ofhow historical and conceptual developments are
linked-notably, of the notion of 'epistemological obstacles'-tllrough exploring how
knowledge is rooted in its socio-cultural contcxt.
Ransom, Peter, 'A historical approach to maximum and minimum problems',
Mathematica{ gazelle 16, no. 475 ( 1992) 85-89
Finding n minimurn. before pupils have met c:tlculus, by studying Fermat's method proves to
have sevcrnl advantagcs: it encourages librory use and practice in algcbra as well as fotlowing
through a mathematical argument and introducing calculus.
Ransom, Pctcr, 'Navigation and surveying: tcaching geo rnetry through the use ofo!d
instruments', Histoire et épistémo/ogie dans I 'éducation mathématique, IREM de
Montpelller (1995), 227-239
Report on a workshop showing how to use casily madc instruments such as sund inls and the
cross-staff for teaching uigonomctry "and geometry, with discussJQn o f the bencfits to pupils
of becoming involved in praeticnl mathematics in this way.
Rice, Adrian, 'A platonic stimulation: doubling the square or why do I teach
maths?', Mathematics in schoo{ 27.4 ( 1998), 23-24
lnteracting wilh a mathematics class as, in Plato's Meno. Socrates did with Meno's slave--boy
is an cxample ofhow to stimulate students through introducing problcms from history.
Robson, Elcanor, 'Counting in cuneifonn', Mathematics in schon/1'1 A r tooo' " "'
 /I Bihliographyfor furtlrer work inthe area
RcH"Jrccs for t~hcrs :md suggcstions for classroom octivity involving Babyloninn
math matics.
RCigc:s. Leo. 'History of mathematics: resources for teachers', For tire learning of
m.!ll en:aric~ I t.1tl0ql) JS-52
Bit-li ·~r.~rhic:~l sunc~ ofre~ources for tcachcrs intercsted in tbc history of m~hematics or its
u;~ i · h.: cb.<srCitl111.
Rog ';. Leo.-~s lhe historical reconstruction o f mathematical k.nowledge possible?'.
Hist• ·c cr épisténwlos=ic da11s l'édtlcCllion matllémariq11e. IREM de Montpellier
t lqQ 105·1 IJ
By s• . ! inll the histor:· of malhem:llics wc can e:otamine aspects of the processes and the
tt'nt... ,. "hcrct>~ it "as de' clopcd. A programmc of mtional rcconsuuction of its history is
rele' '~ tht ccorrununication of mathcmatics at olllc,·cls.
~
Scl·
'JJriel and P E J Sehman. ·Growth processes and formallo&ic: comments
on .nd mathcmatics reg;lrded as combined educational tools', /111. J Matk
f,,..
···chuo/9 ( 1978) 15-29
H i~· ,•.1thenmic~. ~ccn as pcrmc~ting lhrough the wholc o f mathem~tics. can alleviatc
;(lm· he tcJcbing rrot-km~ rJised t>y thc forma!-losical char~ctcr of m~thcmatical
thlll~ '-n~''' In!~ of 1hc wcumstanccs of mathcmatical discovcry is integral to the access
tco. J;- ~ti l'n of:~.1J rai'Cirmancc in mJlhcm.."ics.
Siu. !-K eun~ 'Th<! ABCD of using history of mathematics in the
\Unde .· ., t'llel cbssroom·. BHJ.:.\/S I (1997), 143-154
~Nn~ 't hing cxrcrícncc in u~in g history uf mathemntics in lhe undergraduatc classroom is
sharcd · 1gh ~tl«tcd illumati' c c:-.Jmplcs. Thcsc can be roughly catcgoriscd into four
'k\cl~· til .·llltcdt>lc~. l~l Brrod outlin~. \3) Contcnl :100 (oi) Dcvdopmcnl of
mlthcr.• · 1 iJc:u.
Siu. :v 1\.eung. 'Proof and pedagogy in ancient China: examples from Liu Hui's
comme ' on Jiu : lumg suan s/111·. EJucario11al studies In matlrematics 24 (1993),
::J.'--'.' :
Thc rcdJ., !!ical implic::nions o f aspws o f proof in ancicnt Chincsc mathcmillics.
Srer.mza. ~' rancesco and Lucia Grugneni. 'History and cpistemology in didactics of
mathemati.:s-. Nicotina A 1\lalara. Marta Menghini and Maria Reggiani (eds), lta/ian
rcuarc:h ;,. mathcmatics cduc:arion 1988-/995. CNR \996, 126-135
Thc itHCr.l(l it•n t>~t\\cen m:llhcmatical didactics. and its history and cpistcmology. is rich. and
in ltJI~ i;. mslitutl,'!Uii5c.J. In th.: l!lOOs lhe rcbtion \las thc subj~ct ofa ricll debate; many
"litm~$ ftt'm that rcrit-d JI~ ~till u~ful The debate rcsumed in the 1980s. ;md now involvcs
m:lll~ groups across ltaly.
Steincr. Ha ns·G~org. 'Two kinds of"elements'' and thc dialectic between synthetic-
deducti \ e am' analytical-genctic approaches in mathematics', For rhe leaming of
marlremarrcs !U (1988) 7- I 5
Th~ conctrt of ·eJc~m~·. :1nd rclatcd words such as 'dcmentary'. in authors such as Euclid.
:\mJuld. (l~i~ut :1.'1\1 Ot•llrl>al.i. ~h(m how fum!anl<:ntal dualisms bel\\CCn synlhcsis and
:~.·ui~ 515. ju;u!i.:-atioo anJ d~' clor mcnL rcprcscntalaon and opcration. &c. ha'ic provcd a
'<h ide for cpi~tcmo!(lgical and diJJctical cl:tri!kations consisting in a dialcctical synthcsis of
thc Nipnal comra.<ts. 1-l.S<d t-n thc cl~ht•rllion of complc111cntanst vicws.
I J. 5 English 403
Stowasser, Roland, •A textbook chapter from an idea o f Pascal' , For the leaming of
mathematics 3.2 (1982) 25-30
Raids on the history of mathcmatic:s c:an conlribulc to concrete malhemltics teaehing:
cxemplified by PasC<ll's papcr rclating thc divisibilily of numbtrs to lhe sum oflheir ciphers ·
Stowasser, Roland, and Trygve Breitcig. 'An idea from Jakob Bernoulli for the
teaching of algebra: a challenge for the intcrested pupi l', For the learning of
mathematics 4.3 ( 1990) 30-38
Jacob Bemoulli's tlrs conjtciandi ( 1713) has a discussion or sums of powers. arising from
'Pasal's uiangle'. A passage from John W:lllis's Aritltnu!tico ínfinitorum (165S) can be used
in class also. for approximations of powcr sums which prepare lhe ground for calculus.
Swetz. Fr:mk, 'Mathematical pedag~gy: an historical perspective', Eduardo Veloso
(ed), Proceedings o/HEM Meeting, Braga, Portuga/1996, volll, 121-127 ........
Analysis of didactical trends in hi.storical texts may explore severa! aspccts, notably
organisation of material, use of inslrUctional discourse, use of visual aids 211d of tactile aids .
Examples considcrcd include Babylonian and Chinese textS.
Swetz, Frank, 'To know and to teach: mathematical pedagogy from a historical
context', Educational studies in mathematics 29 (1995), 73-88
The contents of historical mathematical tcxts usually embody a pedagogy. Severa!
pcdagogicaltcchniqucs are analysed: instructional di.scourse, logical scqucncing of problems
and cxercises, cmployment ofvisual aids. Many ofthcse have historical antcccdcnts.
Tahta, Dick, 'In Calypso:s arms', Forthe learning ofmathematics 6.1 (1986) 17-23
ReOcctions on the role of ancient problems and n:urative sensibilities in m~hcmatics
tcaching. Thc continuing rcOcxivc gcncration of thc account mathcmatics givcs o f its o"'n
history is too important to bc lcn to histori;ms. or mathemalicians: lhe challcnge for teachers
is lo recast lhe historiC<ll record knowingly.
Thomaidis, Yannis, 'Historical digressions in Greek geometry lessons', For rhe
learning ofmathematics 11.2 (1991) 37-43
Two historical digrcssions (straightedge and compasses constructions. and Ptolcmaic
trigonomctry) in a Greek lyccum (16-17 year-olds), in rcsponse to tcaching problcms,
provoked discussion and creative activity. This showed how lhe distant cultural past of a
country can inOuencc its contemporary mathcmatical education.
Tzanakis, Constantinos, 'Reversing lhe customary . deductive teaching of
mathematics by using its history: the case o f abstract algcbraic concepts', Proc. of
the flrst European Summer Universiry on history and epistemology in mathenratics
education, IREM de Montpellier (1995), 271-273.
The customary dcductivc approach in mathcmatics tcaching c:m bc re~crscd by using its
history as an esscntial ingredicnt, herc cxaminctl in thc case of complcx numbcr. rotation
group, and morphisms of absuact algebraic struc:ures.
Tzanakis, Constantinos, 'Unfolding interrelations betwcen mathematics and physics,
in a prescntation motivatcd by history: two examples', /nr. jour. marh. educ. sei.
technol. 30 (1999), 103-118
Htstory plays a prominent role in a gcnetic 3pproach revealing inturdations bctwccn physics
and m3thcmatics. Thc two cxamplcs are thc tkrivation ufN cwton·s law of gravitatiun from
Keplcr's Iaws, as an applicatu•n of tliffcrcnuill calculus. and lhe founcJ; ;.. "' of spccial
rclativity as nn example ofthc u··~ nf matrix ~lgcbra
-IOJ I/ Bibfiograplry for; u·lfll!r work in lhe arca
Voo lich. Erica Dakin. 'Using biographies in the middle school classroom' , Sergio
Nobre (cd). Proceedings of HPM Meeting. 8/unrenau 1994. 167-1 72
\ ' arious wa~ s o f incorporati ng biogTJphical material about mathcmaticians in classroom
acti' ítics includc binhday cetebTJiions. conslruction of 5-minule biographíes in which lhe
n=c is hiddcn until thc end, and role-playing on mock TV chal shows.
Zasla\ sky, Claudia. '\Vorld cultures in the mathematics class', For tire learning of
mqrhemarics 11.2 ( 199 1) 32-36
lntroducing muhicuhural. interdisciplinal)· perspectives inlo the mathemalics curriculum is o f
par1icular bcnefil for the self·tsteem 0J1d intcrcst of 'minority' studcnts as well as provoking
add<d apprecialion and awareness for ali studen\S.
...
11.6 French
Eliane Cousquer
B:ubin. E\'elynt. 'Sur les relations entre épistémologie, histoire et didactique',
Rq:oerr.<·IRE.\f 27 t 1997)
Rdlw it'n~ t'n thc links :md Ih' oppositions bctween the di!Terent uends ofthought in France.
B~rb in. E\ elyne. •Lcs ilênrcnrs de géométrie de Clairaut, une géométrie
problém~tisêe', Rt·peres-/RE.\1 4 (1991)
Tclthin~ gcC'mctr:o by rrtscn1ing rroblems is a currcnt lheme of lhought. From lhis poinl of
'ic". Cbinut's book is c~tremely intctc:sting since his aim was 10 sei up lhe objccts and
found~tions o f elementary geomelry in oroer 10 solve measuremcnt problems.
Bkouche. Rudolf. 'Enseigner la géométrie, pourquoi ?', Rcpêres-IREM I (1990)
Hist<'r:o· enlishlens three aspects of geome1ry in a leathing conlext: the science refcrring to
solid C<'nfiguTJtions. geomelry in its links wilh lhe o\her arcas of knowlcdge, geomctry
c<'nsidered as 3 language :111d as a represcntalion.
Bkouche. Rudolf. Autour du théoreme de Thales. IREM de Lille, 1994
This b<'<'kkl in,cslig;lles differcnt proofs given of the proportional segrnents theorem (known
as Thol; s · rhrorrm t>y lhe French). from Greck antiquity to lhe beginning ofthc 20th century.
Frkddmc~<:r. Jc~n-Picrre. et ai, 'lcs aires. ou til hc uristiquc, outil démonstratir,
Rrrht.!·IRE.\ f 31 t19QS)
~O actil itics for secondar:o· 'ducltion prescnled from a historical angle.
Friedelmeyer. Jcan-f' ierre, 'L'indispensable histoire des mathématiques', Reper~­
IRE.\f 5 ( 1991)
The logarithmic function shows how returning to lhe pasl allows lhe teacher to restare
me:111ing lo the "ords and concepts whose connolalions have bcen los! oves the ycars.
Gaud et Guichard. 'Les nom bres relatifs, histoire et enseignement', Reperes-/REM 2
( 1991)
)('hn Flu,·d. Jan 'ln !\13anen (eds.). Hisrorv in mathemarics education: tire ICMI study,
['l{'r.!rec!lt· Klu" cr : 000. rr. JOJ.J05
1/.6 Frcnch 405
This lhorough artide provides teachcrs wilh numcrous extracts of lcxts 1hat can bc used in
class, on the history as wcll as on thc difficultics rnised through the centuries in lhe tClching
of signed numbers, nnd on thc models that have beco used.
Glaeser, 'Epistémologie des relatifs', Recherches en didactique des mathématiques 2
(3), 1981
A detailed study of lcxls aboul thc rute o f signs, from Diophantus 10 contemporary authors.
allows us lo localize some of lhe obstaclcs which block the comprehension of ncgativc
numbers. Educnlional rcsearch should examine whether what troubled Euler or d'Aiemben
still troubles our young studcnts today.
Groupe Math, IREM de Paris 7, ' Mathêmatiques, approche par des textes
historiques', Reperes·IREM3 ( 1991)
lntroducing Pythegorean number triples into middlc sehool with lhe aíd of Diophantus'
writings. and naluTJIIogarílhms inlo scnior classes wilh lhe aid of Ozan:~m's work.
Lefort, Xavier, 'L'histoire de la car1e de France de Cassini', Repêres-IREM 14
(1994)
lnterdiscipl inary work in thc hislory of malhemalics meanl for lhe fourth forrn and involving
librarians, French leachers, history leachcrs and mathcmalics leachers.
M~tin, Fr~dérick, ' Legendre approxime 1t en classe de seconde', Reperes-IREM 29
(1997)
ln·class investigalion of a wriling by Legendre's estimation of 11.
Radford, Luis, 'L'invention d'une idée mathématique: la dcuxieme inconnue en
algebre', Reperes-IREM 28, 1997
The invcnlion of a mathematical idca: the sccond unknown in algebra, invented by the users
o f abaci in lhe Middle Ages and tne Rcnaissance.
Stoll, 'Comment l'histoire des mathématiques peut nous dévoilcr une approche
possible du calcul intégral', Reperes-IREM 11 (1993)
How lhe history of mathematics can reveal a possiblc approach 10 the integral calculus: in·
class use of historical writings.
11.7 German
Hann Jan Smid
Beutelspacher, A, and Weigand, H.· G., 'Die faszinierende Welt der Zahlen',
Mathematilc lehren 81 (1998), 4-8 "
The history of numbers, considered from a historic·genetic poini Õ(view, can shcd light on
many leaming problems of ou r pupils today.
Damerow, Peter, ' VorU!ufige Bemerkungen· Uber das Verhl!ltnis rechendidaktischer
Prinzipien zur Frtlhgeschichte der Arithmetik', Matlremalica Didactica, 4 (1981),
131 -1 53
John Fauvcl, Jan van Mnancn (cds.). Histary in marlrematics educarion: rile ICMI srudy,
Oordrcchl: Khrwer 2()00, pp. .tOS -~ I I
 .J(}fi li Bibliography for ji~rther work in tfre are a
Thc mning poÍII ror ali \lidactical thcories of mathcmatics today is thnl mathcmntical
l..n'"'lcdg~ dC\~ from acting "ith concrct~ uhjccts (l'iagcl). butthis st:uting point is only
l rulc ~f 1humb ,.hcn .J~wl oping lcarning materia is lor mathcmatics. Psychology cannol
ln;"a h'"~ m3l\arn:ltical tcchniqu~s Jc\'clupcc.l from material andacts. Thc carl)· hiStory of
co:-unung prO\Ídcs c.ampks ff\\m \\hÍCh \\C undastand b~ttcr how cOnWUCIÍVC·DdditÍ\'C
numt>cr ~~ stcms Cláêinatcd from 'oncrctc objcclS.
Folkerts. ~- ·Niltllematische Historie und Didaktik der Malhematik', Praxis der
.1/otlzemotik 16 (197-t). 322-3::!6
Abstr:~cts of thc 9r~entations ->f 11 panicipants nf the symposium '"How can historical
demcnts bc intQI!)t)lt:llcd in thc tcaching of dcmcntary m~thcntatics?". hdd althc Tcchnical
l.:n l\cr$it~ ofl3oin qn 19i ~ - In general four points uf vicw wcrc advanccd: lhe possibility of
a ~cnctic "a~ ofJCidling. thc h1story uf mathcmatics as a treasury for :111 kind of cxamplcs, to
'frC'ml'lc thc ~ta.nJing that mathcmatics is a human acli.-ity :md to lostcr thc
unJ~r~llnJinç. o.f ut:.ut>ns 1-~t" .:.:n math.:m:u ics and soci.:ty.
Frcudcnthal. Rtns.. ·soll de r Malhematiklehrer el\\·as von der Geschichte der
~l;nhcm;llik \\Wa"?'. Zl!ntraiN<1ttji1r Didaktik der :\ /(llhcmulik (1978), 75-78
En~li~h \CI"SII'n l"'Slh<>uiJ ~ mJih~mntics tca~hcr kno\\' sumcthing about lhe history of
math~mltics~ ·\e:;:a·d h> in* I U . l.
Gerstl:>ergtt. ,JL ·&rr~tionalz:~hkn und f l~chenaddit ion: Wicdercntdeckung von
.-\nfang Jn·~· . :\1.1riJ!.·m,ll/k Ldrrt!n 19ll986), 10-14
1'1~ u$in~ th< Gun. rncth,,J ,,f aJ.Jing of meas and constructing squarcs o f the samc arca. lhe
rurils o f a cl:t.<ssrotccdcd in pro.-ing thc theor(m of P~ thagoras in a more mcilningful way
thJn u~ual.
Glickman. L . ·w:~rum m<~n historische Notizen in dcn Stochastik-Unterricht
einbauen sollk: Suxhasrik in dt!r Scllllle 9 ( 1988), 43-46
Th~ elementar: íl.=ry o f probJt>ilities is known for ils difTiculties for no .. ices. Historical
t\amrks. ~ho"~ .,hc difficuhks thc pioncm in thi$ field cncountered. likc those of the
•hc' alier Jc ~lirt.c:::m comlim and hdp lo O\'trcome thesc ditlicultics.
Haller. R.. 'bs Geschic hte der Stochastik' , ,\/QJhemmilc der Didaklik 16 (198&),
~62-277
H!~tor:- C'f ~tCIC'í:slim cln bc uscd l o introJucc 1he subject: thc origin;~l problcms. stemming
lh,m r~allife.ur:t-c: tre~ted: the ol\en intcrcsting Jh·cs of foundcrs of slochastics can bc told:
JOJ t h~ Nigin.íll·lllo)ntlc t~chnical tcrms Jnd ~ymb1.>ls still in use.
Héfc nJchl-Hd-d.e;r. L. ·oic negath-cn Zahl~n zwisschen anschaulicher Deutung
und ~~danklil!'r.et K,,nstruktion - geistige Hindernisse in ihre Geschithte,'
.\f,ulu:m<Jtik L&t>m .)5 t 1990). 6-1 2
:\cptiw numhmc:~m bc wry pro\llcmatic for rurils. Th~ hislo ry of malhc malics can help to
understand tha::dij,'Jicultic~. Th~ transition from the idca of numbcrs as closcly conncc1ed
"ith r h~ ~ical ~ntlitic$ lo numl>c:rs as :1 srstcm as l logicnl system of symbols is still a
difTicult step ~p1ils today.
Jahnkt>. H N. "l\bthcntJiik historisch vcrste hen. oder: Haben die alte Griechen
quadratische er~c!hungcn gelosl:· . .\fmlremotik ll!hre/1 47 ( 199 1). 6-12
T" Cl mlin pr~ conccming thc use or lhe histor:· or mathernati cs in t.:aching are lack of
timt. lnd l lada,f c·xpmi~c "~ tea.chcrs in this Jield. Toepli tz ( 1927) argued lhat by lhe use
,,i :hc histN~ tífmJt!h~OlliÍCS "thc dust o f age~ 1\0uld disapp4;ar and thc mathematical idcas
11.7 German 407
would scem living treatures again." Thc debate bclween Wcyl and Unguru on Grcck
'geometric algcbra' shows that lhis is a problcmatic point of view. Thc hislory of
mathematics can help in the acquiring of rnathematical techniques. but this is only uscful
when tcaching hislorical lhinking is takcn seriously, and lakcs account of hennencutic
thinking.
Jahnkc, H. N., 'Zahlen und Grõsscn: Historische und Didaktischc Bemerkungcn',
Mathemalische Sem es/erberichJe 28 ( 1981 ), 202-229
The significllllce of thc history of mathcmatics for its teaching and lcaming is still
problematic: didactics of mathematics may come to have a more indcpendent place and then
history of malhcmatics might havc a more importanl role. By studying lhe history of
mathematics lhe role of mathematics for general education can bccome more clcar. In lhe
19th ccntury mathematics underwent a major change, from a scicnce devotcd lo objects to a
scicncc dcvotcd to funclional rcl:uions bctwcen (formal) ubjccls. This >houhl have
consequcnces for mathemalics cuucation.
Jahnke, H.N. 'Al-Khwarízmí und Cantor in der Lehcrbíldung', in R. Biehler ct ai
(eds), Molhematik ai/geme in bildend unlerrichlen, Kôln 1995, 114-136
History of mathcmatics should play a role in teacher training. Studying historical te)(ts
confronls thc reader with othcr points of vicw and can fosler decper undcrstanding of
(school)mathcmatics. Since hislory of malhcnwics. when takcn seriously, is di!ftcult, it is not
so easy to incorporale history of mathematics in teathtr training. Possibilities for doing this
were demonstrated in an in-service course for teachers, using primary and sccondary sources.
The aniclc highlights two examples: solving quadralic equations by the mcthod of AI·
Khwariuni, and the theory o f trans!inite numbers by Cantor.
Jahnke, H.N., 'Historischc Reflexion im Unterricht. Das erste Leh.rbuch der
Differentialrechnung (Bernoulli 1692) in einer elften Klasse' , Mathematica
Didactica 18 (1995), 30-57
Thc use of original materiais in the classroom offcrs the opponunity of doing history of
mathcmatics in a hermencutic way: interpreting these texts respecting the historical context
and specific character of thc tc)(L lt is not imponant whethtr or not ali sludents arrivc at thc
same interpretation: the exchange of argumcnts ean promote a beuer underslanding of thc
mathematical content A series offive lessons in a Gennan school class used a texto f Johann
Bernoulli on tangents of a parabola. Latcr some lessons about a pan of Bemoulli's text on
points of inOexion were given in thc samc way.
Jahnke, H.N., 'Mathcmatikgeschichte fllr Lehrer: Grtlnde und Beispiele',
Mathematische Semesterberichle 43 ( 1996), 21-46
The idea that history of mathcmatics should play a role in tcaching is not ncw, nor yet
widespread. For a more subslantial position. history of mathematics nccds to be incorporated
in teacher cducation. Examples from such a coursc, concerning Newton-a.~d Cantor. are
dis~ussed. lt is essential to have a hennencutic point of view, ie trying to enter into the
under~tandings o f people living in another time and culture.
Kaiser, H. and Nôbauer, W., Geschichle der Mathematik für den Schulumerricht,
Vicnna 1984
This book is thc rcsult of in-service courscs for 1cachers, ilS aim to he!p tcachcrs to
incorporate history of mathcmatics in lhfir lcssons. An ovcrview is given of the history of
ma1hcma1ics, and the bistorical roots of some topics are presented.
 JOS li Bibliogrophy for Jitrther II'Ork m tht nrea
Kronfellner. 1\lanfred. IJi.11orische Aspekre im Motlremalilwnterriclu. Vienna 1998
Thc c"rcctations. h~s :~nd limits of introducinq historv in mathematics tc:a~hinq nre
di$cusscd. Then a didaccical modcl of nisto')' oricnt;led ma;hcmatics tcJching is dc,-<:J;ped:
l\\0 <lcments rl3~ an impon3nt rok the ·gcnc1 ic principie' and thc idca nf ·cnnstructh·e
rcllism ·. The th irt.l ran co nlains suçgcstions for lcssons with historie ai contcnt. lu r instante
th<" d..-, d c-rmcnl l'f thc ditTcrcntial calculus.
Lchmann. J.. '::!5 historische lllathematikaufgaben', Afatlr. Lehr<!n 53 (1992), 6-11
prt'l:>lcms. :~nd lhe historv o f mathcm~lics in e.cnc~l. wcrc liked \'tn· much
SCih ing historical
t>~ the studcnts or the author. Hcre :!S. rroblems are presc~ted. from Babytonia. . China,
Grcecc and mcdiae\ ai Europc. :lnd from G.:nnan tC:.'ttbooks.
Lehmann. K. 'Einige Gedanke zur Einbeziehun!! historische Elemente in dem
~:'>IJthem:ltikunterricht. d:ngestelt am Beispiel der- Klasse 5'. r\fathemotilr. in der
s~·lmf.-. :6 (1988). 371-~S~: ~5~~6~: 585-592:758-769
Thc curriculum l•'f 1hc fCifmcr DDRl indk~1cs thal hislorical dcmcnts should be uscd in
tcJching. In Çrltticc lhis t'lien d~~n·l \\011: out. duc lo lack nf time. or lack o f c~pcnise by
lhe t(Jchcr. Thc nim'f) 1'f mathcm~tics could llc uscd to pursuc lhe lollowing aims: lhe
C(lnstruclit'n of l scicntilic norld pkturc. characlcr formalion by lhe e.~amplcs of historical
rcrsc-nJlil ics. mal.in~ m~thcmJi ics lcachin~; more intcrcsting by historical cxamplcs.
h Jmrlcs C'i hi~tNiCJI nt31Cnal are rrcscntcd lhat can bc 11scd "iLhin lhe fr:~mcwork o f a
tc,tN:>t•k r rcsni\-(.J in thc tifih ~r:tdc t>f thc formcr DOR. The aniclcs also give de1oils about
thc "l' thc~c C\lmrtc~ "<'rc u~cd in the cbssruom.
:'>lalle. G. •Aus der Geschichte 1emen·. Mathemarik lehren 15 ( 1996), 4-75
Thc hi; to') C' f the Je\elorment o r thc conccpl o f function oiTers an cxample o f how clemcnts
frC'm hi~tC'~ c~n t>c u;cd: not l•nl~· fCir tcachint!- conccpts lhcmsclvcs. but also for structuring
thc "ay lhe ide:! o f function tS inuoduccd and dcvdopcd in lhe curriculum.
Noebauer.V. 'Geschich1e der Mathemalik im Mathematikuntcrricht' Der
müthemmisclrr: tmd thllunrtssetuchajilicl!e Umerricht, 34 ( 1981 ), 87-91 ' 113· 128
Altht'U!;h m3thcrmtics Í$ 'ti") imporunl for our cuhurc. it is hMdly seen as important for
fcncr:~l cducati(ln and is highly isolatcd from othcr school lopics. Using history of
nuthcmllics in lc:!chins ~l·ulJ hclp 111 impro\'c lhis situalion.
Rieche. A. and J. l\laie r. ' l\l:!thematikunterricht im historischen Museen: Vorschlaoe
und Bauste ine· . .\ f,uh.:m<Jtil. L~hrl!n 41 (1991), 14-17 ° 1eachcr trainiog institutcs in sevcr:~l countric:.o;. Tbc:.~c courses serve as ex~mplcs bow history
.-\t thc ntuscum nf Rom~n ~WJ\ations in :\anlcn (Nonh Rltinc Wcstf:~lia). :1 malhematics
lcl.:hcr :md lllU$<.'111ll CurltN hJ, c dc,·dl,~d games and playful aclivities around thc muscum
,,t>_ke~s. sud1 as ins~rirti\•ns and abad. by which children can become :~cquainled with lhe
RC'm:!n num~r.U s~~cm :~nd ftnger counting.
Rithl. G. "Quadraturen Eine mathematikhistorisch oriemierte Einf.hrung in die
lntegralrechnung', Mathematik in der Schule, 36 ( 1998), 347-36 1; 419-430
A shon coursc on the inlroduction of in legration is presented, bascd on ideas duc to O
Tocplitz. about a gcnetic way of leaming ncw conccpts, that isto say taking into account lhe
historicJI de\ clnpmcnt o f 3 conccpt.
RõJier. K. 'Oie Geschichte der Zahlen und des Rechnens', Mathemotilc lehren 81
l i99Sl. 9- 1~
Durin~ the fim ~ cars o f lhe primary school. many childrcn havc difficultics with the
unJersta.nding o f thc <kdmJI s~ stcm and the placc-v:due systcm. A project about the
11. 7 German 409
devclopment o f various number syslcms. ovcr four months. had lcssons liOd workshccts on
topic as body counting. counting with pebblcs and scr:ltchcs. Egyptian and Roman number
systcms. lhe obacus and lhe introduction ofthe Hindu-Arabic numbcr system.
Ronel, K, •Aus der Arbeit der rOmischen Feldmesser', fraxis der Machemotilr. 23
(1981), 210-215
The methods o f the Roman survcyors offer opportunitics for geomctry teachers. The lay-out
of camps. lunnel-surveying and distance bctwecn placa, and calculations of areas and
volumes can motivatc pupils o f severa I grades when leaming geometry.
Schubring, Gert, 'Historische Begriffsentwicklung und Lemproz.ess aus der Sicht
neuerer mathematikdidaktische.r Konzeptionen (Fehler. "Obstacles" ,
Transposition)', ZDM(I988), 138;148
The classical justification for using bistory of malhematics in education, as motivation, is
unsatisfactory. Tbere exists a much more fundamental reason. According lo modem.
subjectivist constructivisl views, mathcmatics has not an uniquc: position: its claim to be a
objcctive fault-frce science is not justified. Thcre is a connection between sludents' mistaltes.
cognitivc obstaclcs, and problems in the historical development of mathematics. There is not
only the problcm of transition ofmathematics as a scientific objett into school mathcmatics,
but also lhe tcacbing of m3.thematics has its innucnccs on the devclopmcnt o f mathematics
itself.
Schubring, Gert, Das genetische Prin!ip in der Mathenrotik-Didaltlik, Stungart 1978
Tbere are severa! aspccts o f thc genetic principie, for instance as psychological-genetic or
historical-genetic. The nature of scicntific knowledge and lhe social mcaning of knowtedge
play an important role. Wilb extensive case studics from the history of mathcmatics
education.
Scriba, C J, 'Oie Rolle der Geschichte der Mathematik in der Ausbildung von
SchUier und Lehrcr', Jahre.sbericht der Dcutsclrc Matl1emotíker Verein, 85 (1983),
In the lirst part three axioms are defcndcd: mathematics without history is impossible;
malhematics shoold be taught within a scicntilic, cultural :lnd social framework: mnlhem~tics
as n cultural phcnomcnon cannot be undcrstood without historical considerations. lo thc
sccond part an outline ls given of programmc:s o f history o f mathcmalics in universitics anel
o f mathem:llics can be integralcd in the training o f malhcmatieians and leachcrs.
Scriba, C J, 'Oie Behandlung mathematikgeschichtliche Probleme im Unterricht'.
Beitrage zum Mothematilamterricht ( 1974), 43-54
Four arguments :md ways for using history o f mathcmalics in tcaehing: to raise intcrcst in
mathcmalics M a form of human activity; to use lhe historical growth of malhematics for a
genetic way of teaching; the use of thc history of mathematics as a treasury of examplcs in
tezehing; and to cxplain lhe interdepcndence bctween mathema;lçs .and sodety. Examples,
mainly from lhe theory o f series, are givcn o f historical topies that could be uscd in teaching.
Stowasser, R J K, 'Oie ldee der Rekursion und der lsomorphie', Der
Mochematilclehre.r 2 ( 1983), 2·1 O
·rwo classica! problcms from the history o f mathcmatics for mathcmalically talentcd pupils:
one by Jacob Steiner concerning the number of regions in which the plane is dividcd by n
 .f/0 li Bibliography for furthcr work in the area
!ines: lhe othcr by Euler. 3bour lhe number of wars 10 put 11 lcllcrs in n addresscd envelopes
so rhar allleucrs ace ::tddruscd wrongly.
Stowasser. R.J.K.. 'Strei(züge durch die Geschichte: Eine ldee von Pascal tu r das
Schulbud(. Der .\fathematikleltrer 2 ( 1981 ), 36-39
~n thc l>3Sis of an ide;} from Pascal (takcn from his De 11umtris multiplicibus ex sola
··"·1'41ctr,.~m. ~ulftcrr,·wn 11ddllione ognoscmtfi) chii.Jren of clcven yeats old worked on
rrc-t-lcms con\mún!! rcmaindcrs "iIh lhe division of large numbcrs. imroduced by means of a
''nc-handcd clock.
S.trecker. C. ·~tosthe~es v?n Kyrene, Columbus von Genua und der Erdumfang:
em e frag"Urdtge Geschtchte . Mathematik in der Schule 36 (1998), 106·114
Ht~tory of m~thcm:llics cnn bc used to promotc criticai thinking. For example. the well
~~o." n story o f Eratosthcncs me:~surmg the dmunfercnce of thc canh can givc raise to
.ntrca.l dout>ts o•·er "hcthcr lhis can ha1·e h:~ppcncd in thc way the Story tclls us. Columbus's
mt5U5tngthe then lmll'\n facts abou1 the map of the c~h provides an 31T1Using cxample of
h011 maJ.;mg n nuthcm;,tic~l mcss can inOu~ncc worlll hislory!
TCI~plitz: 0 .. Die Ellfwidlung der lnjimtesimafrechmmg. Eine Ein/eiwug in die
b!ltnllestmafrechmmg noch der genetischen Methode. Berlin 1949
Üll(l T~crlit1_ foundi~ fathcr uf thc ~cnc tic mcthuoJ uf tcaching. herc introduccd calculus
lhmg .lbc5e li~~ nCK 10 rrc~cnt a h1S1ory o f t31culus. but to shed Jight on lhe origin and
gcoem Of ÔCCISIIC rrobJcms 31\d idc35 in its dcvelopme:nt.
Tt>e~litz.O .• 'Dols Problem der Universit:itsvorlesungen Uber Infinitesimairechnung
und thre Abgrcnzung gegenüber der lnfinitesimalrcchnung an den hohercn Schulen'
Jahroérricfu Ju Diutsche .\f.ulremotiker l'erein 36 ( 1927), 88-100
In tho$ cl:l..~tcallcx1 thc ide a I'f lhe gcnctic me1hod is introduccd. lt is dcmonstrated in thc
C:~Se c-f tcachill! olculus to lirst yc~ uni•·crsity studcnts. The genetic method, lha1 is going
hlc~ .te• t~c rol'tS_ of lhe conccpts. t3n oiTcr a way bcyond the dilcmma of rigour versus
mtutu_c-n m tcaching. h C3Jl ~ applied in a dirctl way. which implies thc use of historie
ma:c-ml.. h c~n 315_o t-e u~cd in an indirect "li)'. which means that hislorical analysis can help
lo tmd dtdlcllcal di~oos1s 3ild thcrapics forlCJming difficullies.
\\:aerden.. B.L van der. 'Die 'gcnetische Mcthode' und der Minelwertsatz der
Dtfferenualrechnunf. Pru.tis da Mathemntik 22 (1980), 52-54
In 1°~6 Clno Ttlcrlin ~~·ocntcd thc use ofthc gcnctic m~thod. Applving this, we scc thatthe
m~ln \3luc th~\Vcm did nol play an important role in catculus untiÍ the middlc of the 19th
.:cntu~ . . Nc\\t~ thc Bcmt,ulli~. Eul~r etc. could do without it. Using the mcnn value
thc,,rcm l1•r P'"'m~ t•lkr th«'tcms thnt olmody nppcor quite obvious without proof could be
rcmictc.J li' the training o f futurc mathcmalicians. There is no reason to makc this thcorcm 8
cc-mcrStC'nc in lhe teacbing of calcu1us for futurc chcmists, physicists, etc.
\\'indmann. B~ 'l\lcthoden des Geschichtsunterrichts im Mahtematikunterricht'
.\farhcmatik Lehren 19 ( 1986). 24·31
~c connection bct"«ll ~istO!}' and mal~cmatics h3S bccn discusscd for more than a ccntury,
"llh<'.ut muc~ rc5UIK 1\.nt'\\)ed~c o f htSIOf)' of mathcmatics can hclp tcnchcr ;md pupilto
~:un msr~hl m lhe rcJStln$ "h~ some topics are taught. h is tloubtful if thc oflcn heard
.li gumcnt of t~c ·~e~ital !'rinciplc · real!~ is truc. More impon:ll.t i~ that history shows that
mlthcmlun ts <~le~tn' sut>Jcct. crc~tcd b~ thinking pcoplc.
JJ.7 German 4/1
Zerger, H, 'Historiscbe Aspekte bei der Logarithmus und Exponentalfunktion',
Mathematik Lehren 19 (I 986), 18·23
lncluding historical el~cnts could cnrich tcaching of thc logarilhm function, in two ways:
historical side stcps, for instancc about BOrgi's log table or Bcmoulli's problcm oo Lhe
ealculatlon of compound interesL or a complete hisrorical orientated IIcaiment of lhe
logarithmic function.
Zimmerman, B., 'Gudrun auf den Spurcn von Gauss und Descartes', Mathematik
lelven 41 (1991), 3041
Using history to support the mathematical development of giflcd childrcn. thc Staning point
was lhe counting of squarcs in a grid, tuding to the summation of squarc numbers. By using
an analogy ofthe wcll·known summation ofthe natural numbcrs by Gauss thcy tried to solve
lhe problc:m, which provcd 10 bc harci. More historical cx:~mples could bc used; hiStorical
tcxts, when wcll choscn, can be made accessible for schoolchildren, motivating thcm by
showing tbem how mathe:matics h3S grown.
11.8 Greek
Yannis Thomaidis and Costas Tz.anakis
This bibliography is of papers wriuen in Greek conc:eming thc relation between
history o f mathemaúcs and mathematics teaching, in chronological order. (Note that
lhe Euclides cited here is the Greekjoumal ofthat name, published in Athcns sincc
'
1982, and not the Outchjoumal published in Gron ingen since 1924.)
Lampiris, K., 'Historical remarks in the tcaching o f mathematics', The pedagogue
tl.ll (1922), I81- 186
The lirst paper in Greck literaturc which highlights lhe positivc role of using history in thc
mzthematics teaching proccss. The author gives many examplcs that go beyond a mcrc
quotation of dates or biographiçal infonnation.
lllomaidis, Y.,'The nxiomatic mcthod oftcaching and thc historical reality', (Greek)
Mathematical review 26 (1984), 2-13
This paper highligbts tbe dichotomy betwccn cxposing mathcmatics axiomatically and
discovcring mnthematics as happencd in history. Trigonomctry and complcx numbcrs are
uscd as cxamplcs to support lhe argument.
Thomaidis, Y., 'Teaching concepts of the calculus, guided by its historical
developmcnt', Euclides y 9 (1985), 8·22
This papcr explores funhcr the issucs raiscd in (Thomaidis 1984). Thc tcaching of calculus as
' an axiomatic thcory, in Greck uppcr sccondary educalion, is contra.Sted with the historical
roots of thc subject.
Thomaidis, Y., ' Origins and applications of thcory in Lhe teaching of mathematics
.(lhe case of Jog..ritluns)', Euclides y 13 ( 1986), I·30
John Fauvcl, J,, · laanen (eds.), Hil lory in malhematics education: lhe ICMI s:udy,
Dordrtchl: Kllt'' ·r. 411-414
 I .
li Bibliography for further ••, · • m the area
The thcory and appliC3tions of logarilhms. as thcy appear in modem Greek textbooks of
clcmcm:uy al@tbra. are conlrastcd wilh the historical dcveloprncnl oflogarithmic concepts.
Poulos. A.. 'The history of mathematics and its importante for secondary school in-
sen·ic:e tea'chers' training'. Conremporary tducatíon 29 (1986), 35-42
Thc author prescnts a varict~· of cognitive. scien1ilic. educ:uional. didactic. cultural and
rhill'SQpbiol \:tlucs of lhe hislory of mathcmaliCS. \\hicb ilr'e closdy rdated to lhe profe:ssion
Q( te<~ching malhcmatics.
Kastanis. N.. 'A case of historical confusion in school geometry textbooks'
Euclides y 14 (1987), 71-73 ' Tzanakis, C.• 'ls it possible to teach abstract algebraic structures in high school? A
The artitlc calls into question lhe use of lhe 1erm 't~oran of Thales' for lhe lhcorem
..
conccming lhe proportional segments formcd by parallels on straight tines.
Kastani$. N.• 'A frequently encountered mistake in the historiography o f
mathematics thal is incorporated in high school malhematics textbooks', Euclides y
l.S \ 1987). 80-82
Thc ilrlicle points out thlt mostle.'~lbooks incorrectly use smallletters ofthc Greck ulphabct.
fN rerre~cnt ing numbers in ancicnt Greek mathematical works \\Titten bcfore lhe 3rd ccntury
BC.
Thomaidis. Y. &: N. Kastan is, 'A hislorical s1udy o f lhe relalion between history and
didactics of mathematics'. Euclides y 16 ( 1987), 61-92
Thi$ rJ~r ex:~.minC1 lhe dcvelopment of lhe relalions bctwcen history and pedagogy of
malhcm:~ttcs from lhe c~rly 19th ccnlury to lhe prcsenl time. both in lhe inlemational und the
Greck educalional systems.
RCiussopo~lo.s, G .. 'History and philosophy of mathematics: their role in teaching
mathcmattcs • Proc. of tire 4th Greek Conference on Mathematics Education
Alhens: Greek Mathemalical Society (1987), 369-379 ' The aulhor nrgucs 1hat the knowledge of historical problems can be benefieial in lhe planning
Thc author argutl that history and philosophy of mathematics are basic components in the
contcxt of a heuristic mcthodology of teaching mathematics.
Patrn:midi~. A.• . 'Revealing the role o f lhe history of mathematics in teaching
ma1hemaucs', Duutasi 3-4 (1988), 102-106
Stemming ~om p.upils' rcactions 10 a historical note on Euclid's Slh postulate in a geometry
tc:-.tbook t~ts nrttcle traces thc m:tin stcps in thc dcvclopmcnt or non-Euclidcan gcometries
Jn.! arsucs'" surpon oftcacher"s hislorical knowlcdge.
Kastanis. N.. 'The conccpt o f space before and afier non-Euclidean geomctries: an
Jpproach for didactic reasons·, Ce1hiers en didactique des mathêmatiques 1 (1988)
15-1 7 ' mathematics in education and society, T. Exarhakos (ed.), University of Atbens
-; short account of lhe author" s prescnl:~tion in lhe HPM session at ICME·6, Budapest, July
-7 ·AU!!US1 3. 1988.
Kastanis, N.. 'An example of confusion conceming history of mathematics as it
ap~an in lhe high school textbook', Euclides y ll (1989), 23-26
The tcrm ·gnomon of Ana.,;imander' is uscd inconectly in a Greek geomelry textbook.
Thomaidis. Y.. N. Kastanis & T. Tokmakidis, 'Relations between history and
didac:tics of mathematics'. Euclides y 23 ( 1990), 11-11
11.8 Greek 4/J
A detailed account of the activitics on thc tneme 'rclations betwcen history and didactics of
matbematics' , aliCME-6. Budapesl. July 27-,\ugust 3. 1988
Thomaidis, Y., 'Historical digressions in geometry high school course', Euclides Y
25 ( 1990), 27-41
This papcr prcscnts an experimental lesson or geomctry. motivatcd by lhe rich historio!
background of some, othcrwisc routinc excrciscs from a Greck gcome\ty ta:lboo~ {Engiish
vcrsion in For rht leJJrning ofmatltematics 11 (2)(1991 ), 37-43)
historical approach', Euclides y 28 (1991 ), 24-34
On the basis of lhe historical dcvclopment of lhe concepts of a group, ring. field and vector
spaee it is argucd that lhese concepts cnnnot be understood in their abstr.let form by high
school studcnts. StudentS would do beller by acquaintance with mathematically importan.t
spccilic cxamples as happcned historically.
Tzanakis, C., 'A genetic approach in teaching mathematics and physics', Proc. of
the conference on the didactic use of the history of sciences, Thessaloniki: Greek
Society for the History ofScience and Technology 1991, 65-90
A gcnetic approach is illuslratcd for malhcmatics, by dcscribing how concrete examplcs of
algebraic structurcs may be uscd at the high school levei, to prepare for their subscquent
abstract presentation at university levei; and for physics. by prcsenting a teaching scquence
for basic concepts or undcrgraduate quantum mechanics.
Thomaidis, Y., 'Historical problems in mathematics teaching: the case of negative
numbers', Proc. of the conference on the didactic use of the history of sciences,
Thessaloniki: Greek Society for the History of Science and Technology 1991,
127-137
o{ didactic situations for introducing mathematical concepls. He offers, as an examplc, a new
inlerprct:ltion of lhe history of negative numbers in the early 17th o:ntury (English version in
Sclence & E.ducotion 2 ( 1993). 69-86).
Christianidis, Y., 'Comments on two historical notes appearing in lhe high school
mathematics textbooks', Euclides y 43 (1995), 1-10
Tite ~ulhor, n historian of nncicnt Grc:ek mathcmatics, criticises historical notes in two
geometry textbooks from the point of vlcw of historiographical ae.curacy.
Tzanakis, C., 'Rel3ting the tcac:hing o r mathcmatics and pliysics on the basis ofthcir
historical development: a gcnetic appronch', Proc. of the 1st Greek conference on
(1996), 349-361
Malhematics and physics have always had an intimate conncc~on, which appears in lhrce
different ways. This fact should not be ignored in thcir leaching. "Their interconnection in
teaching may.lead to a deeper understanding ofboth disciplines ..
Thomaidis, Y., 'ls historical parallelism possible in teaching and leaming
mathematical concepts? The case of the ordering on the number tine', Diastasi
(Section on research on the didactics ofmathematics) l ( 1997), 3-38
The findings of an historical study are associJtcd with those of an empírica! onc with 16 year·
old pupils, in order that lhe controvcrsial relation betwcen the historical evolution of
 .JI-1 I/ Bibliograpfl_v for further wark in the area
rnJthcmatical cmccpls anti thcir lcarning at school bc critically diseusscd. Thc order-relatioo
:md lhe algcbn of inequalities :!Te presented as exarnples. suggCSling a clear distinction
Nl\\Ccn thc 1\\-odomains.
Tsimpourôikis. D.. 'On the historical notes included in the mathematics textbooks',
Euclides jDI (1)(1997). 1·10
Thc 3uthor. ~ritiriscs some historie:~! notes containcd in Greck gcomctry texlbooks, from lhe
point o{' ic~ o!lliSloriographic accuracy. . links wilh lhe use of dynamic: and c:omputational so!lwaie and progrvnming.
Tzanakis. C~'Conditions and presuppositions of a constructive role for history of
mathematics iu undcrstanding and tcaching mathemalics', Diastrui 3 (1998}, 58-86
The importane~: o( the histOI}' of matheRUtics in tcaching and undcrstanding mathenlalics is
c•amutC'd. "itla cmrhasis on undcrstanding thc signilicance or reasoning by induction and by
-.Jll''~~-. on Íllspiring ltlthing :md on intcrconnecting the teaching of mathcmatics and
rc.· S. §i_:;,:! ts l>JSCd l'O this :utidc.
1 lt:tlian
' a Furin~hetti
T\ . · t>li<'gcrh~ is a surrtrment lO that appearing in a survey article published in
1 >~<·. frnnc~co Spen:uu.a and Lucia Grugnetti, 'History and epistemology in
d,\,"• tics of tn3lh~matics·. in Nicotina A. Ma Iara, Marta Menghini and Maria
R~ ·~ilni leds). lralian researc/1 in motllemorics education 1988-1995, CNR 1996,
'-''· 135. T1tn paper cont3ins a list of papers in the arca by llalian authors from
1913 up to 1995.
T. G.. '!\la il pas~aggio non e il risultato. L'introduzione dei numeri
Ba:~, ;.
im.naginari ntlla scuola supcriore', La motematica e la sua didauica, 2 (1997),
ts·,.Jol
Thc ~ulhor introclu~d complcx numbers to his high school class tbrough history.
Bar·. zi. G. C.. 'Un esempio di util iuo dei sistema Cabri-Géomttre',
L ·;ns,•gnomt'IJIO Jc/la matemarica e del/e scietue integral e. 17A ( 1994), 460-466
Otd r rol>ltms 3ft soh~d in an nltcmative "a)' through thc software Cabri·géomêlre.
Bianchini, S. k Velardi. R.. 'Dalla conosccnza dei contcnuti alfa riclaborazione c
sistemazione della matematíca: Leonardo Pisano e Maria Gaetana Agnesi', &uola e
JiJ.mica. l-4 (1990)
,\uthors of tbe p:!St hclp to illuminatc thc p:!Ssag.: of mathematics from its birth to its
s~~cmatiS3tioa The :luthors specilitally noticc the work of lhe ltalian woman malhematician
~laria Agnesi.
Bonino. R. ~l. Cutugno. P. & Furingheni. F.: 1997, 'Progettazione e utilizz.o di un
sistema ipmnediale per la storia de lia matematica', L 'in.segnamenJo del/a
mar~matica e Jelle scien.:e imegrate, 20A-B { 1997), 8)9-854
Jt"hn Flu'd. bn '3ll Moan~·n {cJs.). 1/isrory· i11 marhemarics etfuca/ton: thc JCAf/
[À'r.!I(C~· K!u... cr : (11.\l. rr ~I ~ -~ H•
i I. 9. lralian
415
An aclivity carried out wilh university studcols consistcd in projecúng and realising in
h)-permedia lhe threc classital problems.
Brigaglia, A., •Alcune considerazioni sulle finalità didattiche dell'insegnarnento
de lia geometria euclidea', Archimede, 48(1996), 170-184.
Examples taken from Newton. Deswtes. Vitlc show that Eudid~n geom~lry can be _an
interesling íield in which to dcvclop the objectivcs suggestcd by offkial cumcula. ancludang
De Mane, A., 'Storia Pseudostoria Coocezioni', L 'in.segnamenco del/a matematica
e delle scienze integrare, 17B (1994}, 269·281 .·
The aulhor investigates bcliefs held by sec:ondary students (aged 11-13) about thc genes1s of
malhematical ideas (coneepts and processes) and lheir history. These students have
experience in lhe study o{ histef)' (even\S and civilisations) and of mathemuics, but not
explicit preparation in history of mathematics. This study may serve as a background for
sl\ldies on lhe role of history in mathematics teaching.
Dupont, P., 'Storia e didattica delta definizione c1assica de lia probabilità',
L 'educazione macematíca, 7 Suppl. (1986), 1-27
Some important moments of history of probability can provide teachcrs with hints when faced
wilh the cpistemological obstaeles for today' s studcnts o f lhe classical delinilion.
Freguglia, P., 'Momenti nella storia dell'algebra', in: L 'algebra Ira tradizione e
rinnovamento, Quademi Ministero Pubblica lstruzione 7 (1994), 131-149.
A brief survey of thc: theory or algebraic cquations developed in sixteenth century before
Vi~e. The links bctween algorithmic-arithmctic techniques and geometrical qucslions are
studied through lhe works of lhe ltalian malhematicians Bombelli. Cardano, Ferrari.' and
Tartaglia. This article is a chapter in a book of a seric:s edited by lhe Ministry of EducaliOn as
bask refcn:ncc in annual training courses for tcachers. In each course a diffcrcnt school
subject is prescnted from different poinu of views and for each subject a chapter is always
dedicatc:d to historical issuc:s.
Galuzzi, M. & D. Rovclli: 'Storia dclla matematica e didanica: qualche
osservazione', in: L 'in.segnamen!o de/la geometria, Quademi Mitlistero Pubbica
lsttuzione 19/l (1997), 70-110.
This is thc historieal ehôlpter in thc boolc for teadlcf tr.Uning in gcomctry. ll bc&ins .tiscussin&
lhe links of hislory and mathematics lcaching, and afierwards some topics from Euclid,
Descartes and Newton.
Grugnetti, L., 'Storia ed epistemologia dcll'analisi', in: Didattica ddl'ana/isi,
Quademi Ministero Pubblica lstruzione,24 (1998), 70-105. . .
Some points of history of mathematics rc:levant lo lhe history of calcu\u5. The at m l S to
provide teachers with materiais to bc discussed in class. in ordc:r to confront the
epistemolo&ical obstaclcs they encounter in ICõlrlling and teaching calcutus.
Menghiní, M., 'Some remarks on the didactic use of the history o f mathematics', in:
L. Bau.ini & H.·G. Steiner (eds.) Proceedings of rhe firsl /ca/ian - German
symposium on didaclics ofmathematics (1989), 51·58. . .
The link betwccn art and mathematics is illuslratcd lhrough the study of lhe use of comes 10
Roman Baroque archiietture. Other asputs of the connections between mathematit s and art
are discusscd through tbe work of the Dutcb p:tinlcr M. C. Eschcr. whosc wcll-known
study,
./(6 lI Bibliograplry f o• 1U work in the area
p3inting in~pircd by PoincJrC's model ot' non·Euc lidean geomctry was used in lhe classroom
to inllodllcc rurils 10 problcms uf non-Eudidean geom~trics und to motivate a discussion on
1he naturc of spocc 3.S it de\'clopcd in 19th ccntury. · Thomaidis, van Maanen. Rogcrs
\
PalbdinCl. F.• ' Pbnimcui c mtq;rali". L'inscgnamenro del/a matemnrrcn e áellt .rcienze
rm•s:r.:U. 188 lJ99~l. 51-i'l
Palla.:lino. F.. 'Uno rassegn<l di antichi strumenli di misura per t'inseg.namento e 1e
arrlic:uioni dclb m:ltemalica'. L "insegnanrtniO ddla matematico t del/e scitn:e integrare.
t9A·B I 19961. 59~·608.
Some importam instNmcnts and models such as inlegraphs. planimetcrs. special compasscs,
"crc in f3.Shion a ccntury ago. Thcir use is connected to a particular vision of the teaching
and lhe naturc of mathcmalical knowledge.
~ fauvcl, Furinghetti &. Somnglia. van Mnancn. Burn
Speranza F.. 'Perche !'epistemologia e la storia nella formazione degli insegnanti?',
L'nr.-ersirà ~ scuola (Periodico Concird), 1/R ( 1996), 70-72
Thc ~uthor cl~ims lhe imp11rtnnce o f ~pistemolngy and history in cducation of prospective
mJthcmJtics tcachcrs. Thi~ t'piniun is suprortcd by thc conviction that thc epistcmological
rcllccti(ln intcndC\1 as 3 rcn~cti,•n on th~ construclion of kno\\ lcdgc is p~rt of the pcdagogical
rctkction.
11.10 Collections of·articles (special issues)
This section contains bibliographica1 details of some of the collcctions which
include aniclcs about relations between the history of mathematics and the teaching
and 1eaming of mathematics. Sue h collections have been prepared both as specia1
issues ofjoumals (§ 11.10.11 andas books (§11.10.2}. The annotations in this section
do not describe the collections but are confined to listing authors whose papers are
in the collc:ctions. Some of these papers are annotated above. The listing of names
is not always cxhaustive: most o f the works cited form even richer collections than
the short listing o f authors implies. oftcn containing further papers aboul the history
or mathematics and the history of m:uhematics education. Simply looking over
the~e jcoumal and !-ook details gi\'es a strong, impression ofthe remarkable amount o f
acth·iry in this nre:s O\'er recent years. and it may be hoped and expected that even
more acti\'ily will t3kc place in the years to come.
11.10.1 Journ:tls (speci:tl issucs)
L 'iiUegnamemo della matematica e delle scienze inregrate 14 (199 1), no 11/12.
This issue is dedica1cd to the hi~t()f)· Clf sei entes as a help for didactíes of scíences. lt contnins
:micks Clf Duront. C'Cllombo B(luolo. Balmini. Sibilla. Sa1adin. M:1narQ. Brunet
h>hn F:lu\cl, )Jn \;\11 !o.b..1.ncn ttd~.). 11 mo•ro· in matlrrmatics rductllion: tlr~ IC.\If srudv,
r-...~~~:!:: Kb-.·~: :·.'t't'. rr ~tt'-JI:t · ·
/I . 1O Books and special issues ofjournals with collections of articles 417
For the /earning of mathenratics 11 no. 2 ( 1991 ), edited by John Fauvel
Fauvcl, Ransom. Perkins, Barbin. Arcavi, Brown. Fowkr. Gardncr. Olir, l'Ohrer. ZllSlavsky.
Mathematical gazette 76, no. 475 (1992), cdited by Nick MacKinnon .
Crilly, FOhrer, Furinghcui. Gardincr. O~rdincr. lladlcy &. Singmastcr. llc1edc, Kool. van
Maanen, MacKinnon, MacKinnon, Ofir &. Arcavi, Prilthard. Ransom. Smith
Mathematics in schoo/26 no. 3 (1997), edited by John Bradshaw and Lesley Jones
Sawyer. Joseph, Olívcr, French. Downes. Rothmon, Ta.vemer
Mathematics in schoo/21 no. 4 ( 1998), edited by John Earle
Robson, Ponu. Maher. Barrow-Grcen, Rice. Ernest. Burn, Wceks, Eagle. Van Brummckn.
mathemalik lehren 19 (December 1986), editcd by Lutz f.Uhrer, special issue entitled
'Geschichte-Gcschichten'
fllhrcr, Kretzschmar, Windmann
mathematik Tehren 47 (August 1991 ). cditcd by JUrgcn Schoenebcck, special issue
cntitled 'Historische Quellen fúr den Mathematikunterricht'
Jahnke, Rieche, Riechc &. Maier. Zimmcrmann
mathematik /ehren 91 (December 1998), edited by Hans Niels Jahnke, special issue
entitled 'Mathematik historisch verstehcn'
Biermann, FOhrer, Gerber, Jahnke. Kaske. van Maanen
11.10.2 Books
Barbin, Evelyne and Régine Douady (eds), Teaching matltematics: lhe relarionship
between know/edge, curriculum and practice, Topiques éditions 1996
Artigue. Barbin, Chréticn & Gaud, Daniel, Oouady, Ouperret, Friedelmeyer. Jlenry. Kunlz.
Le GofT, Nouet
Boyé, Anne, François Héau1me, Xavier Lefort (cds), Contribu1i011 à une appro~he
hislorique de /'enseignmenl des marhémaliques, Nantes: IREM des Pays de la Lotre,
1999
Bnrbin & Guitard, Oennacc ur, Bcrnard, Br:mnrd, Bcmard, Caetano. Collaudin, Cousquer,
Oe1attre. Doricr. Fricdc1mcycr, Guichanl & Gaud, Hauchart, Lakoma, Lamandé, Lc Corre,
Lerort, Michel-Pajus, Plane, Proust, Provosl, S!oll, Stoll. Vassard, Vilain
Calinger, Rona1d (ed), Vita mathematica: historical research and integration witll
teaching, Washington: Mathcmatical Association of Amcrica 1996
Aspray &. ai, Barbin, Bero, Calinger, Cooke, D'Ambrosio~·Dadic, Fauvcl, F1~hman,
Grabiner, Heiede, Hense1, Hitchcock, Hughes, Hoyrup, Jahnke, Joteau, Kat:z. K1dwell,
K1einer, Knorr, Kronfellner, Laubenbaehcr & Pengellcy, Lumpkin. Michalowi;z, Rickey.
Rowe, Siu, Swetz, Tattersall
· Fauvel, John (ed), Hlstory in the mathenratics c/assroom: lhe IREM papers.
Leicester: The Mathematical Association 1990
BUhler, Friedelmeyer, Hnllcl'.. llorain, Jolcau. Lefort, Plane, Plane. Sip
) . : ..
J/8 I/ Bibliographyfor jitrrher work in rhc arfa
Inter- IREM Comrnission. Hisrory of marhemarics hisrories of probfems, Paris:
Ellipm 1997
B:u-t>in &. h:ud. Btlct &. lkltt. 13essot &. Le Go!f. Bkouchc &. Dclanre. Chabcn. Chabc.n.
Crubdlicr &. Sir. Daumas & Guillcmol.. Dd;ltlrc & Bl.:ouche, Friedelmcycr & Volken,
Fricdclmc~ k Grêl!oire. Guilkmot & Daumas. Jaboeuf. Plane
Inter-IREM Commission. lmages, imaginaires, imaginario11s: une perspecrive
ili51oriq11e p~tr l'inrroducrio11 des nombres complexes, Paris: Ellipses 1998
Bo~ê. Clero. Durand-Rich:ud. Fri~delme~·er, Fricdelmeycr, Fricdelmeyer, Hallez &
K1•utc) nikoff. llam''"· Thirion .. Vcrlcy
IRE~I de Besançon. Cvntribruion à une opproche llisrorique de l'enseignme111 des
mmhématiqzri{S. Besançon: IREM de Franche-Comté. 1996
Bct-twuchi. Bcrn:>nl. Do~~ & IJuro\\CZ)'k, l'!uyé & l.don. Cousf.\UCr. Daum:ts, Dclanrc.
1h,ricr. ferre<' I. FricJkmc~ a. Guichard. Kdlcr. Lanicr. Lcrcb-rc. Lcfebvrc. LeGofr. Martin,
!\l~tin. !\lichei-Pajus. :\icolle. Nordon. Plane. Provost. Vcrdier. Volken. Waldcgg, Zcmer
Jahnkc. llans Nicls. Norbcn Knochc 8:. Michac:l 01\e, Hísrory of marhemorics and
~ducorio11: idrws t1nd experie!ICI!S. Gõttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht 1996
..~SJ'Iõl~. Rchr. Banolini l3ussi & Per gola. Chcmla. Daubcn, Fraser. Jahnke. Mcnghini, One.
r:m:a. ~Chl'l7. !'icrrin$1.3. $IN\ C, Tocrcll
Katz. Victor J. tcd). Usi1.rg history to teach marhemorics: 011 inrernotio11ol
r.-r.'ft'l'IÍH'. \\'ashin~lon:
1\tathematical Associalion of America 2000
Arc3\Í & Bf\Jtkhdmer: 13art>in: Barncll: Carvalho e Silva, Duarte & Queiro: D'Ambrosio;
De>rier: Furinsh(tli: Gdlert: Giacardi: Grugnéni; Hciede; Heine; Hitchcock; Homg; l$aacs,
Ram & Richards: :'\lichei·P:Ijus: Moreno-Annella &. Waldegg; Radford & Guerelte; Robson;
Siu: S" cu.: Tz.anakis: Wilson: Winicki
Lalande. Françoise, François Jabocuf. and Yvon Noua1.é (cds), Histoire er
éps~r.'nwloglt' clans I 'eJucarionmoflrematique, IREM de Montpellier 1995
.-\m::ro. Bcro. \'an Bf\Jmmclen. Garcia. Kool, Ransom. Ro&ers. Tzanakis, Winicki
Xobre. Sergio ~ed). Proccedings of HPM mceting. 8/umc11uu. Brazi/1994
.-\CC\CÓO. Asl-oledl.. c~r>alho e Silva. D'Ambrosio. Figoti. Frankenstein. Gerdes. Jones,
Kkiner. !\lt-r:lles. Nobre. Pereira da Sih·a. Sánchez, Sarai,·a. Sebastiani, Vilela. Visokolskis.
\'iui. \'oolich
s\\ CIZ. Frank. John Fau\'el. Ono Bekken. Bengt Johansson and Victor Katz, (eds),
L«rmfromthe masrcrs!. Washington: Mathemalical Association of America 1995
:\ití'n. :\, ital. Bd.k~n. Burt<>n & \'an Osdol. Fuuvcl. Gardincr. Hclfgou. Jones. Katz. Katz.
Klciner. Lehmann. \:11\ Maanen. Mejlbo, Reich. Rickey, Shenitzer. Siu. Siu, Siu, Swetz.
Swctz. Swcu
\'eloso. Eduardo ted). /lisroria e Educação Matemática. Braga/Lisbon 1996,2 vols
At-dounur. Barbin. Bmctt. Bcbbouchi. Bcrnard. Benoni, Bkouche, Brito, Chacko,
Charbommeau. Cooper. Cousquer. O' Ambrosio, O' Ambrosio. Dorier, Duarte, Fauvel, Fauvcl,
ferreira. Fiorentoni. FitzSimons. Fossa. Furinghctti. Gellen. Gcrdes. Giardinctto, Rogcrs,
Ginc$ticr. Gorgan. Guichard. Guichard. ~briki, Hcicde. Hitchcoc\(, Homg. lsaacs. Johan,
Katz. K~tz. Krajcsik. Lcfon. ,.an r-.taanen. Martin. M~des. Miguel. Nobre, Paulo, Radford,
Radford. Ra,iagor:~L Robson. Roero. Rosendo. She:lth. Silva. Sirera. Siu. Swctz. Swetz, Testa.
Tun3ki ~. \'ilar. \\'aldc~g. \\'ilson. Zanirauo
NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
Abraham Arcavi is Senior Scientist a\ the Department of Science Tcaching,
Weiz.mannlnstitute ofSeience, Israel. His Ph.D. was on the design, implemental_ion
and evaluation ofleacher courscs on the historical evolution of severa! mathematlcal
topics. He has written high school textbooks, and published a~icles _on
mathemalical education. mathematical cognition, and about ways of mtegralmg
history in the lcaching and leaming of rnalhematics.
Ciorglo T. Bngni has a deyce in mathematics from lhe Univcrsity of ~adova, ll:tly,
and a post-graduate course in numerical analysis (Rende, llaly). He lS membcr of
the Nucleo di Ricerca in Didattica della Matematica of Bologna, and professore a
contratto of history of mathcmatics and \cachcr in lhe posl·graduatc coursc in
didactics of mathematics, University of Bologna. He has wrinen and (co-)edited
fifteen books contribuled to severa! intemational study congresses, and given
lectures for u~iversity students and teachers in a number o f countries. Since 1999 he
has been president of Ateneo di Treviso.
Evelyne Barbin is inaitre des conférences in epistemology and history of sc:ience of
. lhe lUFM (Institui Universitaire de Formation des MaiiTes) of the Academy of
Creteil. Her researches concem mainly mathematical proof in history, and histo~ of
mathematics in lhe 17th century. She is director of the inter-IREM Nat10nal
Commission on Epistemology and History of Mathemat~cs, a body wh!ch has
worked for twenty years on integrating history into the teachmg of mathemaucs.
Junc Darrow-Crccn is a rcscarch fcllow in the history of mathematics at the Brilish
Open University. Her main area of research is the history of mathematics in the
nineteenth century, and she is the author of Poincaré and rhe rhree body problem
{1997). She is also conumcd with thc use of databases and lhe use of the World
Widc Web as research tools in the history of mathematics.
Maria C. (Mariolina) Bartolinl Bussi (*1948) is professor of elcmeolary
mathematics from an advanced standpoint in the University of Modena and Regg1o
Emitia, ltaly. She is director of the laboratory of mathematics at the Science
Museum ofher University. She bas published several research studies on the use of
history in the mathematics classroom at ali age leveis as from primary school, ~d
co-authored a CD-rom with the description of more lhan 150 rnathcmaucal
instruments: <hrrp:llmuseo.unimo.itlthearruml>. ,
Otto B. Bekkcn is associate professor of mathemalics at Agder University College,
Kristiansand, Norway. He has authoredlco-edited severa! books for teaching on
themcs from original historical sourccs, including Una historio breve def olgebra
(Lima 1983). Leorn Jrom rhe mosrers! (Washington: MAA 1995), and Equocoes de
Ahmes até Abel (Rio de Janeiro 1994).
'Paolo Boero is professor of mathemalics education ai Genoa Uni.versity. He
graduated in malhematics, then he engaged in mathemalics educauon research.
Sincc 1976 hc has led a rescarcb group (at prcscnt, 32 teacher-r~searchcrs and 4
university researchers) in mathematics education at Genoa University. His main
J20
scientific interests concem historical. epistemological, cognitive and didactical
aspects oftheoretical knowledge in school mathematics.
Glen Va~ Brummelen is professor of mathematics at Bennington College,
Vermont, and presidem of the Canadian Society for History and Philosophy of
1\t:uhematics. His rescarcn interests focus on geometry and astronomy in ancient
?reece and medie\al lslam. He is the :~uthor o f a coltection o f laboralory projects in
tn}roductory calculus featuring v:~rious historical episodes.
Jai_me Carvalho e Silva is associa te professor of mathematics in the University o f
~otmbr~. Ponugal. researching into partia! differential equations; he has strong
tmerest m htstory o f mathematics and mathematics education. He has coordinated
mathematics prog.rammes for secondary education in Portugal since 1995, and is the
"5uthor of the most Yisited m:uhematics internet sitc in Portuguese http://go.to/nonius
Carlos Correia de Sã ( '1953) is auxitiary professor in the department of pure
m:~th ematics o f the Uni\ ersity of Oporto. Portugal. His PhD. from the University o f
Birmingham. L' f.\. was on Poncelet and the creation of complex projective geomelry
!">~ s~ nthctic methods. llis currcnt intcrcsts includc thc hislory o f mathcmatics in
ancient Greece and in seY.:nteenth century Europe, as well as the integration of
histQr: and epistemology o f mathematics in teacher training.
E 1i~nr _Cou~q~er is lwurer in mathematics at lhe Sciencc and Technology
1
Lntversay of ltlle. France. She is the head ofLAMIA laboratory for production of
multimedia pedagogical tools in the IUFM. Her book La fobuleuse his1oire des
nomf.r,·s appeared in 1998.
Corali~ Daniel is fi"om the University or Otago. New Zealand. Her work and
research are concemed with recognising difTerent abililies and aptitudes and with
denlo?ing srraregies to nunure the creative and functional nspects of these in social,
educattonal and "orkplace situations.
Je3n-Luc Dorin is unh·ersiry professor in a teacher training institute (IUFM) in
Lyt'n. France. and head of a research team in didactics ofmathematics in Grenoble.
His main research subjects deal with the teaching of linear algebra at university levei
and the connection between history and didactics of malhemntics. He edited
L ·~IL<rign:m•·m d~ l:af.v.N•rr li11éoire cn qrteslion ( 1997), to be published in English
P' nh the l1tle T,·oclr111g mrd lf!<1rni11g /i1rear olgebra) by Kluwer.
f1nrtnec- Fos~ne11i is dircctor of the College-University Resource lnstitule in
W:~shington. DC. USA. through which she establishes mathematical education
rr<'gT31Times.for teac~ers and stud_ents at tribal colleges. She was the founding chair
t'f the Amencas seclton of HPI\.1 tn I984 nnd was chair of HPM from 1988 to 1992
arranging saletlite meetings in Firenze and Toronto. Her research interest is in the
relations between the histor:· of art and the history of mathematics.
Joh~ Faunl is senior lecturer in mathematics at the Open University, UK, former
rrestdent of lhe British Sociely for the History of Mathematics, and during !992-
1OQ(i \\:15 chair t'f HPM. He has co-edited severa! books, including Darwin to
Einsuin: historicol sludies 011 science and belie/(1980), The history ofmalhemalics:
<1 rea.J.:r (198i). Lei Sewto/1 be! (1988). and Oxford figures: 800 years of the
mt:rh;m,uicalsdcn,·rs t 1999).
421
Gail FilzSimons has been a teacher o f adult and vocational mathematics for almost
two decades. She is currently compleling a PhD, under the supervision of Alan
Bishop, providing a critique of this sector of education in Australia. She is lhe
author and co-author of numerous publicalions in this tield, and lhe chie f organiser
for adult education and lifelong leaming !CME working groups in 1996 and 2000.
Chun-lp Fung is lecturer in the dcpartment of mathemalics ai the Hong Kong
lnstitute of Education, Hong Kong, China. He is currently presidenl of the Hong
Kong Association for Mathematics Education.
Fulvia Furinghctti is associate professor of elementary malhematics from an
advanced standpoint in the Universily of Genoa, ltaly. She is the co-ordinator of a
group o f mathematics teachers working in lhe field of mathematics education. Her
educational research concems the integralion of hislory in mathematics teaching,
approaches 10 proof, mathematical beliefs, teacher educalion. In her historical
research she studies the history of elementary malhematics joumals.
Hélene Gispert est maitre de confcrcnccs cn hisloirc des scicnces dans un institui de
formation dcs maitrcs et a l'universite dcs sciences d'Orsay, France. Elle travaille
sur les malhematiques de la fin du X!Xe siecle et leurs cadres inslitutionnels ainsi
que sur l'histoire de l'enseignement primairc, secondaire et supericur des
mathematiques.
Lueia Grugnetti is associate professor of foundalions of mathemalics at the
University of Parma, researcher in mathematics education, history o f mathematics,
history of mathematics in mathematics cducalion, editor of lhe bilingual joumal
L'educazione matematico, scientific counsellor of a research group in mathematics
educalion in Parma, an intemational organizer of RMT (Rally Mathematiquc
Transalpin), member oflhe committee on mathemalics education ofEMS (European
Mathematical Society). She was president o f CIEAEM (Commission internationale
pour f' etude et l'omelioration de l'enseignement mathematique) from 1993 to 1997.
Mig11el de Gutmán is professor in the facultad de malemâticas of the Universidad
Complutense de Madrid. His mathematical sludies were mainly done at lhe
University of Chicago, where he obtained his Ph.D. in mathematics under the
guidance of Alberto P. Calderón. He also studied phi1osophy in Munich. His main
malhematical interest has been centered around severa! areas of harmonic analysis.
He has also been involved in severa! aspects of mathematical education and has
acted as president ofthe ICMI for two periods ( 1991-1998).
Torkll Heicde (*1931) was educated at Copenhagen University and was from 1963
a senior lecturer in mathematics at the Royal Danish School of Educational Studies.
He retired in 1997 but is still aclive speaking and writinÍ on diverse mathematieal
subjects and their history, and on the p1ace of history in· mathematics education at
ali levels. He is a co-editor of Normal, a member of the Con Amore Problem
Group, and secretary ofthe Danish Society for the Hislory ofthe Exact Scicnces.
. Bernard R. Hodgson has been involved for more than 25 years in the mathematical
education of primary and secondary teachers· at Universilé Lavai, Québec. His
mathematical research work is mainly in logic and he has a long-standing interest as
an ama teu r (in thc original sense o f thc word!) in the history of mathematics. He
now regularly teaches a history course for secondary school teachers, and in a

distance education fmmework through videoconfcrencing. He is currently secretary
ofthe lntemational Commission on Mathematical lnstruction (ICMI).
Wsnn·Sheng Horng is professor of mathematics at the National Taiwan Normal
UniYersi~\ Taip~i. Taiwan. Trained in the City Univcrsity of New York to be a
professional historiao o f m~thematics in the late 1980s, he is now doing research on
t>oth thc hislory o f Chinese mathematics and how ancient mathematicaltexts can be
used in tti·c ·~assroom.
Abdellah El ldrissi is professeur habilité in the department of mathematics at lhe
Ecole Nonnale Supéri(ure of Marrakech, Morocco. His rescarches are aniculaled
3round epislemology and hislory of mathematics in teaching. Hc is cspecially
inlerestcd by. the his1ory oftrigonometry and the history of geometrical instruinents.
~\bdulcarimo lsmacl leaches mathemalics education in the Pedagogicai University,
~ lapu1o. ~toz.m~bique. He is cngaged in introducing ethnomalhematics rcse3rch into
tcachcr training;. :md his current rescarch is into probability concepts underlying
popular gamts in Mozambique.
:O.Ia~ami Isoda is associate professor o f mathematics education at the University of
Tsukuba. Japaa. He has been researching mathernatization in school mathematics
from psychol~ital and historical :~spccts. He has applied history for discussing
ahemativc: ptl5{lCctin·s in school mathematics. and developed teaching programmes
with technol~. He has co-edited severa\ books for Japanese teachers, about
problc:m posi~and sol\·ing and about using technology in mathematics education.
Hans !'ôicls hbnl..e is professor of mathematics education at the University of
Essen. Genn~. He has wriuen. edited and co·editcd severa! books, including
.\fo.~rlrcnwtík ,. J;y Humboldtschen Reform ( 1990), History of morlrematics and
~ducation: iJf!U and c.tpaie11ccs ( 1996), Geschichte der A11alysis ( 1999).
Lesky Jonrs is s.e:nior lecturer in mathematics education at Goldsmiths University
of London. Sbt klas research interests in the issues of equity and social justice in
education andhs published a number of articles on matters conceming gender and
thc education'Zfd:hnic minority groups in the United Kingdom.
\"ictor Katz is. professor of mathematics at the University of the District of
Columbia in '\lrublngton DC. USA. He is the author of A history of mathemarícs:
nn illtroductiw• (~ddison- Wesle~·. 1998). He has recently direc1ed lhe lnstitute in
tbe History di 1\~hcm~tics and lts Use in Teaching. an NSF-supported project
enat>ling num:rous high school and college teachers to study the history of
m3thematicsJitd t;mw to use it in teaching. This project is currently producing
historical'matitma.:rical materiais for use in the high school classroom.
Manrrcd Konfd.lncr (• 19~9) is professor at the institute of algebra and
computationalmallbematics of the VieMa University of Technology. His research
interests fo~! o~t~ changes of teaching goals. in particular in consideration of
applicalions. compute r algebra and history of mathematics. He is the author of
Hisrorical ~rs i.tn marhcmalics t?ducaliOII (in German), co·editor of The s/ate of
;:vmrma <1lglíra rm nrurlrl!mallcs educario11 nnd co·autltor o f severa! textbooks.
~lari2:1 Krylis.k·a.l is a secondary scltool teacher at the College Saint-Michcl in
Bru~~lle~. ·a~~umo~.. Shc is a membcr of the mathemotics cducation group GEM
tGrl'Ui'C d"En~ment 1\lathêmatiqud a1 thc Catholic University of Louvain. She
423
has (co-)edited severa! text books including De queslion en question vols 2, 3, 4
(1994, 1997, 1997) and she collaborated on the teaching project Approche
heuristique d'analyse (Heuristic approach to calculus, 1999).
Ewa Lakoltta is adjunct faculty in the lnstitute of Mathematics at the Military
University ofTechnology in Warsaw. Her PhD from Warsaw University was on the
teaching o f probabilíty in relation to tbe cognitive deve\opment o f the leamer. In her
research in probability and statistics education she is especially inlerested in
recognising and understanding the student's natural ways of mathematical tbinking.
Here the history o f mathematics plays an imponant role. She is author of Hislorical
development of lhe probability concepl (in Polish, 1992), addressed to mathcmatics
educatots, and co·author of sccondary school textbooks.
David Lingard is senior Iccturer in mathematics education at Sheflield Hallam
University, UK, where he is involvcd in initial teacher cducalion at both primary and
secondary leveis. He taugbt in secondary schools in England for 25 years, including
13 as head teacher of a comprehensive sehool in South Yorkshire. Heis a fonner
honorary secretary of the ATM (Association o f Teachers of Mathemalics), and
currently an aclive member o f the British Society for the History of Mathematics.
Chi-Kai Lit (•1971) teaches mathematics at Cheng Chek Chee Secondary School of
Sai Kung & Hang Hau District, New Territories, Hong Kong. He studied for an
MPhil thesis at the Chinesc University of Hong Kong, whose title is (in English
translation) Using history of mathematics in rhe junior secondary school classroom:
a curriculurn perspeclive.
Jnn von Mnancn (•!953) is assistant professor in thc rnathematics dcpanmcnt of
the University of Groningen, Netherlands. During his years as a secondary school
teacher hc had his PhD from the University of Utrecht, on the Outch audience for
the mathernatics of René Dcscancs. His current research is centred around history
in relation to mathematics teaching.
Marta Menghini is associate professor in the mathematics department o f University
'La Sapienz.a' in Rome, Italy. Hcr rcsearch centres on thc didactics of mathematics
and on history of malhematics in relalion to mathematics teaching.
Karen Dee Michalowicz is upper school chair, the Lang!ey School. Virgí nia, USA,
and adjunct faculty, George Mason Univcrsity, and has becn involvcd in education
for 37 years. She has undergraduate degrees in mathematics and history, as well as a
graduale degree in mathematics education and pedagogy. She is president elect of
Women and Mathematics Education. She is treasurer of lhe Ame ricas Chapter of
HPM. Her area of intercst is collecting and thcn using ancient text books in the
secondary mathematics classroom. She is a Presidential Awardee:in Mathematics
Education.
Anne Michei·Pajus is professeur de chaire supérieure in mathematics at Lycéc
Claude Bemard in Paris, France. She is involved with in-service education at thc
Université Denis Diderot in Paris, where sbe works in the IREM (Institui de
Recherche sur I'Enseignement des Mathématiques) on the history and epistemology
of mathematics and their use in mathcmatics tcaching. She is one of thc authors of A
his1ory of algoritlrms (Springcr 19'1'1. cd l. L. Chabcrt), anda co·cditor of thc IREM
joumal Mnemosyne.

Richard 1\1illman is professor of m~themat ics and presidem of Kno:< Collegc,
Galcsbur". lllinois. USA. He has co-authored three books with George Parker
includin~ Elemenrs of JiWerentio/ geomerry (1977) and co-edited two others. In
addition- to academic appointments. he was Prógram Dirce to r for Geomctric
Anal\'sis at the National Science Founda1ion ( 1984-86). His Ph.D. is from Come \I
Uni\'.ersity. His arcas o f expertise are mathematics education (.:specially writing in
mathemalics) and diiTerential geome1ry.
R,·osuke Nagaoka is professor of malhematics ai the University of lhe Air. in
ctliba. Japan. He is interested in the history of mathematics afler 17th cenlury,
especially ofanalysis in the 19th century. His main research concem is the changing
paradi~m of science after the emerg.ence of modem IT. Among the works he ~as
~o-ledited are r\)"tHon Shi:en Tersugaktl no Keifu (A genealog.y of Newtoman
philosophy of naturel. 1987: Suugaku no Rekislti (A history of mathematics), 1993;
Senkeidai.suu 1: Gendaisuugaku lteno Houhouro11-1eki apuro-chi (Linear algebra: a
methodological introduction to modem mathematical thinking), 1999
l\1ogrns Niss is professor of mathematics and mathematics e~ucati?n at Ro~kilde
l'nh crsitv. Dcnmark. He \\:IS the secretary o f lCMI 1991-98, m wh1ch capac1ty he
was a co:editor of the ICM 1 Studv Series. His research interests are in mathematics
educ::lliCin at larc.e. "ith a focus ·on mathematics education in sociely nnd history;
Jf'rlic:uions and modellin~ of mathematics; assessment; and the characteristics of
mathematics educ:llil'n as an :~cademic discipline.
Sergio Nobre \ •!95i) is assistant professor in the mathematics department of the
l'ni' ersil\ of S3o Paulo. Brazil (Unesp-Brazil) and general secretary o f the Brazitian
Socier.· ~r Histof\· of M::nhcmatics. His PhD, from the University of Leipzig,
Gern1~n\', was for. rcsearch in lhe history o f mathematics. His research interests are
the difT~sion of mathcmatics through encyclopaedias. the history o f mathematics in
Br;uit and the relations between history and mathematics education. He has
orc.:mised intcrnational meetings in Brazil on the history of mathematics tin 1997)
:~nd on relations between history and pedagogy of malhematics (in 1994), and is the
tditor oftheir procccdings.
George Philippou is associate professor of mathematics education in the
department of cducation of the University o f Cyprus. He has taught at secondary
and hichcr educaliCln instillltions :md at the University of the Aegean. His research
intcrc~~ incluJcs problcm solving. mathematical beliefs and teacher cducation, ·
e:o.::1min~d within a historie ai perspective.
Joao Pitom beira de Can·~lho is associa te professor of mathematics at the Cathotic
Universitv in Rio de Janeiro. Brazil. His ma in interest in the history of mathematics
is the hi.storv of mathematics cducation. He has also participated in severa!
prograrnmes •of the Brazilian ministry of education to promote science and
mathem:l!ics teaching and to evaluate schoot texts.
;\laria \'. Ponu has the Areentinian National Teacher and Professor of
;\ l athem:~tics' degrees. Since t976 she has taught in govermment secondary schools
in .-\rgentina. Ãt present. she coordinates the articulation between primary and
~econdaf\· schools a1 Rio Ceballos and she is a student of computing and
mathem;tics tcaching. in Blaise Pascal University, Córdoba. She gives specialised
-12.J
courscs, frccly asscsscd, to tcachers of dil'fcrcnt provinccs in the coun1ry. She has
published severa! articles in Spain and the UK. and is co·author of the book
Scientific investigarion and pluridi.!Ciplinary tcaching practice. Her research is
centred on the relationship ofmathematics with art (especially drama and dance).
Luis Radford ls full professor in mathematics education at Laurentian University,
Ontario, Canada, His main current research is in the psychology of mathematics,
semiotics, epistemology and the history of mathematics in relatíon to the teaching
and leaming o f mathematics.
Michel Rodriguez has a licentiate in mathematics. He felt the need for further
mathematical and historical knowledge when he successivety went through the
various teaching degrees, from instituteur to professeur agrégé. He taught classes at
ali ages and levei, from kindergarten to higher technical vocalional schools. He does
research at the IREM of Lille, where he also guides trainee teachers. He is a
passionate musician, composer and song-writer.
Leo Rogers is a research supervisor in mathematics education at lhe University of
Surrey, Roehampton, UK. Originally qualified in mathematics and physics, his . I
research interests are in history and philosophy of science and mathematics
education, the evolution of human thinking und imagery and visualisation. He has
published work in mathematics, history of mathematics and education and is
involved in mathematics curriculum devetopment projects in lhe UK and Europe.
Er nesto Rottoli is an ltalian high school teacher. His current research interests
centre around using history in relation to the teaching of rational numbers and thc
development ofthe multiplicative conceptua\ field.
Maggy Schncider teaches didactics of mathematics at the University of Namur,
Belgium. She also teaches at a secondary school. Her research prineipally concerns
the epistemological aspects of mathemalical analysis and of geometry at the
secondary school levei. 111is is reOcctcd in the title of her PhO thesis: Des objers
mentaux 'aire' et 'volume ' au calcu/ des primitives (From the mental objects 'area'
and 'volume' to the calculus of primitive functions).
Gert Schubring is a member of the IIIStirut für DidaiC/ik der Mathemarik, at the
University of Bielefeld, Germany. Besides the history o f mathematics education. his
research interests focus on thc hislory of mathematics and the scienccs in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and on thcir broader cultural context. His book
publications includc Díc Entstehung des Mathematikleltrerbenifs im 19.
Jahrhundert (Weinheim 1983/1991 ), thc lccturc notes Analysis of historica/
te.xtbooks in mathemarics (Rio de Janeiro 199711999) and the edited volume
Hêr.mann G. GrafJmann (1809-1877) - visionary marhtmatician, scientist and
neohumanisl scholar (Dordrecht 1996). ·· ·
Anna Sierpinska is professor at the dcpartment o f mathematics and statistics at the
Concordia University in Montréal, Québec, Canada. Her main interest in the years
1984-92 was the notion of epistemological obstacle and its applications in
mathematics education, especially with regard to students' understanding of limits
and intinity. Her book Understanding in mathematics (1994) also appeared in
French. Her present interests include thc teaching of linear algebra, the use of
 427

tê .mology i. 111athem~atics tcaching and studems' difficulties with theorctical
l<''•.king in s~l.
« rc.: ;\lar~· Sin d:il>l Silva ("1951) is scnior lecturc:r in the graduate program in
r ·c..tion. \Fatal L:~ni\·crsity of Espírito Santo. Brazil. and vice-presidenl of the
;:. ,\7jlian Socic! for H-listot;· of Mathematics. Her masters degree in mathematics is
!. ,m the FfdudJUn~ncrsily Fluminense, Brazil. and her PhD in education From thc
·~·crsity of Efelefdld, Germany. Her main rcsearch interesu include history of
hematics ad' mau hematical education in the 20th. century, especially In Brazil.
.
~
.,~ has rccent.Jrpubm shed Positivist mathematics and its impact in Brazil.
· «n·Keung·S'u. whc<> obtained his BSc from lhe University o f Hong Kong and his
·"-. l) in matlmcnics f1rom Columbia University. is a professor of mathematics at his
' ·rgraduatc: 3ina mlater. Hc has published in the fields o f algebra, combinatorics,
· ó probalílity, ~mathematics education and history of mathematics. The
.;:: Ma!Mnatic::.al Society selected his book Mathematícal proofs (1990, in
~e) as otEOfthee se'"en outStanding books in mathematical cxposition in 1991.
· -,, .Ja n S.ii is :l!!Ssociate professor in mathematics and mathematics education at
Delf\ Unrersi~-;· of Technology, Netherlands. His special intercst is in the
•·;ry of tnàil!mJt.tics education. His PhD is on lhe history of mathematics
I• ·l!ion in iàcNetl5ierlands during the first half ofthe 19th century.
·1 " 'I Taimial: is at docent of the faculty of physics and mathematics of the
does research in mathematics education at Harvard University in Cambridge,
Massachusens, and in a new doctoral program in mathematics education at the
Universidad del Valle in Calí, Colombia.
Chris Weeks is a former sccondary school malhematics teacher and lecturer in
mathematics cducation. He has worked with Frcnch IREM collcagues in order to
make their work on education and history of mathematics more available to an
English-speaking readership through translation. The most recent publication is J·L
Chabe.rt (ed.) History of olgoriJhms (1999). He is currcntly membcrship .and
publicity officer for lhe British Society for the History o f Mathcmatics.
Dian Zhou Zbang (•t933) is professor in the mathematics department of Ea.st
China Normal University. His research arcas are operator theory, history of
mathematics in the 20th century, and mathematics education. Many works publíshcd
in Chinese, and his paper (in Englísh) 'Mathematical exchanges between the United
States and China (1850-1950)' is included in The hislory of modern mathematics
vol. iii ( 1994).

mil) ofbt'"i:a. mherc she has taught history of mathematics for more than 20
·"'" Shc g.odkr PhiD in theoretical computer science. Currently, she is a visiting
• ·~--~•or at Gmelt Wnin~rsity, where she teaches history of mathematics; revises
, ,90 te~k (in Latvian) on the history of mathematics; compiles a history of
'~.n matbmatics from ancient times; and integrates bistory inlo the revised
·,,vi'd editicn:d' E.:cpteriencing geometry by her husband David W. Henderson.
' ly Tror has ~~tudied and taught courses in the history and nature of
n· · "ilutics-.ince 19}87 and most recemly was a scnior lccturcr in mathcmatics
e• ••• tion at *- Unh <crsity of Greenwich. England. Her work in London included
te:,·:,' '& in sccndaJ)" schools. funher education and teacher training, working as an
arl ·y teai:h and wublishing learning materiais. In 1999, she left England for 3
ye.• •o btg.imcme teescarch in Bangladesh.
Co · 1antinos Tu.rudkis ( "1956) is assotiate professor of mathematics at the
dep,;ci:ment ó&l.uc:~ti.ion ofthc University ofCrete, Greece. He studied mathcmatics
at Aiilens U~rsity. <Greccc: astronomy at Sussex University, UK; and obtained bis
PhD in theotàc3l pnnsics from the Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium. His
arca o f rcseadtis matthematical physics (statistical mechanics, relativity thcory and
geometrical illl1hods. in physics} and mathematics and physics education (the
relation btt\~ hisunry and epistemology of mathematics and physics and tbeir
tcaching).
C3rlos E. \'am \\ ;,s;tbom in Medellín, Colombia. He linishcd a master's dcgree in The photograph on page 428 shows the whole team at lhe ICMI study confercnce in
theoreticJI p~s, :mrd got his Ph.D. in mathematics in St Louis, Missouri in 1968.
Luminy (Franc~). April 1998
He taught m:nlonatic:s for ~5 years at the Colombian National University in Bogota,
and \\as adriDrta tbte ~linistry of Educ:~tion of Colombia for the improvement of
the sch(lc>l m:Jbem:nic:s curriculum for ~O yc:~rs. He is now professor emeritus, and
 lndex
lndex
A
abacus in mind, 257
abacus, 20, 187, 257, 327, 344, 349,
350,409
Abel, Niels Henrik(l802-1829), 32,
35, 133,339
Achilles and the Tortoise, 82
Ad locas planos et solidos ísagoge
(Fermat 1636), I 58
Agnesi, Maria (1718-1799), 414
Ahmes (C-17), 47, 123, 173
Alexandria,57, 12 1,263,337,341,
367
algorithm, 20, 22, 24, 54, 132, 188,
198,260,270, 300,323
alidadc, 275
Almagest (Ptolcmy c. I 50), 125
angle, trisection o f, 2 I 5, 224, 253,
267,269,279,325,345,346,385
Anschauung, 287
Apollonius o f Perga (C-3), 87, 88,
89,278,294
Archimedes (c.-287- -212), vi i i, 3,
55, 56, 59, 68, 78, 100, I 18, 123,
132,220,229,234,275,319,322,
326,328,365,367,368,392,400
Argand, Jean Roben ( 1768-1822),
322,323
Argentina,2-3,172, 175,177,178,
335,336
Arístarchus of Samos (C-3), 325, 341
Arístotle (-384- -322), 268
Ars magna (Cardano 1545), 305, 323
Ascher, Marcia, 95, 186, 282
Ashanti, 186
Australia, 181, 185,290,393,396
Austría, 3, 99
·a
Babbage, Charles (1791 -1 87 I), 344.,
350, 369, 399
429
Babylon i~n mathematics. 132, 343,
36l!, )R•I, )99, 402
Bachelard, Gaston ( 1864-1962), 145,
162
Banncker, Benjamin ( 1731-1806),
196
Barwell, Miss, 147
Beltrami, Eugenio (1835-1899), 36,
133
Berkeley, George (1685-1753), 73,
74, 160, 366
Bernoulli, Daniel ( 1700·1782), 83,
225
Bernoulli, Jakob ( 1654-1705), 220,
226,325,403
Bernoulli,Johann ( 1667-1748), 57,
83,220,223,320,407
Bertrand, Joseph (I 822-1900), 219
Bhask<~racharya (Bhaskara ll, Cl2),
24,258,259,260
Bij"aganita (Bhaskaracharya CJ2) ),
258
Bion, Nicolas (c.I6S2-1733), 347-9
Bolyai, Janos ( 1802-1860), 133, 153
Bolzano, Bernard (1781-1848), 73,
215,223,224,234
Bombelli, Rafael (1526-1572), 152,
233,264,305,306,319,415
Boole, George (1815-1864), 121,
332, 366,391,399
Boolc, Mary(I832-1916), 121,332
Bourbaki, Nicolas, 224, 225, 269
brachistochrone, 57, 223, 226, 227,
234
BraunmOhl, ~·nron (1853- I 908), 92
Brazil, 3-4, 94, 137, 138, 139, 185
Brecht, Bertholt ( 1898· 1956), 56
Brianchon, Charles•Julien ( 1783-
1864), 222
Briggs, Henry ( 1561-1630), vi i, vi ii,
28
.tJO
British Society for lhe History o f
Mathematics, 104. 121. 366,369
Brousseau, Guy, 148, 162. 163, 201,
209
Brouwer. 'tuitzen (1881-1966), 43
bulletin boards, 232
Bürgi. Joo\10552-1632), 28
c conic section, 87, 88.222,225,227,
Cabri dynamic geometry !>oftware,
158.331 . 351,357,360
Cajori. FloFi:m(l859-1930), 19.36
">t:alculus o f variations. 223. 226, 280
calendar. Aboriginal. 254
CanJda. 185.359
Cantor. Gcorg ( 1845-1918). 5. 224.
235. 281.323.366. 407
Cardano. Girobmo (150 1-1576). 3.
~5. 133. 152. 251. 264. 288. 305,
306.319,323. -H5
Camot. Sadi ll796-IS32). ~22
casling out nines. 21 S. 2:P. ~97
caten~·.22 0
Cauchy, Augustill-Louis ( 1789-
1857). 73.139.219.339. 340,390
Ca,·alieri. Bona,·enrura (c.l598-
16~i), 4, 102. 150.220
(J,alieri's prir.ôp1e, 4
Ca~ley. Anhur(l'!21-1895). 57.215,
221
Ceulen.ludolpb ,-an (
15-l0- 1610). 4
Ch3('5. ~2. 215
Ch:~~les,l\\icbdt1793·1880). 57.222
China. 4-5. 60. ~Q- I 02. 121 . 134.
15~.238.2~1.~58. 279.287,323.
3-l3. 313. 396. ~O:!
Chincse Postmmproblem. 282
Christoffcl, Elai111 Bruno (I &29·
1900), 284
circle. squari~the, 224,267,325,
~s~
cissoid. 267. 2!9
Cla ir.~ut. A1e:\furC1aude ( 1713-1765}.
~06. }20. 39. .!104
c 1a, 1us. chrismpra tl537- 1612), -t
Jnde:.c
Clifford, William Kingdon (1845-
1879), 284
Cohen, Paul, 223
compasses, 4, 23, 25. 26, I 99, 268,
270,271,276,277,278,345 346,
352,403,416
computer algebra software, 159, 351
conchoid,229,267,269
268,269,278,288,310,349,399
see a1so: ellipsc; hyperbo1a;
p:1rabola
Copemicus, Nicholas (1473-1543),
26-7, 169,252.288, 325
Cordoba, 175, 178, 336
cosine, 126, 253
Cramer, Gabriel (1704-1752), 150
cro.ss-staff, 348, 40 I
cube. doubling tbe, 224, 269, 270,
271,272,279,325,345,346,385
cultural understanding, 29 I, 292
Cunha, Jost Anastâcio da (1744-
1787), 101
curve-stitching, 332
cycloid, 226, 227
Cyprus, 104, 113, 115, 142
o ellipse, 158, 220, 224, 278, 356
d'AiemtJ(rt, Jean (1717-1783), 152,
219, 225,227,344,395.405
Oandelin, Germinai Pierre ( 1794-
1847}, 225
Oarwin, Charles (1809-1882), 145
De Morgan, Augustus ( 1806-1871 ),
32,35,37,202,342,396,399
De ratiociniis in ludo aleae (Huygens
1657), 251
De revollltionibus (Copemicus 1543),
26-7,288
Dedekind, Richard (1831-1916), 224,
297,319
Delos, 270, 271
Oenmark, 5-7, 107, 131,215,383
Des~rgucs, Girard (1591-1661), 57,
2:~ 346
Jnde:.c
Descartes, Rcné (1596-1650), 19, 25,
28,34,54, 73, 78, l23, 133,158,
222,226,227,229,234,235,244,
270,279,288,293,294,305,320,
324,344,346,349,352,353,356,
357, 384,392,399,41 1,415
Oijksterhuis, Eduard Jan (1892-
1965), 11,92, 93,322,330,335
Oiocles (C-2), 266
Oiophantus (C3), 4, 24, 132,206,
328, 387, 400, 405
dioptra,273,274,275,307,308
Oirich let, Lejeune (1805- 1859), 22 1
Divina proportione (Pacioli 1509), 26
Dürer, Albrecht (1471-1528), 121,
156,324,344, 346,350,390
Ounon scale, I 15, 116
dynamic geometry software, 159,
351,354
E 279,280,288,394,324,327,360,
echo, assimilation, 155;
---J mechanical, 155
Egyptian mathematics, 2I, 22, 47,
107, 125, 132, 368,385
Einstein, Albert(1879-1955),15, 57,
188,285
elliptic integrais, 224
equation, cubic, 132, 152, 264, 265,
306, 365, 398;
_, differential, 133,221,226,
384;
_, quadratic, 4, 26, 132,229,264,
265,365,398,399,407
Eratosthenes (C-3), 3, 20, 57, 121,
266,269,270,328,337,344, 394,
'410
Erlangen programme, 100
ethnographic mcthodology, 66, 90
elhnornathematics, 15, 50, 95, 108,
123,180,183, 186,261,391, 397
Euclid (?-300), 4, 19, 21, 25, 27, 28,
54,1• l\ 1. 123, 132, 191,221,
225. · · ~8. 260,276,277,278,
289. ··1, 295,310,346,352,
431
356,360,362,365,368,383,384,
385,389,412
Eudoxus (C-4), 270, 276 .
Euler, Leonhard (1707-1783), 27, 71,
73,83,118,139, 150, 176,215,
221, 222,225,226,282,283,307,
326,398,405,410
Eupalinos o f Megara (C-6), 273, 307,
309,320,327
euroccntrism, 26 I
Eutocius of Ascalon (C5), J lO
expcctalion, 58, 250, 25 I
Ezra, lbrahim ibn (c.\090-c.\164), 68
F
fallibilism, 44
Fatou, Pierrc (1878-1929), 216
Fermat, Pierre (160 1-1665), 32, 55,
68, 73,118,133,158,159,2 19,
222,223,225,226,229,235,237,
365,398,401
Ferrari, Ludovico ( 1522-1565), 133,
415
Ferro, Scipione de\ (1465-1526), 133
Feyerabend,Pau\(1924-1994), 145
Fibonacci (Leonardo of Pisa, c.l170-
c.l240), 78, 79, 80, 81, 132,220,
334
films,33, 199,230,317, 331
finger reckoning, 228,229,250
Florida, 18
folkeslcole, 107, 108, 131,384
Formalism, 42, 43
formula, Eu1er-Oescanes, 219
Fourier, Joseph (1768-1830), 221,
226,281
fractais, 15 215
France, 7-8,35, 66, 92, 96, IOI, 127,
134, 135, 157,287,359,395,404
Frend, William (1757-1841), 296,
320, 396
Freudenthal, Hans ( 1905-1990), 75-6,
204,244, 248,250,295,352,393
Frobenius, Georg Fcrdinand ( 1849-
1917), 150

function. 3. l O. 11. ~8. -14.71. 83. 93.
137.138. 139.159.215.221.223.
~~5.2~6. ~37.239. 2-l0.2-l~.245,
1s:.2sp.281.~92.294.302.321.
408
fundamental theorem o f calculus. 248
G.
Galilei. Galileo ( 156-1-1642). 3. 56,
57. 78. 155. 220.223.227.285.
288.~94.296.361.362.369,395.
}97
"'Galois. hariste ( 1811 · 1832). 123.
m. 116. tn. 21s. ~~-~ - 229. 26S.
:6o.:~2.337. 33S.3~9. 340.401
Galton. Francis (I 8.!2-191 I). 75
game theory. ~ 15
Garcia. Rolando. 85. 145. 146. 147.
149
Gauss. Karl Friedrich ( 1771-1855). 4.
~6 . '!~. S5. tt9. 1:0. 13~. 153.
:~}.:8J.J~3.}~S.41 I
Gaussian elimina! íon merhod. I 57
;etosia mcthod. 34J
geomerry. Ca11esian. ~93:
. differential. 206. 2SJ:
_. Euclidean. 153. 158.273,275.
-ll5
_. non-Euclidean. 43. 57. 100.
133.15:. ~25. 385. 41::!. -116;
_. projective. 57. 222. 352;
- . Riemannian. 28-l
Gergonne. Joseph Diaz ~ 1771- I 859).
.,,.,
Gmn:~in. Sl'rhic ( 1776- I S3 1l. 11 S.
I 19. 1~0. 360
German Democratic Republic, 98.
103
Germany, 36. 97. 99, 128,307,343.
395
Gillies. Donald. 44. 14~
Glaisher.James \\'.L. {18-lS- 1928).
~6.:!0~
Gõdel. Kurt ( 1906-1978). 5. 42. :m
Goldbach's conjecture. 118
Gordôln, Paul (I 837-191 :!). 57
lndex
Gou Gu theorern. 4, 102,259,260
Grandi, Guido (1671-1742). 82, 83.
84
grnph theory, 282
Gretce.8,23.60. 113.125.263,396
Gu Guanguang ( 1799-1862}. 260
H 320,324,325,418
Hacking, lan, 75, 76.250,25 I
Haeckel, Emst (1834-1919), 145
Hai Dao Suan Jing (Sea island
mathematical manual, Liu Hui
C3). 262. 263
Hamilton. \Villiam Rowan (1805·
1865). 222.366
Hankel, Hermann(I8J9-1873). 152,
395
Harriot. Thomas ( 1560-1621 ), 121
Heawood. Percy (1861-1955), 219
Heiberg. Johan Ludwig (I 854-1928),
107.384
Heine, Heinrich Eduard (1821-1881),
281
hermeneutic process. 292. 298, 3 I 3,
407
Heron of Alexandria (CI), 4, 12\,
262.263,275,317,308-10,325
Hessen, Boris. 102
heuristics, backward, 160, 210;
_. forward, 160
Hilbe11. David (1862-1843), 42, 57,
100. 101 , 118,269,295,325, 343,
356,386
l1ippocra1cs ofChios (C-5), 279
llobbes. Thomas (1588-1679), 258
Hong Kong, 95, li O, 218
Huygens, Christiaan (1629-1695}, 57,
68.220, 226,250,251,320,325,
385
Hypatia (c.370-415), 120, 367, 391-2
hyperbola, 224,266,269,278, 324
lbn Munim's triangle, 102
In ·urrtm annlyticem isagoge (Viete
1591), 297
lndex
incommensurable, 25, 165, 178,268,
276,277
interiorisation. 164
intermediate va1ue theorem, 73
internet, 57, 174,232,359. 361
lntuitionism, 43
IREM, 67, 96, 97, 127,237,319,
isochrone, 226
Israel, 9, 232
ltaly, 9-10, 36, 79, 84, 89, 92, 95, 96,
99,307,343,345,356,395,402
Japan, I 0-11,231,232, 238, 254, 255
Jiu Zhang Suan Shu (Nine chapters
on tht mathematical art, <C I), 4,
111,118,220,233,259,260,402
Jou1e, James (1818-1889), 57
Julia, Gaston (1893-1978), 216
K Leonardo da Vinci (1452-151 9), 272
kaleidoscope, 348, 350, 395
Karajan, Herbert von, 60
Kempe, Alfred (1849-1922}, 219,
346
Kepler, Johannes (1571-1630}, viii,
268,269,396,403
Khayyam, Omar(c.1048-c.l131), 3,
132,325
Khwarizmi, Muhammad ai- (c.800·
c.847}, 3, 54, 118, 132,229, 327,
407
Kitcher, Philip, tl4
Kolmogorov, Andrei (1903· ), 75,
248
KOnigsberg, 282, 326
Kowalevskaya, Sonya ( 1850-1891 ),
118, 120,230
Kuhn, Thomas, 44, 145, 146
Kummer, Emst Eduard ( 181 O· I 893),
219
L Mathematical collection (Pappus
la Chapelle, Abbé de ( 171 0-1792},
310
433
La géométrie (Oescanes 1637), 25,
28.227,235.238,279,324.349
la Hire, Philippe de (1640-1718), 346
Lagrange, Joseph Louis (1736-18 13),
32, 35, 57, 83, 119,225,226,321,
325
Lakatos. lmre (1922-1974), 44,201 , .
202,204,212,219,221,247,315
Lambert, Johann Heinrich ( 1728·
1777), 133,346
Lamé, Gabriel (1795· 1870), 219
Lampe, Emil (1840-1918), 92
Laplace, Pierre·Simon (1749-1827),
226,325
Latvia, 103
Legendre, Adrien-Marie (1752·
1833),68, 133,339,405
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1646·
1716), 57, 71, 73, 83, 85, 123 149,
220,224,226,284,294,306,344,
357,386,399
Levi-Civita, Tullio (1873-1941}, 284,
285
l..iber abaci (Fibonacci 1202), 78-79
Liber de tudo aleae (Cardano
c.l570), 133
limit, 65, 71, 73, 85, 111, 149, ISO,
246,247,281
Liu Hui (C3), 4, 121,220,259,260,
262,402
Lobachevsky, Nicolai lvanovich
(1792-1856}, 4, 133, 153, 325
Local Modcls Approach (to
stochastics teaching), 76, 250
Logicism, 42
Loria, Gino (1862-1939), 92
lusona, 123
J..
M
Maine, 105
Maori, 13, 14
Marx, Karl ( 1818- 1883), 5
C4), 222

.JJJ
.\fathtmatical manuscripts (KMI
Marx). 5
Max,, e li. hmes Clerk (1831·1879),
5. 206.·;!:!3
Maz.zinghi. Antonio de (CI4). 151 ,
164
mc:di:lll pol1!ihing analysis. li S. 116
Menaechmus tC-n. ::65. 269
Mcndel. Grcgor ( 182:!-1 884). 155
,\f<'tiiOd (i\rchimc:dcs C-3), 132. 392
.'fcthodus ad disquirendam ma.timam
ti minimtim (Fermat 1638). 279
~ Michigan. 18
Minkowski. Hcrmlnn t 1864-1909).
57
minority pupil. I07. 180. 18~. 186.
1 97. ~04
/\lo li.~
t-.lõbius. August Ferdin:md ( 1'790·
I S6S\. ~~:!
mC>dels. .13. 5~. i~. 15. 76. 118. 1 5~.
1 ~5 . 160.172. ISO. 18~. 1 9L:~~.
2~~ .~1. 288. 3~5.353 . ~08.~16
~ ll'nge. Gaspard ( 17.16·1818). 222
Mont:m3.. 106
1\lonteiro Da Roch3.. Jos. 33
\ll'rt'CCO. 94. 1::.1. ::99. ]00
~\oscow pap~rus. 119. 385
1\ll'ZJmbique. 59. 108. 122-124. 395
muhiple rcp.rescntJtion cn,·ironmcnt,
351. ~5:!. 355. 356
museum strategy. 337.341
N Ohnec. 186
Narier. John l 15 ~0-1617). \'ii. ,·iii.
l2.l~.~8. 199.343. 34~.~~8
Napier's rods.. 22. 34~
NCATE. 105.106. 107
Nether1ands. I 1·1:!. 96
Neugebauer. Ono ( 1899-1990). I07.
125.386
II('USÍS. 2:!9
'New Math. 71
Ne" Zealand. I::!-14. I 85. 19 1. 2~0
}1( \\ lOO. l>.l:!t lJ6--l:- IJ27). ~ - 15.
~5. 71-J. ;6_ 1<'2. I IS·Il. 1:::>. 1-19.
lndex
155, 158, 199,206,21 5,226,247,
248.285,294.303,326,346,366,
384,386,395,399,403,410,415
Niceron, Jean-François ( 1613-1646},
346
Nicomcdcs (C-3), 346
Nine chapters of arilhmetic. sce Jiu
Zhang Suan S/111
non·Standard analysis, 54 73
Norway. 14·15. 30, 35,299
numbers, cardinal, 223, 224
numbe~. comp!ex. 3. 152. 21'5. 222,
264.265.288.303, 304,321,323,
325,38~. 403, 4 1 1,41 4;
• irrational, 4. 5, 123. 177. 178,
233,269,296,3 19, 385,389,396;
_. negative. ! 23, 152, I 86, 219,
232, 243,244,264,296,337,389,
395,401,405,413;
_ . rational, 26&
numerais. Egyptian., 22
_. Hindu-Arabic, 14, 22, 57,15 1,
364,409
_, Roman, 132,253
Nunes, Pedro (1519-1578), IOI
o Platonism, 42
obstac!es, cultural, 163;
_. didactic, 162;
_. epistemological, 148, 150, 159·
163, 244,247.352.401,4 15;
_ . ontogenetic, 162
Ollerenshaw, Kathleen (1912- ), 37
On conoids and spheroíds
(Archimedes C-3), 220
omogenesis, 145, 146, 147, 168,204
Oresme, Nicole (c.1320-1382), 132,
244
Orff, Karl ( 1895-1982), 60
Oughtred, William ( 1575-1660), 4
p prime number theorem, 225
Pacioli. Luca (c.l445-15 17), 26, 57,
!33
packages. 208, 21 -l. 217,218,351
lndex
Pappus of Alexandria (C,4), 222, 310,
328
papyrus, 199, 327
parabola, 87, 88, 220, 244, 266,269,
294,387
paral1cl postulate, 225, 398
Pascal, Blaise ( 1623-1662), 4, 57, 68,
76,102,132-3,222,226,229,250,
324-5, 327,344, 352,400, 403,
410
Peacock, George ( 1791-1858), 152;
307, 32 1,396,399
Peaucellier, Charlcs (1832-1913),
'J27
Pennsylvania, 106
Penigrew, J. Bel! (1834-1908), 54
phylogenesis, 145, 146, 147, 160,
168,204
pi (lt), 4, 6, 21' 218, 220, 273, 321-3,
326,385,390,394,399-0,405
Piaget, Jean ( 1896-1980), 45, 85,
145, 146, 147, 149, 406
pigeonhole principie, 72
Plato (-427- -347), 19, 43, 134, 156,
266,268,269,270,344,393,401
Platonic solid, 19, 25,26
plays, 33, 56, 208,229, 230, 338
Plimpton 332, 132, 218
PIUcker, Julius ( 180 1-1868), 222
Poincaré, Henri (1854-1912), 133,
202,336,386, 416
Poisson, Siméon-Denis ( 1781-1840),
83, 119,325
Poland, 2, 15-16, 19-29,99, 100, IOI
Polya, George ( 1887-1985), 44, 204,
209,220
Polycrates (C-6), 178
Poncelet, Jean Victor (1788-1867),
57,222
Popper, Karl, 44
Portugal, 33, I00, lO I, 347, 391
Principia (Newton 1687), 20 I
principie; see: pigenhole principie;
Zu Ge.ng principie
.
:· ..
~
435
..
Principies of algtbra (frend 1796),
296
problems, classical, see: angle,
trisection of; circle, squaring the;
cube, doubling thc
-. one tower, 189
_, sca island, 262·3
_. table, 184
_, two towc~. 79·111
_, word, 24
proportional, mean, 227,267,270,
277,279,344
psychogenesis, 145
Ptolemy, Claudius (C2), 26-7, 125,
252,328,383
Ptolcmy's theorem, 26-27
Pythagoras (C-6), 3, 4, 11, 19, 21, 24,
26, 34, 102, 118, 132, 177, 190,
191, 197, 260,270,399,406
Pythagoras theorem, 21, 79, 177,
191,218,225,258,259,263,272.
276,278,288
Pythagorean triple, 19, 20, 23, 132
Q
quadratrix, 267,269,279
quatemions, 222
quincunx, 75
Quin Liu Shao (1202-1261), 4
quipu, 185, 187, 199
R
Ramanujan, Srinivasa (1887· 1920),
118
recapitulationism, 145, 147, 168
rectification, •
reductio ad at::.~ ~.24 8
reorientation, 291, 293
replacement, 102, 159,291,293
representationa1systems, 294
rcsonance, 155,270,272
Rhind papyrus, 118, 123, 125, 132,
173, 196,294,300,301,326,358
Riccati, Jacopo (1676·1154), 83, 84
Ricmann, Georg F. B. ( I 826· 1866),
118,221,225,235,284,366

Ries. Adam {1-192-1559). 3
Rot.-ervat. Gilles Personne de (160~-
1675). !26.~94.-100
Robinson. 'Ab~ham {191 S-197-1). 5-1.
R0umau. Jean-Jacques t 17 C.-17~8).
Rbxo. tuclides. 138
Rumli. Bertrand ( 1872·1970), S. .n
Russia. 103. 153
-6
Saccheri. Girolarno ( 1667-1733).
Samos .:30.~73.307.}0S .309.3~0.
325.34 1
Sand-uckoner (Archimedes C-3).
13:!
SJnfNd. \'era. 37
S:m..(iaku. ::3:
Sarton. George {1SS-1-1956). 118
scn·oir enseignê. 168:
savant. 85. 168
scale. ~thagorean.270
Scheiner. Christoph ( 1573-1650). 3-16
Schickard. Wilhe1m t1592- 1635).
.3-t-1
Sch('('ten. Frans ,·an tc.1615-1660).
3-15 . ~-16. 356.399
Schrt'>der. Emst ( 18-11·1902), 21 5
Schubert. Hennann ( 18-18-1911 ), 36
sektomêtre. 30 I
seqt 1:!5
S~rvois. F~nçois-J oseph t 176 7•
IS-m.:!22
Sheffield 1:-:~lloon debate. 119
sine. 126. :!53, 390
Smith. David Eu gene ( 1860-194-1}.
92
snippet. 208, :! 14
S<:'mmil\e. J\lary ( 1780-1 872). 120
sNol-an, \J:!. 34-1
Stwiet l 1nilm. 37. 102. 103
Spenw. Herbcrt (I S~0-1903). 36
Spinoza. \3aruch t 16}~-1677). 60
spiral. .-\rchimedean. ~67 . ~69
/ndex
Steiner, Jakob ( 1796-1863), 222, 226,
409
Stendhal. Marie Henri Beyle (1783·
1842). 152, 395
Sterigkeitrmd {rrotional:ah/en
(Dedekind 1872), 297
Stevin. Simon {1548-1620), 121, 133,
327.396
stochastics. 75, 76. 77. 248, 250, 406
Stokes, George Gabriel ( 1819·1903),
223
straightedge. 268.270,271,276,277,
278.346,403
suan-pan, 132. 344
Summo de aritlrmetico (Pacioli 1494),
57
Sru·)·asiddhanra (c.SOO}, 125
Syene.57
Sy1vester. James Joseph (1814·1897),
58
T United Kingdom, 16·18, 36, 104,
tablct, Babylonian, 218, 255, 390
tangent, 73, 126. ISO, :!25, 226,247,
248,253,267,300.301,302
TaMery, Paul ( 1843-1904), 92
Tarntoa. Henare (c.l830·1864), 12
Tartaglia. Niccolo (c.l499·1557),
133.264,415
teacher education, 9, I 5, 18, 32, 91,
94, 95, 98, 99. 100. 102, 105, 106,
108.110,114,130, 135,195,200,
203,216.217,289.291.292,299,
383.384,407
Thabit ibn Qurra (836-90 I), 68
Thales (c.-625-c.-547), 19, 21, 22,
23,25.34,293,412
theorem; see: fundamental theorem
ofalgebra; Gou Gu theorem;
intennediate value theorem; prime
number theorem; Ptolemy's
theorem; Pythagorns theorem
thinking strategies, 166
Toeplitz, Otto (1881·1940). 71·3, 87,
209. 2 1 0,225,226.~06,408,4 1 0
lndex
Torricelli, Evangelista ( 1608-1647),
226
Trairé des sectiollS coniques (De la
Chapelle 1750), 310, 319
Treviso aríthmelic ( 1485), 57, 84,
257,327
trigonometry, 3, 18. 125, 126. 132.
231,252.253.275,288,325,328,
383,390,397,40 1,403,41 I
Turing, Alan (1912-1954), 326, 365,,
367 . 55,60.285,407
Tumbull, H. W.(1885·1961). 37
Tusi, Nas ir ai-Din ai- (120 1·1274),
126
Two new sciences (Galileo Discorsi
1638), 294,320
two towers problem, 79-81
u 389,392,397,409
Undenveysrmg der Messung (Dllrer
1525), 156,324,346
105, 395,399
United States, 18·19, I 05, 172, 185,
199,288,355
upapattf, 258, 259
v z
vector lields, 284
vector space, 158, 159, 392, 413
vectors, 127, 157, 158,159,206, 223,
284,285,392,413
Viete, François (1540·1603), 4, 133,
152,222,234,297,305, 320,322,
. 328,415
voices and echocs, 148, 155, 156,
160, 165
Vygodskii, Mark Yakovlevich ( 1883·
1950), 37
Vygotsky, Lev ( 1896-1934), 45, 146,
147, 165
437
w
Wallis, John ( 1616-1703), 35, 226,
305.325,392,403
wasan, 231, 354
Wcierstrass, Karl(1815-1897), 73,
100,225, 390
Wesse1, Caspar ( 1745- 1818), 304,
305,32 1,322,323
Weyl, Hermann (1885-1955). 43, 54,
Wilder, Raymond, 44, 54
Wiles, Andrew ( 1953· ), 32, 56, 360
Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1889-1951 ),
43 , 165
Wolff, Christian (1679-1754), 83
Woolsthorpe Manor, 119
worksheets, 216, 217, 31 1, 312,330,
World Wide Web, 174,208, 214,
232,323,330·1, 350,356,358-370
Wren, Christopher(l632·1723), 226
y
YangHui(CI3),4,102,263
Yi Xing (C8), 4
Zendrini, Bernardino, 83
Zeno orElea (C·5), 82, 223,268, 269
Zennelo, Emst (1888-1966), 223 ..
·
Zeuthen, Hieronymus Georg (1839·
1920), 107,386
Zhao Shuang (C3·4), 4, 259,260
Zhou Bi Suan Jing (Arithmetical
classic ofthe gnomon and the
circular paths afheaven, c.·l 00),
111, 250,323
Zu Chong ZJü (~29-500}, 4, 220 .,
Zu Geng principie, 4, 102